Checklist of the Vascular Flora, Restoration Plans, and Educational Interpretive Signs for a Remnant Prairie at the Lakewood

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Honors Theses Honors College

Spring 5-2019

Checklist of the Vascular Flora, Restoration Plans, and Educational Interpretive Signs for a Remnant Prairie at the Lakewood Memorial Cemetery, Hinds County, Mississippi

Olivia Shelton University of Southern Mississippi

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The University of Southern Mississippi

Checklist of the vascular flora, restoration plans, and educational interpretive signs for a remnant prairie at the Lakewood Memorial Cemetery, Hinds County, Mississippi

Olivia Shelton

A Thesis Submitted to the Honors College of The University of Southern Mississippi in Partial Fulfillment of Honors Requirements

May 2019

Approved by

______Dr. Mac H. Alford, Ph.D. Thesis Adviser Professor of Biological Sciences

______Dr. Jake Schaefer, Ph.D., Director School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences

______Dr. Ellen Weinauer, Ph.D., Dean Honors College

iii

Abstract

A floristic survey was conducted on the eastern margin of the Lakewood Memorial Park

Cemetery, located between Jackson and Clinton, Mississippi, near the western edge of the

Jackson Prairie ecoregion. From soil map data and preliminary observations of the landform and flora, the eastern part of the cemetery was hypothesized to be remnant prairie now mostly covered by exotic grasses (pasture) and woodland. Plant specimens were collected, identified, and preserved in the herbarium of The University of Southern Mississippi (USMS). The survey yielded 119 species of vascular plants, of which 98 (82%) were native and 21 (18%) were non- native. Indicative prairie plants included Anemone caroliniana (carolina anemone), Asclepias virdiflora (green milkweed), Echinacea purpurea (purple coneflower), Rudbeckia hirta (black- eyed susan), and Sorghastrum nutans (indian grass), and some of the associated woodland had rare species such as Carya myristiciformis (nutmeg hickory). Plants with a historical medical significance were also noted. Due to the scarcity of prairies in Mississippi, the landowners were petitioned to restore the prairie by burning and removal of non-native shrubs and trees and to place an educational interpretive sign about the prairies and the Jackson Prairie, in particular.

Key Words: grasslands, Jackson Prairie, medicinal plants, prairie, prairie restoration

Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to Velda O. Moore.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Dr. Mac Alford for his constant support and encouragement and assistance with identification. Thanks to Bobby Harrell and the staff at Lakewood Memorial Cemetery for allowing us to study part of their property and to collect voucher specimens of plants found there. Thanks to Matt Smith and Heather Sullivan of the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science for providing information on putative remnant prairie sites in the Jackson area, Dr. Brian Keener of the University of West Alabama for help in the identification of Sisyrinchium (Iridaceae),

Marc Pastorek (Pastorek Habitats LLC) for discussions of seed banks and prairie restoration, Dr.

Dwayne Estes of Austin Peay State University for visiting USM and discussing grasslands of the

Southeast, Joshua Wilkinson, Will McFarland, Stefan Alford, and Nikola Alford for assistance in collecting, and Daniel McNair for preparing the map of the Jackson Prairie and Black Belt.

Thanks to the Drapeau Center for Undergraduate Research and the Eagle Scholars Program for

Undergraduate Research (Eagle SPUR) for funding. Thanks to the Honors College for this opportunity, and to all my friends and family for their constant support.

Table of Contents

List of Tables ...... viii

List of Figures ...... ix

List of Abbreviations ...... x

Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1

Chapter 2: Literature Review ...... 6

2.1 Site History ...... 6

2.2 Climate and Weather Patterns ...... 7

2.3 Grasslands and Prairies ...... 8

2.4 Soils ...... 8

2.5 Standards for Flora ...... 9

Chapter 3: Materials and Methods ...... 10

3.1 Collection and Preservation ...... 10

Chapter 4: Checklist of the Vascular Flora ...... 12

Chapter 5: Discussion ...... 21

5.1 Prairie Verification ...... 21

5.2 Species Analysis ...... 22

5.3 Future Restoration Plans ...... 23

Chapter 6: Interpretive Signs for Medicinally Significant Plants ...... 25

Literature Cited ...... 30

vii

List of Tables

Table 1. Number of native and non-native species found in each taxonomic group.

viii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Map of the Jackson Prairie and Black Belt (prepared by Daniel McNair).

Figure 2. Satellite view of site (acme.com), with major collecting areas marked in red. Centered

around Latitude/Longitude N 32.33803 W90.28729. Note the sparse woodland (putative

remnant prairie) near Markers A and B.

Figure 3. Map of prairie soils found near Jackson, Mississippi (provided by Matt Smith). The

broad open area near the center is the Pearl River basin. The cemetery site is marked by a

yellow star.

Figure 4. Photo of remnant prairie site at Lakewood Memorial Park. Notice the evergreen

Juniperus virginiana (Eastern Redcedar), a species commonly associated with prairie

woodland.

Figure 5. Photo of remnant prairie site at Lakewood Memorial Park showing Anemone

caroliniana (center, white) and Claytonia virginica (common, pink) flowers (photo by

Dr. Mac Alford).

Figure 6. Echinacea purpurea illustration.

Figure 7. Rudbeckia hirta illustration.

Figure 8. Arundinaria gigantea illustration.

Figure 9. Juniperus virginiana illustration.

Figure 10. Asclepias viridiflora illustration.

List of Abbreviations

ASB = Association of Southeastern Biologists

MMNS = Official acronym for the herbarium of the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science

(from Index Herbariorum, Thiers, 2019)

MNHP = Mississippi Natural Heritage Program

NCRS = National Resources Conservation Service

NSF = National Science Foundation

Pers. Comm. = personal communication

SABS = Southern Appalachian Botanical Society

SERNEC = Southeast Regional Network of Expertise and Collections

USDA = United States Department of Agriculture

USM = The University of Southern Mississippi

USMS = Official acronym for the herbarium of The University of Southern Mississippi (from

Index Herbariorum, Thiers, 2019)

Chapter 1: Introduction

The plants of a specific area are known as a flora. Surveys of floras, or compiling a list of species in an area, are conducted for a variety of reasons, ranging from the search for a specific species, to the desire to better understand co-occurring species in plant communities, to the intention to provide a client with a list of the species present and gain a sense of a locality’s biodiversity. Mississippi has one of the least adequately known floras in the United States

(Duncan, 1953; Bryson & Carter, 1996; Sorrie & Leonard, 1999; Majure, 2008), but a grant recently funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation to each of Mississippi’s plant collections (herbaria) has given the state an opportunity to revisit a draft checklist of plant species and to put images and data online for easier study (Mississippi Herbarium Consortium

2013; NSF 2018). A floristic survey was undertaken to gain insight into an area recently noted for a few uncommon species. From soil map data and preliminary observations of the land, a plot of land between Jackson and Clinton, Mississippi, at the Lake Memorial Park Cemetery was hypothesized to be a remnant prairie.

True prairie, or grassland, is a rare ecosystem to find in Mississippi, due to most having been disturbed or converted into farmland. Most remaining prairie exists as small fragments, for example, along margins of agricultural areas or under powerlines (Barone, 2005). Before widespread settlement of Mississippi by Europeans, two major prairie systems were present in

Mississippi: the “Black Belt” and the “Jackson Prairie.” The “Black Belt” region extends from

Tupelo down through West Point, Starkville, and Columbus, and then to Selma and

Montgomery, Alabama (Barone, 2005). The “Jackson Prairie,” a much smaller area, extends from Clinton to Waynesboro, with the western end obscured by the Mississippi River alluvial plain and by overlaying deposits of windblown silt (loess). The site chosen for this project was

first brought to attention while surveying a nearby road for a rare species of tree, the nutmeg hickory (Carya myristiciformis), which had been reported to the Mississippi Natural Heritage

Program (H. Sullivan, Mississippi Natural Heritage Program (MNHP) Botanist, personal communication). The roadsides had several species of prairie plants, and the prairie soil type seemed to extend into the neighboring cemetery. To confirm that the area is/was “true” prairie, the flora was compared to known floras of Mississippi prairies (Barone & Hill, 2007). Due to the location of the land being near the Natchez Trace, it may have been prairie that was settled early but then allowed to grow up in woody plants, partially creating a prairie woodland with species such as nutmeg hickory.

Figure 1. Map of the Jackson Prairie and Black Belt (prepared by Daniel McNair).

Figure 2. Satellite view of site (acme.com), with major collecting areas marked in red. Centered around Latitude/Longitude N 32.33803 W90.28729. Note the sparse woodland (putative remnant prairie) near Markers A and B.

The inspiration for this project was to gain knowledge of the species of plants in the prairie and prairie woodland area of Hinds County, Mississippi. My main goals in completing this project were (1) to identify the species at this site, (2) to determine if any restoration activities may enhance the prairie species present, and (3) to develop educational signs about the prairie and prairie plants.

Through this floristic project a plant species not previously known to grow in the area could be discovered. New species have been discovered through floristic studies such as this, especially in unusual soil types (Allison et al., 1999), and several new species of plants have

been recently discovered in Mississippi (Leonard, 2006; Schafran et al., 2018). Due to the soil composition and environment of natural prairies, rare plant species may be found growing throughout the location (Campbell & Seymour, 2012).

My second purpose was to develop a plan for the restoration of these prairie remnants.

The development of a restoration plan is typically done by burning the land and adding seeds of local prairie plants, if the species no longer occurs there. If burning is not an option for restoration, then removing invasive woody plants, such as tallow tree (Triadica sebifera), would also be useful. Herbicides may also be used to remove unwanted herbaceous plants. One herbicide commonly used is RoundUp (Kurtz, 2013). After burning, removal of woody plants, and/or use of herbicide, if disturbance to the soil at the site has been minimal, there are often still plenty of seeds of natural prairie plants in the seed bank (Marc Pastorek, pers. comm.). If a seed bank still exists, then the prairie plants will likely return in the next growing season once competing vegetation has been removed. If no prairie plants return, then natural prairie plant seeds from nearby localities will need to be brought in and planted. When looking for plant seeds it is best practice to get “local-type” seeds (Kurtz, 2013). These are seeds that can be found in the same climate and can be found growing within a certain number of miles of the restoration site

(Kurtz, 2013) so that the plants are more likely to grow in the new area and represent part of the original gene pool known from the area. For this site, some prairie species were found in a roadside area only a few hundred meters away, and a large, restored prairie site is available as a source of seeds at Harrell Hill Prairie, a National Natural Landmark in the Bienville National

Forest, about 80 km east of the cemetery

(https://www.nps.gov/subjects/nnlandmarks/site.htm?Site=HAPR-MS).

The goals for the project are to correctly identify the species present, highlighting species that only occur in prairie, preparing a long-term restoration plan, and creating interpretive signs about prairies and the species that have historical medicinal uses. Many prairie plant species have been used historically by Native Americans for medicinal uses (Casey et al., 2010). From soothing toothaches to cleaning burns, Native Americans used them for many different aliments.

For example, Echinacea (purple coneflower), a natural prairie plant, was used as a blood purifier and to treat other ailments (Casey et al., 2010).

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Site History

This site was chosen after asking for suggestions from Heather Sullivan, botanist for the

Mississippi Natural Heritage Program and curator of the herbarium (MMNS) at the Mississippi

Museum of Natural Science. She connected us to Matt Smith, who had previously mapped out some areas of prairie soil in the greater Jackson area. He provided a map of those sites (Figure

3), and after investigating several potential sites, Lakewood Memorial Park was chosen for this floristic project due to the presence of characteristic prairie plants from a preliminary survey.

Figure 3. Map of prairie soils found near Jackson, Mississippi (provided by Matt Smith). The broad open area near the center is the Pearl River basin. The cemetery site is marked by a yellow star. The red areas are true prairie soil and the green dots denote sites Matt Smith said were especially good prairie soil sites.

Lakewood Memorial Park was founded in 1927. The cemetery is located at 6011 Clinton

Boulevard, Jackson, Mississippi 39209, and is located within Hinds County, on the outskirts of

Jackson near the Clinton city limits. Due to the proximity of the land to the Natchez Trace, it may have been prairie that was settled at one time but then allowed to grow up, thereby creating a prairie woodland.

Figure 4. Photo of remnant prairie site at Lakewood Memorial Park (photo by Dr. Mac Alford). Notice the evergreen Juniperus virginiana (Eastern Redcedar), a species commonly associated with prairie woodland.

2.2 Climate and Weather Patterns

Jackson, Mississippi, has a moderate temperate climate. The annual high temperature is

75.6 ℉ and the annual low is 53.7 ℉ (National Weather Service). Average highs in the summer

months may reach 91.7 ℉. The extreme lows occur during the winter months at night and average around 30 ℉. Mississippi gets an average of 54.14 inches (137.16 cm) of rain a year and has approximately 200 sunny days. Snow is very rare (National Weather Service).

2.3 Grasslands and Prairies

Midwestern prairie sites have an annual average rainfall ranging from 20 to 40 inches

(Weaver, 1954); eastern prairies receive more rainfall, but the encroachment of trees is inhibited by regular fires and alkaline, clayey (prairie) soil. Prairies can be identified by the plant life present and the soil. They are generally dominated by grasses and forbs (non-grass herbaceous plants). Prairie soil is generally very clay-like, and moist (Weaver, 1954) due to the decreased rate of evaporation because of the dense plant cover. The soil of prairie also extends deeply into the ground. These characteristics make prairie soil great farming soil, which is why so many prairies have been converted to farmland (Weaver,1954), including the “Black Belt” and

“Jackson Prairie.”

Grasslands are dominated by grasses, but also are home to forbs and some shrubs. They are one of the largest natural vegetation formations found in the world (Sims & Risser, 2000).

Grasslands are found in many different climates, and fire is a natural part of their ecosystem and reduces the growth of trees and shrubs (Sims & Risser, 2000).

2.4 Soils

Jackson Prairie is composed of many different soil types including Catalpa, Griffith,

Eutaw, Houston, Kipling, Leeper, Louin, Okolona, Oktibbeha, Siwell, Sumter, Tusscumbia, and

Vaiden (Echols et al., 2019). The Hinds County, Mississippi Soil Survey was used to examine the soil (USDA NRCS, 1979). This area is composed of mostly sloping Siwell silt loam and urban land, although there are small percentages of Byram, Grenada, Loring, and Providence

soils. The soil is dark brown silt loam on the surface and brown silty clay loam underneath to a depth of 21 inches. Next is a layer of yellowish-brown silty clay loam with greyish mottles. The deepest layer is a clay that has brown and gray mottles. True prairie soil has many layers. The top soil layer is medium to strongly acidic. The lower layers are neutral to moderately alkaline

(USDA NRCS, 1979). These lower layers make up most of the prairie soil. The upper layers are derived from windblown silt (loess) and other sources.

2.5 Standards for Floras

A flora can be defined as documentation of the plant species that exist in an area (Palmer et al., 1995). It is a collection and list of all species that are found in the area whether they are native or non-native (Palmer et al., 1995). Floras are not all designed for the same purpose. Some are designed to be used as keys for identification, while others are just intended to inform about species present (Palmer et al., 1995). There are minimal standards that should be included in all floras, which include a title, location information, environmental data, taxonomic scope, voucher specimens (specimens placed in a museum for future consultation), botanical effort (how often the site has been sampled), identification as exotic or native species, a list of all species, and a summary table of the species (Palmer et al., 1995). A map of the site should also be included.

Lastly, Palmer, Wade, and Neal suggest making sure you have an electronic copy available so it can be added to online floristic databases (Palmer et al., 1995).

Chapter 3: Materials and Methods

3.1 Collection and Preservation

This project involved the observation and collection of plant species from the eastern margin of Lakewood Memorial Cemetery and one adjacent site on neighboring Sylvan Trail.

Plant collections were made between June 6, 2018 and March 23, 2019. Woody plants were collected throughout this time, but herbaceous plants were collected primarily while they were in flower or with fruit (fall and spring). On each of the plant collection trips the species collected were recorded in a journal and numbered as plant parts were placed in the plant press.

The parts of the plants collected varied depending on the type of plant. For some plants the roots needed to be collected, while for others the fruit was required for identification. To preserve the plants, they were placed in newspaper and then flattened between layers of cardboard in a plant press. The press was tightened with straps and then placed in a light-bulb dryer. Once the specimens were dry (2–3 days), they were filed in a herbarium cabinet in the lab and taken from there for identification. After the dried plants were identified, they were mounted on archival herbarium paper and a label of data was attached to each sheet. The specimens will be deposited in the herbarium of The University of Southern Mississippi (USMS).

3.2 Identification

The samples were identified by using many different sources, primarily Flora of the

Southern and Mid-Atlantic States (Weakley, 2015), Guide to the Vascular Plants of the Florida

Panhandle (Clewell, 1985), Grasses of Louisiana, 3rd ed. (Allen et al., 2004), and Flora of

North America (various volumes, http://beta.floranorthamerica.org/wiki/Main_Page, Flora of

North America Editorial Committee, 1993+), aided by specimen images and distributional data

found in the Southeast Regional Network of Expertise and Collections (SERNEC) portal

(http://sernecportal.org) and the USDA PLANTS database (http://plants.usda.gov).

As the plants were identified they were added to an Excel file, and additional information about the species such as habitat and morphological features from the field, and native or non- native status were recorded. As species were collected, the literature was consulted to see if the plants had medicinal properties. Primarily using Weakley (2015) and Weaver (1954), species were assessed for being prairie species, for being associated with circumneutral or alkaline soils, and for presence due to disturbance, human introduction, or lack of fire.

Chapter 4: Checklist of the Vascular Flora

Below is the checklist of vascular plant species collected at the Lakewood Memorial

Park, Jackson, Mississippi. The list is divided into four major groups: Monilophyta (ferns),

Pinophyta (conifers), Magnoliophyta: Liliopsida (flowering plants: monocots), and

Magnoliophyta: Magnoliopsida (flowering plants: dicots). The families and species within each group are arranged in alphabetical order. Following the specific epithet is the taxonomic authority and collector number. Specimens are deposited at USMS. Family classification and species delimitation follow Weakley (2015). Non-native species are denoted with an asterisk (*).

MONILOPHYTA (ferns)

Polypodiaceae

Pleopeltis polypodioides (L.) E.G. Andrews & Windham, Shelton #89

PINOPHYTA (conifers)

Cupressaceae

Juniperus virginiana L., Shelton #46

Pinaceae

Pinus taeda L., Shelton #43

MAGNOLIOPHYTA: LILIOPSIDA (monocots)

Agavaceae

Camassia scilloides (Raf.) Cory, Shelton #108

Alliaceae

Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britton, Shelton #85

Amaryllidaceae

*Leucojum aestivum L., Shelton #107

Cyperaceae

Carex albicans Willd. ex Spreng. var. australis (L.H. Bailey) J. Rettig, Shelton #112

Carex cherokeensis Schwein., Shelton #19

Carex digitalis Willd., Shelton #113

Carex vulpinoidea Michx., Shelton #11

Iridaceae

Sisyrinchium sp. nov. (B. Keener, pers. comm.), Shelton #94

Juncaceae

Luzula bulbosa (Alph. Wood) Smyth & Smyth, Shelton #84

Poaceae

Andropogon glomeratus (Walter) BSP. var. glomeratus, Shelton #52

Andropogon virginicus L., Shelton #33

Aristida purpurascens Poiret, Shelton #36

Arundinaria gigantea (Walter) Muhl., Shelton #22

Chasmanthium sessiliflorum (Poiret) Yates, Shelton #25

Dichanthelium boscii (Poiret) Gould and Clark, Shelton #41

Dichanthelium dichotomum L., Shelton #37

Leersia oryzoides (L.) Swartz, Shelton #55

Paspalum dilatatum Poir., Shelton #28

Paspalum notatum Flueggé (observed)

Paspalum pubiflorum Rupr. ex Fourn., Shelton #23

*Poa annua L., Shelton #88

*Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roemer & J.A Schultes ssp. pumila, Shelton #29

Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash, Shelton #53

Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash, Shelton #24

Sporbolus sp., Shelton #57

Tridens flavus (L.) Hitchcock, Shelton #54

MAGNOLIOPHYTA: MAGNOLIOPSIDA (dicots)

Acanthaceae

Ruellia caroliniensis (J.F. Gmelia) Steudel, Shelton #1

Anacardiaceae

Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze (observed)

Apiaceae

Sanicula canadensis L., Shelton #7

Apocynaceae

Asclepias variegata L. (observed)

Asclepias viridiflora Raf., Shelton #13

Asclepias viridis Walter, Shelton #20

Aristolochiaceae

Aristolochia serpentaria L., Shelton #18

Asteraceae

Cirisum carolinianum (Walter) Fernald & Schubert, Shelton #14

Cirsium horridulum Michx. (observed)

Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench, Shelton #2

Eupatorium serotinum Michx., Shelton #38

Iva frutescens L., Shelton #39

Packera glabella (Poir.) C. Jeffery, Shelton #72

Pluchea camphorata (L.) A.P. de Candolle, Shelton #48

Rudbeckia hirta L., Shelton #4

Symphyotrichum dumosum (L.) G.L. Nesom, Shelton #40

Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg., Shelton #70

Verbesina virginica L., Shelton #50

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex decidua Walter, Shelton #8 & #21

Bignoniaceae

Bignonia capreolata L., Shelton #110

Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. ex Bureau (observed)

Boraginaceae

Nemophila aphylla (L.) Brummitt, Shelton #92

Brassicaceae

Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb. ex Muhl.) BSP., Shelton #60

*Cardamine hirsuta L., Shelton #82

Cannabaceae

Celtis laevigata Willd., Shelton #31

Caprifoliaceae

Valerianella radiata (L.) Dufr., Shelton #99

Caryophyllaceae

*Cerastium glomeratum Thuill., Shelton #106

*Stellaria media (L.) Vill., Shelton #93

Cornaceae

Cornus drummondii C.A. Meyer, Shelton #5

Ebenaceae

Diospyros virginiana L., Shelton #111

Elaeagnaceae

*Elaeagnus pungens Thunb., Shelton #83

Euphorbiaceae

*Triadica sebifera (L.) Small (observed)

Fabaceae

Cercis canadensis L., Shelton #66

*Vicia tetrasperma (L.) Schreber, Shelton #95

Fagaceae

Quercus alba L. (observed)

Quercus nigra L. (observed)

Quercus pagoda Raf., Shelton #17 & #47

Quercus stellata Wangenh., Shelton #44

Quercus virginiana Mill., Shelton #27 (possibly cultivated or derived from cultivated

plants)

Gelsemiaceae

Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) J. St.-Hil., Shelton #67

Gernaniaceae

Geranium carolinianum L., Shelton #86

Juglandaceae

Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet, Shelton #45

Carya laciniosa (F. Michx.) G. Don, Shelton #35

Carya myristiciformis (Michx. f.) Nutt., Shelton #6 & #16

Carya tomentosa (Lamarck) Nutt, Shelton #15

Lamiaceae

Callicarpa americana L., Shelton #26

*Lamium amplexicaule L., Shelton #69

*Lamium purpureum L., Shelton #68

Pycnanthemum tenuifolium Schrad., Shelton #30

Trichostema dichotomum L., Shelton #34

Mazaceae

*Mazus pumilus (Burmann f.) Steenis, Shelton #97

Montiaceae

Claytonia virginica L., Shelton #71

Moraceae

Maclura pomifera (Raf.) C.K. Schneid. (observed)

Morus rubra L. (observed)

Oleaceae

*Ligustrum lucidum W.T. Aiton, Shelton #51

Fraxinus americana L., Shelton #56

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis dillenii Jacq., Shelton #100

Oxalis violacea L., Shelton #91

Plantaginaceae

Callitriche terrestris Raf., Shelton #109

*Veronica hederifolia L., Shelton #102

*Veronica persica Poiret, Shelton #103

Veronica peregrina L. var. peregrina, Shelton #104

Platanaceae

Platanus occidentalis L., Shelton #42

Polygonaceae

*Rumex crispus L. (observed)

Ranunculaceae

Anemone caroliniana Walter, Shelton #90

*Ranunculus parviflorus L., Shelton #105

Ranunculus abortivus L., Shelton #81

Ranunculus fascicularis Muhl. ex Bigelow, Shelton #73

Ranunculus hispidus Michx., Shelton #79

*Ranunculus sardous Crantz Shelton #80

Rosaceae

Crataegus berberifolia Torr. & A. Gray, Shelton #9

Geum canadense Jacq., Shelton #3

Prunus mexicana S. Watson, Shelton #59 & #87

*Pyrus calleryana Decne., Shelton #61

Rubiaceae

Galium aparine L., Shelton #96

Galium pilosum Aiton, Shelton #101

*Galium sherardia E.H.L. Krause, Shelton #98

Houstonia pusilla Scheopf, Shelton #62

Houstonia rosea (Raf.) Terrell, Shelton #74

Houstonia micrantha (Shinners) Terrell, Shelton #75

Rutaceae

*Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf., Shelton #58

Salicaceae

Salix nigra Marshall (observed)

Sapindaceae

Aesculus pavia L., Shelton #78

Sapotaceae

Sideroxylon lycioides L., Shelton #63

Ulmaceae

Ulmus alata Michx., Shelton #64

Ulmus rubra Muhl., Shelton #32 & #65

Violaceae

Viola bicolor Pursh, Shelton #76

Viola missouriensis Greene, Shelton #77

Viscaceae

Phoradendron leucarpum (Raf.) Reveal & M.C. Johnston, Shelton #49

Figure 5. Photo of remnant prairie site at Lakewood Memorial Park showing Anemone caroliniana (center, white) and Claytonia virginica (common, pink) flowers (photo by Dr. Mac Alford).

Chapter 5: Discussion

5.1 Prairie Verification

The Jackson Prairie has been greatly reduced by farming and human settlement (Echols et al., 2019). This site was a great find that still retains some true prairie characteristics. This site was determined to be remnant prairie by analyzing the soil on maps and then in person. The soil is clay-like and dark, which is a sign of true prairie (Weaver, 1954). Although the soil map

(USDA, NRCS, 1979) indicated a layer of sandy loam above, such a layer was not observed at the sampling sites.

The plant species present demonstrate that the site is remnant prairie. Some of the more noteworthy prairie plants identified were Echinacea purpurea, Rudbeckia hirta, Anemone caroliniana, Sorghastrum nutans, and Asclepias viridiflora (Weaver, 1954). In addition to the typical prairie plants, there were many woodland species present that were indicative of sites with circumneutral to alkaline soil, common in prairies, such as Camassia scilloides, Cardamine bulbosa, Carex cherokeensis, Carya laciniosa, Carya myristiciformis, Cercis canadensis, Cornus drummondii, Juniperus virginiana, and Sideroxylon lycioides.

5.2 Species Analysis

Table 1. Number of native and non-native species found in each taxonomic group.

Taxonomic Group # of native species # of non-native species

MONILOPHYTA (ferns) 1 0

PINOPHYTA (conifers) 2 0

MAGNOLIOPHYTA: LILIOPSIDA (monocots) 23 3

MAGNOLIOPHYTA: MAGNOLIOPSIDA (dicots) 72 18

TOTAL = 119 species 98 (82%) 21 (18%)

Of the 119 species collected and observed, 98 (82%) are native species, and 21 (18%) are non-native species (Table 1). The higher native species percentage shows that the area has not been completely overwhelmed by invasive species. Farming-intensive areas of the Midwest typically have 20–30% non-native species (Stuckey & Barkley, 1993). This also is a determining factor in deeming the land remnant prairie. While the soil is true prairie soil, plant life is what really determines “remnant prairie.” The rare prairie plants found at this site show that it has potential and could easily be converted back into true prairie.

The largest family of vascular plants at the site was the grass family (Poaceae) with 17 species, which is not a surprisingly high number for a grassland. The second largest family was the sunflower family (Asteraceae) with 11 species. Other large families included the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), the mint family (Lamiaceae), the bedstraw/coffee family (Rubiaceae), the hickory family (Juglandaceae), the oak family (Fagaceae), and the sedge family

(Cyperaceae).

One very interesting species found in the woodland area associated with the remnant prairie was Carya myristiciformis (nutmeg hickory). Carya myristiciformis is rare, but native to nine states of the southeastern U.S. (plants.usda.gov). It is even listed as a threatened species in

North Carolina (plants.usda.gov). Another interesting species found was Anemone caroliniana

(carolina anemone). It is a flowering herb that has been found in other prairies such as the Black

Belt but had never before been found in the Jackson Prairie. The collection reported here is the first from the Jackson Prairie. Camassia scilloides (atlantic camas) was another species found at the site, which is a rarer prairie plant that had only been documented once in the Jackson Prairie.

The Sisyrinchium collected at the site possibly represents a new species (Dr. Brian

Keener, University of West Alabama, pers. comm.). Because the species was difficult to identify,

Dr. Keener was consulted. He was provided a specimen at a recent meeting of the Association of

Southeastern Biologists (ASB) and Southern Appalachian Botanical Society (SABS). Dr. Keener has discovered a new species in the “Black Belt” of Alabama and suspects that this specimen represents the same species.

5.3 Future Restoration Plans

To restore this land, a few steps needed to be taken. The first step was analyzing the soil composition and plant life to determine if the area was suitable for restoration. This site is slightly sloped, which is a good feature for a restoration site. The slope provides a soil moisture gradient so more than one type of prairie can be supported (Jordan, 1997).

The next step, and the best way to restore the land, would be to burn the area (Jordan,

1997). The Mississippi Forestry Commission performs burns for $25 per acre. The site is approximately six acres, which would correspond to a total cost of $150 for the entire site. A burn would kill off some of the invasive species, reduce competition from non-native species

(especially range grasses like bahiagrass, Paspalum notatum), and give seeds in the seedbank a chance to germinate. Ideally, the seeds in the seed bank are still native prairie plants whose growth has just been inhibited by the invasive species or aggressive native species. Once the

burn is completed in the spring, around late March or early April, the plant life will be given time to return. An alternative restoration activity to burning is the removal of invasive woody species such as Triadica sebifera (tallowtree) and Ligustrum lucidum (privet) (Kurtz, 2013). All invasive woody species would be marked by the researchers and could be physically removed by the groundskeepers.

At the beginning of this project we were communicating with the site manager. He was the person who gave us permission to come onto the property and make our collections. As the project progressed we discussed our ideas of a restoration with the site manager. He was hesitant to burn but did not seem to have a problem with the interpretive signs denoting the medically significant plants and the educational sign discussing the Jackson Prairie. In February, the management at the facility changed. The new management denied the burn and the placing of signs due to both being too much of a liability for the location. We hope that if we keep in contact with the new site manager we may be able to convince the new management to put up the educational Jackson Prairie sign.

Due to this delay, the restoration plans will be a future project. True prairie is a beautiful ecosystem. The natural forbs, such as black-eyed susans or purple coneflowers, are colorful.

After restoration, the area would be an attractive addition to the Lakewood Memorial Park grounds.

Prairie restoration specifically has many benefits. One such benefit is making the soil more resistant to erosion due to the dense rhizome (underground stem) growth in the top layer of soil (Weaver, 1954). Prairies provide homes to unique animals too, and some of these animal populations are suffering from habitat loss (Gerla, 2012). Prairie plants are also hosts to specific

insects, and restoring a small patch of prairie such as this one would potentially benefit insect populations greatly (Jordan, 1997).

Chapter 6: Interpretive Signs for Medicinally Significant Plants

Prairie plants have been historically used by Native Americans to treat a variety of aliments (Kindscher, 1992). In some circumstances the plants were just ingested, while other times a tea would be brewed from the roots and leaves (Kindscher, 1992). While surveying the flora, medicinally significant prairie plants were noted. For a few of these species a small informative paragraph was written. This was done with the idea that informative paragraphs could be made into educational signs and placed at the site. After a change in management at the site, the landowners decided the placement of education signs would cause patrons to cross the dam at the site, which would be a liability. Therefore, they declined the placement of the signs.

Consequently, only the information for the signs was generated. The information for the signs was provided to the landowner so they will have it if they decide to pursue the restoration later.

Images for the interpretive signs were taken from Britton and Brown’s An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions, published in 1913 and now in the public domain.

Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench

Echinacea purpurea, commonly known as the purple coneflower, is a common prairie plant (Weaver, 1954). It is native to the central and southeastern United States (plants.usda.gov).

The genus name Echinacea is derived from the Greek word chinos, which means sea urchin or hedgehog; this is referring to the plant’s spiny center cone (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2019).

Echinacea purpurea has shown some immunomodulatory activities (Barrett, 2003), but this is a very controversial topic and some studies show it does not. It is common herbal remedy taken to help combat the flu and common cold (Barrett, 2003).

Figure 6. Echinacea purpurea illustration. USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database / Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. 3 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Vol. 3: 475.

Rudbeckia hirta L.

Rudbeckia hirta, also known as black-eyed Susan, is a flowering plant in the sunflower family (Asteraceae). This species is native to most of the United States and is a naturally occurring prairie plant (Hassan et al., 2012). The black-eyed susan has been used by Native

Americans to treat inflammation, indigestion, sores, snake bites, swellings, earaches, and as an antimicrobial (Hassan et al., 2012). The black-eyed susan was the inspiration for the school colors for The University of Southern Mississippi (Anonymous, no date).

Figure 7. Rudbeckia hirta illustration. USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database / Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. 3 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Vol. 3: 470.

Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl.

Arundinaria gigantea, also known as giant cane, is one of the three species of bamboos

(woody grasses) native to the southeastern United States (Weakley, 2015). It generally grows to be around 5–6 feet tall. An extract from the roots has been used by Native Americans to stimulate the kidneys and to “renew strength” and has been used as a cathartic or purgative

(Casey et al., 2010). Native Americans have also used the species for basketry. Several species of butterflies and birds use the giant cane for food or shelter.

Figure 8. Arundinaria gigantea illustration. USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database / Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. 3 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Vol. 1: 295.

Juniperus virginiana L.

Juniperus virginiana, also known as the eastern redcedar, is a gymnosperm in the juniper family Cupressaceae. It is native in Canada and most of the eastern and midwestern U.S.

(plants.usda.gov). It has been used by different Native American tribes as a remedy for several illnesses. The Dakotas boiled the leaves to produce a solution used to calm coughs; they would also breathe in the smoke from burning wood as a cure for a cold. The Lakotas boiled the leaves and made a solution used to treat cholera. The Blackfeet brewed a tea from the roots that was used to treat back pain. Eastern redcedar was also used in many purification rites in different tribes (Kindscher,1992). The aromatic wood is commonly used in woodwork, such as cedar chests.

Figure 9. Juniperus virginiana illustration. USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database / Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. 3 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Vol. 1: 66.

Asclepias Asclepias is the genus of milkweeds, plants that exude white milky sap when cut or injured. The word Asclepias comes from Asklepius (Ἀσκληπιός), who was the Greek god of medicine (Kindscher, 1992). Plants from the genus Asclepias were used by the Omahas and

Poncas to treat wounds. The plant was chewed up and then placed on wounds or sores

(Kindscher, 1992). These Native American tribes also ate the raw roots for bronchial and pulmonary troubles. Asclepias viridiflora, the green milkweed, was used specifically to treat children with diarrhea, and a tea was made of the plant to help mothers who were not producing breast milk (Kindscher, 1992). Milkweeds are the host plant for monarch butterfly caterpillars, which sequester the toxic plant sap.

Figure 10. Asclepias viridiflora illustration. USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database / Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. 3 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Vol. 3: 34.

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