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The Federal Gazette's Role in Philadelphia's Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793

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The Federal Gazette's Role in Philadelphia's Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793 Andrew Brown's "Earnest Endeavor": The Federal Gazette's Role in Philadelphia's Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793 S THE NEWSPAPER DEBATE OVER PRESIDENT Washington's Impartiality Proclamation divided the nation into political factions, Aand 2,000 refugees from the rebellion in Cap Francis, Santo Domingo, streamed into the city, yellow fever returned to Philadelphia in the fall of 1793 after a thirty-year absence. Half of the inhabitants deserted the city. Those who remained out of financial necessity, compassion, or skepticism watched as the ensuing epidemic claimed 4,000 lives in the nation's capital in a four-month period. Despite President Washington's initial desire to relocate the federal government, the cabinet met in Germantown in November and Congress assembled in Philadelphia in December after the epidemic had subsided.1 Although Governor Thomas Mifflin and the state legislature fled the city, Mayor Matthew Clarkson stayed to head the Committee to Attend to and Alleviate the Sufferings of the Afflicted with the Malignant Fever, which governed the city. Without their distribution of food, clothing, and money, 1 On the controversy, the cabinet debates, and Washington's decision, see Dorothy Twohig, ed., The Journal of the Proceedings of the President, 1793-1797 (Charlottesville, 1981), 242n; Thomas Jefferson to Washington, Oct. 17,1793, Paul Leicester Ford, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (10 vols., New York, 1895), 6:436; James Madison to Washington, Oct. 24,1793, Thomas Mason, ed., The Papers of James Madison (Charlottesville, 1985), 15:129; Alexander Hamilton to Washington, Oct. 24, 1793, Harold Syrett, ed., The Papers of Alexander Hamilton (New York, 1969), 15:373-76. THE PENNSYLVANIA MAGAZINE OF HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY Vol. CXX, No. 4 (October 1996) 322 MARK A. SMITH October the effects of the epidemic would undoubtedly have been more severe.2 The committee, however, was not alone in helping citizens to cope with the epidemic. Remaining in the city to publish the Federal Gazette, Andrew Brown professed this "earnest endeavor": to unite Philadelphians in their struggles against the fever by providing a forum in which they could discuss the epidemic.3 Brown presented his newspaper as an impartial alternative to the partisan press in Philadelphia. But Brown's quest for impartiality during the epidemic failed because in striving to achieve unity he promoted certain medical opinions and suppressed others. Brown transformed his newspaper into a forum for Benjamin Rush, a supporter of Brown's newspaper venture, a Republican, an advocate of a radical plan of treatment, and an opponent of the cure promulgated by the doctors at Bush Hill, the hospital run by the city government. During the crisis, Brown could not sustain the themes of unity and impartiality that so often dominated American Republican rhet- oric. Reporting on a controversy without including diverse arguments promotes unity, but it does not foster impartiality. Like many others in the early republic, Brown tried to convince himself and others that his actions were not divisive, that he was above the growing partisan debate. He was not. In the ensuing years, partisanship increased and the number of editors able to maintain an impartial stance dwindled as the Republican and Federalist organizations expanded. Editorial moderation became dysfunctional when unanimity in dealing with the epidemic—or with a political crisis—seemed essential in the face of perceived threats to the future safety of the republic. Under these conditions editors could not remain impartial despite their intentions or public protests to the contrary. This article will sketch Brown's life prior to 1793, summarize the partisan debates of that summer, elucidate Brown's role in those debates, describe the 2 During the epidemic, Governor Mifflin was reelected. Harry Marlin Tinckom, The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 1790-1801 (Harrisburg, 1950), 183, notes a sharp decline in voters. The state legislature abandoned the embezzlement case against John Nicholson, comptroller general of Pennsylvania; see Raymond Walters, Jr., "The Making of a Financier: Albert Gallatin in the Pennsylvania Assembly," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (hereafter, PMHB) 70 (1946), 258-69. Phineas Bond, the British consul general for the mid-Atlantic and southern states, fled the city, see Joanne Loewe Neel, Phineas Bond: A Study in Anglo-American Relations (Philadelphia, 1968), 113-53. The French consul, DuPont, was killed by the fever. See Thomas Jefferson to George Washington, Sept. 15,1793, in Ford, Jefferson, 6:429. 3 Federal Gazette, Oct. 1,1793. 1996 ANDREW BROWN'S "EARNEST ENDEAVOR" 323 turmoil surrounding the yellow fever epidemic, and detail Brown's descent into partisanship. Born in Ireland in 1744 and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, Andrew Brown came to America in 1773 as a British soldier. He defected from the British army and fought with the patriots at Lexington and Bunker Hill. After serving as deputy mustermaster general for the Eastern Department during the Revolution, Brown opened academies in Lancaster and Philadel- phia. He boasted that his English, math, and French schools attracted many children of Philadelphia's elites. When those ventures failed, however, he revived the Federal Gazette, a newspaper on which he had briefly worked, in October 1788. A supporter of the Constitution, Brown refused to print some anti-Federalist tracts. Supported by letters from Benjamin Rush and William Bingham, Brown procured a State Department contract from Thomas Jefferson for printing the laws in January 1791. By the Third Congress, Brown's policy of publishing the congressional debates led him to hire James Thomson Callender as a stenographer. Brown's publishing career prospered until a fire claimed the lives of his wife and three children on January 27, 1797. Trying to rescue his family and their possessions, Brown was overcome by the flames. He died on February 4, 1797, but his newspaper lived on, continued by his eldest son from his first marriage.4 After the ratification debates, Brown attempted to maintain an impartial newspaper by publishing material written by both sides on any political issue. Despite Brown's opposition to the removal of the national capital to the Potomac River and to other Jeffersonian ideas, Alexander Hamilton believed that Jefferson's patronage had swayed the editor against the Washington administration. By his conduct during the debates over the Impartiality Proclamation, however, Brown demonstrated that he sought to place his newspaper above the partisan fray. On April 5, 1793, Treasury Secretary Hamilton informed President 4 Biographical information on Brown can be found in the American Biographical Archive* fiche 191, 274-79. For additional information on his career and on his newspaper, see Madison Papers, 15:155, 157; Hamilton Papers, 11:431-32, 15:242; and Julian Boyd, ed., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson (Princeton, 1950-), 17:391, 18:700; Andrew Brown to Jasper Yeates, Sept. 3, 1783 in PMHB 40 (1916), 378; Frederick Sheeder, "East Vincent Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania," PMHB 34 (1910), 368-69; Frederick Tolles, "George Logan, Agrarian Democrat: A Survey of his Writings," PMHB 75 (1951), 267. 324 MARK A. SMITH October Washington of the execution of Louis XVI of France and helped Washing- ton to prepare questions for the cabinet concerning American policy. Al- though the cabinet agreed that a proclamation should be issued, members disagreed as to which branch of government should issue it: the president (as Hamilton argued) or Congress (as Jefferson argued). There was also disagreement on whether the document should contain the word neutrality. Despite Jefferson's objections, Washington issued the Impartiality Procla- mation on April 22, 1793. Its publication provoked a debate over presi- dential power. Hamilton, James Madison, and other polemicists raged, and the debates endured into the early stages of the Philadelphia epidemic.5 While most Philadelphia newspapers took sides in the political debate, Brown's Federal Gazette remained balanced. The paper published Hamilton's "Pacificus" and Madison's "Helvidius" essays. Between May 31 and October 1, the day he published the fifth and final Helvidius essay, Brown also published thirty Republican essays, twenty-three Federalist, and twelve that were moderate in tone. In contrast to Brown's attempt to be evenhanded, John Fenno's Gazette of the United States published thirty-three Federalist polemics and ten by Republicans; Philip Freneau's National Gazette published six and fifty-three.6 Because he shared the widely held belief that political parties would doom republican government, Brown believed it 5 See Hamilton Papers, 14:291-92; Twohig, Journal 120-26; Ford, Jefferson, 7:436. For the most recent overview of politics in this period, see Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (New York, 1993). See also Lawrence Kaplan, Colonies into Nation (New York, 1972), 223; Albert Hall Bowman, The Struggle for Neutrality (Knoxville, 1974), 51. Moncure Daniel Conway, Omitted Chapters in History Disclosed in the Life and Papers of Edmund Randolph (New York, 1888), 202; Letters of Pacificus and Helvidius (Delmar, N.Y., 1976); Merrill Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation (New York, 1970), 494; Joseph Charles, Origins of the American Party System (Williamsburg, 1956), 75. 6 Federal Gazette, Oct. 25, 1793. Dunlap's American Daily Advertiser, the other major moderate newspaper published twenty-nine Federalist polemics and twenty-three Republican polemics concerning the Impartiality Proclamation from April 1793 until it suspended publication on Sept. 14,1793. Brown's quest for objectivity and impartiality demonstrates that editors sought to remain above the partisan fray before the rise of the penny press. Daniel Schiller, Objectivity and the News: The Public and the Rise of Commercial Journalism (Philadelphia, 1981) and Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York, 1978) argue that impartial newspapers first arose in the era of the penny press. See also David P.
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