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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of

Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism

Dalia Bakr Abdel-Aal Assistant Professor Al-Asyah College of Science and Arts QASSIM UNIVERSITY Abstract: order to redirect the attention to the It is apparent from Eagleton’s Marxist enterprise. As a matter of critique of Postmodernism that he fact, he uses the postmodern criticized the features of the techniques only to deconstruct postmodern enterprise less than them. As a true Marxist theorist and criticizing the postmodern critic, Eagleton uses and abuses the enhancement of ‘the system’, that is postmodernist trajectory. Hence, not the late Capitalism. Therefore, it is only does he attack Postmodernism explicitly a critique of the late from outside as a sincere Marxist, Capitalism that implies a but he also abuses it from inside proposition of another system, may under the cloak of a postmodernist be a new justification which writer requires a re-consideration of the Keywords : Marxist project. Ironically enough, Terry Eagleton – Postmodernism- despite being the foremost Marxist - Late Capitalism critic who is explicitly opposed to - - Postmodernism, Eagleton makes Cultural Theory use of some of the postmodern . techniques in some of his works in

Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism, Vol. 6, Issue 3. July 2017, p.p. 73- 96 73

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אW : – − − − − − ﻣﺸـﺮﻭﻉ Introduction: It is apparent from Eagleton’s critique of Postmodernism that he criticized − the features of the postmodern enterprise less than criticizing the − postmodern enhancement of ‘the system’, that is the late Capitalism. Therefore, it is explicitly a critique of the late Capitalism that implies a proposition of another system, may be a new justification which requires a re-consideration of the Marxist project. Ironically enough, despite being the foremost Marxist critic who is explicitly opposed to Postmodernism, Eagleton makes use of some of the postmodern techniques in some of his works in

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism order to redirect the attention to Eagleton’s publications vary from the Marxist enterprise. As a matter academic to popular works, of fact, he uses the postmodern including a play, an techniques only to deconstruct autobiography, and a novel. As the them. As a true Marxist theorist most significant and prolific figure and critic, Eagleton uses and in contemporary British literary abuses the postmodernist criticism, when we examine a trajectory. Hence, not only does he volume of critical writings by attack Postmodernism from Terry Eagleton we can realize that outside as a sincere Marxist, but no one explains critical theory he also abuses it from inside under with greater clarity and cogency the cloak of a postmodernist than he does. Hence, his writer. theoretical and critical * * * achievements elevate him to that There is no doubt that Terry distinction which he himself Eagleton (b. Feb.22, 1943 - ) has a reserved for his forefather great influential impact on the ‘the single theoretical formations and critical most important critic of postwar practice of the literary and cultural Great Britain’. theory in the Twentieth Century. To call Eagleton the most Describing by as not gifted Marxist thinker of his only “the grand old man of British generation is only a slender literary theory”, but also “the best acknowledgement of his critical known and the most influential and creative achievements. There academic critic in Britain” (2002), is simply no cultural critic

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal writing today who can match his creative writings, between popularity or his prolific output. academic seriousness and popular His work has made an impact on comedy, and generally making the teaching of literary and criticism a more companionable throughout and hospitable domain. Europe, and in almost every part For over thirty years of the world including China, Eagleton has been steadfast in this Japan, India, Russia, Australia, commitment to the socialist Canada and the United States. For transformation of class society, the post-1970 generation of however outdated or obdurate that students, researchers and teachers idea might seem amidst more currently engaged in literary and fashionable postmodern pursuits. cultural studies in Britain, It is more than a shade ironic. Eagleton is the critic par Therefore, his critics seem to excellence. The appeal of his work delight in the scandalous stems, in part, from the bold suggestion that Eagleton keeps enquiry he has launched into the changing his mind. At every stage origins and aims of English of Eagleton’s engagement with Studies, and from a closely related theory, there is also a critical and equally relentless questioning transformation of theory, an ability of the functions of criticism today. to use its insights and perspectives Almost single-handedly he has in the interest of a radical socialist transformed the very nature of politics. Terry Eagleton’s critical critical discourse, breaking down career falls roughly into three distinction between critical and phases. The first phase, which

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism ends in 1970, shows the influence Since the context of the of his mentor, Raymond Williams. Marxist canon constitutes his Works such as Shakespeare and major preoccupation, it is the Society (1967) belong to this notable contributions of Eagleton period and show a marked in the development in the Marxist sociological tendency. In the movement that has established him second phase, Eagleton comes as the foremost Marxist critic of directly under the impact of the recent time. Eagleton’s French Marxism and looks at Marxist criticism emerges out of as an ideological the tremendous influence of the institution. To this phase belong philosophical writings of works like Marxism and Literary Althusser. There was a Criticism (1976), Criticism and considerable theoretical shift of (1976), Literary Theory: thought from socialist humanism An Introduction (1983), and The to Althusserian ‘science of the Ideology of the Aesthetic (1990). text’. Moreover, recognizing the The third phase marks a return to great impact of a number of Post- the cultural theory of Williams as Structuralist theories on literary well as textual criticism as shown studies, Eagleton performed a by works like The Idea of Culture radical shift from Althusserian (2000) and After Theory (2003). scientific approach towards the Eagleton’s major contribution as a revolutionary thoughts of Brecht critic is his lucid introduction of and Benjamin which enables him literary theory into English to produce his mode of criticism. ‘revolutionary criticism’. On the

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal same track, Eagleton utilized defines as “the most pluralistic Lacan’s Freudian theories, order history has ever known, Derrida’s Deconstructive restlessly transgressing boundaries , and feminist approach and dismantling oppositions, to postmodernize his pitching together diverse life- ‘revolutionary criticism’. The forms and continually overflowing employment of some of such the measure” (133). During the characteristics and techniques in Twentieth Century, Capitalism, for his writings, along with his Eagleton, “became the new obdurate commitment to Marxism, foundation for social cohesion” established his interdisciplinary since “the middle class or approach that combines the social bourgeoisie began to focus on and political phenomena in the business in favour of the context of literary and cultural metaphysical” as a result of theory which, consequently, Nietzsche’s destructive enables him to create a distinctive pronouncement of ‘the death of version of Marxism. God’ “which allowed the In his prominent Marxist individual to subscribe to their critique to Postmodernism, The own religious, political and Illusions of Postmodernism cultural (if any) which (1996), Eagleton describes the were previously used by states as contemporary world as an oppressive tools” (2014). “appalling mess” (ix). Such chaos, Such characteristics of the according to Eagleton, was late Capitalism seem perfectly initiated by Capitalism, which he compatible with some of the

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism distinctive features of In his The Illusion of Postmodernism which was defined Postmodernism , Eagleton is by Jameson as “the cultural logic concerned “less with the more of late capitalism” (1991, 46). recherché formulations of Since Postmodernism preceded than with late Capitalism and, arguably, the culture or milieu or even contributed to its rise, Eagleton sensibility of postmodernism as a regards Postmodernism as a kind whole” (viii). This indicates that of “straw-targeting” or Eagleton is more interested in “caricaturing its opponent’s displaying the historical context of position” (1996, viii) and accuses the political, economic, social, and it of complicity with the late cultural background out of which Capitalism, and thus lacking any Postmodernism has been emerged, critical force. It is not only rather than with investigating the Eagleton, but many other Neo- philosophical roots embedded in Marxists who shared the same the postmodern thought. general view of accusing Throughout his book, Eagleton postmodernists of being “always sets out to expose the illusion of already complicit in the system” Postmodernism through his subtle (Sim, 166) they criticize. In sum, grounded argument, devastating the main charge against late gifts for irony and satire, Capitalism and Postmodernism, in commitment to the ethical and plainly Marxist terms, is that the inspiring social engagement, and infrastructure does not generate sharp refusal to acquiesce in the the superstructure.

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“appalling mess” of the kicking all solid contemporary world. foundations from beneath In his well-known article themselves, the more their “The Contradictions of ideological superstructures Postmodernism” (1997), Eagleton … will need to insist … states that “postmodernism is both upon absolute values and radical and conservative together, immutable standards, springing as it does from assured grounds and [the]structural contradiction at the unimpeachable goals, the core of advanced capitalism eternal givenness of a itself”. Thus, the contradiction of human nature which is Postmodernism is mainly due to mutating before their very the contradiction of the late eyes, the universal status of capitalism. He elaborates the very values which are being contradiction of the late exposed as historically Capitalism, and of Postmodernism partial even as we speak as well, as follows: (4). The more market forces Eagleton’s argument about level all distinct value and Postmodernism is based on two identity to arbitrary, fundamental, however opposing, aleatory, relative, hybrid, premises which emphasize the interchangeable status, contradiction of the overall confounding fixed postmodern movement. According ontologies, mocking high- to his argument, Postmodernism is toned teleologies, and conservative because it lacks the

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism resources to produce change Cultural relativism, moral (1996, 135). As a matter of fact, conventionalism, its what distinguished Postmodernism skepticism, pragmatism, and from other movement is its localism, its distaste for ideas pronounced political dimension. of solidarity and disciplined Hence, Eagleton describes organization, its lack of any Postmodernism as a political adequate theory of political project without any “substantial agency. (1996, 134) change” on its agenda (95). Thus, Since Eagleton defines he situated Postmodernism inside Postmodernism as “a style of “the unbreachable system” of the thought which is suspicious of late Capitalism which it mainly classical notions of truth, reason, aimed to criticize. Incapable to identity and , of single challenge “the system” (2), the frameworks, grand narratives or conservative character of ultimate grounds of explanation” Postmodernism clearly outweighs (1996,vii), thus, it is a mode of its political dimension. Hence, the interrogation that aims at radical aspirations of the problematizing the postmodern enterprise to elicit epistemological assumptions political change resulted in a whose distinctive characteristics conservative tendency which are anti-totality, anti-hierarchy, legitimate, rather than challenging, anti-essentialism, and anti-tetology “the system”. Eagleton condemns (93-120). Indissolubly connected Postmodernism for its: to the late Capitalism, yet potentially subversive if “the

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal system” is not compatible with its identity that suggests his demands, Postmodernism has incapability to produce change, redefined the human being as and, consequently, to engage in unstable subject, created a vacuum any political action. Hence, of moral and social values through Postmodernism legitimate “the its abolition of the concept of system” rather than challenging it absolute truth that shaped the as it had previously claimed to political and social reality of the aspire. As the incapability to Twentieth Century. perform any political change The postmodern principle of suggests the perpetuation of the the negation of totality, according status-quo. to Eagleton, results in the failure Furthermore, the of Postmodernism to acknowledge postmodern preoccupation with “the system” in the first place, marginal issues such as sexuality, which is the prerequisite for race, gender, language, challenging it. Furthermore, such subjectivity, and identity negation of totality involves a deliberately redirects the liberation from commitments worldwide attention from the truly which could enable postmodern significant issues to those of subjects to totally undermine “the secondary importance which, system” through engaging in a indeed, do not threaten “the particular radical action. Also, the system”. Thus, feminism and negation of totality implies the ethnicity – which Eagleton fragmentation of the postmodern confesses to credit Postmodernism subject who loses a clearly defined with some strength especially its

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism works on identity-thinking and the Postmodernism reinforces the dangers of totality – are popular confirmation of “the system”, as postmodern obsessions not Eagleton illustrates that: because they are significant The politics of challenges to Postmodernism but postmodernism, then, have because they are not radical ones. been at once enrichment and Regarded by Eagleton as the evasion. If they have opened single most enduring achievement, up vital new political Postmodernism firmly established questions, it is partly because the questions of sexuality, gender, they have beat an undignified feminism, race, and ethnicity on retreat from older political its political agenda. For him, issues – not because they Postmodernism only substitutes have disappeared or have the more classical forms of radical been resolved, but because politics which deal with class, they are for the moment state, ideology, revolution, and proving intractable. material modes of production with …Feminism and ethnicity are less radical ones. In fact, such popular today … because displacement from pure politics to they are not necessarily anti- marginal issues does not indicate capitalist and fit well enough that this older political issues have with a post-radical age. been disappeared or resolved, (1996, 25) rather Postmodernism aims at In addition, a major aim of edging them from its political Postmodernism is the gradual loss agenda. Once again, of traditional values essential to

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal the human life like the belief in an Consequently, Postmodernism ultimate truth legitimating is a provocative movement which . Hence, the postmodern in spite of its incapability to insisting rejection of ultimate perform any meaningful political truth, fixed reality and objective action, it possesses a fascinating knowledge leads to relativism and power to persuade oneself that any disorientation which greatly totality one might fight against is contributes to the well-functioning actually illusory. Thus, the of “the system”. Again and again, postmodern subjects lack any Postmodernism enhances the ability to distinguish between truth consolidation of “the system”. and false simply because there is Eagleton states that: no truth in the first place, just Its nervous of such several individual interpretations concepts as truth has according to everyone’s view of alarmed the bishops and the world. Reality and appearance charmed the business are one, so that what you see is the executives, just as its truth. Truth, for Postmodernism, is compulsion to replace words a question of who can practice the like ‘reality’ in scare quotes most persuasive rhetoric. In the unsettles the pious Bürger in postmodern mode of thought, the the bosom of his family but is individual is a self-fashioning music to his ears in his creature whose supreme advertising agency. (1996, achievement is to treat himself as a 28) work of art.

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism One of the major reasons for theory of Postmodernism is Eagleton’s hostile attitude towards extremely orthodox, referring to Postmodernism is his established its inability to perform any commitment to Marxism. As political change, to the point that it Marxism has failed to develop lost its connection to our everyday throughout time in order to be ‘an social and political situation. He authoritarian theory’ that could be states that “I do not believe that able to impose its own theories this orthodoxy addresses itself to and its own version of truth on the questions searching enough to critical field. Thus, the failure of meet the demands of our political the Marxist grand narrative situation” (ix). contributes to the ascendency of Another major Postmodernism (Sim, 12). On the between Postmodernism and other hand, the opponents of Marxism is their distinct attitudes Postmodernism consider it as a towards the notion of the self. kind of “an update version of Whereas Postmodernism considers skepticism” whose ultimate aim is the self as a language-based social to attack other theories related to construction without any fixed or truth without “set[ting] up a stable identity, Eagleton refers to positive theory of its own” (13). the importance of the existence of As a result of the purposelessness an individual identity to the human of Postmodernism, Eagleton self as if there were no individual announces the end of theory in his self, there would be no free will After Theory (2003). In this book, and choice. Also, Postmodernism he stresses that the current cultural and Marxism differ in their

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal perceptions of the reflexivity of have contributed to the production language. While Postmodernism of the text in the first place. thinks that the text stands only for Selden, Widdowson and Brooker itself, Marxism searches for an elaborate Eagleton’s view in his underlying truth beneath the Criticism and Ideology as follow: surface appearance. For Eagleton, texts do not reflect the literary text does not only historical reality but rather reflect textual reality, but also work upon ideology to produce represents or misrepresents other an effect of the ‘real’. The text extra-textual realities. Therefore, may appear to be free in its he rejects the notion that “a text relation to reality (it can has a value in itself” (1983, 11) invent characters and and suggests that “Marxist situations at will), but it is not criticism analyses literature in free in its use of ideology. terms of historical conditions ‘Ideology’ here refers not to which produce it; and it needs, formulated doctrines but to all similarly, to be aware of its own those systems of representation [current] historical conditions” (aesthetic, religious, judicial (1976b, vi). and others) which shape the Aiming to illustrate the individual’s mental picture of function of ideology throughout lived experience. The the literary text, the foremost meanings and perceptions Marxist literary critic Terry produced in the text are a Eagleton begins with the search reworking of ideology’s own for the historical factors which

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism working of reality. (Selden and his attempt to prove the illusion of Widdowson, 2005, 101) Postmodernism, Eagleton Moreover, the approach to elaborates that Postmodernism history constitutes a great believes in the discontinuous, difference between random nature of history and Postmodernism and Marxism. accuses it of being ahistorical Firstly, history and literature, for (1996, 51). the Marxist criticism, are the From all these reciprocal components of the superstructure accusations, it is apparent that both while social, historical, and movements are intensely ideological conditions are the concerned with the past but with components of the infrastructure. different purposes. While Marxism Secondly, history and literature are exposes the evolution of societies the outcome of the social, from one stage to another historical, and ideological throughout history, conditions. Thirdly, the Marxist Postmodernism is interested in evolutionary approach to history offering various versions of based on class-struggle and aimed history depending on its notion of at evoking a socialist revolution plurality. For Eagleton, there is whose main purpose is the rise of certain historical moment which classless society. On the other initiated the general ideology hand, Postmodernism aggressively responsible for the production of rejects the evolutionary approach the literary text. to history and accuses Marxism of Another significant feature being illusory. Consequently, in of Postmodernism which asserts

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal the contradiction of the movement textual traces, its often is the correlation between history complex and indirect and fiction. Since history, representations in the according to Postmodernism, is present: documents, archives, neither fixed nor stable, so it is but also photographs, various linguistic constructions paintings, architecture, films, which differ according to the and literature. (1991, 78) author’s point of view. Thus, there On the same track, Marshall is no total account of history but confirms the non-linear, several histories. Moreover, it is discontinuous histories of impossible, for Postmodernism, to Postmodernism which differ provide a continuous objective according to the ideological history, instead it proposes message that an author wants to discontinuous subjective deliver to his audience. She fragmentations of some events of illustrates that: history. Hutcheon indicates that: Postmodernism is about like fiction, history histories not told, retold, constructs its objects, that untold. History as it never events named become facts was. Histories forgotten, and thus both do and do not hidden, invisible, considered retain their status outside unimportant, changed, language. This is the paradox eradicated. It’s about the of postmodernism. The past refusal to see history as really did exist, but we can linear, as leading straight up only know it today through its to today in some recognizable

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism pattern-all set for us to make devices that have been modified to sense of it. It’s about chance. fit the postmodern thought – It’s about power. It’s about Postmodernism stresses the lack information. And more of distinction between fact and information. And more. And. fiction as such distinction is And that’s just a little bit relative. Since history is about what postmodernism represented through language so [is]. (4) history is the product of the limits of our use of language, thus In its attempt to cover the history is what is represented by fictional formations of history, our language; this summarizes the Postmodernism uses certain postmodern approach towards devices which emphasize that language. Furthermore, the history is a merely fragmented incomplete, fragmented literary construction that differ in postmodern representations of its representation from one author history evoke the engagement of to another according to his the audience in order to participate intended ideological conviction. in completing the missing parts For Postmodernism, history is according to their own constructed according to the convictions. Such evocation, intended ideology of the dominant furthermore, increases the powers which they aim to deliver fragmentation of postmodern to their people. Through its use of representations of history. irony, parody, and self-reflexivity, According to Eagleton, –which are mainly modernist Postmodernism merged history

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal and fiction in order to create the by its author or it was only mode of irony. This postmodern ironically interpreted by its reader. mode of irony is the reason Also, readers themselves differ in beneath “what condemns their interpretations of the same postmodernism to triviality and statement: some of them can kitsch” (Hutcheon 1991, 18). For interpret it ironically while others the opponents of Postmodernism, can not. including Eagleton, the mode of Worthy of mention is irony is fundamentally “anti- Eagleton’s dealing with the notion serious”, while postmodernists of the postmodern subject “whose intentionally employ it because it body is integral to its identity” is the only serious approach to the (1996, 69). For Eagleton, the past since “The reader is forced to postmodern preoccupation with acknowledge not only the the body displaces radical politics. inevitable textuality of our Such preoccupation asserts the knowledge of the past, but also materiality of the postmodern both the value and limitation of the thought since it concentrates on inescapably discursive form of that the concrete body of the human knowledge” (Hutcheon 1988, subject as opposite to the humanist 127). Moreover, the postmodern approach which concentrates on mode of irony enhances the his abstract soul. In fact, it is a postmodern notion of the shift from the body as the locus of indeterminacy of language as it is the phenomenological subject to difficult to decide whether a the body as the total determination statement is intentionally ironical of the subject. In brief, it is,

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism according to Eagleton, a shift transformative practice, then “from the body as subject to the it is not identical with itself in body as object” (71). Therefore, the manner of corpses or Postmodernism centralizes the carpets, and this is a claim body as being the main that soul language was trying construction of the identity of the to make. It is just that such human self. For Eagleton, the language located this non- performance of a significantly self-identity in the body’s transformative action demands the having an invisible extra existence of a unified human which is the real me, rather subject with a reasonably secure than viewing the real me as a identity in the first place. This creative interaction with my implies an ethical accusation to the world. (72) postmodern thought which is Inextricably bound to the morally irresponsible to the notion of the subject is the importance of the role of ethical in postmodern oppositional pairing the formation of the human of nature/culture which constitutes identity. Eagleton refutes this an important part of the postmodern conviction as follows: postmodern thought. According to What is special about the the radical universalism of the human body, then, is its Enlightenment, since all capacity to transform itself in individuals share the same the process of transforming common human nature, all of them the material bodies around it. have equal rights: every individual … But if the body is a self- is endued with freedom,

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal autonomy, justice, and political nature of the existence of the equality. Eagleton argues that modernist stable human subject, Postmodernism suffers from a Postmodernism reduces the ‘holophobia’: a fear from existence of the self-identity of its universality and totality which he postmodern subject to an considered to be its main charge. immanent culturalism. Therefore, He states that “postmodernism is it is the external various forces of quite mistaken to believe, with one’s own culture, rather than his Hegel rather than Marx, that all own biological nature, that objectification are tantamount to constitutes the self-identity of the alienation” (74). With its postmodern subject. paralysing skepticism, For Eagleton, Postmodernism valorizes the Postmodernism is a form of postmodern subject in the prison culturalism as it refuses to of culture with the help of the so- recognize that the common social called “new somatics”. In fact, and political ground is more this resulted in the increasing loss important for the emancipation of of subjectivity as the body the different ethnic groups than becomes a mere object. Eagleton their cultural differences. states that “the new somatics … According to Eagleton, risks dispelling subjectivity itself Postmodernism underestimates as no more than a humanist myth” nature in favour of culture. In his (75). As a severe reaction and refutation of this point, Eagleton absolute rejection against the illustrates that there are no non- natural, biological, and abstract cultural human beings not because

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Terry Eagleton’s Re-writing of Postmodernism culture exists everywhere around culture …, and brusquely us, but because culture belongs to reduces them to the latter. our nature. He states that: Culturalism is quite as much a It is important to see, as form of reductionism as postmodernism largely does biologism, or economism, not, that we are not ‘cultural’ words at the sound of which rather than ‘natural’ all stout postmodernists have creatures, but cultural beings been trained to make the by virtue of our nature, which vampire sign. (1996, 72-74) is to say by virtue of the sorts of bodies we have and the kind As contradiction exists at the of the world to which they heart of the postmodernist belong. Because we are all enterprise, the postmodern born prematurely, unable to decentring of the human subject, look after ourselves, our destabilizing of his self-identity, nature contains a yawning and subjecting him to various abyss into which culture must forms of exploitation at the hands instantly move, otherwise we of ‘the system’, that is late would die. … Capitalism, contradicts with the postmodern notion of ‘difference’ Because postmodern which considered the major thought is nervous of the achievement of the postmodern natural, … it tends to overlook enterprise because it gives political the way in which humans are voice to the marginalized. While cusped between nature and the postmodern notion of the self

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DaliA Bakr Abdel-Aal proposes a fragmented, unstable transformative action requires a representation of the human unified human self as rebellion subject, difference can not be could not succeed if human agents flourished under exploitation since are not self-identical enough to it necessarily requires a universal carry it through. notion of humanity. For Eagleton, it is not Postmodernism which Works Cited destabilized and decentred the Primary Sources human self, rather it is the late • Eagleton, Terry. Shakespeare and Capitalism which did that for Society: Studies in Shakespearian considerable reasons. The Drama . London: Chatto & Windus, deconstructed postmodern subject 1967. is capable of performing various • ______. Criticism and types of subversions of the Ideology: A Study in Marxist dominant social values and beliefs, Literary Theory . London: Verso, but incapable of performing an 1976a. emancipatory action for a • ______. Marxism and respectable goal of transforming . London: society in any meaningful way. On Methuen, 1976b. the other hand, Socialism, • ______. Literary Theory: according to Eagleton, goes An Introduction . UK: Blackwell further and performs emancipatory Publishers LTd, 1983. actions at the level of human • ______. The Function of reciprocity. For Eagleton, the Criticism. From Spectator to performance of any significantly

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Postmodernism. London & New http://trinitynews.ie/postmodernism York: Verso, 1984. -is-to-blame-for-religious- • ______. “Capitalism, fundamentalism-says-professor- Modernism and Postmodernism” in terry-eagleton/ Against The Grain: Essays 1975- 1985 . London and New York: Secondary Sources Verso , 1991, pp. 131-147. • Hutcheon, L. A Poetics of • ______. The Illusions of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Postmodernism . Oxford: Fiction . London and New York: Blackwell, 1996. Routledge, 1988. • ______. “The • ______. The Politics of Contradictions of Postmodernism” Postmodernism . London and New in New Literary History , Vol. 28, York: Routledge, 1991. No 1, 1997, pp. 1-6. • Jameson, F. Postmodernism Or, • ______. The Eagleton The Cultural Logic of Late Reader . Ed. Stephen Regan. Capitalism . New York: Duke UP, Oxford: Blackwell, 1998. 1991. • ______. After Theory . New • Marshall, Brenda k. Teaching York: Basic Books, 2003. Postmodernism: Fiction and • ______. “Postmodernism is Theory . Great Britain: Routledge, to blame for religious Chapman and Hall Inc., 1992. fundamentalism, Professor Terry • Raman Selden, Peter Widdowson, Eagleton tells students”. December Peter Brooker. 5th ed. A Reader’s 3, 2014. Guide to Contemporary Literary

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Theory. Great Britain: Pearson Education Limited, 2005. • Sim, S. The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism . London: Routledge, 2001. • Wroe, Nicholas. “High Priest of lit crit” in The Guardian Profile. Feb.2, 2002.

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