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Home , Arienne Dwyer, Chagatai language, Uyghur language, Xinjiang Daily

Uyghur Under Attack: The Myth of “Bilingual” Education in the People’ Republic of

Uyghur Human Rights Project July 24, 2007

I. Overview of the Report new “bilingual” education imperative is designed to transition minority students from is under attack in East education in their mother tongue to education Turkistan1 (also known as the in Chinese. The policy marks dramatic shift Uyghur Autonomous Region or XUAR). In away from more egalitarian past policies that the past decade, and with increasing intensity provided choice for Uyghur parents in their since 2002, the People’s Republic of China children’s of instruction. In the (PRC) has pursued assimilationist policies PRC “bilingual” education amounts to aimed at removing Uyghur as a language of compulsory education. instruction in East Turkistan. Employing the term “bilingual” education, the PRC is, in “Bilingual” education in East Turkistan is reality, implementing a monolingual Chinese responsible for: language education system that undermines the linguistic basis of Uyghur culture.2 The • Marginalizing Uyghur in the educational sphere with the goal of eliminating it as a language of instruction in East Turkistan. 1 Use of the term ‘East Turkistan’ does not define a • Forcing Uyghur students at levels ‘pro-independence’ position. Instead, it is used by ranging from preschool to university to wishing to assert their cultural distinctiveness from China proper. ‘Xinjiang’, meaning ‘new study in a second language. boundary’ or ‘new realm’, was adopted by the • Removing Uyghur children from their Manchus in the (1644-1911) and reflects cultural environment and placing them the perspective of those who gave it this name. This into Chinese language “Xinjiang classes” use of terminology, whether ‘Xinjiang’ or ‘East located in inland China. Turkistan’ is often compared by Uyghurs to use of the term ‘Tibet’ by Tibetans. That is, Tibetans use the • Using Chinese language requirements name they choose, and not a translation of the Chinese and school mergers to force veteran ‘Xizang’ meaning ‘western treasure-store’. Uyghurs Uyghur teachers out of the classroom. also choose to use a name other than the one • Taking decisions on language of designated by the Chinese authorities. instruction for Uyghur children out of the 2 Uyghur is a Turkic language spoken by at least 11 hands of parents. million people, mostly located in East Turkistan, with • Increasing tensions between Uyghurs and significant populations also located in , Han in East Turkistan. , , , , , , and the . It belongs to the southeastern branch of the Turkic This report begins by reviewing the , a family which has about 200 million PRC’s language policy commitments under speakers in the world. Uyghur, seen as the heir to the that once served as a of large parts of , today serves as a lingua Identity, Language Policy, and Political Discourse, franca among many minority groups in East Turkistan. Washington: The East-West Center, 2005. See , The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur domestic and international law and languages and to preserve or reform contrasting these agreements with the reality their own folkways and customs.3 of East Turkistan’s language policy, including the recent push to marginalize The legal framework of “regional Uyghur language education through autonomy” is spelled out in the Regional “bilingual” education. It explores the effects Ethnic Autonomy Law. This law establishes of the Chinese language push on Uyghur the principle that language policy in East students, teachers, and parents, as well as on Turkistan’s schools should formulated at ethnic relations, placing language policy into the local level: the context of other policies of directed at the Uyghurs. In conclusion, the Autonomous agencies in ethnic report recommends that the PRC implement autonomous areas decide on educational true bilingualism in East Turkistan’s schools. plans in these areas, on the establishment of various kinds of schools at different levels, and on their educational system, II. China’s Language Policy: Theory and forms, curricula, the language used in 4 Reality instruction and enrollment procedures.

PRC Domestic Law and International It goes on to guarantee language rights Agreements Regarding Language Policy for minority students in the classroom:

Before looking closely at the current Schools (classes) and other educational government policy aimed at removing organizations recruiting mostly ethnic Uyghur from East Turkistan’s schools, it is minority students should, whenever important to review PRC agreements under possible, use textbooks in their own languages and use these languages as the domestic and international law with regards 5 to regional autonomy, language policy and media of instruction. education policy. By forcing Uyghur children to study in a language other than The rights of ethnic minorities regarding their mother tongue, China’s government is language of instruction are also spelled out in in clear violation of its own laws and the PRC’s Compulsory Education Law, agreements. which reiterates the right of minorities to be When the XUAR was established as an educated in their mother tongue: autonomous region of the PRC in 1955, it was given special powers of self-government 3 under the concept of “regional autonomy”. The PRC Constitution (adopted by the National People's Congress on December 4, 1982 with further This concept appears in Article 4 of the PRC revisions in 1988, 1993, 1999, and 2004.) Article 4. Constitution and specifically mentions the 4 importance of language: People's Republic of China Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law, issued by the Second Session of the Sixth National People’s Congress on May 31, 1984 Regional autonomy is practiced in areas (effective October 1, 1984) and amended on February where people of minority ethnic groups 28, 2001: Article 36. Translation prepared by the live in compact communities… All ethnic Congressional-Executive Commission on China, groups have the freedom to use and available at http://www.cecc.gov/pages/virtualAcad/index.phpd?s develop their own spoken and written howsingle=9507 5 Ibid, Article 37.

2 Schools in which the majority of students government destroyed the intellectuals. are of ethnic minorities may use the Now they are in the process of destroying spoken and written languages of those the language.8 ethnic minorities in instruction.6 Despite these laws and agreements, the In the international realm, the PRC is a Uyghur language is being marginalized in signatory to the International Covenant on East Turkistan. Chinese language names are Civil and Political Rights and the Convention overtaking long established Uyghur place on the Rights of the Child, both of which names.9 Officials in East Turkistan whose guarantee minorities protection of their first language is Chinese almost never learn language rights. The Convention on the Uyghur, even to a rudimentary level, though Rights of the Child, which China signed in they are directed to do so under the Regional 1992, specifically extends language Ethnic Autonomy Law.10 Almost all Uyghur protections to children: language , television reports and textbooks are direct translations of Chinese In those States in which ethnic, religious language materials. Uyghur farmers struggle or linguistic minorities or persons of with Chinese language instructions on indigenous origin exist, a child belonging fertilizer and pesticide labels, and emergency to such a minority or who is indigenous response centers lack operators with Uyghur shall not be denied the right, in language skills.11 community with other members of his or This marginalization reflects a her group, to enjoy his or her own disparaging view of Uyghur language and culture, to profess and practice his or her culture that exists at the highest levels of the own religion, or to use his or her own Chinese government and has informed the language.7 move towards a monolingual educational system in East Turkistan.12 Although PRC Language Policy in Practice in East linguists agree that all languages have the Turkistan ability to be modern, that is to absorb new

This new wave is like a new Cultural 8 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with Revolution for the Uyghurs. In the first Uyghur Professional, May 16, 2007. Cultural Revolution the Chinese 9 Stanley Toops, “Tourism in : The Power of Place in Inner Asia/Outer China,” Central Asian 6 Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Survey; Vol. 18, No. 3 (September 1999): 303-18. Republic of China (Adopted at the Fourth Session of Toops notes that archaeological sights in Turfan are the Sixth National People’s Congress, promulgated by all known by their Chinese names and nearly always Order No.38 of the President of the People’s Republic presented by Han tour guides who know very little of China on April 12, 1986, and effective as of July 1, about Uyghur history and always emphasize the high 1986) Article 6. Translation prepared by UNESCO, water marks of Chinese influence, the Han and Tang available at dynasties. http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php- 10 Herbert S. Yee, Ethnic Relations in Xinjiang: a URL_ID=12456&URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&UR survey of Uygur-Han relations in Urumqi, Journal of L_SECTION=201.html Contemporary China, 12(36), August 2003, 431-452. 7 Convention on the Rights of the Child, Adopted and 11 Urumqi Will Strengthen Bilingual Education for opened for signature, ratification and accession by 120 Switchboard Operators, Urumqi Evening News, General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November April 11, 2007 [“乌鲁木齐市要加强120接线员双语 1989, entry into force 2 September 1990, in 教育,” 乌鲁木齐晚报 2007-4-11]. accordance with article 49, Article 30. available at 12 See Dwyer, op. cit. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/k2crc.htm

3 words and express new ideas based on societal and technological changes, the leading political figure in the region since III. The Myth of “Bilingual” Education: 1995, XUAR Party Secretary Wang Lequan, Compulsory Chinese Language Education justified “bilingual” education policies in this Replacing Uyghur Language Education in way: East Turkistan

The languages of the minority Since the mid-1980’s China’s nationalities have very small capacities government has moved in stages towards and do not contain many of the making Chinese the only language of expressions in modern science and instruction in East Turkistan’s schools. technology, which makes education in “Bilingual” education in the PRC is the latest these concepts impossible. This is out of and most extreme example, amounting to step with the 21st Century.13 compulsory Chinese language education. Over the past five years, government efforts This ingrained belief that Chinese at eliminating Uyghur language schools have language is more “advanced” and more accelerated dramatically as compulsory “modern” than minority languages also Chinese language education has been pervades government thinking on “bilingual” expanded at every educational level and education. Officials often speak of the need every township in East Turkistan. to “raise the ‘quality’ of minority students” Students in experimental “bilingual” using “bilingual” education, so that middle school classes numbered 2,629 in minorities can begin to receive the benefits of 1999. In 2004, there were 35,948 students a “modern education”.14 This Chinese- and by 2005 the number had increased to centered understanding of language leads to 145,000.16 At first, these schools used both many of the problems with the PRC’s Uyghur and Chinese for instruction. More “bilingual” education push. In the words of recently Uyghur has been severely restricted one Uyghur interviewee: at what are ostensibly “bilingual” schools. The ultimate goal of “bilingual” education With the Chinese view of language, it is appears to be to replace Uyghur language very hard to have a situation of equality. instruction with Chinese language instruction If there is no equality, then there is no in all areas of East Turkistan. dignity. If there was equality, then there After the XUAR was established in 1955, would be no reason to force people to Beijing pursued a relatively pluralistic participate in “bilingual education”.15 minority policy that included support for Uyghur language schools and a flexible attitude about Chinese language education.17 13 AFP, March 28, 2002.[FBIS-CHI-2002-0328, Subsequently, the harsh cultural restrictions March 29, 2002 cited in Nicola Becquelin, Criminalizing Ethnicity: Political Repression in Xinjiang, China Rights Forum, No. 1, 2004 p. 7. 16 Outstanding Results of Xinjiang’s Promotion of 14 See, for example, Xinjiang Analyzes the Difficult “Bilingual Education”, Xinjiang Tianshan Net, Issue of “Bilingual” Education, Guangming Daily, December 7, 2005. [新疆推进“双语教学”成效显著, December 19, 2005. [“新疆破解“双语”教育难题,”光 新疆天山网, 2005-12-7]. 17 Zhou Minglang, “The Politics of Bilingual 明日报, 2005-12-19]. Education in the People’s Republic of China Since 15 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with 1949”, Bilingual Research Journal, 25:1 & 2 Winter Uyghur Professional, May 16, 2007. & Spring 2001.

4 and intense political campaigns throughout implemented, and quotas were set for China in the late 1950’s and 1960’s also Chinese-language majors at East Turkistan’s destroyed the educational system in East universities.21 Turkistan. After 1978, as China emerged With this program moving more slowly from a period of cultural isolation and than the government wished, “bilingual” turmoil, ethnic groups experienced a period education emerged with the formation of a of relative tolerance that resulted in a committee to investigate the concept in rediscovery of many cultural practices.18 In 1987.22 The policy began to gain serious this environment, the education system also momentum after a 1992 “Work Conference recovered and education was available in on Ethnic Language and Writing” named both Uyghur and Chinese, giving parents the “bilingualism” as the only way to raise the choice of educating their children in either educational level of minority people.23 language.19 “Bilingual” education was mandated in large The foundations for compulsory Chinese technical schools and universities and education were laid in 1984, when the experimental “bilingual” language classes for government set the goal of achieving full minority students were established in “minority-Han communicability” in a decade Urumchi, Chuguchak (), and by “strengthening work on Chinese language Turfan.24 At this time, “bilingual” education education”.20 In support of this goal, Uyghur used both Uyghur and Chinese, though language schools began to teach Chinese in preference for Chinese can be seen in the fact grade three instead of the first year of middle that the “modern” subjects of math and the school, intensive teacher training was sciences were taught in this language with all other subjects taught in Uyghur. 18 See Stevan Harrell, “The of Reform The establishment of “Xinjiang classes” and the Reform of Anthropology: Anthropological in 12 Chinese cities in 1997, provided a new Narratives of Recovery and Progress in China,” model for compulsory Chinese language Annual Review of Anthropology, No. 30 (October education and the marginalization of Uyghur 2001): 139-61. language. “Xinjiang classes” remove top 19 Uyghur parents adopted different strategies as they minority students in East Turkistan from sought to preserve the linguistic base of Uyghur their cultural environment and enroll them in culture, while also giving their children the classes with Chinese language instruction in opportunities afforded by Chinese language 25 proficiency. Some parents sent sons to Chinese high schools in large inland Chinese cities. schools and daughters to Uyghur schools. Another Participation in “Xinjiang classes” is not strategy was to send the child to a Chinese school for the first few years to solidify a knowledge of Chinese 21 and then switch him or her to a Uyghur language Wang and Meng, op. cit. school in late elementary school. William C. Clark, 22 Schluessel, op. cit. “Convergence or Divergence: Uyghur Family Change 23 in Urumqi” (Ph.. diss., , “Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Language Seattle, 1999) and interviews with Uyghur parents. and Script Work Regulations, The Second Session 20 Minority Language and Script Work Conference”, see Eric . Schluessel. 2007. "'Bilingual' education and Wang and Meng, op. cit. discontent in Xinjiang", Central Asian Survey (June 24 2007) 26(2), 1-27 and Wang A’shu, Meng Fanli, “A Wang and Meng, op. cit. Summary fthe Development of Bilingual Education 25Su Jiaoji, Circualur on the ‘Summary of the Meeting Policy for Ethnic Minorities in Xinjiang”, Journal of on Provincial Inland Xinjiang High School Classes’, Research on Education for Ethnic Minorities, No. 2, Jiangsu Department of Education, June 6, 2006. [苏教 Vol. 17, General No. 73, 2006. [望阿舒，孟凡丽, “新 基,《全省内地新疆高中班教育工作座谈会会议纪 疆少数民族双语教育政策发展综述” 民族教育研究, 要》的通知, 江苏省教育厅文件, 2006-6-6]. 2:17:73, 2006] .

5 entirely voluntary as one Uyghur parent Chinese cities and had a total enrollment of explained: over ten thousand students.31 The “Xinjiang class” method of Officials will put on hidden pressure. instruction, in which minority students are They say, “Your child has been chosen to taught almost exclusively in Chinese, has be sent to a Xinjiang class. If does not become a model for classes in East Turkistan go there maybe you will have some as opportunities for Uyghur language trouble, maybe your child will have a bad education are forced out of existence at all future”.26 levels from university to preschool. Since 2002, with the exception of minority XUAR Party Secretary, Wang Lequan, languages and literature, classes at Xinjiang confirmed that “political thought training”, University have been taught solely in not academic preparation, was the chief goal Chinese, virtually removing Uyghur as a of these “Xinjiang classes”.27 Officials view language of instruction at the region’s most training in Chinese as a way to “deepen prestigious university.32 Local governments national feelings” and “strengthen correct have committed to eliminating Uyghur political attitudes” as part of a “long term language instruction, even in areas with large important strategic policy decision… to majority Uyghur populations. A document protect the unity of the motherland and released by the Regional Bureau of safeguard the nation’s long and peaceful Education in Khotan, where more than 90% order”.28 of the population is Uyghur, announced that In some of these schools speaking all classes under its jurisdiction would be Uyghur is prohibited, even in student taught in Chinese within five years.33 In dormitories, where pupils are watched by an Artush, a city in which 80% of the on site monitor.29 Children from one population is Uyghur, all classes will be “Xinjiang class” in Qingdao were forbidden taught in Chinese by 2012.34 In 2005, the to communicate in Uyghur, even when “bilingual” education push was expanded visited by an officially approved ethnic into East Turkistan’s preschools.35 Uyghur journalist.30 By 2006, “Xinjiang “Bilingual” education has been classes” had been expanded from 12 to 26 supported through heavy government investment. Authorities have committed 430 million RMB to establish 1,009 Chinese 26 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with Uyghur Teacher, May 23, 2007. 31 Xinjiang Will Have 5000 Students Attend Inland 27 The Chief Task of Inland Xinjiang High School High Schools This Year, Net, February Classes is Ideological Political Training, Online 14,2007 [新疆今年将有5000学生赴内地高中就学, International, June 24, 2005 [思想政治教育是内地新 新疆日报网,2007-2-14]. 32 疆高中班的首要任务, 国际在线 2005-6-24]. PRC Official : Xinjiang University to Teach Major 28 Su Jiaoji, Circualur on the ‘Summary of the Subjects in Chinese, Xinhua, Friday June 7, 2002. Meeting on Provincial Inland Xinjiang High School 33 Eric Schluessel, op. cit. Classes’, Jiangsu Department of Education, June 6, 34 2006. [苏教基,《全省内地新疆高中班教育工作座 Artush Excited by Chinese Language Studying 谈会会议纪要》的通知, 江苏省教育厅文件, 2006- Fever, Xinjiang Daily Net, July 11, 2006. [阿图什兴 6-6]. 起学汉语热 ,新疆日报网, 2006-7-11]. 35 29 Xinjiang Implementing Bilingual Education for Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with Radio Preschool Next Year, Guangming Daily, December 12, Free Asia reporter, May 18, 2007. 2005 [新疆明年全面实施学前双语教育, 光明日报, 30 Ibid. 2005-12-9].

6 language preschools within the next five remains.41 In , East Turkistan’s years, with the goal of having 258,000 second largest city, school mergers have minority preschoolers enrolled in these types resulted in the elimination of Uyghur of schools by 2010.36 Parents of Uyghur language instruction entirely.42 preschool students in Southern East In support of the language education Turkistan’s rural prefectures who send their push, the government has instituted an children to Chinese language schools receive intense recruitment campaign and provided a per diem subsidy.37 This subsidy is not monetary incentives to attract teachers whose available for the parents of children in first language is Chinese, and who are almost Uyghur language schools. Maralbeshi always Han Chinese, to teach in East (Bachu) county has allotted 150,000 RMB Turkistan’s schools.43 This is despite the fact for every township to establish bilingual that many qualified Uyghur teachers are preschools.38 Bashkeram, where 95 per cent being laid off due to Chinese language of the population is Uyghur, recently spent requirements. Though the teacher 430,000 yuan to establish a school in which recruitment drive has been carried out in the Chinese is the only mode of instruction and name of “bilingual” education, none of the speaking Uyghur on school grounds is new teachers are required to speak Uyghur. forbidden.39 School mergers have also resulted in greatly reduced availability of Uyghur IV. Effects of “Bilingual’ Education in language education. This process began in East Turkistan on Uyghur Children 2004 with the announced merger of 50 Uyghur and Chinese language schools and “Bilingual” education in East Turkistan the directive that in these schools “teaching has had devastating effects on Uyghur should be conducted in Chinese language as children. By forcing Uyghur children to much as possible”.40 As a result, Uyghur study in Chinese, the PRC government is schools are being merged out of existence all harming their educational development. The over East Turkistan. For example, in the method of language immersion as currently industrial city of Maytagh (Dushanzi), out of practiced in East Turkistan has been shown to result in a poor education for minority five Uyghur language elementary schools 44 and one secondary school in the 1980’s only students. Well-developed skills in the one Uyghur language elementary school mother tongue are linked with high levels of academic achievement and a consensus has

36 Xinjiang’s Bilingual Education Starts with Children, People’s Daily Overseas Edition, October 10, 2006 [ 41 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with 新疆“双语”教育从娃娃抓起, 人民日报海外版, Uyghur Teacher, May 23, 2007. 2006-10-12]. 42 Ibid. 37 China: Mandarin Introduced in Uygur Nursery 43 Xinjiang Analyzes the Difficult Issue of “Bilingual” Schools, South China Morning Post, February 2, Education, Guangming Daily, December 19, 2005 [“ 2006. 新疆破解“双语”教育难题,”光明日报, 2005-12-19]. 38 Bachu Popularizes Rural Bilingual Education 44 Preschools, Xinjiang Daily, April 13, 2007 [巴楚普及 See Kang Jian, ‘If Xinjiang will develop, Chinese- language education must be distributed’, Language 农村学前“双语”教育 新疆日报 2007-04-13]. and Translation, No 2, February 2006, pp 63-6 and 39 Kazuto Tsukamoto, Bilingual Education Spreads Arienne Dwyer, ‘The texture of tongues: Languages Chinese to Ethnic Minorities, The Asahi Shinbun, and power in China’ in William Safran, ed., March 2, 2006. Nationalism and Ethno-Regional Identities in China, 40 China Imposes Chinese Language on Uyghur : Frank Cass, 1998. Schools, , March 16, 2004.

7 formed rejecting the idea that children will improve their Chinese to passing levels.47 “pick up” a foreign language through total Some teachers who cannot ultimately pass immersion. In fact, the added pressure of the test are forced out of the classroom learning in a second language has repeatedly through retirement while others are shifted been shown to have negative effects on a into non-teaching roles. One Uyghur teacher child’s development and motivation, which talked about the situation at his school: in turn leads to frustration and higher drop out rates.45 We had seven Uyghur teachers, but after An ethnically Uyghur former teacher who the change there are only two. All the taught in Chinese in a “bilingual” school for others are gone. Some are forced to several years noticed the negative effects on leave. Others are humiliated. One his students: teacher was shifted to be a cleaner at the student dormitory. Another was moved In class the students must speak in to the application department to do Chinese, then when they go home, they menial tasks like getting water and filing. must speak in Uyghur. This gives them a do not want to say that these are not lot of stress. Also, their parents can not important jobs, but after a decade as a help them with their homework. This teacher, when you become a cleaner, this gives the children more and more stress. is a humiliation. These were good In the end, this disturbs their mental teachers!48 development and their educational development. After a while the stress of Uyghur teachers who do pass a speaking Uyghur at home and then proficiency test are often forced into a speaking Chinese at school means that situation in which both students and teachers the student loses interest in studying.46 are using a second language:

Students also suffer the loss of both These teachers come into a class and qualified teachers and quality instruction. must speak Chinese. A whole class full of Under the Chinese language push, Uyghur Uyghur children and a Uyghur teacher. language teachers must pass a standardized But because the teacher does not speak Chinese proficiency test in order to continue Chinese well, the students laugh and ask teaching. Those teachers who are unable to to be transferred out of the class.49 do so, are given a short period of time to The result is the loss of dedicated teachers. One Uyghur teacher who passed the Chinese proficiency test eventually gave 45 For research on bilingual education and language up teaching out of frustration with PRC learning see James Crawford, Bilingual Education: policy: History, Politics, Theory, and Practice, Bilingual Educational Services, 4th ed., 1999; Stephen D. Krashen Under Attack: The Case Against Bilingual 47 Artush Excited by Chinese Language Studying Education. Culver City, Calif.: Language Education Fever, Xinjiang Daily Net, July 11, 2006 [阿图什兴起 Associates, 1996.; Kenji Hakuta, and Snow, 学汉语热 ,新疆日报网, 2006-7-11]. Catherine. 1986. "The Role of Research in Policy Decisions about Bilingual Education." NABE News 9, 48 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with no. 3 (Spring): 1, 18-21. Uyghur Teacher, May 23, 2007. 46 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with 49 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with Uyghur Teacher, May 23, 2007. Uyghur Reporter, May 18, 2007.

8 People who believe in a bilingualism that I loved my students. They were young does not conform to the Chinese view of with fresh ideas. Even when I was upset, things are in danger of being thrown into I could go and teach and then one hour prison and labeled separatist, or later I would feel refreshed. I had lots of terrorist.54 students who came from the countryside. Using Uyghur I was able to teach these In 2004, the year in which a particularly kids… But, because of the situation, I harsh “strike hard, extreme pressure” had to give it up and go do a job that I do campaign aimed at repressing “the three not like.50 evils” of “separatism, extremism, and terrorism” resulted in the arrest of hundreds of Uyghurs, the rate at which “bilingual” . “Bilingual” Education in Context education was eliminating Uyghur from East Turkistan’s schools increased dramatically.55 “Bilingual” education in East Turkistan Uyghur religion, a moderate form of has evolved in an increasingly repressive Sunni that is crucial to their ethnic political environment, as one aspect of a identity, has been fiercely suppressed.56 The government driven project to assimilate legal system is used as a tool of repression, Uyghurs by attacking and diluting their with arbitrary detentions and torture culture. It was conceived around the time of commonly used against any Uyghur who the founding of the post-Soviet Central Asian voices discontent with the government.57 states in 1991, a turning point in the PRC’s Charges of “political crimes” and the death view of East Turkistan, when the government penalty have been shown to be began to become obsessed with “security” disproportionately applied to Uyghurs.58 and “stability” in the region.51 Since 1996, Uyghur women suffer from sterilizations and around the time “bilingual” education forced abortions, corvée labor is still used in policies were first being tested on a wide rural areas, and the transfer of Uyghurs, scale, there have been at least nine “anti- especially young women, from East crime” campaigns in the XUAR that have Turkistan to inland China is common.59 targeted the Uyghur population.52 Since While “bilingual” education has been 2001, when “bilingual” education was pushing Uyghur language out of East dramatically expanded, China has used the Turkistan’s schools and human rights abuses “war on terror” to suppress any measure of against Uyghurs have increased, Uyghurs 53 displeasure with the government. One interviewee observed: 54 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with Uyghur Scholar, May 10, 2007. 55 Human Rights Watch and Human Rights in China, op. cit. 50 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with Uyghur Teacher, May 23, 2007. 56 Ibid. 51 Nicolas Becquelin, “Xinjiang in the Nineties”, The 57 Amnesty International, Gross Violations of Human China Journal 44: 2000, 65-90. Rights in the Uighur Autonomous Region, London: Amnesty International, 1999. 52 Human Rights Watch and Human Rights in China, Devastating Blows: Religious Repression of Uighurs 58 Ibid. in Xinjiang, Human Rights Watch, Vol. 17, No. 2, 59 Uyghur Human Rights Project, Uyghurs and April 2005. Human Rights: The 50th Anniversary of the Xinjiang 53 Ibid. Uyghur Autonomous Region, September 29, 2005.

9 have also experienced severe demographic relationship, but a causal one.”64 The 1995 and economic pressures. Han Chinese in- industrial census showed that just 2 of 191 migration, aided by government policies, has managers of large and medium sized been responsible for dramatic changes that businesses in Xinjiang were minorities and threaten Uyghur culture. In 1955, Uyghurs that only around 11 per cent of these made up 74.7 percent of the total population businesses were located in areas with a of East Turkistan and Han Chinese accounted majority of ethnic minorities.65 Civil service for 6.1 percent.60 Today Uyghurs make up hiring has been shown to be biased against 45 percent and Han 41 percent of the Uyghurs, with the majority of opportunities population, a number that excludes PLA reserved for Han Chinese.66 In other soldiers, Chinese security forces, and much employment areas, such as “professional and of the migrant population.61 technical” jobs, minority employment figures As the Han population has increased, have shown only modest increases, despite they have also received a greater share of the East Turkistan’s high rate of economic economic benefits from East Turkistan’s growth.67 For these reasons many of the growth, including economic and employment most vocal opponents of “bilingual” opportunities not available to Uyghurs.62 An education are Uyghurs who are fluent in ethnic Uyghur teacher of Chinese speaking Chinese. Uyghur students remembers:

At job fairs in schools I would go with my VI. Recommendations: Protect and students to look for jobs but the signs will Support Uyghur Language in East say ‘we don’t want minority people’. I Turkistan felt ashamed, humiliated. My students, they study hard, but they still have no I am not against Uyghurs learning opportunities, no jobs. So I felt like I was Chinese. Language is an instrument for teaching a lie.63 life. But giving people a choice and pushing people to learn Chinese is A study of the 2000 census lends support different. Teach Uyghur and teach to the Uyghur claim of economic Chinese.68 discrimination, finding that “there is a very strong correlation between areas of Han majority and high per capita income” and that this finding “is not just a correlative 64 David Bachman, “Making Xinjiang Safe for the Han?: Contradictions and Ironies of Chinese Governance in China’s Northwest,” in Governing 60 Stanely Toops, The Demography of Xinjiang, in China’s Multiethnic Frontiers, ed. Morris Rossabi Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland ed. S. Fredrick (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004). Starr (.. Sharpe: Amrmonk, NY, 2004). 65 Ibid. 61 Ibid. and Department of Population, Social, Science 66 Congressional-Executive Commission on China, and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Xinjiang Government Says Ethnic Han Chinese Will Statistics of China [国家统计局人口和社会科技统计 Get 500 of 700 New Civil Service Appointments, April 司]. 7, 2005. 67 Linda Benson, “Education and Social Mobility,” in 62 See Bruce Gilley, Uighurs Need Not Apply. Far Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland ed. S. Fredrick Eastern Economic Review, August 23, 2001. Starr (M.E. Sharpe: Amrmonk, NY, 2004): 190-215. 63 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with 68 Uyghur Human Rights Project interview with Uyghur Teacher, May 23, 2007. Uyghur Scholar, May 10, 2007.

10 The PRC should immediately end the Many countries have instituted language current policy of eliminating Uyghur policies that accommodate two or more language education from East Turkistan and, languages within one geographic area. at a minimum, return to the policy of Multiple languages are protected under the allowing for both Uyghur and Chinese law and in practice in South Africa, India and language education systems. Bilingual Switzerland, for example. In Quebec, the education will work only if authorities native French-speaking population enjoys support schools in which both Uyghur and special linguistic rights based on their history Chinese are recognized as important regional in the region. languages and serious academic classes are While Uyghur language rights are offered in both languages. protected in PRC law and under its Government support of Uyghur language international agreements, this is not reflected would both improve ethnic relations and in reality. China should address the serious contribute to economic growth in East problems that exist in the implementation of Turkistan. Many observers have noted that its “bilingual” education policy. language issues play a large role in the ethnic tensions of the region.69 A commitment to The Uyghur Human Rights Project Uyghur language on the part of the recommends that the PRC: government would ultimately contribute to the goal of stability by easing an area of • Stop forcing Uyghur children to be serious Uyghur discontent. educated in a second language. A commitment to Uyghur language • Respect its own laws and international would also allow China to take even greater agreements by allowing for the use of advantage of its trade relations with Central and committing to the protection of Asia. Uyghur is very closely related to Uyghur language. Uzbek and mutually intelligible with the • Engage local Uyghur leaders in the other of Central Asia. In formulation of a humane and dignified 2005, trade between East Turkistan and language policy. Central Asia comprised 40 percent of • Support the development of the Uyghur China’s overall trade with the region.70 In language and Uyghur language materials. 2006, this trade amounted to nearly 11 billion • Work to end economic discrimination dollars and is expected to continue to grow based on ethnic identity. substantially in the future.71

69 Joanne . , ‘“Making Culture Matter”: Symbolic, Spatial and Social Boundaries between Uyghurs and Han Chinese’ Asian Ethnicity, Vol 3, No 2, September 2002; Gardner Bovington, "The Not-so- silent Majority: Uyghur Resistance to Han Rule in Xinjiang," Modern China 28.1 (January 2002): 39-78. See also Dwyer, op. cit. and Eric Schluessel, op. cit. 70 “Xinjiang steps up trade ties with central Asian countries.” People’s Daily Online, October 18, 2005. 71 Dr Vladimir Paramonov & Dr Aleksey Strokov, “Economic Involvement of Russia and China in Central Asia”, Conflict Studies Research Centre, Central Asian Series, May 2007.

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