Gender Inequality: the Struggle Female Police Officers Face in the Masculine Culture of Policing

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Gender Inequality: The Struggle Female Police Officers Face in the Masculine Culture of Policing Cassandra Deans The status of women in law enforcement began to transform due to the power of legal injunctions. The federal equal employment legislation, the 1964 Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, the 1978 Pregnancy Discrimination Act, the 1963 Equal Pay Act, the 1978 Justice Systems Improvement Act, and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commissions, have all contributed to the advancement and reform of law enforcement.1 Resultantly, employers have adopted affirmative action policies to create equal employment opportunities for women and minorities in law enforcement. While the number of women employed in the police force is slowly increasing, women are nevertheless under-represented and under-utilized by law enforcement organizations.2 Despite the advancement, policing is arguably one of the most ‘gendered’ occupations in modern societies, with the percentage of sworn female officers far below that of the general labour force.3 Policing is gendered in terms of socially prescribed norms that develop as a result of everyday social interactions. Policing has always been perceived as violent, physically demanding, and dangerous — therefore an occupation reserved for men.4 These cultural expectations and behavioral norms place women entering law enforcement at a considerable disadvantage, making full integration difficult and stressful. However, with the advent of the community-policing era, female officers have been provided the opportunity to employ skills that have not been previously associated with the traditional legalistic era — an era in which the primary function was fighting crime.5 The community-policing era has embraced female officers due to their “feminine” attributes of relationship building, communication, and

1 Jennifer Gossett and Joyce Williams, “Perceived Discrimination Among Women in Law Enforcement,” Women and Criminal Justice 10, no. 1 (1998): 54-56. 2 Melchor Guzman and James Frank, “Policewomen and their Problems: The Philippine Context,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 27, no. 3 (2004): 400. 3 Annie Hau-Nung Chan and Lawrence Ka-ki, “Women Police Officers in Hong Kong: Femininity and Policing in a Gendered Organization,” Journal of Comparative Asian Development 12, no. 3 (2013): 490. 4 Ibid. 5 Jayne Seagrave, Introduction to Policing in Canada (Scarborough: Pearson Education Canada, 1996). 43 problem solving — the very qualities that initially exempted them from patrol work.6 While organizational philosophies and models of policing have undeniably reformed, women in law enforcement are still an under-utilized minority in the police culture. The struggles female officers face in the masculine culture of policing has been exemplified in previous years and to date with continuous resistance from male colleagues, a glass ceiling for promotion, and gender-specific barriers that inhibit female officers’ full integration into police organizations. Police Personality Police work is largely associated with aggressive behaviour, physical strength, and isolation, all of which are associated with the traditional norms of masculinity.7 Being established on the foundations of the military, the profession of policing is masculine by its construction.8 Literature has revealed that the police spend the majority of their time on service and order maintenance issues, yet the public generally considers officers as undertaking the role of crime fighters and law enforcers.9 The militarized role of “crime-fighter” is most prized by the public and by police themselves. Historically, female officers have served outside these prized positions as a result of socially prescribed norms that regard female officers as ill-equipped to perform police duties.10 Male Officer Resistance Women entering the field of law enforcement do so at a disadvantage, not just because of their gender and their perceived biological differences, but also because of the social norms ascribed to them that emerge from everyday interactions. Along with negative attitudes from co-workers, a myriad of other barriers faced daily by women in the police force impede successful integration. Male officers’ resistance to female officers is copiously documented in literature. Research indicates that having women involved in policing adversely

6 Cara Rabe-Hemp, “Survival In An ‘All Boys Club’: Policewomen and Their Fight For Acceptance,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 31, no. 2 (2007): 255. 7 Cara Rabe-Hemp and Dawn Beichner, “An Analysis of Advertisements: A Lens for Viewing the Social Exclusion of Women in Police Imagery,” Women and Criminal Justice 21, no. 1 (2011): 64. 8 Ibid., 64. 9 Seagrave, Introduction to Policing in Canada. 10 Samuel Walker and Charles Katz, The Police in America: An Introduction (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008). 44 impacts the culture and operations.11 The hegemonic masculinity found in police work is slowly becoming a symbol of the past as the humanistic orientations of female officers encourage a new era of policing.12 Women officers disrupt the police personality and culture that has long been established, causing female officers to be met with great resistance. Additionally, research suggests that male officers feel threatened and reduced in status because the work of female officers is comparable to that of their male counterparts.13 In other words, the masculine persona that is associated with policing is tarnished when the primary role of protector is not solely regarded as a “man’s job”. It is interesting to note, then, that women still remain tokenized and maintain a lower occupational status than their male counterparts despite literature indicating the necessity of reforming policy and increasing opportunities for female officers.14 Discrimination Women who have chosen a career in law enforcement have felt the impact of the male-dominated profession.15 Despite laws forbidding discrimination, women working in law enforcement continue to face discrimination and remain a marginalized, unaccepted minority.16 Gender integration has been strongly resisted due to the belief that women are incapable of performing police work.17 The barrier of tradition, and the traditional ‘macho’ image associated with the occupation of policing, is a significant barrier to women.18 Literature suggests that male officers are concerned for their well-being and believe that having a female partner will place them at a disadvantage, especially if a physical confrontation arises.19 Based on the societal presumption of women embodying feminine attributes such as being nurturing, submissive, and physically non-intimidating, male officers

11 Merry Morash and Robinn Haar, “Gender, Workplace Problems, and Stress in Policing,” Justice Quarterly 12, no. 1 (1995). 12 Rabe-Hemp, “Survival In An ‘All Boys Club,’” 253. 13 Guzman and Frank, “Policewomen and their Problems.” 14 Morash and Haar, “Gender, Workplace Problems, and Stress in Policing,” 117. 15 Tracee Davis, “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement and Males Attitudes and Perceptions Towards Women Working in Law Enforcement, (2005): 2. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid., 3. 18 Seagrave, Introduction to Policing in Canada (Scarborough: Pearson Education Canada, 1996). 19 Davis, “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement,” 48. 45 are reluctant to accept women because they question their personal safety.20 The apparent segregation by sex in policing can be linked to occupational norms and the reinforcement of sex-role typecasting.21 This segregation originates at police training academy where emphasis is placed on physical fitness and force, while downplaying the importance of interpersonal skills.22 Failing to adequately implement an essential part of police work into training “robs women of a work- related quality in which they are likely to predominate.”23 Consequently, young female officers enter the police subculture on male terms, with little recognition of the positive assets that they bring into the job.24 This barrier of credibility found in police organizations produces further difficulties for female officers to successfully integrate and establish careers. Also, police academies require male recruits to have a higher plateau of fitness than female recruits, giving male officers another reason to label women as ill-equipped.25 These reasons undermine any confidence male officers may have had in female officers’ capabilities in general, if not lead to further questioning.26 Job Promotions and Advancement In addition to resistance from coworkers, women face a glass ceiling in regards to promotion.27 Literature reveals that women’s ability to advance into the higher ranks of law enforcement is undermined by the lack of sworn female officers.28 Similarly, female officers’ inability to climb the proverbial administrative ladder is directly connected to discrimination and gender bias.29 Within this male dominated profession, opportunities for women have been expanding due to the advent of community policing.30

20 Ibid., 29 21 Simon Holdaway and Sharon Parker, “Policing Women Police: Uniform Patrol, Promotion and Representation in the CID,” British Journal of Criminology 38, no. 1 (1998). 22 Davis, “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement,” 20. 23 Kristen Legger, “Public Perceptions of Female Police Officers on Patrol,” American Journal of Criminal Justice 21, no. 2 (1997): 236. 24 Davis, “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement,” 21. 25 Legger, “Public Perceptions of Female Police Officers on Patrol,” 236. 26 Ibid. 27 Rabe-Hemp, “Survival In An ‘All Boys Club,’” 257. 28 Davis, “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement,” 53. 29 Rabe-Hemp, “Survival In An ‘All Boys Club,’” 252. 30 Rabe-Hemp and Beichner, “An Analysis of Advertisements,” 65. 46 Yet, despite female officers demonstrating their aptitude in performing policing tasks, female officers are still discriminated against and under- utilized, being forced to do “women’s work” — work associated with victim assistance, public relations, and crime prevention duties.31 The reinforcement of sex-role typecasting in the workplace is a significant issue in law enforcement today and is often a barrier to promotion.32 The prejudicial attitude that defines women primarily by their sexual and procreative labour implies that women are merely sexual objects and primarily mothers. This essentialist point of view, that males and females are inherently better suited to specific occupations, is an obstacle female officers repeatedly address. Female officers who participated in Cara Rabe-Hemp’s study described the process of acceptance as one that was negotiated, nurtured, and maintained on a daily basis, rather than achieved. Women were seen taking on varied roles to obtain their desired goals; for many, this meant doing “women’s work” and consequently avoiding promotion opportunities.33 Subsequently, female officers are reinforcing the hegemonic masculinity by adapting to the role of “women’s work,” devaluing community policing as “pansy policing.”34 Female officers who challenge the hyper- masculine roles that are assigned to them risk further isolation and harassment; a commonly cited reason for not attempting to take part in the promotion process.35 Moreover, some contend that female officers are victims of tokenism, leading to entrapment, stereotyping, and social isolation.36 The most significant issue in the lack of promotion for female officers is role entrapment, whereby women are limited to gender-appropriate roles by male officers.37 In addition to sex-role typecasting, a widespread bias in police hiring, selection, and recruitment polices is evident.38 Officer training programs have been criticized for perpetuating discrimination against

31 Vanessa Garcia, “’Difference’ in the Police Department: Women, Policing, and ‘Doing Gender,’” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 19, no.3 (2003): 340. 32 Guzman and Frank, “Policewomen and their Problems,” 398. 33 Rabe-Hemp, “Survival In An ‘All Boys Club,’” 257. 34 Ibid., 253. 35 Ibid., 258. 36 Philip Carlan and Elizabeth McMullan, “A Contemporary Snapshot of Policewomen Attitudes,” Women and Criminal Justice 19, no. 1 (2009): 65. 37 Ibid. 38 Davies, “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement,” 19. 47 female officers.39 Police training is the recruits’ first official encounter with the police agency, and their first step towards socialization. Officer training programs are where recruits are trained in being police officers, learning about shooting, defense strategies, driving, the law, and patrolling.40 In addition to the traditional curriculum, Prokos and Padavic explain that because male bias is so engrained in police culture, police training academies end up having a hidden curriculum/agenda which functions to reinforce the message that women are not welcome. Academy instructors are also mostly sworn male police officers.41 This lack of women in top command, or even supervisory positions, produces obstacles for younger female officers. Without the leadership of a female veteran to teach recruits, they are excluded from informal and formal networks — something that is essential to the culture of policing.42 The lack of female role models further fosters feelings of isolation, a barrier listed in a detailed study about impediments to the success of female officers and their acceptance in the field of policing. Gender-Specific Inequality There is little doubt that women have made considerable progress within policing but male resistance to female inclusion continues to exist. Barriers constructed by male officers continue to contribute to the subordination of female officers. Female officers have stated that after six years in the force, they were still not accepted as an officer, and that the environment was so hostile that it was easier to be around criminals than their male counterparts.43 Evidently, the gender issue of occupational behaviour — a socially prescribed norm that emerges or is enacted during interactions — or ‘appropriate’ behaviour causes many problems for women entering the field of policing. The token status of women in police organizations subject female officers to many obstacles and stresses in their attempt to integrate into a male-dominated profession.44 Acceptance for female officers does not come easily, and women are faced with performance pressures due to being highly visible.45 As a

39 Anastasia Prokos and Irene Padavic, “’There Oughtta Be a Law Against Bitches’: Masculinity Lessons in Police Academy Training,” Gender, Work and Organization 9, no. 4 (2002): 443. 40 Ibid.,444. 41 Ibid. 42 Rabe-Hemp and Beichner, “An Analysis of Advertisements,” 66. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid., 76. 45 Davies, “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement,” 21-22. 48 result of their token status, many female officers have adopted certain behaviours in hopes of assimilating into the police culture. Women are forced to either accept traditional roles of policing, or to break away and make a subculture of their own.46 Women who accept the traditional roles adopt a de-professionalized policewoman style, underscoring the community service era as “pansy policing” and ruling out the likelihood of promotion.47 Those women who attempt to identify with the masculine police culture, and meet the crime-fighting image, are negatively labeled as “butch” or as “dykes,” and are seen as less feminine by other officers.48 Regardless of their choice, they cannot successfully integrate into the culture. In addition, male officers’ resistance to female inclusion is also impacted by perceptions of women being primarily responsible for their families.49 Male officers believe that women are incapable of handling their police responsibilities in addition to managing their assumed personal goals and family obligations.50 Female officers are therefore seen as being less committed to a career in policing due to perceived conflicts between home and work responsibilities.51 Summary Historically, female police officers have experienced a rough time gaining acceptance from their male counterparts. Female intrusion into the ‘brotherhood’ has been resented, with literature revealing that many female officers have undergone personal instances of discrimination and gender bias that greatly inhibit their integration into the police occupation.52 It is also insinuated that police employment and training standards are designed to subjugate female recruits and officers and are seen as the first line of defense to prevent the ‘invasion’ of women.53 The glorification of physical strength and violence is central to the masculine culture of policing, and so, female officers generally fail to meet the masculine, crime-fighting image. In an attempt to integrate with their male counterparts, female officers either (1) maintain their femininity — allow themselves to be limited to gender-

46 Ibid., 13. 47 Rabe-Hemp and Beichner, “An Analysis of Advertisements,” 65. 48 Ibid. 49 Davies, “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement,” 22. 50 John Krimmel and Paula Gormley, “Tokenism and Job Satisfaction for Policewomen,” American Journal of Criminal Justice 28, no. 1 (2003):79. 51 Ibid. 52 Rabe-Hemp, “Survival In An ‘All Boys Club,’” 252 53 Prokos and Padavic, “’There Oughtta Be a Law Against Bitches,’” 443. 49 appropriate roles, and accept the glass ceiling in regards to promotion; or (2) abandon femininity — accept ridicule, and create a subculture of authoritative women with opportunities leading to promotion.54 Of the two options, neither allow for full occupational integration as sexism is deeply rooted in the structure of policing, thus keeping women outside the informal police structure. Law enforcement is still predominantly a man’s world, where value is placed in action over communication, inhibiting female officers as their style is seen to be more in line with community policing.55 Women comprise only a token proportion of officers, with women representing approximately 13% of all sworn personnel.56 As a minority in this male-dominated profession, women are subjected to barriers in their attempt to assimilate. However, with an increase of women in policing, the opportunity to redefine their roles and impact the culture and the way police “do justice” is possible.57 Women must continue to strive towards egalitarianism in the workplace, and by doing so, women will continue to make strides in achieving higher ranks, break down presumptions of incompetence, and ensure better opportunities for future generation of female officers.

54 Krimmel and Gormley, “Tokenism and Job Satisfaction for Policewomen”. 55 Ibid., 78. 56 Ibid., 76. 57 Rabe-Hemp, “Survival In An ‘All Boys Club,’” 266. 50 Bibliography Carlan, Philip and McMullan, Elizabeth. “A Contemporary Snapshot of Policewomen Attitudes,” Women and Criminal Justice 19, no. 1 (2009): 60-79. Hau-Nung Chan, Annie and Ka-ki, Lawrence. “Women Police Officers in Hong Kong: Femininity and Policing in a Gendered Organization,” Journal of Comparative Asian Development 12, no. 3 (2013): 489-515. Davis, Tracee. “Gender Inequality in Law Enforcement and Males Attitudes and Perceptions Towards Women Working in Law Enforcement,” (2005): 1-68. Garcia, Vanessa. “’Difference’ in the Police Department: Women, Policing, and ‘Doing Gender’,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 19, no.3 (2003): 330-344. Gossett, Jennifer and Williams, Joyce. “Perceived Discrimination Among Women in Law Enforcement.” Women and Criminal Justice 10, no. 1 (1998): 53-73. Guzman, Melchor and Frank, James. “Policewomen and their Problems: The Philippine Context.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 27, no. 3 (2004): 396-412. Hau-Nung Chan, Annie and Ka-ki, Lawrence. “Women Police Officers in Hong Kong: Femininity and Policing in a Gendered Organization.” Journal of Comparative Asian Development 12, no. 3 (2013): 489-515. Holdaway, Simon and Parker, Sharon. “Policing Women Police: Uniform Patrol, Promotion and Representation in the CID.” British Journal of Criminology 38, no. 1 (1998): 40-63 Krimmel, John and Gormley, Paula. “Tokenism and Job Satisfaction for Policewomen,” American Journal of Criminal Justice 28, no. 1 (2003) :73-88. Legger, Kristen. “Public Perceptions of Female Police Officers on Patrol,” American Journal of Criminal Justice 21, no. 2 (1997): 231-249. Morash, Merry and Haar, Robinn. “Gender, Workplace Problems, and Stress in Policing,” Justice Quarterly 12, no. 1 (1995): 113-140. Prokos, Anastasia and Padavic, Irene. “’There Oughtta Be a Law Against Bitches’: Masculinity Lessons in Police Academy Training,” Gender, Work and Organization 9, no. 4 (2002): 439-459.

51 Rabe-Hemp, Cara. “Survival In An ‘All Boys Club’: Policewomen and Their Fight For Acceptance.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 31, no. 2 (2007): 251-270. Rabe-Hemp, Cara and Beichner, Dawn. “An Analysis of Advertisements: A Lens for Viewing the Social Exclusion of Women in Police Imagery.” Women and Criminal Justice 21, no. 1 (2011): 63-81 Seagrave, Jane. Introduction to Policing in Canada. Scarborough: Pearson Education Canada, 1997. Walker, Samuel and Katz, Charles. The Police in America: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008.