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Home , Decolonization, Second World

74 When Global Governance Wins: The Role of the in By: Anna Lovelace

Abstract: oppressed by exploitative colonizers. The United Nations began playing a he field of history is often criticized crucial role in the implementation of for not developing enough policy decolonization. I utilize three case studies implicationsT to be set forth and govern to prove the importance of the role of the future. I too once felt this way. the United Nations: , the Congo, However, upon exploring the complexities and the Portuguese . Through of the history of decolonization, I quickly my examination of their respective realized that history is filled with political decolonization processes, I highlight the implications. The policy we implement role which the United Nations played in now derives from past experience. each instance and the effects that such Without history, we would have no a role had on the former . My direction forward. My of findings underscore the fact that, though the history of decolonization led me the United Nations is not without to a very interesting crossroad. I began flaws, ultimately its involvement proved closely examining the relationship that beneficial and furthered its growth as global governance had in regards to an intergovernmental organization. The the establishment and dismantling of implication of these findings was the colonial states. Upon further research, I demonstration that, though the United concluded that following the atrocities Nations will make mistakes, its existence and destruction of the represents years of relentless work towards War, the international community was in a brighter future. great need of an overarching governance architecture, a system which would play a pivotal role in the coming Cold Background: War. Upon the inception of the United Nations, a new world order came to be he year 1945 witnessed two definitive and was forever moments in modern history. After changed. This new global governance, decadesT of turmoil and six long years of though still soft in power, began to war, World War II came to an end. Shortly aid nations which had been historically after, on October 24, the United Nations 75

emerged from the ashes of destruction. desperately for survival, as was Great This organization, born from the ideals Britain”(Mcwilliams, 111). In Asia, the of ’s , colonial powers were unable to defend established the framework for modern their colonies once established and the principles of its own colonial compass. Though the self-determination. The principle of self- Japanese did exercise their own form determination, the concept that a country of colonial control over the former can determine its own statehood and form European colonies, they ultimately its own , as an international fueled the nationalist movements in norm established by the United Nations , This shift of echoed across the world in demonstrated to the colonies that movements of colonials. Nationalism, power was not a permanent and marked by strong advocacy for political that, with the strength of educated and , was a powerful force worldly leaders such as ’s Ho which fueled the Allied forces during Chi Minh, independence was a reality the war and had been building since the that was within reach and worth being War and the interwar years. fought for (Dukier, 1890). In , In the wake of World War II a wave of however, the rise to nationalism was a nationalism swept across Asia and Africa, slower process. The main obstacle that empowering historically oppressed people African independence movements faced to seek independence from their colonial was the ethnic divides between peoples masters. With the intent of promoting of one colonial state. “The inhabitants international cooperation, the United of any given colony were not all of the Nations played a pivotal and constructive same , and in some cases role in decolonization. Despite the one ethnic group was spread over more challenges that it faces, fifty years after than one colony”(Mcwilliams, 128). its inception it continues to advocate the The growth of national consciousness ideals of self-determination and global in Africa required a sense of political community. unity to develop. Detachment between The decolonization process is directly various ethnic groups resulted in a slower interrelated with the impact of WWII and more difficult movement towards on the international political system. independence, often causing violence and The outbreak of the Second World War civil warfare to breakout amongst newly greatly undermined the colonial system independent states. Nevertheless, the by upsetting the balance of power that United Nations could not ignore these the imperial powers had enjoyed for so nationalist movements and therefore, long. “During the war, several of the through the establishment of the UN imperial powers of were either Charter, officially began its efforts to overrun by , as were aid in the transitioning of these former and the , or were fighting colonies. 76

intensified, the United Nations established The United Nations and the Declaration for the Granting of International Law: Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples and the Special Committee To better gauge the importance on Decolonization (Committee of 24) of the United Nations and its role in (Ulam, 405). Because decolonization is decolonization, we must first establish an based upon and motivated by the concept understanding of international law. The of the right to self-determination, the philosophical origins of international law United Nations innately plays an essential date as far as the 16th century. However, role in the promotion of these movements modern international law bases itself and the promotion of an international upon the idea of normative international system based on cooperation rather than standards that are, in their nature, non- exploitation. binding, having no true legal force. This The United Nations was created in idea of non-binding norms is derived 1945 under four foundational purposes from the concept of state , established in the UN Charter, Chapter establishing that there can be no power I, Article 1. The purpose read as follows: higher than the state (Crawford, 62). 1. To maintain international peace Though sovereignty is fundamental in and security, and to that end: to take the realm of international relations and effective collective measures for the can be a constructive standard, it often prevention and removal of threats to the times creates daunting challenges for peace, and for the suppression of acts of international cooperation. The United aggression or other breaches of the peace, Nations, as an international organization and to bring about by peaceful means, established to create international law, and in conformity with the principles of faces the challenge of lacking enforcement justice and international law, adjustment mechanisms because of this norm of or settlement of international disputes or state sovereignty. Its establishment was situations which might lead to a breach a powerful step towards enhancing the of the peace; framework for the practice of stable and organized international relations, 2. To develop friendly relations among the primary goal of international law nations based on respect for the principle (Slomanson, 4-5). With the understanding of equal rights and self-determination of of these cooperation challenges in peoples, and to take other appropriate mind, we can better analyze the role measures to strengthen universal peace; that the United Nations has played in decolonization and the promotion of 3. To achieve international co- international peace and security. In 1960, operation in solving international as the was underway and the problems of an economic, social, global struggle for power and influence cultural, or humanitarian character, and 77

in promoting and encouraging respect in an environment where the balance of for and for fundamental power had just been upset by World War freedoms for all without distinction as to II and the two emerging superpowers were race, sex, language, or religion; and about to enter into the most definitive and polarized period of the , 4. To be a centre for harmonizing the the Cold War. actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends. (United Nations Case Studies: Charter) The role of the United Nations in Though the Declaration for the Granting the early, and decisive, decolonization of Independence to Colonial Countries phase can be better understood through and Peoples was not established until specific instances of action and the 1960, the language in the first article of implementation of UN decolonization the UN Charter established a precedence resolutions, and I focus on three cases of for the promotion of self-determination such process. The first is the case of Great for all peoples without discrimination. The Britain granting India and their UN was established as a reaction to the independence. The resistance to British atrocities committed during WWII and began far earlier than most to create a preemptive and preventative other nationalist independent movements, body to avoid another such global in the 19th century. The decolonization conflict. Inherent in that preemption is of India and Pakistan demonstrated the abolition of colonialism, a disruptive, to other colonial nations seeking exploitative system that degraded the independence the power of peaceful value of the individual and created a resistance. The UN played a pivotal role sense of discrimination and mistrust in the diplomatic and military attempts throughout the international community. to pacify the tension between Indian and The UN Charter Chapter XII established Pakistan over the disputed territories the International Trusteeship System “for between the two newly sovereign states. the supervision of Trust Territories placed The involvement of the UN in this task under it by individual agreements with force created the precedence for future the States administering them” (United peace-keeping missions. Secondly we Nations Charter). The Trusteeship examine the case of the , a Council was to oversee the transition of region with an incredibly violent colonial Trust Territories, which were non self- history. The case of the Belgian Congo, governed territories that had been placed now known as the Democratic under the supervision of the Council for of Congo, demonstrated the potential a variety of reasons. The task that the the UN military forces had in stabilizing United Nations had just delegated itself a transitioning colony. However, the was daunting – aiding the transition of case became controversial in nature former colonies to self-governing states 78

considering the events that followed activities and peacekeeping operations in UN involvement in the former colony, the hopes of gaining greater international exhibiting the dangers of enforcing power through diplomacy. However, international law and resulting in the newly independent India quickly found need to reduce UN military capabilities. itself facing a global atmosphere of Great The third and final case we analyze is Power , an arena in which Nehru that of the Portuguese colonies. This did not want to align himself to either case is also notable in that was ideological camp. The role of the UN in historically reluctant to relinquish control the decolonization process of India was over its colonies. Because Portugal did complex in that it demonstrated to the not recognize the legitimacy of the UN’s newly sovereign territory that, in order Decolonization Committee, the UN, to succeed in world politics and the in turn, decided to aid decolonization post-war era, it needed to align itself through supporting the national with the Great Powers and acquiesce, in liberation movements within the colonies some regards, to the agenda of the five themselves rather than attempting to permanent members of the UN Security gain recognition. Council. With this understanding in mind, Nehru blundered twice in securing India: India a seat on the P-5. These blunders, India’s relationship with the United however, where not from poor political Nations represents the dichotomy leadership, but from refusing to give in to of international law and the struggle the alignment climate of the Cold War era. between bilateral cooperation versus India, with its history of passive resistance, Great Power politics. As one of the first represents the dichotomy between hard non-sovereign territories to be a founding power and soft power, never wishing to member of the UN in 1945, “India brought take part in power politics and hoping to the UN its ideals of anti-colonialism, to pursue bilateral cooperation (such as opposition to racial discrimination and in the case of the disputed territory of non-alignment in the nascent Cold War, Kashmir), but ultimately being beaten and tried to obtain a leadership position back by the world’s thickest governance within the organization by appealing architecture. The relationship between the to the universal morals enshrined in United Nations and India demonstrates the UN Charter” (Chaulia, 278). After both the checks that international law stripping itself of “the Crown Jewel of and global governance have on non- the British ” title and gaining compliant nations but also the challenges its independence in 1947, India placed they create for international cooperation. itself on the international stage as a proponent for soft international power The Congo: and diplomacy. Its first Prime Minister, The case of the independence , immersed India in UN movement in the Congo represented the 79

vulnerability of newly sovereign territories Union for assistance (https://history. in the Cold War era in relation to receiving state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/congo- UN recognition and finding a place in decolonization). Fearful of increasing the bipolar post-war atmosphere. Once Soviet influence in the Congo, western ratified article 73 of the UN powers aided Kasavubu and Colonel Charter, which, in particular, established Joseph Mobutu in the overthrowing the need “to develop self-government, and ultimate assassination of Lumumba. to take due account of the political The Congo ultimately landed in the aspirations of the peoples, and to assist hands of Joseph Mobutu, who practically them in the progressive development of reverted to colonial rule (Mcwilliams, their free political institutions, according 143). The crisis of the Congo could to the particular circumstances of each have been greatly alleviated had the UN territory and its peoples and their not been so polarized and been able to varying stages of advancement”, the make a decisive move in preventing the UN began to put on Belgium widespread violence and mutiny which to radically modify its colonial policies Lumumba faced. The event that followed in the Congo (Charter of the United the Congo’s independence demonstrated Nations). Ultimately, the movement for to the international community and to independence came from within the the decolonizing states that, despite the Congo. The Congo became independent established norm of self-determination, in June of 1960, followed by the election success in the world they were entertaining of as Prime Minister was now defined by Great Power politics and Joseph Kasavubu as Head of State. and bipolar ideological alignments and, The events that followed resulted in in this instance, the UN had failed to political struggle, a tragic war, and “foreign exercise global governance free of these intervention [that] could only contribute ideologies. to what became an extraordinarily violent war that lasted over two years and left Portuguese Colonies: tens of thousands dead”(Mcwilliams, Portugal presents an interesting case 142). The state of Congo fell into mutiny in its refusal not only to decolonize but following the declaration of to recognize it had colonies all together. by the western region of Katanga. Under the fascist dictatorship of Antonio Lumumba, in the face of chaos, requested Salazar, independence was out of aid from the UN Security Council. the question. These non-self-governing However, due to the polarization of territories were considered “overseas the UNSC during the Cold War, the provinces” (Schmidt, 79). Because of member states proved unable to come to Portugal’s refusal to recognize its a consensus and impotent in providing colonies as non-self-governing territories, assistance to a desperate Lumumba, the Special Committee charged with who ultimately turned to the Soviet settling a definition of these territories 80

created Resolution 1542, in which “all Committee’s discussions and gain further Portuguese colonies were qualified as international recognition (General non-self-governing territories” granting Assembly of the United Nations). The the UN legal capacity to study them Decolonization Committee’s involvement as non-self-governing territories (Santo, in the liberation of the Portuguese 250). Once the UN had established a colonies was considerably difficult because definition for these colonies as non-self- of Portugal’s total refusal to comply with governing territories, they were able to the norm of self-determination and to provide aid to various national liberation recognize the Committee’s legitimacy. movements within the colonies of This lack of cooperation, however, did and . This aid, however, not deter the Committee from pursing did not come easily. Because of the the liberation of the Portuguese colonies polarization of the UN Security Council and, in 1975, the colonies finally attained at the time, passing resolutions to fund independence. The case of Portugal and aid to these liberation movements proved its colonies demonstrated to an incredibly difficult. NATO (the North Atlantic polarized international community that, Treaty Organization), provided “hundreds as an international organization, the UN of millions of dollars in military and can create change even in the face non- economic aid that enabled Portugal to compliance. finance three simultaneous wars and bolster its failing economy” (Schmidt, Conclusion: 81). In opposition to NATO’s support were primarily the Nordic countries, The topic of the United Nation’s such as , Sweden, and Norway, involvement in decolonization is and the , which “urged incredibly broad and multifaceted. As an the adoption of a strong support to the organization, the UN faced, and continues national liberation movements” (Santo, to face, incredible challenges in engaging 254). The opposition that the UNSC nations in international cooperation and the UN Decolonization Committee towards a brighter future. However, the faced in legitimizing the various national obstacles are not insurmountable. The liberation movements were overcome in cases I have examined are examples the early seventies with the withdrawal of the power of the United Nations. of , the US, and UK from the International cooperation is not Committee in 1971 and greater global impossible, the international community recognition of the liberation movements just needs to make room for global from organizations like the Organization governance to establish a framework that of African Unity. In September of that nations should abide by. Though some fear same year, the Committee granted the that global governance detracts from state colonies “observer status” which enabled sovereignty, sacrifice is always necessary them to more actively participate in the for the sake of change. Decolonization, 81

as paralleled with the Cold War, demonstrated to the global community the importance of harboring respect, not just for state autonomy, but for an individual’s right to self-determination. The UN’s efforts in aiding the transition from non-self-governing territories to fully autonomous nation-states were constructive and further promoted the idea of global equality and international relations. In the face of the Cold War, the UN continuously attempted, and, for the most part, succeeded in overcoming the East-West dichotomy and harboring a sense of global community. Though the zenith of decolonization is behind us, its legacy still defines international relations and, in the post-Cold War era, we look to References a future of better foreign policy practices Adam B. Ulam, The Rivals: America and and greater respect for the wellbeing since World War II. New York: The Viking of the individual, the state, and global Press, 1971, pp. 405. community at both the societal and Chaulia, Sreeran “India and the United Nations” political levels. pp.278. http://www.sreeramchaulia.net/ publications/Chapter25.pdf

Crawford, James R, The Creation of States in International Law (, 2006), 62.

Duiker, William J. (New York: Hyperion, 2000), 1890.

Mcwilliams, Wayne C. and Harry Piotrwoski, The World Since 1945: a History of International Relations (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2009), 128,142-143. https:// history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/ congo-decolonization

Santo, Aurora Almada E The Role of the Decolonization Committee of the United Nations Organization in the Struggle Agaisnt Portuguese Colonialism in Africa: 1961-1974 (New University of , Portugal: January 2012), 250. 82 Schmidt, Elizabeth Foreign Intervention in Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 79.

Slomanson, William (2011). Fundamental Perspectives on International Law. Boston, USA: Wadsworth. pp. 4–5.

United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, http://www. un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter1. shtml [3 December, 2014]

Anna Lovelace is currently a third year Political Science major with a double minor in Literature and Spanish. As such, she has learned a great deal in her three years at UC Merced about the intricate nature and interconnectedness of our world. She currently holds a position as a Senator At-Large for ASUCM, Internal Vice President of the Young Democrats Club, and Director of Rituals for Delta Gamma Women’s Fraternity. She aspires to attend law school to pursue a joint degree in Law and International Relations in order to work with an organization such as the the American Civil Liberties Union and eventually return to academia as a professor. She highly values the numerous opportunities UC Merced has offered her and the professors who have motivated and inspired her to follow her passions, challenge herself, and cultivate her awareness of global citizenship