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A History of Chemistry a History of Chemistry A HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY A HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY BY J. R. PARTINGTON M.B.E., D.Sc. £M&aiTUI PllOP!UOil OP CH!IRIT'aY IN THE UNIV!Illl'rv OP LONDON P2U.OW OP QUliN KAilY COLL!.O!., LONDON VOLUME THREE LONDON MACMILLAN & CO LTD NEW YORK • STMARTIN'S PRESS xg6.z ISBN 978-1-349-00311-2 ISBN 978-1-349-00309-9 (eBook) DOl 10.1007/978-1-349-00309-9 Copyright© J. R. Partington 1962 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1962 978-0-333-04647-0 MACMILLAN AND COMPANY LIMITED StMartin's Street London WC2 also Bombay Calcutta Madras Melbourne THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA LIMITED Toronto ST MARTIN'S PRESS INC Nerv York PREFACE THE present volume deals with topics detailed in the table of Contents. The chapters on earlier French chemistry point out the influence of Paracelsus and a little later that of Boyle. The phlogiston theory was not first introduced by Macquer, and normal, acid, and basic salts were recognised before Rouelle; an attempt is made to separate the contributions of the two Rouelles. The chapters on chemistry in Scandinavia include material not easily accessible elsewhere; it is pointed out that Bergman gave a little-known summary of Scheele's work in 1775, when Priestley's discovery of oxygen and Lavoisier's claim to such discovery were published. The discovery of oxygen is taken to mean the isolation of the pure gas, and a statement of such properties as distinguish it from other gases, as happened with Priestley in 1774. Although he says he did not appreciate its 'true nature' until 1775, this meant his 'discovery' then that it was a compound of nitric acid and earth. Whether Priestley was sure his original mercuric oxide was made per se or not has little significance; he also used red-lead and thought it had absorbed nitric acid from the atmosphere in the preparation. If the recognition of the true nature of a substance constitutes its discovery, then Dalton, and not the Dutch chemists, discovered ethylene, and Chevreul or Berthelot, and not Scheele, discovered glycerol. A little-known remark of Priestley in 1774 that he had found no change in weight on heating tin in a closed vessel is quoted. Priestley was a likeable man and a clever experimenter, but his obstinate retention of theoretical (and some experimental) errors retarded the progress of chemistry. The account of his incorrect but influential views is dreary but necessary. It is once again pointed out that Cavendish, before Priestley, first collected a gas over mercury. The discussion of the claims made for Caven­ dish, Watt, and Lavoisier for the determination of the composition of water is tedious, but this could hardly have been avoided. Lavoisier has mostly been allowed to speak for himself, attention being directed to the studied ambiguity of some of his statements which has misled so many who have read them. Otherwise, Meldrum, Speter, and Guerlac, all very well-informed, have been followed in matters of fact. Lavoisier's theory of combustion, which had to provide an alternative to the theory of phlogiston, combined his chemical views (not always correct) with his false theory of caloric, and differs from that popularly presented. Lavoisier's caloric theory is given in detail, because (as Hartog almost alone of recent writers on Lavoisier pointed out) it is an integral part of his new theory. His Reflexions on Phlogiston, supposed to have demolished the phlogiston theory, did nothing of the kind; the theory flourished for some time afterwards, as is shown ina separate chapter. VI PREFACE Writing on German chemistry is difficult, since many important German books are lacking in English libraries (the same is true of English books in Germany). Since all Richter's writings are exceedingly scarce, a fairly com­ prehensive account of his work is given, and the attribution of his achieve­ ments to Wenzel may in time die out. Bryan and William Higgins are treated on the basis of their own writings, the claims of the first in relation to the second being pointed out. The claims of William Higgins have been intemperately asserted, mostly in ignorance of the prior contributions of Bryan. William Higgins has been given credit for all that he is entitled to claim. The chapter on Dalton may correct some perennial errors, e.g. that he was an inaccurate worker, and did nothing after his proposal of the atomic theory. His early work on the physical properties of gases was recognised by his election to the Paris Institut, and if he had done nothing else it would give him a claim to be an outstanding figure of his times. His later work on the combustion of hydrocarbons is important. His explanation of the constancy of composition of the atmosphere, and of the aurora borealis, were both pro­ posed by others (the second by Faraday) who were unaware of Dalton's publications. This volume covers a period of exceptional interest both to chemists and to historians mainly concerned with other aspects of the times. The latter now have available a study taking account of recent research in the field. CAMBRIDGE, October r96r CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI ABBREVIATIONS IN REFERENCES X111 LIST OF AUTHORS XV LIST OF PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS XIX I. CHEMISTRY IN FRANCE. I. 16oo TO 1700 1 Chemistry in Medicine - Beguin - Davisson - Basso - De Clave- Sauvageon- De Rochas- Arnaud - J. B. Duhamel - Mariotte - Duclos - C. Bourdelin - Barlet - Blaise de Vigenere - Le Fevre - Glaser - De Locques - Thibaut - Charas- La Faveur- Tresfel- N. Lemery- L. Lemery - Homberg - Seignette. II. CHEMISTRY IN FRANCE. II. 1700 TO 1750 49 G. F. Boulduc- E. F. Geoffroy- Tables of Affinity- C. J. Geoffroy- N. Geoffroy - Astruc - The Phlogiston Theory in France - Fizes - Du Petit - Reaumur - De Gensanne - Gobet - Du Fay - L. C. Bourdelin - Hellot - Duhamel du Monceau- Baron- Malouin -G. F. Rouelle -H. M. Rouelle - Venel. III. CHEMISTRY IN FRANCE. III. 1750 TO 1800 So Macquer- Baume- Lassone- Chaussier- Cadet-Gassi­ court- Quatremere-Disjonval- Sage- Navier- Brisson­ Demachy-Cornette-Opoix-Duhamel-Jars-Monnet­ Clouet- Bucquet- D'Arcet- Collet-Descotils- Sigaud de Ia Fond - Seguin - Adet - Hassenfratz - Lagrange. IV. HALES AND BLACK Clayton - Hauksbee - Moitrel d'Element - Hales - Brown­ rigg - Saluzzo - Plummer - Cullen - Black - Experiments on Magnesia and Alkalis- Macbride- J, F. Meyer- Jacquin - Wiegleb- Cranz- Smeth- De Machy- Due de Chaulnes - Weber - Black's Researches on Heat - Crawford - De Ia Rive. V. CHEMISTRY IN ScANDINAVIA. I. BoRRICHIUS To BERGMAN 159 Borrichius - Hjiirne - Swedenborg - Brandt - Wallerius - Swab - Cronstedt - Scheffer - Faggot. Funck - Browall. Bergius - Rinman - Engestrom - Gadd - Bergman Retzius - Afzelius - Gahn - Lomonosov (Russia). VI. CHEMISTRY IN ScANDINAVIA. II. ScHEELE 205 Scheele - Manganese, Baryta, Chlorine - Silicon fluoride. Hydrofluoric acid- Phosphorus- Molybdenum- Graphite­ Tungsten - Arsenic - Soda from Salt - The Discovery of Oxygen - Miscellaneous Observations - Organic Compounds - Gadolin - Hjelm - Ekeberg. Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE VII. PRIESTLEY 237 Priestley -The Discovery of Oxygen - Nitrogen - Rutherford -Priestley on Soluble Gases- The Nature of Phlogiston­ Discovery of Carbon Monoxide - Photosynthesis - lngen Housz - Senebier - De Saussure - Priestley on Respiration - Experiments on Oxides of Nitrogen - Miscellaneous Observa­ tions - Priestley's Observations on Physics - Wedgwood - Keir - Darwin - Withering - Cavallo - Woulfe. VIII. CAVENDISH 302 Cavendish - Electrical Researches - Dynamics, etc. - Experi­ ments on Heat - Chemical Work - Experiments on Gases - Water Analysis - Equivalents - Eudiometry - The Composi­ tion of Water- Cavendish's Synthesis of Water- The Com­ position of Nitric Acid- Milner- The Water Controversy­ Watt - De Luc. IX. LAVOISIER Lavoisier - Publications - Law of Conservation of Matter - Gypsum- Conversion of Water into Earth- Mineral Waters­ Destruction of Diamond by Fire - Early Experiments on Com­ bustion - Opuscules Physiques et Chimiques - Bayen - Lavoisier's Experiments on Calcination - The Rediscovery of Oxygen - The Composition of Nitric Acid - Combustion and Respiration- Memoirs published in 1784. I- Memoirs pub­ lished in 1784. II- The Synthesis of Water- Monge- The Dutch Chemists - Lavoisier's Memoirs published in 1785 - Memoirs published in 1786- Saltpetre- Organic Chemistry­ Organic Analysis- Respiration- Fermentation- The Nomen­ clature Chimique - The Traite Etementaire de Chimie - The Reception of the Antiphlogistic Theory - De Ia Metherie. X. BERTHOLLET AND GuYTON DE MoRVEAU Berthollet - Guyton de Morveau. XI. FouRCROY. VAUQUELIN. CHAPTAL 535 Fourcroy- Vauquelin- Chaptal- Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid - The Leblanc Process - Gengembre - Pelletier. XII. CHEMISTRY IN GERMANY Wiegleb - Westfeld - Westrumb - Suckow- Weber­ Wasserberg- Model- Gren- Hermbstadt- J. C. F. Meyer - W. H. S. Bucholz -C. F. Bucholz- Schiller- The Dutch Chemists - Lowitz - Hahnemann - Trommsdorff - Gir­ tanner- Scopoli - Erxleben - Achard -Weigel-Gottling­ Lampadius - Gehlen - A. N. Scherer - Crell - Winter! - Dollfuss - John - Karsten - Goethe. XIII. THE LATER PHLOGISTON THEORY 6os The Weight of Heat- Beraut- Vogel-Weigel- The Weight of Phlogiston - Chardenon - Guyton de Morveau - The Negative Weight of Phlogiston- Phlogiston and Light- Leon­ hardi - Hermbstadt - Gren - Crawford - Cleghorn - Lubbock - Gadolin - Hopson - Richter - Gottling- Gren's Third Phlogiston Theory - The Last Stand of Phlogiston - Hildebrandt. CONTENTS IX CHAPTER XIV. FouNDATIONS oF STOICHIOMETRY Proust - The Law of Constant Proportions - Klaproth
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