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Building a Conservation Strategy for the Harpy Eagle in the Amazon Forest

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Building a Conservation Strategy for the Harpy Eagle in the Amazon Forest Building a conservation strategy for the harpy eagle in the Amazon Forest Everton B. P. de Miranda Submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Discipline of Ecological Sciences School of Life Sciences College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science University of KwaZulu-Natal Pietermaritzburg Campus 2020 ABSTRACT Apex predators are threatened worldwide and are considered a priority in the conservation biology agenda. Their decline is associated with habitat loss and degradation, and persecution arising from perceived and actual conflict with humans. The trophic cascades emerging from the loss of apex predators can disrupt the regulation of prey populations, seed dispersal, tree composition and nutrient cycles derived from carcass deposition, with widespread consequences for biodiversity. The harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) is the Earth's largest eagle and is considered a flagship species for Amazon Forest conservation. Harpy eagles are threatened by poaching and by loss and degradation of habitat. This thesis is comprised of nine chapters—being seven of them data chapters—related to harpy eagle biology and conservation. Chapters 1 and 9 are respectively an introduction and a synthesis about the subjects I approached. In Chapter 2, I created a predictive model of the species range aimed at understanding the current distribution, the contraction of the species distribution compared with the original range, and sites that currently have notable potential for reintroduction of harpy eagles. In Chapter 3, I analyse the effects of environmental parameters such as moonlight and temperature on prey selection probability. In Chapter 4, I aimed to establish the factors that drive the killing of harpy eagles by local people, including the relation between livestock predation and harpy killing. Chapter 5, I explore the nesting, timing and rates of visitation to nests by parent and fledged eagles as it relates to the viability of harpy nests as ecotourism attractions. In Chapter 6, I conducted a meta-analysis that synthesises data on nest tree selection by harpy eagles with the tree species preferences by loggers. In Chapter 7, I test the hypothesis that harpy eagles are agents of accumulation of nutrients, by concentrating decaying remains of prey items at nest sites over decades, thereby biomagnifying soil and foliage nutrient profiles. In Chapter 8, I describe rates of prey delivery by harpy eagles to their nests, and the composition of this prey, to understand the effects of forest loss on harpy eagle feeding ecology. This multi-faceted set of topics were combined in the field with a new, responsible ecotourism strategy focused on harpy eagles. Subsequently, I hope to build an evidence-based, i economically-viable conservation strategy for the largest eagle on Earth, as well as to understand their keystone function of harpy eagles in Neotropical forest ecosystems. Keywords: Amazon canopy; apex predator; ecotourism; habitat loss; Harpia harpyja; livestock predation; nutrient cycling; top predator. ii COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE DECLARATION 2 - PUBLICATIONS DETAILS OF CONTRIBUTION TO PUBLICATIONS that form part and/or include research presented in this thesis. Publication 1 EBP Miranda, JFS Menezes, CCL Farias, CA Munn & CA Peres Species distribution modeling reveals strongholds and potential reintroduction areas for the world’s largest eagle Author contributions: EBPM conceived the paper, performed data curation, investigation, funding acquisition and wrote the original draft. JFSM performed formal analyses, defined methodology and produced data visualisation. CCLF collected and curated data and reviewed the final draft. CAM performed funding acquisition, reviewed and edited the final draft. CAP contributed valuable comments to the manuscript, reviewed and edited the final draft. Publication 2 EBP Miranda, CF Kenup, E Campbell-Thompson, FH Vargas, A Muela, R Watson, CA Peres & CT Downs High moon brightness and low ambient temperatures affect sloth predation by harpy eagles Author contributions: EBPM conceived and designed the experiments, analysed the data and authored the draft of the paper. CFK analysed the data, prepared figures, reviewed drafts of the paper. ECT and AM performed the experiments and reviewed drafts of the paper. FHV and RW reviewed drafts of the paper, performed project administration and fundraised. CAP and CTD contributed valuable comments on the manuscript, reviewed drafts of the paper, and approved the final draft. Publication 3 EBP Miranda, CA Peres & CT Downs Landowners perceptions of livestock predation: implications for persecution of a keystone apex predator Author contributions: v EBPM conceived, designed and performed the sampling, analysed the data, produced the figures, performed project administration, fundraised and authored the first draft of the paper. CAP and CTD contributed valuable comments on the manuscript, reviewed drafts of the paper, and approved the final draft. Publication 4 EBP Miranda, CF Kenup, CA Munn, N Huizinga, N Lormand & CT Downs Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja nest activity patterns: Potential ecotourism and conservation opportunities in the Amazon Forest Author contributions: EBPM formulated research ideas, goals and aims, management activities to collect, curate and store research data, performed project administration, fundraised, and wrote the first draft. CFK performed the analyses, produced the figures and developed the methodology. NH and NL conducted data collection, storing and curation, and reviewed the final draft. CAM performed the fundraising and reviewed the drafts. CTD provided useful comments on the original draft, its critical review and approval. Publication 5 EBP Miranda, CA Peres, MÂ Marini & CT Downs Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) nest tree selection: Logging in Amazonian Forests threatens Earth’s largest eagle Author contributions: EBPM formulated research ideas and aims, performed the analyses, management activities to curate and store research data and wrote the first draft. CAP produced the figures, commented and reviewed the drafts. CTD and MÂM provided useful comments on the original draft, its critical review and approval. Publication 6 EBP Miranda, CA Peres, V Carvalho-Rocha, BV Miguel, N Lormand, N Huizinga, CA Munn, TBF Semedo, TV Ferreira, JB Pinho, VQ Piacentini, MÂ Marini & CT Downs vi Tropical deforestation induces thresholds of reproductive viability and habitat suitability in Earth’s largest eagles Author contributions: EBPM formulated research ideas, goals and aims, performed the analyses, management activities to collect, curate and store research data, raised funds and wrote the first draft. VCR produced the maps and GIS analyses, and reviewed the drafts. BVM, NL and NH curated and stored data, and reviewed the first draft. CAM performed fundraising and the critical review of the first draft. TBFS, TVF, JBP, VQP identified prey species and performed the review of the first draft. CAP, MÂM and CTD provided useful comments on the original draft, its critical review and approval. Publication 7 EBP Miranda, CA Peres, LG Oliveira-Santos, CT Downs Long-term concentration of tropical forest nutrient hotspots is generated by a central-place apex predator Author contributions: EBPM formulated research ideas, goals and aims, produced the figures, project management, management activities to collect, curate and store research data, raised funds and wrote the first draft. LGOS performed the analyses, produced the figures and critical review of the final draft. CAP developed the methodology, sampling design, critical review and approval of the final draft. CTD provided useful comments on the original draft, its critical review and approval. Signed: ………………………………………………… Everton Bernardo Pereira de Miranda October 2020 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Four years ago, when I submitted the first funding proposal to a grant program, one of the referees said that my ideas were not viable, because he had worked in the Amazon Forest for more than 30 years but only saw 2-3 harpy eagle nests. Consequently, my proposal was rejected. The present thesis tells how the lives of a giant eagle, a settler and his gang of Brazil- nut collectors, a tourism entrepreneur, and several cattle ranchers intertwined with my life in tales of violence, desolation, beauty and redemption. Our aim was to build a conservation strategy for harpy eagles while simultaneously disproving this referee—and many other sceptics. Moving to Mato Grosso tore me from my beloved family and friends, which are mostly based in Rio de Janeiro. Despite being far from them, I was never alone. Rather, they have been with me every time I hum to myself the verses of Bethânia: “Não mexe comigo, que eu não ando só”. Being distant from you robbed my peace of mind, but thinking of you helped me summon the strength to soldier on when my despair about deforestation threatened to dominate my days. Therefore, I would like to thank my dear Jessica Martins, for patiently waiting for me on countless occasions—I am always late—with eyes full of equal measures of anger and forgiveness. Jessica is still trying to wheedle a harpy eagle feather out of me, as it would be a precious addition to her feather collection, but it continues to be a scientific sample for me. This feather continues to evade a Solomonic solution. I thank Carol Starling and Lara Renzeti for the companionship and never-ending talks about nature, Caio Kenup, ‘O Poderoso’ Jorge Menezes, and Pedro
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