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The Influence of Gender and Culture on First and Second Language Writing of Chinese and Japanese-speaking University Students by Jing Fu A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto © Copyright by Jing Fu 2011 The Influence of Gender and Culture on First and Second Language Writing of Chinese and Japanese-speaking University Students Doctor of Philosophy, 2011 Jing Fu Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning University of Toronto Abstract This study investigated the influence of gender and culture on 23 university students’ first language (L1) and second language writing (L2). Specifically, the study investigated the extent to which gender differences would emerge in students’ L1 and L2 writing and whether any such differences would manifest themselves differentially in L1 as opposed to L2 writing. Students represented three national groups (8 Japanese students, 7 Chinese students, and 8 Taiwanese students). The Japanese and Chinese groups received their schooling in their home countries and came to Canada for purposes of university studies. However, the Taiwanese group came to Canada during their schooling years and consequently their English academic skills were better developed than their Chinese skills. L1 and L2 writing was sampled with four different writing tasks and analyzed for patterns of lexical and rhetorical usage. Stimulated-recall interviews were conducted with each student after they had completed the four writing tasks. The goal of the interviews was to identify the metacognitive strategies the students utilized in their ii L1 and L2 writing. Issues related to how students’ identities intersected with their L1 and L2 writing were also explored. Because the national groups are heterogeneous with respect to L1 and L2 writing experience, each group was considered as a separate case study for purposes of analysis. Exploratory cross-group analyses were carried out only to throw additional light on within-group trends. In the sample as a whole, statistical differences related to gender did not emerge. However, qualitative analysis of students’ L1 writing showed a distinct gender difference within the Japanese group. Specifically, Japanese females used considerably more politeness markers in their Japanese writing in comparison to Japanese males whose L1 writing tended to be more assertive. These differences were not apparent in males’ and females’ L2 (English) writing. No gender differences were observed in either L1 or L2 among the Chinese and Taiwanese groups. The findings suggest that learners absorb the instruction they receive in relation to effective ways of writing in their L2 environments and are fully capable of adjusting lexical and rhetorical features from L1 norms to L2 norms. The fact that female Japanese students did not generalize the politeness features they used in Japanese to English suggests that student identities are fluid and shift according to the cultural and linguistic context. iii Dedicated to the Memory of My Mother Who loved me with all her heart and encouraged me to complete this research project iv Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the people who supported me during my academic journey to the completion of my PhD degree. I could not have done my doctoral research without their generous support in different capacities. Definitely any remaining errors are mine. At the very first, my foremost gratitude goes to my thesis supervisor Dr. Jim Cummins wholeheartedly, who supervised my research for many years and always provided his insight and valuable comments to guide me marvelously through the process. Dr. Cummins advised me at every step of my doctoral study. He supervised my taking courses, selecting the topic of research, developing the proposal, designing the research, the data analysis and writing up the thesis. Especially for the data analysis, Dr. Cummins has spent much time helping me to identify and to check every single element in order to make sure that it was rational. His insightful comments refined my thinking and my writing. Although he had other important commitments, Dr. Cummins always made himself available to me for discussion and helped me figure out the problems in the research whenever I had difficulties. He spent countless hours with me and consistently encouraged my critical thinking in order to get a good shape of my thesis, and to help me to reach my goal. At the writing stage, Dr. Cummins read my multiple drafts, gave me very valuable comments, and edited my thesis. He also provided his generous support and advice in my difficulty times. Dr. Cummins’s academic intelligence and insights on literacy, multilingual and multicultural theory and researches, and his outstanding and noble integrity inspired me and motivated me to work on my research. I would never have been able to finish my PhD study without Dr. Cummins’s generous support and understanding. v Secondly, my appreciation goes to my thesis committee members and exam committee members: Dr. Normand Labrie, Dr. Rick Guisso and Dr. Nina Spada. Their guidance was very helpful, wise and encouraging. Dr. Labrie provided references for my research and he also gave me very useful suggestions. Dr. Guisso supported me and encouraged me from my Master study to doctoral study. Dr. Spada provided her very valuable insightful suggestions to my research. She always encouraged me, supported me, and befriended me. I am very grateful to my external examiner Dr. Liming Yu who sent his appraisal ahead of time during his busy work schedule. Dr. Yu’s generous and critical evaluation provided insights for my future research. Thank you very much, Dr. Yu. Thirdly and most importantly, my sincere appreciation extended to the twenty-three participants in my project. It would not be able to make this project possible and successful without their mature understanding and their enthusiastic participation. Three people who provided knowledgeable advice on the statistical analysis deserve special thanks. Olesya Falenchuk gave me insight and valuable advice for the data analysis, statistical data sorting and data organizing. Wataru Suzuki and Naxin Zhao were very kind, and helped me in different capacities. I have received extensive academic support and guidance from professors, scholars and colleagues. I appreciate Dr. Mayumi Yuki Johnson. She gave me valuable suggestions and helped me with some of the Japanese data. Dr. Jill Cummings helped me to revise my thesis proposal, tasks, and data with very useful suggestions. Dr. Alister Cumming, Dr. Frances Giampapa, and Dr. Tara Goldstein provided some research methods and concepts in language and education. Dr. Clare Brett provided accelerated support and suggestions for my research and my work. Dr. Alan Alexandroff has witnessed the ups and downs of my doctoral journey for vi these years. Thank you very much for your advice, your good cheer, and your encouragement, Alan. Dr. Dezi Yang, thank you for your precious time to help me and encourage me in my difficult times for many years. I greatly appreciate the following people: Dr. Ingrid Piller, Dr. Mitsuyo Sakamoto, Dr.Seiji Kodawaki, Dr. Penny Kinnear, Dr. Chih-Min Shih, Dr. Kyoko Baba, Dr.Yasuhiro Imai, Dr. Luxin Yang, Dr. Ling Li, Dr. Shijing Xu and Dr. Huamei Han. All have made fruitful suggestions, insightful comments, and unfathomable wisdom. They encouraged me to complete my dissertation. They were willing to listen to me and help me find the ways to continue writing. Recalling the memory at the beginning of my PhD journey, I could not to forget to thank Professor Kazuko Nakajima, who was my MA supervisor and who provided her valuable advice and encouragement to pursue my doctoral study. I would not have started my research without her generous support. My gratitude also goes to Professor Jun Shigemtsu and Professor Kazuhiro Isomura in Japan who provided valuable insight to encourage me to continue my PhD study when I finished my MA degree. And they encouraged me to the completion of my study. Thank you very much, Shigematsu-sensei, Isomura-sensei. I also thank my former colleagues and my friends Emiko Yamamoto, Shoko Tanaka, Dr. Li Zang, Dr. Ryoko Hayshi, and Dr. Midori Hayashi in Japan. They provided their valuable comments, their support and encouragement from start to finish of my doctoral journey. I am also deeply grateful to the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto (OISE/UT) for the scholarship given to cover my tuition fees for the initial four years of my program. And I also appreciate the University of Toronto for awarding me the Dissertation Travel Grant to support my data collection. As well as, the OISE Doctoral Thesis Completion Grant for 2007-2008 and 2008-2009. I appreciate Al Millers Memorial Award 2009 . vii I especially want to thank OISE Student Services which provided me with important information and support during my PhD study. It is the best Student Services Office ever. I also appreciate Tony Gallina, Alfredo Chow, and other staffs in the Education Commons at OISE who provided prompt and helpful support whenever needed. I deeply appreciate the OISE faculty and administrative staffs’ kind support and understanding. Margaret Brennan, Carrie Chassels, Mary MacDonell, Eleanor Gower, Lise Watson, Michelle Pon, Kristian Galberg, and Lisa Rupchand provided their great support and their friendship. Thank you all for supporting me for so many years. Margaret, I cannot find the right words to express my appreciation to you. Thank you very much for your kindness, your time and your support from the bottom of my heart. During my PhD journey, I am grateful for the faculty members and friends in the Modern Language Centre (currently changed to The Centre for Educational Research on Languages and Literacies (CERLL) for their support and friendship.

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