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Seasonal Changes in Behavior and Exhibit Use of Captive African Elephants ( Loxodonta Africana ) and Black Rhinoceroses ( Diceros Bicornis )

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Seasonal Changes in Behavior and Exhibit Use of Captive African Elephants ( Loxodonta Africana ) and Black Rhinoceroses ( Diceros Bicornis ) SEASONAL CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR AND EXHIBIT USE OF CAPTIVE AFRICAN ELEPHANTS ( LOXODONTA AFRICANA ) AND BLACK RHINOCEROSES ( DICEROS BICORNIS ) by JENNI ELIZABETH MUELLER Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the Degree of Master of Science Department of Biology CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY August, 2008 CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES We hereby approve the thesis/dissertation of ____________________Jenni E. Mueller____________________ candidate for the _________Master of Science_________degree *. (signed)__________Julia Brown____________________________ (chair of the committee) __________Kristen E. Lukas_________________________ __________Mark A. Willis__________________________ __________Pam Dennis_____________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ (date) ________June 26, 2008________ *We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein. ii Table of Contents Page No. List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………….iv List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………....v Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….vi Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...1 Natural History of the Species …………………………………………………….4 Social Behavior …………………………………………………………………...13 African Elephants and Black Rhinoceroses in Captivity ………………………...17 Abnormal Behavior ………………………………………………………………22 The Current Study ………………………………………………………………27 Chapter 1 : The Behavior of Captive African Elephants and Black Rhinoceroses Introduction ……………………………………………………………………..29 Methods and Materials ………………………………………………………….31 Results …………………………………………………………………………...36 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………….44 Chapter 2 : Exhibit Use and Object Preferences of Captive African Elephants and Black Rhinoceroses Introduction ……………………………………………………………………...55 Methods and Mater ials………………………………………………………….57 Results …………………………………………………………………………...58 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………….66 Chapter 3 : Social Dynamics and Abnormal Behaviors in African Elephants and Black Rhinoceroses Housed at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo Introduction ……………………………………………………………………...83 Methods and Materials ………………………………………………………......86 Results …………………………………………………………………………...86 Discussion ………………………………………………………………………..94 Chapter 4 : Behavioral Changes Associated with Disease in a Captive Black Rhinoceros Introduction ………………………………………………………………….....110 Methods and Materials …………………………………………………………112 Results ………………………………………………………………………….114 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………....117 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….121 Appendices……………………………………………………………………………125 Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………...132 iii List of Tables Introduction Page No. 1: Captive Populations of African Elephant and Black Rhinoceros…………………………2 Chapter 1 1: African Elephants and Black Rhinoceroses at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo…………….32 2: Types and Examples of Enrichment Items Presented to Subjects……………………….32 3: Months Averaged to Calculate Seasonal Totals…………………………………………..36 Chapter 3 1: Individual Performances of Abnormal Behavior in African Elephants………………...90 2: Individual Performance of Abnormal Behavior in the Rhinos………………….............93 iv List of Figures Chapter 1 Page No. 1. Mean levels of activity and inactivity in African elephants and black rhinos…………37 2. Mean time performing active behaviors…………………………………………………...38 3. Mean resting behavior in relation to time of day…………………………………………39 4. Seasonal trends in mean locomotion……………………………………………………….39 5. Seasonal changes in mean investigatory and environmentally-oriented behaviors in African elephants……………………………………………………………………………….40 6. Temperature-related trends in dusting behavior in African elephants………………...41 7. Temperature-related trends in average resting behavior………………………………..41 8. Mean time spent in social proximity……………………………………………………….42 9. Mean occurrence of social interactions in each enclosure in the elephants (A) and rhinos (B)………………………………………………………………………………………...43 Chapter 2 1. Changes in behavior in the indoor versus outdoor enclosure in elephants (A) and rhinos (B)………………………………………………………………………………………...58 2. Occurrence of urine spraying in the male and female rhinos…………………………...59 3. Object preferences for rubbing in elephants (A) and rhinos (B)………………………...60 4. Mean enrichment use by species (A) and based upon age in rhinos (B)……………….61 5. Mean investigatory bouts of different categories of enrichment………………………..62 6. Actual versus expected use of exhibit areas……………………………………………….63 7. Mean bouts spent in each exhibit area (A) and by each species (B)…………………….64 8. Temperature-related trends in exhibit location in elephants……………………………65 9. Temperature-related trends in exhibit location in rhinos………………………………..66 Chapter 3 1. Mean time displaying social behaviors…………………………………………………….87 2. Social behavior in Jo in relation to enclosure (A) and indoor social housing (B)……...88 3. Effects of housing companion on social behavior (A) and eating (B) in Tika………….88 4. Rate of social interactions (A) and approaches/leaves (B) when housed outside…….90 5. Performance of abnormal behaviors in relation to enclosure (A) and social housing in Jo (B)……………………………………………………………………………………………...91 6. Mean time spent displaying social behavior in relation to sex (A) and age (B)……….92 7. Rate of social interactions (A) and approaches/leaves (B) when housed outside…….93 8. Performance of abnormal behaviors in relation to enclosure in all rhinos (A) and Jimma (B)………………………………………………………………………………………...94 Chapter 4 1. Monthly trends in mean resting behavior………………………………………………..115 2. Monthly trends in mean investigatory and locomotory behavior……………………..115 3. Comparisons of active behaviors pre- and post-diagnosis……………………………..116 4. Monthly trends in mean rate of urine spraying…………………………………………117 v Seasonal Changes in Behavior and Exhibit Use of Captive African Elephants (Loxodonta africana ) and Black Rhinoceroses ( Diceros bicornis ) Abstract by JENNI ELIZABETH MUELLER Despite living in the same habitat and sharing many physiologic characteristics, African elephants and black rhinoceroses are behaviorally very diverse. Each species therefore copes with the challenges of a captive environment in different ways. This study examined the behavior and exhibit use of three African elephants and three black rhinoceroses over a one-year period to determine how each species adapted its natural behavior to captivity in a northern climate. In both species, total time spent active was similar to that seen in the wild. Increased time housed indoors resulted in decreased investigatory behavior and increased abnormal behavior in elephants, and decreased locomotion in rhinos. Both species utilized all areas of the outdoor enclosures, but spent more time than expected near the Building and Door areas. Elephants also favored the Trees, while rhinos favored the Mud Wallow. Individual differences within each species were most prevalent in abnormal and social behaviors. vi Introduction Species-typical behavior patterns are shaped by evolution to correspond to the animal’s physical, ecological, and social needs, forming behavioral repertoires that function specifically in that natural environment. Even within one species, however, different populations may encounter variations in environmental factors and hence species retain some ability to adapt their behavior as a method of coping with a given situation (Carlstead, 1996; Hutchins, 2006; Mason & Mendl, 1993). It is this adaptability and natural coping response that allows wild animals to be held successfully in captivity, as captive environments present new stimuli, expunge other stimuli and require an animal to adjust to an unnatural environment (Carlstead, 1996; Schulte, 2000). Not every individual or species can cope with every situation, however, as species and even individual differences in genetics, development, and previous experience can affect how an animal adapts to either barren or naturalistic captive environments (Carlstead, 1996; Freeman et al, 2004). Additionally, the more an individual is required to cope the more compromised its welfare may be (Veasey, 2006). One important aspect of zoo research is therefore determining whether an animal has successfully adapted to its captive environment, and a vital component of this adaptation is behavior. Proper care in captivity requires evidence-based husbandry and management standards of environmental, social, and behavioral needs (Hutchins, 2006; Veasey, 2006). Natural conditions cannot be precisely recreated, 1 but to determine what is sufficient necessitates research on captive animals. With large mammals especially, research requiring physiological measurements or experimental manipulations are not often feasible and hence behavior is an important aspect in determining well-being (Veasey, 2006). While some deviation from natural behavior is not necessarily problematic, ideally behavior in captivity should overall closely resemble that seen in the wild (Hutchins, 2006). Meeting the behavioral and biological needs of animals becomes especially important with intelligent and social species, as they are more psychologically vulnerable to improper environments (Douglas-Hamilton et al, 2006; Veasey, 2006). Many mammals have demonstrated degrees of intelligence and self-consciousness, and the ability to maintain competent societies additionally requires an understanding of the behaviors and intentions of conspecifics (Mench & Kreger, 1996;
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