SEEING the SEA Pages 347S 65 Ships' Eyes in Classical

HESPERIA 78 (2OO9) SEEING THE SEA Pages 347S 65 Ships' Eyes in Classical

Greece

ABSTRACT

Excavations in theAthenian Agora have brought to light fragments of three or sculpted marble eyes, ophthalmoi, fromClassical levels in and around the Tholos precinct. The discovery of similar objects at the ancient harbor of more a Zea, and recently in association with Classical Greek ship wrecked are off theAegean coast ofTurkey, makes clear that all examples of the eyes are that decorated the bows of ancient Greek ships.Three hypotheses offered to explain the presence of nautical artifactswithin theAgora: theymay have served as honorific fixtures relating to the fleet; represented surplus naval equipment stored in the Strategeion; or belonged to a wheeled ship used in theAnthesteria or theGreater Panathenaia festival.

SHIPS' EYES FROM THE ATHENIAN AGORA

of or Fragments three sculpted marble eyes, ophthalmoi, have been dis course covered in the of excavations at the Athenian Agora.1 The first was found during the spring of 1938, when archaeologists working along thewestern edge of theAgora explored one of two wells associated with a Building F, large Archaic structure that preceded the circular Tholos constructed after the Persian sack of Athens in 480 B.C.Unlike many of are thewells in theAgora, which carved into the natural bedrock, this one had been carefullywalled with small fieldstones that continued to the very a over bottom of thewell, to depth of 9 m.2 The bottom third of thewell contained ceramic vessels, lamps, and figurines that suggested that thewell use had been in during the first decades of the 5th century B.C.,while the

1.1 extend to Tektas Burnu excavation. on my appreciation John shipwreck theAgora fragments;Carrie Atkins director of the Excava I am to Kathleen Camp, Agora grateful Camp, Lynch, andAlexis Catsambis assisted in American School of Classical and Susan whose comments tions, Rotroff, countless other ways. I also thank the Studies at for his on earlier versions of this resulted Athens, permission paper anonymous Hesperia referees for their and to the in encouragement present three several key improvements. Sylvie detailed and very constructive remarks. as Agora fragments included here, well Dumont, Marcie Handler, and Jan 2.Well G 11:3. See Thompson as to director of the to George Bass, Jordan helped facilitate my research 1940, p. 25; Camp 1977, pp. 175-182.

? The American School of Classical Studies at Athens 34$ DEBORAH N. CARLSON

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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^V Figure1. Marble eye1 fromthe Athenian Scale 1:4.Photo ^^^^^^^^^^^^m Agora. AmericanSchool of Classical ^^^^^BM^fcourtesy ~^*W at Studies Athens, Agora Excavations

an upper two-thirds contained earthen fill interspersed throughout with stones and fragments of ceramic pithoi, millstones, and querns. One of the a at marble objects retrieved from this fill is large sculpted eye (1), broken a both ends but still about 60% complete, finished with low raised border a center around the edges and round hole through the (Fig. 1). Black-figure potsherds and fragmentary roof tiles belonging to theTholos and found near themouth of thewell indicate that itwas closed at the same time the was ca. Tholos nearing completion, 475-465 B.C.3 A second fragmentarymarble eye (2), comparable in size but lesswell was preserved than the first, excavated in another well to the southeast of was theTholos (Fig. 2). Opened about 50 years after theTholos completed, a thiswell had been dug to depth of 12 m.4 The mouth of thiswell was courses capped with two of poros blocks, but, unlike the well associated was with Building F, thewell shaft left unlined, and before too long the walls collapsed and thewell became unusable. The collapse of thewell walls a at term as a created small pit the surface that served in the short dump a for large quantity of burned roof tiles, millstones, and broken pottery dating from the last decades of the 5th century.This deposit, character as a to ized by the excavator, Homer Thompson, kitchen dump, appears a or near have been the result of fire that damaged destroyed theTholos the end of the 5th century. a Finally, in 2007, pieces of third eye (3) were discovered in a 5th context m century approximately 20 southwest of theTholos (Fig. 3).

1 Marble eye fragmentFig. 1 Agora A 3811. From well G 11:3 in theTholos precinct. cm. P.L. 45, p.H. 19,Th. 3.5 60% complete; missing both ends and a large section under the central hole. Unpublished (noted by Shear Jr. 1993, p. 451). The centralportion of a large,rather stylized right(?) eye ofPentelic(?) marble. Smooth surfaceof the is framedby angular eyelids rendered as a low broad eyeball Z.Agora XII, pp. 390-391; Shear Jr. border 3.0 cmwide. Central hole ismuch worn. Back is the roughlyworked; edges 1993, p. 414, n. 86. to have been finishedwith a flatchisel. appear 4.Well H 12:6. See Thompson Ca. 475-465 b.c 1940, pp. 95-96. SHIPS' EYES IN CLASSICAL GREECE 349

Figure2.Marble eye 2 fromthe ^H^^^^^^^^^^^P AthenianAgora. Scale1:4. Photo AmericanSchool of ^B^WH^S^^^^^/ courtesy Classical ^WH^HHHHHB at Studies Athens, Agora Excavations ^WHBI^BBfjB

2 Marble eye fragmentFig. 2 Agora A 4804. From the "kitchen dump" of well H 12:6 in theTholos precinct. P.L. Th. 4.7 cm. 30% the outer 20.3, p.H. 28, complete; missing center, eye, and innermost corner. Unpublished. Fragment of a left(?) eye of large-grainedwhite marble, representing the section between the (missing) central hole and tear duct.The eyeballs surface is smooth and slightlydomed; the eyelids are represented by thick raised borders cm 3.5-3.9 wide; the lower eyelid curves naturalistically as it approaches the (missing) corner.The back is flat and unpolished, but more finelyfinished than other examples. 425-400(?) B.C.

3 Marble eye fragmentFig. 3 Agora A 5161. From F 13,20 m south of theTholos. P.L. Th. 2.5 cm. 10% the outer corner 12.5, p.H. 11.5, complete; only is preserved. Unpublished. Outermost corner of a left(?) eye of large-grainedwhite marble. The eyelids Figure 3.Marble eye 3 from the consist of a low raised border and intersectat the corner in a fashion. Scale 1:3. Photo sharp angular Athenian Agora. The back is worked and carries tracesof red stain. courtesy American School of Classical roughly at Studies Athens, Agora Excavations 5th(?) century B.C.

SHIPS' EYES AT ZEA HARBOR

as The identification of the three Agora marbles fragments of sculpted was nu ophthalmoi facilitated by the discovery, almost 60 years earlier, of merous intact and incomplete examples from theAthenian harbor town was of Piraeus (Fig. 4). News of the find first reported in 1880 by H. G. a Lolling, who examined 11 marble eyes in private collection, unearthed a new at during construction of road the edge of the ancient harbor of N. 350 DEBORAH CARLSON

Jf^;?S Figure 4.Marble eye 4 fromZea harbor. Scale ca. 1:5.Photo -a***^ illjlM courtesy VNBfa^|^^2^J|PvP*^^ Piraeus ArchaeologicalMuseum

Zea.5 In the following year, the Greek Archaeological Service acquired are now in the Piraeus nine of the Zea ophthalmoif six of which housed Archaeological Museum (4-9).7 A seventh fragment (10) resides in the Staatliche Museen of Berlin (Fig. 5).8

4 Intactmarble eye Fig. 4 Piraeus Archaeological Museum 3465-2674. From Zea harbor. L. 53,H. 24.5, Th. 2.5-4.5 cm (at pupil). Complete; in excellent condition. Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 1978, p. 120, no. Al, pi. 40:oc, (3. Intact lefteye with smooth domed eyeball; eyelids are expertlyrendered as a thin curved edge and the tearduct ispresent. The irisconsists of three concentric rings, somewith color stains: the innermost (W. 2.5 cm) isyellowish; themiddle (W. 2.7 cm) has no added paint; the outermost (W. 3.2 cm) is reddish.The cen tralhole (Diam. 1.2-2.5 cm) widens as itnears the outer surfaceas if to allow the fastenerhead to sitflush against the eyeball.The back is flat and roughlyworked; traces are across its entire surface. un of red stain evident Saatsoglou-Paliadeli derstood the back face to have been worked with a bush hammer, but Rockwell (1993, p. 54, n. 18) notes that "it ishighly doubtful that the bush hammer existed in even for that the uneven reverse surface antiquity granite carving," suggesting was more a common to all of the Zea ophthalmoi (4-10) likely caused by tooth chisel or point chisel. 5th(?) centuryB.C.

5 Marble eye fragment Piraeus Archaeological Museum 3467-2676. From Zea harbor. P.L. 40.5, p.H. 21.2,Th. 2.0-3.55 cm (at pupil). 50% complete; two fragments, from the hole to the outer corner. preserved Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 1978, pp. 120-121, no.A2, pi. 40:y, 5. The outer half of a left eye of Parian(?) marble. The eyeball is smooth and domed; there is no indication of incision or added color.The central hole

5. Lolling 1880, p. 384.Milchhofer that these are the same eyes described (1881, p. 58) statesthat whole and bro by Lolling (1880). were ken eyes discovered approximately 6. Prakt 1881, p. 22. one and a half to two earlier 7. years Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 1978, (in 1879?) at the easternedge ofZea pp. 119-123. as measurements harbor; the reported 8. Blumel 1963, p. 19, fig.23. differonly slightly,it stands to reason ships' eyes in classical greece 351

as nears outer as ifto (p.Diam. 2.5 cm) is incompleteand widens it the surface allow the fastenerhead to sitflush against the eyeball.The back isflat and roughlyworked with a tooth chisel; traces of red stain are evident across its entire surface. b.c. 5th(?) century

6 Marble eye fragment 3466-2677. From Zea harbor. Piraeus Archaeological Museum PL. 47, p.H. 15.5,Th. 2.65-3.5 cm (at pupil). 90% complete;missing only innermost corner at tear duct. Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 1978, pp. 121-122, no. Al, pi. 40:e, gt. A nearly complete righteye of Parian(?) marble with smaller overall dimen is worn and marred a above the central sions; the eyeball's surface by long gash hole (Diam. 1.5 cm); there is no indication of incision or added color.The back traces of red stain are evident across its entire surface. is flat and roughly worked; describes the of "rust" around the hole and Saatsoglou-Paliadeli presence along the lengthof its interior. 5th(?) century b.c.

7 Marble eye fragment Piraeus Archaeological Museum 3469-2678. From Zea harbor. PL. 35.5, p.H. 20,Th. 2.1-3.05 cm (at pupil). 60% complete; two fragments, innermost corner at tear duct and outer third to corner. missing Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 1978, p. 122, no. A2, pi. 41:

8 Marble eye fragment Piraeus Museum From Archaeological 3470-2679. Zea harbor. PL. 30.5, p.H. 20.5,Th. 2.2-3.0 cm (at pupil). 50% complete; broken at both inner corner and outer third ends, missing portion. Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 1978, p. 122, no. A3, pi. 41 :y,8. Half of a right eye of Parian(?) marble. The eyeball's surface is smooth and domed, with traces of a yellowish or rust-colored stain.The central hole iswell preserved andwidens as itnears the outer surfaceas ifto allow the fastenerhead to sitflush against the eyeball.Five incised concentric ringsof varyingwidths radiate out from the central hole: 3.5, 0.3, 1.5, 1.8, and 0.3 cm; the second and fifthare presumably thinborders of the firstand fourth rings.The firstring has traces of rust(?), the thirdhas no added color, and the fourthhas traces of a reddish stain. Parallel striations on the back are reverse was a clear signs that the worked with tooth chisel; deeper gouges suggest a point chisel. 5th(?) centuryb.c.

9 Marble eye fragment Piraeus Archaeological Museum 3468-2675. From Zea harbor. PL. cm 37.5, p.H. 21.5, Th. 2.6-3.5 (at pupil). 50% complete; nearly entire outer half in four preserved fragments. 352 deborah n. carlson

Figure 5. Painted marble eye 10 from Zea harbor. Scale ca. 1:4. Photo

courtesy Bildarchiv Preussischer Kultur besitz/Art Resource, New York

6. reconstruc Figure Hypothetical tion of marble eye 10. Drawing L. Santoro

Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 1978, p. 123, no. A4, pi. 41:e, ox. The outer half of a right eye of Parian(?) marble. The edges of the eyelids are broken slightly;the central hole (Diam. 1.1-2.0 cm) isworn at the eyeball's surface.Five incised concentric ringsof varyingwidths radiate out from the central hole: 2.5, 0.4, 2.6, 2.2, and 0.5 cm; there are no traces of added color. As with 8, the second and fifthare presumably thinborders of the firstand fourth rings.The back appears to have been worked with a tooth chisel. 5th(?) centuryb.c.

10 Marble eye fragmentFigs. 5, 6 Berlin, StaatlicheMuseen SK 1039. From Zea harbor. PL. 17, p.H. 18.8,Th. 3.2 cm. 35% complete;missing innermostcorner and outer half. Blumel 1963, p. 19, no. 11, pi. 23. The innerhalf of a left(?) eye of Parian(?) marble. The eyeball is smooth and framed by sharply angled eyelids. Extensive added color has survived to suggest five incised concentric rings of varyingwidths radiating out from the central hole (p.Diam. 2.0 cm): yellow at the center, followed by a narrow band of red, followed by a wider band ofwhite (or possibly blue), an even wider red band, and finallya narrow yellow band. The back is roughlyworked with a point chisel; there is no indication of red stain,but the presence ofwhat Blumel describes as to was once means an "rust" led him conclude that it attached by of iron fastener. Hypothetical reconstruction (Fig. 6) based on Blumel's description. 5th(?) centuryb.c (6th centuryb.c., according to Blumel). SHIPS' EYES IN CLASSICAL GREECE 353

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Figure 7. Excavations byDorpfeld and Dragatses along the eastern edge In 1885, as excavation of the northeastern part of Zea harbor con ofZea harbor ca. 1890, showing tinued, archaeologists exposed the remains of 10 low sloping slipways the reconstruction of some of the a with columnar partitions (Fig. 7) that suggested series of roofed sheds, columns from the shipsheds. to cover and protect the renowned Athenian war Photo Deutsches presumably designed courtesy Archaologisches The Zea thus some of the earliest direct Institut, Athens, D-DAI-ATH-Piraus 6 galleys.9 shipsheds provided as as evidence for this important naval feature,10 well indirect evidence for the actual dimensions of ancient warships. In 1898, Dragatses unearthed a now portion of yet another marble ophthalmos^ apparently lost,12 but by that time the maritime context of the Zea marble eyes seemed assured. In various locations around Piraeus and Athens, a series of inscribed marble slabs have been found that document the provisioning and supervi 9. 63-68. sion of hundreds of and naval These in Dragatses 1885, pp. ships equipment. stelai, published a 10. For comprehensive review of the second and third quarters of the 4th century B.C., are often described the evidence for Greek as or archaeological collectively the tabulae curatorum navalium, the Piraeus Naval Inven and Roman see Blackman shipsheds, tories.13 Some of the serve as an of naval 1995. inscriptions inventory gear, two divided broadly into types: wooden oars, steering oars, 11. Dragatses 1899, p. 39. (rowing and screens, oar 12. Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 1978, masts, ladders, poles) hanging (sails, ropes, anchors, p. 119, n. 7. port covers).14 Other inventories provide detailed information about 13. IG IF 1604-1632. See also the ships themselves, including their class, name, location, and condi Bockh 1840. tion; in several cases, a s are described as either broken15 14.Morrison andWilliams ship ophthalmoi 1968, or un missing.16 The logical inference, then, is that the marble eyes pp. 289-307; Gabrielsen 1994, pp. 227 covered at Zea in the late 19th are of naval 228; Casson 1995, pp. 224-267. century pieces equipment a 15. IG IF 1604, lines41, 68, and 75. likely to have been stored with lines, rigging, and other gear in nearby 16. IG IP 1607b, line24. warehouse. 354 DEBORAH N. CARLSON

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SHIPS' EYES FROM THE TEKTA? BURNU WRECK

a The recent excavation of Classical Greek merchant shipwrecked off the Aegean coast ofTurkey atTekta? Burnu provides the firstclear evidence for an ophthalmoi in association with actual ancient ship (Fig. 8). The Tekta? was a Burnu vessel, which probably sank between 440 and 425 B.C., small a and probably local trader carrying mixed cargo of East Greek pottery, at pine tar, and wine contained in amphoras produced nearby Erythrai.17 season a During the firstexcavation in 1999, archaeologists uncovered white cm center marble disk (11), about 14 in diameter, pierced through the by a on outer large lead spike (Fig. 9).18 As the Zea ophthalmoi, the face is convex and incised with concentric lines, while the back?which would s have rested against the ship wooden hull?is flat and roughly worked. are a Within the incised lines the faded remnants of dark painted ring that 17. Bass Carlson 2003. For indicates the outermost of the while the flattened head of the 2002; edge iris, the identificationof a Classical at Eryth lead fastener, center, is reminiscent of the eyes see pupil. raian amphora type, Carlson 2004; was A second ophthalmos (12, Fig. 10) found the following season, Carlson and Lawall 2007. more a 18. at a distance of little than meter from the first, suggesting that Nowak2001. SHIPS' EYES IN CLASSICAL GREECE 355

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Figure 9.Marble eye 11 from the Burnu Scale 1:3. Tektaf shipwreck. after the had itswooden were consumed Drawing S. Agar, photos K. May, courtesy ship sunk, planks quickly by Institute of Nautical Archaeology shipworms, leaving behind only the marble ophthalmoi and the fasten ers once that held them in place. The near-total disappearance of the over course a means ship's hull the of two and half millennia that the some two marble eyes provide of the only direct evidence for the location of the bow and the vessel's orientation on the seabed. Furthermore, the was intact lead spike penetrating the center of 11 encrusted with marine growth along the length of its shaft; the only portion relatively free of was an cm marine concretion area 2.5 long directly behind the marble to eye,which should correspond the thickness of the ship's vanished hull planking.

11 Intactmarble eye Fig. 9 TK 007. From the shipwreck atTektas Burnu,Turkey. Diam. 13.8,Th. 1.5-2.1 cm (at pupil); 770 g. Complete; in excellent condi tion,with lead spike. Nowak 2001; Carlson 2003, pp. 594-595. Intact circulareye ofwhite marble. The eyeball's surface isdomed; the central a bent 8.6 cm and hole (Diam. 1.35 cm) accommodates lead spike, long rectangular in with head 0.2 cm above the surface. At the center section, protruding polished of this surfaceare the remains of a circularpatch of dark pigment, 2.4 cmwide; an outer ring,0.8 cmwide and bordered by faint incised lines, sits 3.7-4.5 cm from the central hole. The back is flat and roughlyworked. Results of stable isotope ratio analysis carriedout byNorman Herz (Department ofGeology, University of = = Georgia) generated the followingvalues: 513C 3.87; 5lgO -4.19. Comparison of the resultswith theClassical Marble Database (Herz 1987) using a least-squares statisticalprogram (Pentia 1995) indicates a 12% match with Dokimeion and only a 5% match with Cycladic Paros. 440-425 b.c.

12 Intactmarble eye Figs. 8,10 TK 222. From the shipwreck atTektas Burnu, Turkey. Diam. 13.2,Th. 1.2-2.3 cm (at pupil); 690 g. Complete except for small chip on back; broken lead spike. Nowak 2001; Carlson 2003, pp. 594-595. Intact circulareye ofwhite marble. The eyeball's surface isdomed; the central hole (Diam. 1.5 cm) accommodates the head of a lead fastener (Diam. 2.3 cm), cm The remainder of the which protrudes approximately 0.2 above the surface. DEBORAH N. CARLSON 356

Figure 10.Marble eye 12 fromthe on a Burnu Scale 1:3. lead spike ismissing. Faint incisions and tracesof pigment the surfacesuggest Tektaf shipwreck. cm Drawing B. Giinesdogdu, photos D. Frey, painted outer ring similarto thatof 11,3.7-4.5 fromthe centralhole. The back is courtesy Institute of Nautical Archaeology flat and smooth.Results of stable isotope ratio analysis carriedout byNorman Herz (Department ofGeology, University ofGeorgia) generated the following values: = = 513C 2.22; 818O -7.05. Comparison of the resultswith the Classical Marble Database (Herz 1987) using a least-squares statisticalprogram (Pentia 1995) pro vides a 97% match with Cycladic Naxos and a 41% match with Mt. Penteli; in to more lightof themarble's fine grain size, however,Mt. Penteli appears be the likelycandidate. 440-425 B.C.

SHIPS' EYES FROM THE COAST OF ISRAEL

Two other circular marble ophthalmot like those from theTekta? Burnu are to coast shipwreck known have been found off the of Israel. Although are an to unpublished, they included here in effort provide readerswith the most comprehensive catalogue of known examples of ships' eyes.

13 Intactmarble eye Found in the sea offYavneh Yam, Israel. ca. cm. Diam. 20, Th. 4.0 Complete; missing fastener. Unpublished.19 Intact circular eye ofwhite marble. The eyeball's surface is convex and perfo ratedby a centralhole (Diam. 1.2 cm); tracesof added color on the surface suggest two painted concentric rings.The back is flat. 5th-4th(?) centuryB.C.

14 Intactmarble eye 19. Found in the sea offMegadim, Israel, at a depth of 3 m. http://wvm.israelnationnews.com/ News/News.aspx/126823 (accessed July Diam. 23.5,Th. 2.3 (at edge) to 4.3 cm (at pupil); 4,050 g. Complete; missing fastener. 2008). 20. E. Galili (pers.comm.); Galili, Unpublished. Rosen, and 2009, pp. 359-360. white The surface is domed and Zviely Intact circulareye of marble. eyeball's perfo at For the underwater finds Megadim, a centralhole 1.0 thatwidens to a diameter of 2.0 cm at the rated by (Diam. cm) see Galili and Rosen 2008.1 am ex outer no traces of incision or added color.The back is flat. surface; tremelygrateful to Ehud Galili of the with a ofHellenistic Date unknown,but perhaps associated nearby assemblage IsraelAntiquities Authority for sharing coins and believed to a with me news of this find. ship's equipment represent shipwreck.20 important eyes in classical Greece ships' 357

with charging-boar prow. Drawings ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ C.Atkins, after Heipp-Tamer 1993, ^^>. _ ^^i|iSias^^f ^^20^ ^.^-p^gj^^^

EVOLUTION AND FUNCTION OF SHIPS' EYES

a at The ancient Greek tradition of endowing ship with eyes dates back to as a terracotta least the Late Bronze Age, indicated by painted boat model, 12 cm in length, excavated in the settlement at Phylakopi on the more are island ofMelos.21 Far plentiful the depictions of eyed warships on vases featured Attic black-figure of the 6th century B.C.22 In these examples, the ram?the primary offensive weapon of an ancient galley? on a takes the menacing appearance of wild boar, suggesting that the an a was resemblance between attacking warship and charging animal not on ram lost the ancient Greeks. This association between boar and ship's is also a central feature ofArchaic silver coins from Phaselis, which show a the forepart of boar, complete with front legs pulled in close to the head as a if in pursuit, in the guise ofwhat is clearly intended to be ships prow a (Fig. II).23 While the evidence suggests that the eyes associated with ramwere vase ship's feral in nature, other Archaic paintings indicate that some were more ships also decorated with larger, prominent ophthalmot on was either side of the partition where the forward lookout (prorates) are stationed (Fig. 12); the Zea marble eyes likely to be examples of these adornments.

Despite numerous technical similarities in the surface treatment of the ships' eyes fromTekta? Burnu and Zea, the differences in their shape are and size both obvious and important. Circular ophthalmot like the pair excavated at Tektas Burnu appear on a handful of Archaic Greek vases (Fig. 13).24The present corpus of depictions is too small to permit seems to definitive conclusions, but it imply thatmerchant ships routinely 21. Bosanquet andWelch 1904, were more carried circular eyes, while oared galleys equipped with larger, p. 206. naturalistically rendered ophthalmoi.The discrepancy in size between the 22. See Basch 1987, pp. 206-228; modest of the Burnu and the more robust Steinhart 1995, pp. 88-103. ophthalmoi Tekta? ship larger, fromAthens be a matter of the Burnu 23. Heipp-Tamer 1993, pp. 25-39, eyes may simply proportion: Tektas. was not more 12 m a pis. 1,2. ship probably than about long,whereas trireme?the 24. the Aristonothos krater E.g., Classical Greek ship of the line?must have measured about three times fromCerveteri (Basch 1987, p. 233, that length.25 no. 482); B 436 in theBritish kylix The and evidence seems sufficient to Museum (Basch 1987, p. 222, iconographic archaeological conclude thatArchaic and Classical oared were nos. 462-464). ships, especially galleys, at was not 25. Morrison, Coates, and Rankov routinely portrayed with eyes the bow. The tradition, however, 132-133. 2000, pp. uniquely Greek; Aeschylus describes the Persian ships that gathered off the DEBORAH N. CARLSON 358

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Figure 12. Black-figure kylix signed coast B.C. as of Salamis in 480 linen-winged and dark-eyed.26 And Danaos byNikosthenes as potter, showing as recognizes the fleet of vessels approaching Argos Egyptian owing in part warships with naturalistic ophthal on some ca. 520-510 b.c. Musee to the eyes painted the prow.27To be sure, in cases, ophthalmoi moi, Paris, were on a an wax du Louvre F123. Photo courtesy painted ships wooden hull using either admixture of and E. Art New York or wax an Lessing, Resource, pitch tinted in encaustic technique.28 Pliny the Elder reports as thatmany of theHellenistic worlds most accomplished painters, such careers as Protogenes of Kaunos and Heraklides ofMacedon, began their ship-painters.29 It is conspicuous, however, that the only marble specimens of ships' eyes to have survived from the ancient world all hail fromGreek a contexts. Even within the modest corpus of dozen examples presented a here, it is possible to discern stylistic evolution from the rigid Archaic more angularity of Agora eye 1 toward the naturalistic and supple Clas curves sical of Zea eye 4.30The remnants of five concentric painted rings, on are colored red, yellow, and possibly blue the Berlin eye 10, particularly interesting in light of the recent discovery of red and blue pigments in the Classical shipsheds of Sicilian Naxos.31 a on As motif, eyes appear everything in ancient Greece from coins to cups to shields to amphora stamps; while it is not within the scope of this article to account for these many manifestations,32 it is appropriate

s name" 31. For the of red ochre 26. Aesch. Pers. 559. Bacchylides where they inscribe the ship discovery same in Naxian see (13.157) employs the imageryin (my translation). (hematite) the shipsheds, describing theGreek ships atTroy. 29. PlinyHN35.36.101 (Proto Blackman and Lentini 2006, p. 197; 27. 716. in a more recent the excavators Aesch. Supp. genes); 35.40.135 (Heraklides). report, 28. Pliny (HN35.41.149) describes 30. Pliny (HN35.31.49) suggests describe the presence of red and blue that the of at the site: see Blackman and the application of the encaustic tech practice eye-painting origi pigments as it to nated on and was subse nique relates ships; Pollux warships Lentini 2008. to 32. As Steinhart 1995. For (Onom. 1.86) may implypainting quentiy applied merchant vessels; eye-cups states we a see when he that "above the akro perhaps should imagine similar specifically, Jordan 1988; Lissarague stolion is theptychis, and the eye, evolution among the ancient Greeks? 1990;Hedreen 2007. SHIPS' EYES IN CLASSICAL GREECE 359

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Figure 13. Black-figure oinochoe to motivation a showing a merchant shipwith question the symbolic for endowing ship with eyes. circular ca. 510 b.c. Conventional were ophthalmos, explanations typically conclude that ships' eyes either The Museum Meermanno or as Hague, apotropaic anthropomorphic in nature, there is evidence to support Westreenianum 619/836. Photo cour a both interpretations.33 Apotropaic eyes, like the Gorgoneion, served tesyMuseum Meermanno-Westreenianum protective function by warding off the ill effects of the evil eye.34 In this capacity, it is noteworthy that themarble ophthalmot under discussion stare not a directly outward, ahead in the direction of traveling ship, and their are pupils often painted with concentric circles reminiscent of a mask.35 An a anthropomorphic function endows the shipwith spirit capable of seeing accounts the sea, and the of Aeschylus and Philostratos suggest that the ancient Greeks did indeed believe that ships' eyes behaved in thisway.36

THE CONTEXT OF THE AGORA EYES

two The marble ophthalmot fromTekta? Burnu and the 11 examples from come same Zea harbor from decidedly nautical contexts, but the cannot be were said of the three fragments from theAthenian Agora. Two of these to a retrieved fromwells adjacent theTholos, circular building where the 50 prytaneisy the executive officers of the Boule, convened and dined, and a were where smaller number slept in the event that they needed to respond to a state as two emergency.37 But inasmuch the earlier of the fragments

33. a more For thorough discussion Frontisi-Ducroux 1989. of the see Nowak 2006. 36. evidence, Aesch. Supp. 716; Philostr. Imag. 34. 1.19. For various modern see Levi 1941;Moss and Cappan parallels, nari 1976. Hornell 1946, pp. 285-289. 35. For the correlation between 37.Agora III, pp. 179-184; Camp masks and theprophylactic eyes 2001, pp. 69-70. on painted Greek pottery, see, e.g., 360 DEBORAH N. CARLSON was associated with debris deposited during the initial construction of the ca. a Tholos 470 B.C., itmust have belonged to different, earlier structure. an structure An obvious but problematic prospect is Building F, Archaic as of irregular plan thatmay have served the private residence of the Pei sistratid tyrants.38 Another candidate in the immediate vicinity is the (Old) Bouleuterion, cen or council house, probably constructed at the very end of the 6th was over tury B.C.39 It the council (Boule) that presided state naval matters, including the construction and maintenance ofwarships, their equipment, as as and the shipsheds, well the supervision of hundreds of trierarchs.40 were Bouleutic decrees concerning naval affairs enforced by the dockyard inventories officers (epimeletai neorion),who published the naval discovered at in the Piraeus.41 Fragments of similar stelai, representing least three additional mid-4th-century inscriptions, have been found in the Agora. at Some of these appear to duplicate the Piraeus inventories, while least one none fragment actually joins them, though makes mention of ships' were eyes.42All of the fragments either reused in modern construction or come from unstratified or otherwise disturbed contexts; two, however, were retrieved from fillwest of theMetroon, a sanctuary dedicated to the Mother of the Gods. With the construction of a New Bouleuterion in the late 5th century came the conversion of the Old Bouleuterion to the as an state of Metroon, which functioned primarily archive for documents a which these naval inventories may have formed part.43 we never or how Regrettably, will probably know exactly where (or even were Were intended to serve if) theAgora ophthalmoi displayed. they or as a visual reminder of one of the Boule smany civic responsibilities, a as did they commemorate specific historical event, did the bronze shields at B.C. for centuries taken from the Spartans Pylos in 425 and exhibited that in the Stoa Poikile?44 Chrysoula Saatsoglou-Paliadeli conjectured the marble eyes from Zea may have been inlaid into flat wooden frames to a which were then erected as dedications painted mimic ship's hull, by the trierarchs.45 In this vein, it isworth noting that the votive dedication a in the of naval equipment is conspicuous and persistent phenomenon anchor stocks to ancient world, represented by everything from naming

to be a 43. 91-94. 38.Thompson 1940; Shear 1978; understood the five fragments Camp 1986, pp. 44-45. altered of IG IP 44. The Athenians also Camp 1986, pp. Papadopoulos slightly copy 1611; displayed, on one in the Stoa of Zeus shields (2003), the other hand, interprets Laing (1968) showed that Agora Eleutherios, as a and two of used citizenswho died Building F potter's workshop fragment(I 5419) clearlyjoins by defending that Piraeus IP 1628 Athens part of the Archaic Kerameikos the inscriptions(IG (Camp 1986, pp. 105-107). the Classical and Shear 45. 1978, preceded Agora. 1630). (1995, p. 180) rightly Saatsoglou-Paliadeli 134-135. The reddish stainon 39.Thompson 1937, pp. 127-140. asserts that "the discovery of naval pp. a recent of the in the does some of the Zea could have come For reinterpretation inventory fragments Agora eyes see not that the be as fromthe red ochre (miltosl building, Miller 1995 and the require fragments copies just easily of those in but she fails to used for as de response in Shear Jr. 1995. Piraeus," minium) painting ships, scribed inHorn. II. Od. 40. Arist.^. Pol. 46.1; Rhodes concede thata singlejoin among those 2.637; 9.125; does not rule out the Hdt. 3.58.2. Direct evidence for the 1972, pp. 113-122,153-158. fragments for of red ochre in ancient 41. Garland 1987, pp. 78-79, possibilityof duplicate inscriptions; presence has now been uncovered at 95-100. the moment, the issue is best left open shipsheds n. 42. Schweigert (1939, pp. 17-25) for discussion. Naxos, Sicily (see 31, above). SHIPS' EYES IN CLASSICAL GREECE 361

were devices towarship rams.46 In exceptional cases, entire ships dedicated on stone in a as offerings, set up supports forpermanent display sanctuary.47 the While a large percentage of the votive naval equipment dedicated by was some ancient Greeks probably stripped from captured enemy vessels,48 could have come from of thismaterial, including ophthalmoi, certainly ships in the Greeks' own fleet.49 was southwest of the Agora eye fragment 3 discovered only recently, a B.C. Tholos precinct, and it is associated with the remains of 5th-century as the structure tentatively identified the Strategeion, headquarters of army has its identification generals. Because little of the actual building survived, on as as is based the descriptive testimonia of ancient authors, well several were to set in Hellenistic inscriptions found nearby,which intended be up B.C. on front of the Strategeion.50 A late-4th-century inscription found the to of certain Acropolis records the transfer the strategoi hanging gear (ropes, are screens, sails) for deposition in the Strategeion.51 Although ophthalmoi or not included in this other lists of similar equipment, the inscription does a as remnants provide possible justification for interpreting the eye fragments of naval gear stored in theAgora. This interpretation, however, ultimately structure to as hinges upon the identity of the long referred the Strategeion. Renewed excavation of this area suggests that the character of the building was more commercial than civic; recent finds include transport amphoras and a hoard of almost 400 silver tetradrachms that appear to be virtually contemporaneous with the aforementioned Acropolis inscription.52 comes Yet another interpretation of the Zea ophthalmoi fromMat to a thias Steinhart, who has proposed that the eyes may have belonged a ship of different kind?the ship-chariot ofDionysos.The ship-chariot is a traditionally associated with theAnthesteria, three-day spring festival in which theGreeks honored Dionysos by opening and sampling the season's we no newest vintage.53Although have written accounts of the god's annual or return toAthens,54 several late-6th- early-5th-century Attic black-figure vase a paintings show him being conveyed in wheeled ship.55The obvious implication of the ship-chariot is that the procession to the god's sanctuary a was in themarshes originated in seaport,which doubly significant as the festival is likely to have coincided with the opening of the sailing season. a a While cache of 11 marble eyes seems excessive for single ship s us reason chariot, Steinhart hypothesis gives good to evaluate theAgora a ophthalmoi against the evidence for similar ritual vehicle, the Panathenaic

46. Pritchett the source of the which at 1979, pp. 281-285. point marble, Ionian Smyrna: "a trireme under For see Gianfrotta 1977. For about whether full sail is in to anchors, might shape speculation brought procession the Actian see these to Greek vessels. the warship-ram memorial, eyes belonged the agora, and priest of Dionysos, 1989. 50. a as comes Murray Dinsmoor 1954, pp. 294-296; like helmsman, guides it it 47. Blackman Wescoat 174-177. from the its 2001; 2005, Agora III, pp. sea, loosening cables" with further 51. /GIF lines 66-67. W. bibliography. 1479b, (trans. C. Wright, Cambridge, see 48. For the 5th century B.C., 52. Camp 2007, pp. 657-660. Mass., 1921). Hdt. 8.121.1; Thuc. 2.84.4. 53. Pickard-Cambridge 1968, 55. Pickard-Cambridge 1968, 49. Agora eye 1 appears tobe of pp. 1-25; Parke 1977, pp. 107-120; figs.11-13; Gottlicher (1992, pp. 104 Pentelic marble, but themarble of 2 and Burkert 1983, pp. 213-226. 105, figs.59-61) includesa disputed 3 is less distinctive. Future or 54. See Philostr. VS 1.25.1 for an lead sheet isotopic from Montagna di Marzo, could account of the spectroscopic analysis help pin Anthesteria procession Sicily. 362 DEBORAH N. CARLSON

Like its at ship. Dionysian counterpart theAnthesteria, thiswheeled ship was a main attraction at theGreater Panathenaia festival held in late sum mer every four years, when theAthenians presented their patron goddess a woven Athena Polias with newly woolen peplos carried on themast like a hoisted not on sail.56While scholars do agree the antiquity of the ship-cart as a consensus feature of the festival,57 there is general that the processional route in originated the Kerameikos and continued along the Panathenaic to Way through theAgora and ultimately up theAcropolis. The wheeled was ship, however, undoubtedly not well suited for the final steep ascent through the Propylaia and onward to the sacrificial altar, and as such was are on apparently moored elsewhere.58 Comparable vehicles depicted two fragmentary sculptural reliefs fromAthens, though neither is sufficiently well to an preserved indicate the presence of ophthalmos.59Nevertheless, the fact that the ship-cart passed through theAgora along the Panathenaic Way is assured, and provides yet another possible explanation for the discovery of the three fragmentary marble ophthalmoi found there.

CONCLUSIONS

two B.C. The excavation of circularmarble ophthalmoi from the 5th-century at shipwreck Tektas, Burnu provides undeniable proof that the ships' eyes on depicted many Archaic and Classical Greek vases were in some cases three-dimensional sculpted objects and not superficial paintings. Further more, the discovery confirms the accuracy of several illustrations that sug as were gest thatmerchant ships (such thewreck atTektas Burnu) equipped more were with circular eyes,while anthropomorphic, almond-shaped eyes a reserved forwarships. More than dozen examples of the latter type have are been found in the port and marketplace of ancient Athens and thus as certainly to be regarded ships' eyes,60which prompts the question: What was naval material doing in the center ofAthens? Taking into consideration the provenience and date of the threemarble eye fragments from theAthenian Agora, I have proposed three hypotheses

does not on the Parthenon 56. IG IP 3198; Philostr.VS 2.1.5. existed and been part of the procession ship appear on frieze the final to Modern bibliography the topic is from the inception of the festival ritual, depicting procession see vast, but especially Davison 1958; sometime in the sixth century B.C., and theAcropolis (Rotroff1977; Norman in art Simon 1983, pp. 55-72; Mansfield have escaped all notice literature, 1983). or 1985;Neils 1992; Shear 2001; Parker and other documents until the third 59. In the 2nd- 3rd-century 2005, pp. 253-269. century B.C." sculptedrelief built into theByzantine to church of a cross 57. E.g., Robertson (1985, p. 294) 58. According Pausanias (1.29.1), Ayios Eleutherios, was near the Areo was carved over the argues that the Panathenaic ship the ship moored ship, obliterating and the for details.For predated "supplied pattern" pagos,while Philostratos (VS 2.1.7) anypotentially diagnostic of Barber recounts an earlier from the area of the the ship-cart Dionysos. that the ship,equipped with fragment to (1992, p. 114) suggeststhat thepro 1,000 rowers, circled the Eleusinion, Eleusinion showing what appears be was a direct and the the stern of a see cessional phenomenon passed thePelasgikon and Pythion, ship-cart, Spetsieri was For discus Choremi 2000. logicaldevelopment (and celebration) and displayed nearby. over of the Philo 60. Contra Assmann of the Greek victory the Persians sion and interpretation (1888, p. 1613), see at Salamis. Norman (1983, p. 44) sees stratos account, Gardner 1914; who judged theZea marble ophthalmoi as a to be too too and of unsuit the Panathenaic ship Hellenistic Wycherley 1963;Tobin 1993;Welch small, thin, it 138-145. A terminus in able material to have served as innovation, judging "extremely 1998, pp. ships' unlikely that the ship could have either locale would explain why the eyes. SHIPS' EYES IN CLASSICAL GREECE 363

for the function of the ophthalmoi.The eyes may have been honorific, af a one or fixed either to commemorative monument possibly erected by more trierarchs, or to a structure (the Bouleuterion?) that highlighted the as Boule's civic duty custodians of the fleet,Athens' most illustrious and awesome asset. Like the marble ophthalmoi, fragments of inscribed stelai documenting the naval activities of the Boule have been found in both the to two Piraeus and theAgora, which appear constitute major spheres of as as was bouleutic activity far the fleet concerned. An equally plausible theory is that the eyes represent the remains of to surplus naval equipment surrendered the strategoi and stored in the Strategeion. There is little in the existing naval lists, however, to suggest were a that ophthalmoi routinely classified with other pieces of ship's gear; as rather they appear to have been treated permanent fixtures of the ship true itself.Equally ambiguous is the character of the supposed Strategeion; more inscriptions and other recent finds suggest that the building's real us identitymay continue to elude for some time. a more remote once Finally, third and possibility is that theAgora eyes to a belonged ritual wheeled ship of the type featured in theAnthesteria and theGreater Panathenaia festivals.Although the origin, destination, and were antiquity of each festival's procession distinctive, both followed a route a can along the Panathenaic Way through theAgora. As result, neither be out as a source ruled possible of the three fragmentary marble ophthalmoi found there over the course of 75 years of excavation.

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Deborah N. Carlson

Texas A&M University

nautical archaeology program

department of anthropology

college station,texas 77843-4352

[email protected]