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9-1-1993 The uttH erites: A Study in Cultural Diversity J. Satterlee

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Recommended Citation Satterlee, J., "The uttH erites: A Study in Cultural Diversity" (1993). Bulletins. Paper 721. http://openprairie.sdstate.edu/agexperimentsta_bulletins/721

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The Hutterites A Studyin Cultural Diversity

Agricultural Experiment Station

South Dakota State University Q U.S. Department of Agriculture c,; f I I I t� hroughout most of Ameri­ T can history, society attempted to blend or assimilate its many ethnic groups, expecting the "melting pot'' to pro­ vide strength, vitality, and cohesive­ ness to society. Not until 1970 was The this philosophy first challenged (Glazer and Moynihan 1970). Hutterites Americans then began to realize that we had not all blended, either cul­ turally or racially. The strength and vitality of our nation now appear to · A Study i� ·cultural Diversify; lie in its diversity of cultures.

A renewed appreciation for cultur­ al differences gives us an opportunity to examine a truly unique culture, Dr.Jam es Satterlee, one that has changed little in over Departmentof Rural Sociology four centuries and that has thrived SouthDakota StateUniversity for more than a century in South Dakota. The people of this culture lead a quiet and peaceable life differ­ ing significantly from the dominant culture, not only of the larger Ameri­ can society, but also of their rural South Dakota neighbors. These peo­ * ple are the Hutterite Brethren.

The Hutterites are often con­ Acknowledge ments fused with Mennonites or Amish. While the Hutterites, Mennonites, and Amish all exist as a result of the . This research signifiesan on-going interest in the Hutterite culture represented same Anabaptist rebellion against by� or than30 years of studyby staffmembers of the Department of Jµir;b:l � the Catholic Church during the Soaology. atSouth Dakota State University. This studywas conducted through Reformation of the 1500s, the Hut­ surveys and numerous visits to many of the South Dakota colonies during the terites are a very distinctive reli­ summer and fall of 1992. Having been involved in previous department studies gious sect. What sets Hutterites of the 1950s, 60s, and �Os, I welcomed the opportunityto return to the field and _ apart is their communal way of life. renew acquaintances with many finepeople who seek nothing more than under­ standing. The communes are, for the most I wish to acknowledgeLuAnn Burckhardt, MaryBrashier, and Duane Hanson part, agricultural enterprises, highly fortheir work � the preP_aration of thispublication and the South Da�ta Agri­ advanced technologically and highly c.ultural F.xpenmentStat1on and the Bush Foundation CulturalDiversity Grant isolated socially. Spread for the most for support in publishing. part throughout north-central United I also would like to thanktlie Reverend Sam WipfSr. (colony minister) and _ States and the west-central provinces his. sonSam ":1Pf Jr. (German teacher) for their advice and time in reviewing of Canada, the communes seek no and commentingon the manuscript converts. High birth rates alone pro­ �t, but not least, I dediqzte thispublication to "Jake" who made thispossible of, vide the impetus to expand·colony byhis mere presence and intermittentreminders �hat was most important numbers. This expansion creates hard feelings among some outsiders. Dr. Jim Satterlee Neighboring farmers often see the growth in colony numbers as a threat to their own agricultural exis­ tence, as price and scarcity of avail­ able land become ever more critical

1 issues in agriculture. Others have Figure 1. 16th century Protestant Reformation typecast Hutterites as foreign speak­ ing and have accused them of plot­ HOLY ROMAN CHURCH ting to take over agriculturethrough their expansionist activities. Conservative Protestantism Liberal Protestantism I I • Anabaptist Movement HISTORY AND ORIGINS I I Luther Calvin Wesley Hutterites Mennonites Switzerland-Moravia I Amish The Hutterite movement in the U.S. traces its origins to the Protes­ tant Reformationof the 16th centu­ were forced to leave Switzerland members were put to death by ry. Just as division occurred and find refuge in Moravia (Ger­ authorities. In some cases entire between the Catholic and Protes­ many). As the Anabaptist move­ colonies vanished. tant churches, so did divisions ment grew in numbers, doctrinal occurwithin the new Protestant disputes led to even furtherdivi­ movement. A Protestant group sions. Those who believed in com­ Russian Migration formed in Switzerland under the munal living, the community of leadership of Ulrich Zwingli A centuryof persecution continued goods, and the rejection of military employed a more conservative throughout Europe. In 1760 the violence (Hutterites) were expelled interpretation of the Bible, resulting Empress of Austriaordered the from the main body of the Swiss in the Anabaptist movement. demise of the Hutterites-jailingtheir Brethren in 1528 (Treece 1967). leaders, baptizing their children, The Anabaptist doctrine sought burningtheir colonies, and com­ Under the leadership of Jacob to follow closely in the footsteps of pelling survivors to attend Catholic Wiedenman, this small group of 190 Jesus and his immediate apostles as Mass. The Hutterites, reduced to persons established the first commu­ describedin the New Testament. small wandering groups, migrated to nal church which immediately began But even within this Anabaptist Wallachia (now Rumania). movement, further divisiveness to grow in numbers. Fiveyears later, Jacob Hutter, a hat maker, occurred, as a more radical wing With a promise of exemption under the leadership of such men as joined the group and soon became from military service and religious Grebel, Mantz, and Conrad taught its new minister. Under his leader­ freedomby the Czaress of Russia salvation by regeneration and bap­ ship, greater refinement tookplace (Catherine The Great), the Hut­ tism upon confession of faith and in the patternof communal living, terites and other Anabaptist groups only upon the request of the person and the group eventually came to be entered Russia in 1770, remaining to be baptized (Miller 1965). known as the Hutterites. In 1536, there until the 1870s. Hutter was apprehended by govern­ TheProtestant groups headed by ment officials and burned at the In the 1870s, and under the Luther, Calvin, Wesley, and others stake in Innsbruck, Tyrol (Austria). reign of Czar Nicolas, the military were soon recognized by the secular He died a martyr (Miller 1965). exemption was revoked. Again the rulers. The Anabaptists, however, Anabaptists (Hutterites and Men­ were rejected by both the Catholic The Hutterites and other nonites) were forced to seek a new . and the moreliberal Protestants. In Anabaptist groups such as the Men­ homeland. 1527 the Swiss Anabaptists respond­ nonites organized under the leader­ ed by formalizing the tenets of their ship of Menno Simons flourished beliefs. These were to consist of a fora while. By 1578, SO Hutterite Migration to AmeriCa belief in adult baptism, separation of colonies contained an estimated Churchand State by withdrawal, and 16,000 members. An understanding between the a rejection of violence by refusing to U.S. government and Governor beararms (Pratt 1969). Yet, intensified persecution by Jayne of the Dakota Territory both the Catholic Church and vari­ assured a Hutterite delegation to Because the Holy Roman Church ous governments forced Hutterites the U.S. of religious freedom and and the newly established and rec­ and other Anabaptists to move from freedom from military duty, and ognized Protestant churches saw one country to another. Unwilling from the need to assist in war in them as a threat, the Anabaptists to fight bac� an estimated 3,000 any way (Westhorpe' 1919).

2 Figure 2. Anabaptist movement. and military conscription in their homeland. South Dakota attracted large numbers of these non-Hut­ terite Russian-Germans, and they became the dominant ethnic group in the state (Luebke 1977).

The period between Hutterite set­ tlement in the 1870s and World War I saw a rapid increase in the number of colonies in South Dakota. C.Olony construction followed the James River as it was a source of wood sup­ ply and building materials. By 1913 the "mother" colony, Bon Homme (Schmieden Leut), had given birth to three daughter colonies (Milltown, Maxwell, and Huron) which had in turn given birth to two additional colonies (Rosedale and James Val­ ley). Wolf Creek Colony (Darius Leut) had produced four daughter colonies (Jamesville,Tschetter, Spink, and Byron) and one grand­ daughter colony (Richards). Elm Springs (Lehrer Leut) had produced three (Rockport,New Elm Springs, and Melford) (Riley 1970).

WWI Reformation of the 16th century World War I brought another round of persecution. The Hut­ The Hutterite migration from people became known as the Lehrer terites would not give willingly to · three Crimean (Ukraine) villages Leut (teacher's people). the war effort and, therefore,were began in 1874 when a group of Hut­ considered "enemies" of the U.S. terites underthe leadership of Mike Upon arrival in the U.S., the Their refusal to purchase U.S. War Waldner, a blacksmith, arrived in 1,200 Hutterite migrants were Bonds and to send their young men America and purchased land and an given a choice by their leaders of to war brought down the wrath of old trading post near the capital of establishing themselves in com­ their neighbors. the Dakota Territory, Yankton munes or settling on private, indi­ (South Dakota). The colony site vidual family farmsteads. Those In one incident, three young Hut­ was named Bon Homme after the 800 that chose to separate from the terite men were drafted into the mil­ nearby town and was settled by colonies came to be known as itary. Theirrefusal to participate in W aldner's people who came to be "prairieleuts." Many of these peo­ the war effort resulted in imprison­ known as the Schmieden Leut (the ple later joined with their Anabap­ ment where one died under suspi­ blacksmith's people). This was fol­ tist neighbors, the Mennonites. cious circumstances. This incident lowed by the migration of a second and the feeling that the earlier group led by Darius Walter. These The Hutterites and Mennonites pledge by GovernorJayne had been people (Darius Leut) settled near were not the only migrants to South broken (the state of South Dakota Freeman, S.D., in what was to be Dakota at this time. Many German­ cancelled their corporation status) named Wolf Creek Colony. A third Russians also came from Russia, prompted the colonists to begin a group under the leadership of a some enticed by the advertisements search fora new homeland. Enticed teacher, Jacob Wipf, arrived in 1877 extolling the "opening of the West" by Canada, 16 of the 17 colonies and established a colony (Elm to agricultural settlement. They, sold theirland and livestockin 1918 Springs) near Parkston, S.D. These too, were fleeing the ''Russification" and began their move northward to

3 Manitoba. By 1934 only the mother pered, as did most other farmers. Present Situation colony, Bon Homme, remained in But colony growth raised concern South Dakota. among their neighbors. Beginning The number of Hutterite colonies with restrictive legislation in 1944 in the world has grown to 3 68 in In 1935 the South Dakota Legis­ by the Canadian province of Alber­ 1993. The largest number of lature, facedwith an enormous ta, attempts were made to prohibit colonies is in Canada (252) fol­ number of farm foreclosures, passed the sale or lease of land to Hut­ lowed by the U.S. (113). South legislation designed to encourage terites. The outcome was the Com­ Dakota has 51, Montana 40, Min­ the colonies to return to South munal Property Act enacted in nesota 5, North Dakota 6, and Dakota. This legislation granted Alberta in 1947 which restricted Washington 5. Colonies also exist privileges to communally owned colonies to 6,400 acres in size and in Pennsylvania (2), Connecticut (1), and New York (3). farms similar to that of corporate prevented establishment of new farms. This would again allow the colonies within 40 miles of an exist­ The eight colonies in the eastern colonies to incorporate. ing one. In 1954, Manitoba also proposed limitations to growth in U.S. (Pennsylvania, Connecticut, New York) and in England and Ger­ These inducements, plus new and the number of colonies. many are a fourth Leut, recently more restrictive legislation in Manito­ 1955, the South Dakota Legisla­ added to the Hutterian Brethren. ba, brought seven of the 16 colonies In ture passed a bill designed to stop the This Leut (Arnold Leut) originated back from Ginada (Hostetler 1974). expansion of colonies in the state. At in 1920 with the Woodcrest Society Along with the one remaining moth­ the time the state was home to 17 of Brothers in Germany under the er colony (Bon Homme), they were colonies with an estimated popula­ leadership of Dr. Eberhard Arnold. all of the Schmeiden Leut. The Dar­ tion of 1,650 persons (Riley 1966). The movement was first recognized ius Leut and Lehrer Leut colonies by the main body of Hutterites in remained in Canada and never The South Dakota legislation was 1931 when Arnold was ordained as returned (Riley 1970). designed to repeal the Communal a Hutterite minister. The majority Corporate Act of 1935 which had of colonies in this Leut migrated to enticed colonies back from Ginada. England, Paraguay in South Ameri­ WWII The legislation prevented further ca, and ultimately to the U.S. expansion of the present colonies These eastern H utterite colonies are The Schmeiden Leut colonies and formation of any new ones. The which.reestablished themselves in bill was appealed and found to be South Dakota enjoyed a degree of invalid by a State circuit court. How­ Figure 3. Numberand distribution prosperity. As WW II began, atti­ ever, the South Dakota Supreme of Hutterite colonies, 1992. tudes toward conscientious objec­ Court upheld the law in a 1958 rul­ tors were less hostile as the U.S. ing which permitted the state to pro­ World ...... 368 government had adopted more hibit further expansion by allowing Canada ...... humane policies to handle religious no new colonies to be established as 252 Alberta ...... objection. Hutterite men were corporations. The court ruled as ;. 116 Manitoba ...... 90 allowed to fulfill their obligation by invalid those portions of the bill Saskatchewan ...... 4 ''work of national importance" which prolubited the expansion of 5 British Columbia ...... under civilian direction in the Civil­ already existing colonies. 1 ian Public Service. Many were United States ...... 113 assigned to the Red Cross, church In effect, the legislation did little South Dakota ...... 51 camps, and the U.S. Forest Service. to restrict the number of new Montana ...... 40 Hutterite men continued to partici­ colonies, as the Hutterites estab­ North Dakota ...... 6 pate in these alternative programs lished new colonies as "associations." Minnesota ...... 5 until the end of the military draft in Washington ...... 5 the 1970s (Hostetler 1974). Attempts continue to be made New York ...... 3 throughout the states and provinces Pennsylvania ...... 2 Colony contributions to war to limit the expansion of the colonies. Connecticut ...... 1 relief efforts also produced a less In 1992 the South Dakota Legislative threatening environment during Agricultural Committee considered a England ...... 1 this war. bill designed to prevent the purchase of land for communal farming. The Germany ...... 1 Following World War Il, colonies committee voted 8 to 1 to def eat the Nigeria ...... 1 in both Canada and the U.S. pros- bill (Argus Leader 1992).

4 Map 1. Distribution of the Hutterite colonies-plains states and ence Board) which consists of two provinces, 1992. delegates from each of the colonies comprising the Conference. The Alberta • • • delegates elect a three-person exec­ • • • • •• • • • • utive committee (chairman, vice D Edmonton • • • • Saskatchewan chairman, and secretary) for a 2- • • • • Manitoba • • • • • • • • • • • • year term. The Church and Confer­ • • • • • • • • • ... ,. z • • D Saskatoon • ence Boards exercise control over • • •• , . • • D • . : • • • . . . . Church dogma and discipline. Each Calgary • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• colony, however, has complete con­ • • • • • • D • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • •• • • • • Regina • • • • : trol over its own secular affairs • • • • .• • • D • .t:� DWinnipeg "'·:!"- i. : • • • Brandon • • (Hutterian Brethren 1950). •• • • • •• •••. . •• • • . : �-· . · . \ • .• • Given the domination of Hut­ D terite life by religion, the institu­ • Great Falls. • • tions of family, economics, govern­ ment, and education seIVe to reen­ • • •• • • • North Dakota force a life of austerity, conformity, • •• • Montana Aberdeen:.o • and simplicity. ---- r- ----1 • • • •·. • • · .,• · · =. . . . :. Membership size in a Hutterite • • community is controlled. Colonies • � o Sioux Falls South Dakota • • • • will range in size from 50 to 150 per­ sons. This is considered a viable size for a cohesive, controlled community. highly involved in industrial-com­ 3). The "Church" which is made up mercial enterprises, as opposed to of these four conferences is adminis­ Structural integration is accom­ the agricultural focus of those in tered by a Board of Managers plished through the formal organi­ the Upper Great Plains and Canada appointed by each Conference. The zation of the colony. An elected (Peters 1976). Board of Managers in turn elects Council of Elders serves at the helm from its membership a president in determining all aspects of the While for purposes of this publi­ (senior elder), vice president (assis­ sacred and secular life of the com­ cation, the Arnold Leut is consid­ tant senior elder), and a secretary­ munity members (Fig 5). ered as one of the fourbranches of treasurer for 3-year terms. the Hutterite Brethren, there are The Council of Elders is usually many ministers among the three Each Conference also sets up its made up of five to seven males who traditional Leuts who feel the own governing structure (Confer- are baptized and married. The min- Arnold Society colonies are but a fringe group and should not be con­ sidered as the equivalent of the older Leuts. Many feel their failure to adhere to the basic tenets of the movement violate the original agreement when Eberhard Arnold was ordained as a minister in the Hutterite Church in 1931.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

Gove rning Structure

The Hutterian Brethren Church in North America is organized under a constitution which sets forth the Arti­ cles of Association. The church con­ Hutterite communes are, for the most part, agricultural enterprises, highly advanced sists of four "conferences" (Darius technologically and highly isolated socially. A Hutterite colony is a tightly knit, closely Leut, Lehrer Leut, Schmeiden Leut, controlled community of no more than 150 persons. When a colony gets too large, it Arnold Leut) which encompass all is divided, with half the population moving to the newly formed daughter colony. 365 colonies in North America (Fig (Photo by Dr. L. Anderson, Dept. of Geography, Mankato State University, Mankato, Minn.)

5 Map 2. Distribution of Hutterite colonies-South Dakota, 1993.

e Spring Creek e Sunset Plainview I • Long Lake •Grassland • � Newport Deerfield e Aberdeen Pembrook e II e Huttervil

Blume garde Evergreen Thunderbird • Brentwood Watertown--­ Clark Ill • Hillcrest

e Fordham e Claremont I I e Mayfie ld e Poinsett

Brookings Miller Dale Riverside II • I Spring Lake e Pearl Creek

• Gracevale

e rland Sioux Falls II

ister, assistant minister, andfann as the actual day-to-day head and Assigned to him are department boss are automatically Council mem­ spokesman for the Council and com­ heads in charge of specific aspects of bers, with the remaining member­ munity as he ministers to the spiritu­ the economic endeavor. Several of ship elected for life by the voting al needs of the members. The fann these assignments go to women members of the congregation (males boss (steward), also elected by the (head chef, head seamstress, and in who are baptized and manied). voting members, is delegated. respon­ some colonies head gardener). sibility for economic aspects of the The Council of Elders makes all colony. He assigns jobs and duties, Worldly possessions and am use­ basic decisions which then are purchases goods and seIVices for the ments are considered counter to brought before the congregation for colony, and overseesthe economic colony religious rules. Dance, the­ approval. The colony minister seIVes well-being of the community. ater, cards, smoking, motion pie-

6 Figure 4. Hutterite Brethren Church.

Board of Managers (3 Delegates/Conference) I President •I (Senior Elder) I Vice-President (Assistant Senior Elder) I Secretary/Treasurer

Schmeiden-Leut Lehrer-Laut Darius-Laut Amold-Leut Conference Conference Conference Conference

Chairman Chairman Chairman Chairman I I I I Vice-Chairman Vice-Chairman Vice-Chairman Vice-Chairman I I I I Secretary Secretary Secretary Secretary I I I

Conference Board Conference Board Conference Board Conference Board 2 Delegates/Colony 2 Delegates/Colony 2 Delegates/Colony 2 Delegates/Colony � � � Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony

tures, television, and radio are gen­ nal dining, may not sleep in the fami­ erally off-limits. Failure to live up ly apartment, and will be given iso­ to the rules of the colony will bring lated work assignments. Even com­ "strappings" to children. While par­ munication between the guilty per­ ents have major responsibility for son and the immediate family may children's discipline, all other adults be severed (Khoshkis 1976). also correct disobedience. The Ger­ man teacher is the assigned party Defections from thecolony by most responsible for child discipline members seeking to leave the outside the home. Brethren are often exaggerated by outsiders. Forty-one South Dakota Adults who deviate will be pub­ colonyministers responded to ques­ licly admonished, made to stand in tions concerningthe extent to which church and admit their sins. Contin­ members have left in the past 5 years. ued deviance may bring about a deci­ The central difference between the The number ranged from a response sion by the Elders to "shun" ( ostra­ Hutterites and other Anabaptist groups of only one to as many as 33. One cize) the person whereby colony is their beliefs concerning communal colony had lost four entire families; living. ''What's mine is thine," according members will refuse to recognize or another had dissolved its status as a to the Acts 2:44 and 45, " and all that interact with the guilty party who believed were together and had all colony because of economic problems may also be excluded from commu- things in common." and presently operates under the

7 Figure 5. Colony structure.

Co unci l of Elders I

Co lony Assistant I Minister Minister German (President) Teacher

Steward (Farm Boss)

(Secretary/Treasurer) I

Head Chef Gardener Machine Poultry Cattle Hog Dairy Field Farm Boss's Teacher's Shop Boaa Boea Man Boaa Wife Wife

management of a numberof indepen­ status differentiationis kept to a The actual process of colony divi­ dent Hutterite families. minimum, for their compensation or sion begins when the Council of personal property rarely changes Elders divides the mother colony The ministers in this study pointed with rank. All eat, work, are families into two groups based on out that approximately 80% of those clothed, and are housed in a similar the skill levels among the house­ who have left (usually young men) manner. In responseto questions of hold heads. This assures that the do return, serving a probationary individual compensation, ministers new colony will benefit by a mix of period upon their return. Most min­ in this study of South Dakota ages and skills. Families have the isters indicated theywould accept colonies indicate the standard is right to appeal their reassignment the defector back with an outside $12/year/individual or as needed to based on individual desires, hard­ spouse, but only under very strict cover expenses ifa person requires ship cases, or a desire to remain conditions related to commitmentto food and lodging for business trips with a particular minister. the faith. No outside spouses to outside the colony. defectors areknown to live in the At this point, colony members do South Dakota colonies. Another opportunity for gaining not know which group goes and high-prestige positions occurs at which group stays. The day of the Not all individuality is set aside ''branching." The need to divide move, lots are drawn by the two in the Hutterite socialization the colony through branching ministers. This precludes any con­ process and forthe good of the occurs on average every 14 years, scious or unconscious assignment of larger community. Limited oppor­ allowing for a complete duplication the best equipment, etc., by mem­ tunity for self-expression and differ­ of all formal positions within the bers, for neither group will know in ential prestige does exist, as per­ new daughter colony. Given high advance which colony site will sons are elected or appointed to birth rates (average family size is serve as their home after division. positions within the formal organi­ seven persons), the colony will zation of the colony. divide as the population size reach­ es a maximum of 150 persons. Religious Beliefs While some persons do gain pres­ Branching means a regrouping of tige because of a position as depart­ nuclear families and the formation Basic religious tenets have guided ment boss or even as minister, the of a new social organization. the Hutterites through 418 years of

8 restrictions on apparel and orna­ mentation (Riley 1970).

The Hutterites believe theirway of lifeis God-sanctioned and God-com­ manded. They believe that God is the Creator and supreme all-power­ ful being to whom all should give obedience. All Hutterite behaviors are sanctionedby this infinitelywise Deity who must be obeyed even to martyrdom. These beliefs are revealed through a literal interpreta­ tion of the scriptures and are regard­ ed as direct expression of the will of God (Riley 1964).

All baptized members of the colony make up the "Gemein" or church. While women play a role in Hutterite families tend to be large, averaging seven people including parents. At the church activities they are not eligible age of three Hutterite children are placed in the "little school," where they are to vote or hold formal leadership introduced to concepts of community priority over the individual, total sharing, and positions in the colony. Five to seven strict discipline. As the child becomes older, the immediate family gives up more baptized married men are elected to control of the socialization process to the community system. serve on the "Council of Elders." The colony minister, who serves at the pleasure of the Council, is the formal figurehead forthe colony, seeking existence. TheAnabaptist movement While the Mennonites and the advice on most matters. The minis­ as a conservative reaction to the Holy Amish uphold the same tenet of vol­ ter represents the colony in all reli­ Roman Church in the 16th Centwy unteerchurch membership at adult­ gious activities such as funerals, mar­ differed from the Catholic Church hood, they differ most from the Hut­ riages, and baptisms. He often also and the more liberal Protestant terites intheir beliefs concerning represents colony interests in affairs movements in the belief that the communal living. This Hutterite between colonies and with the out­ church should be a group of volun­ belief was based on a fundamental side. At least twice annuallyhe will teer adults, baptized upon confession principle of a community of goods: join with other ministers of his Leut of faith at adulthood. ''What is mine is thine," according to at meetings under the direction of the Acts 2:44 and ·4s, "and all that the Conference Elder who represents Mennonites are the best-known of believed were together and had all the Leut in all churchrelated activi­ the Anabaptist groups, with over things in common." ties. He may be called upon by the 200,000 members in the U.S. and a Leut Elder to sit on a Conference half million members worldwide. The principle of nonviolence is not Board committee to consider issues pertinent to Leut activities. Ten sub-sects make up this group, unique to the Hutterites as it too is ranging from Old Order Mennonites practiced by other groups such as The minister receives no formal to the more liberal sectswhich differ Quakers and Amish. Biblical passages education prior to his election. He little from traditional Protestant from Luke 2:8-20, Isaiah 2:1-14, must be conservative in his religious churches. Mennonites encour­ Micah 4:1-4, and Romans 12:14-21 are values yet be sufficiently open to aged to obtain higher education and support belief in nonresistance. this change in the economic endeavors of are employed in all walks of life. the colony. He has responsibilities to In addition to these basic tenets maintainbirth, marriage, and death The Old Order Amish, a 121,000- are beliefs in isolation and noncon­ records and travel records. He acts membersplinter group of the Men­ formity based on Romans 12:2 stat­ as counselorand arbitrator and over­ nonites, is the most orthodox and anti­ ing that nonconformity is expected sees the lifelong indoctrination of worldlyof all 10 Mennonite groups. in all situations where standards of his people (Hostetler 1974). livingon individualf arms, Amish the world come into conflict with manifesttheir differences mainlyin the Bible. These tenets are further Traditionally, religious services adhering to traditional "horseand realized in admonitions against were conducted in a colony build­ buggy" customs (Bradley 1992). pride, patterns of discipline, and ing (school, dining hall, etc.) not

9 associated with a formal church structure, for a separate church building was associated with the "outside world" which had perse­ cuted the group. More recently, some colonies have seen fit to con­ struct separate colony churches.

In addition to the usual Sunday services, the ordained minister is responsible for religious services each evening. As in all verbal com­ munication within and between members, service is conducted in a dialect of German. Sermons are drawn from the Great Chronicle, a large hand-written volume which is still preserved in several locations Hutterite families live in apartments that are assigned to them according to the in South Dakota and Canada. number of members of the family. Clothing and furniture in the apartment belong to the family. Everything outside the apartment is communal property and is Hutterite society maintains a shared by all members of the colony. All families share a common colony kitchen high rate of population growth and dining hall. without relying on converts from outside. While the practice of send­ ing out missionaries occurred in the early history of the sect, this has individual nuclear familyplays a birth is followed by a postpartum been discontinued, eliminating any much different role in the socializa­ period of approximately 6 weeks in problems associated with assimilat­ tion process than would be true in which the mother is allowed total ing a large number of outsiders. more secular societies (Peter 1963). freedom from work assignments to When ministers in this study were Food purchase, its preparation, and care for her baby. Following this asked ifthey would accept converts dining are colony functions, as the period, the mother is given a flexi­ from outside into their colony, 35 family members share a common ble work schedule so she may nurse of the 51 indicated they would, but colony kitchen and dining hall. The the baby for at least a year or until with certain stipulations on com­ family is assigned an apartment she becomes pregnant again. mitment. Such a practice would which may change as the family appear to be extremely rare today. grows in size. The furniture, clothes, A mother seldom takes her and items within this apartment are ''house children" (under age 3) with the private property of the family; her while she works. Other chil­ Family anything outside the apartment is dren, grandparents, and fathers considered communal property share the care of the small child. At Since the entire institutional sys­ owned by all members. The consti­ age 3 the child is placed in the "lit­ tem within the colony revolves tution of the Hutterite Church specif­ tle school" (kindergarten) and around religion, the family function ically spells out the absence of indi­ remains in this environment until is to support the church. The fami­ vidual rights to communal property ready for German school at age 5 ly has no real economic basis, as upon defection. years. During this 2-year period the principle of exchange (work for (age 3-5) the child is socialized to money for food) is completely Child rearing. Because of respect authority of all persons in absent. The family is dependent strong opposition to birth control, the surroundings, tolerate a very upon goods which are distributed the size of the H utterite family restricted environment, and accept by virtue of custom in accordance averages seven persons including reward for a cooperative, docile, with religious sentiments. parents. Pregnancy brings no major and passive response to correction changes in a women's work role and frustration (Hostetler and Just as lines of authority in other and responsibilities. Traditionally, Huntington 1967). spheres of colony life are dominated child birth was attended by colony by males, so is the family. However, midwives; however, most colonies Mothers take turns being respon­ because the strong center of authori­ today look to neighboring commu­ sible for the kindergarten and intro­ ty is in the community (colony), the nities for medical services. Child- duce the children to acceptable Hut-

10 terite behaviors: the priority of com­ initiated by the young men, help in munity (group) over the individual, the seeking of eligible mates. total sharing, and strict discipline regardless of parental presence. The Marriages are conducted only on importance of the immediate family certain Sundays throughout the lessens in the socializationprocess as year; therefore the ceremony may the community comes to play a involve as many as four or five cou­ much stronger role. All adults have ples. An engagement ceremony at both the right and the responsibility the bride's colony serves as public to correct deviant behavior. As the notice of a couple's intentions. child grows older, the family relin­ quishes even more of its social con­ The actual wedding takes place trol to the community system. at the groom's colony. A formal wedding ceremony is conducted by At age 5 the child begins "Ger­ the groom's minister and followed man" school, studying the Bible and by a wedding meal complete with learning hymns and the Tyrolean cake, gifts, and singing. Because German language. At age 6 the there may be several couples children join the public school Organically grown produce, such as involved, visitors from several (English) on the colony grounds. sweet corn, onions, and potatoes, is a colonies contribute to a happy affair On their 15th birthdays, youth source of income as well as sustenance and renew acquaintances. enter a transitional stage between for many Hutterite colonies. Because Hutterite material needs are minimal, a childhood and adulthood. They are Other than being required to grow South Dakota colony needs only about allowed to sit with the adults in the a beard, the new role and the adjust­ 45 acres of land per person to support dining hall and be assigned adult its members. ment of the groom to marriage is work assignments, but they are still minimal. The adjustment for the treated as children in their religious bride, however, is much more trau­ education and preparation. They matic as she leaves parents and are given a catechism and books friends to live in the groom's colony. necessary to prepare for eventual when they feel they are ready, usu­ Being a "stranger," she must rely baptism. They are required to ally at age 19 or 20 for girls and 20 heavily on her husband for informa­ attend SundaySchool (Sunday to 26 for boys. tion on how things operate in the afternoon) and memorize assigned new colony and for support. religious materials, all under the Baptism opens the door to mar­ supervision of the German teacher. riage for the young adults. It also Aging. The Hutterite colony marks the change in status of young has no set age at which one must This transitional period allows men from generalists in the agricul­ retire. The elderly are given high greater freedom, for they are not tural operations to more specialized respect, and many look forward to attached to specific departments or roles in a specific department. a "deserved rest" from the everyday work details nor bound by school. Women's roles change little as they assigned chores of the colony. They Travel outside the colony and dating continue to rotate between work may spend more of their time trav­ are allowed with the permission of assignments in the laundry, eling, going to town, and visiting the minister and German teacher. kitchens, gardens or kindergarten. with friends and neighbors.

It is during this transitional peri­ Courtship. Courtship may To continue work beyond the od that both young men and begin prior to the formal baptism usual age of 45-50 for women and women tend to test the system, when young adults are given 50-55 formen is optional. Women experimenting with aspects of the greater traveling rights to visit are relieved of the rotation assign­ outside world. Some may leave, other colonies on errands, etc. ments and help out whenever they although most of them will return Courtship may last 2 to 5 years. may be needed. Men in higher to enter the next stage in the family prestige positions find it more diffi­ life cycle-baptism and full adult Marriage within one's colony is cult to relinquish their position and acceptance and participation. limited; potential mates may be too so are often moved onto the Coun­ closely related. This is monitored cil of Elders so that the colony may Baptism is a Hutterite's total sub­ by the colony minister and the benefit from the years of wisdom mission to God and the community. immediate family. For this reason, accumulated in such positions. This Young people request baptism trips to other colonies, most often also allows younger men to move

11 up within the colony and at the presumed to be innocent of sin and same time allows the older men to therefore are spared a lifelong remain on the Council until death. struggle of self denial from the temptations of life. Ministers are allowed to retain their positions until their health or A funeral service, much like a preaching abilities diminish. birth or marriage, brings friends Research indicates that life and relatives from several colonies expectancy forHutterites is similar together for the event. The funeral to that of the outside world, except and burial in the colony cemetery that the men tend to live longer further integrate the colonies at all than the women (Hostetler and levels. Friends and relatives renew Huntington 1967). acquaintances and young people from several colonies look for Old age brings health problems prospective marital partners which are treated through the use (Hostetler and Huntington 1967) . of outside medical services. When No age is set for retirement in the a marriage partner dies, the sur­ Hutterite community. After about age vivor will move in with their chil­ Education 45 for women and 50 for men, dren or occupy an apartment next Hutterites can reduce their workload as door to the children. Grandchil­ The Constitution of the Hutterite they see fit. The elderly are given high dren are often given the responsi­ Brethren Church specifically states respect, and many look forward to a bility of helping the elderly by run­ that every child must have an edu­ "deserved rest" from the everyday ning errands and bringing meals cationin skills and religion. The chores of the colony. Others, such as this broom maker, continue contributing fromthe dining hall into their fourlevels of formal education are specialized skills long after they are apartments. kindergarten, German school, Sun­ given the opportunity to slow down. day School, and the English school. Death. Death to a Hutterite, The first three are conducted by the regardless of age, is controlled only colony and the fourth underthe by God. This is truewhether it be rules set up by the state or province the Hutterites and brought to the· the death of a baby at birth or the in which the colony is located. new world with the migration of death of a elderly person. In fact, colonies in the 1870s. In the those who die in childhood are Kindergarten. The "kinder­ colony, the kindergarten is man­ envied by adults in that they are garten" concept was invented by aged by middle-aged and older Hut­ terite women. It operates as a day­ care center and serves as the first introduction to the Hutterite virtues of respect forauthority and group cooperation. Children leave the confines of the family apartment as ''house children" at age 3 to be placed in the kindergarten until age 5 when they will enter the German and English schools.

German School. The purpose of the German School is twofold: teaching the German language and the religious tenets of the Hutterite Brethren. This includes learning to write German script, read German, and recitereligious hymns, the Books The "community" is central to Hutterite beliefs. Women work and sing together as they husk corn from the colony's gardens. Children play and do their chores in of Psalms, and the New Testament. groups. Department heads and apprentices work at tasks together. The entire colony eats meals together in the dining hall. From early childhood on, Hutterites are · In addition.the Germanteacher taught to hold a very different view of the individual than people in the outside world. has responsibility for admonishing

12 local Mennonite College, passed certification requirements. At pre­ sent only four colonies in South Dakota have their own certified Hutterite "English" teachers.

The status of the Hutterite Eng­ lish school has been the basis for dis­ agreement between the state and local (county) governing officials and the colonies. The Hutterites contend that as taxpayers they have the right to a school subsidized by local government. They say their school is not a "private" school, but rather a quasi-public school. They say that the number of children pre­ sent in the colony justifies a school on colony grounds. The state and local officials contend that the cost of education has increased to the point that consolidation of such rural schools into larger community schools is a necessity. Hutterite �hildren attend both German and English schools until age 15. In English school children learn the "basics" --arithmetic, science, reading, and writing in . Given that the Hutterites want English. In German school, children are taught the German language and the basic and need the benefits of the "Eng­ tenets of the Hutterite Brethren. The German teacher is also responsible for lish" school, a number of experi­ punishing children for behavior at odds with colony rules. ments have been tried and compro­ mises have been made. Experi­ ments in establishing Hutterite high misbehavior and wrongful beliefs. education to be certified as an schools and in sending Hutterite Discipline is strict, and various "English" teacher by the state or children into town to integrated degrees of "strapping" seive to bring province. In South Dakota, the Hutterite/non-Hutterite schools the child into line with colony rules. state has certified several Hutterite members who have, through self­ (Doland, S.D. in 1961; Elkton, S.D., instruction and attendance at a in 1993) have not worked out. German school is conducted usu­ ally before and after English school each day, a half day on Saturdays, and all day during vacations. Ger­ man school introduces the children to work: girls in the kitchens, laun­ dry, and child care areas; boys in the livestock barns, implement sheds, and fields.

EnglishSchool. The English school, although mandated by the state or province, is welcomed, for Hutterites place much importance on learning the ''basics" (arithmetic, science, and reading and writing in English). Social studies is often seen as ''learning the worldly ways" and yet, as it is state mandated, must be taught by the "English" teacher. After completing German/English school, young girls begin as helpers, cleaning, . . . . With few exceptions the English pamtmg, gard?mng, preparm� food, and laundering. After marriage, they are given more respons1ble w�rk. Marriage partners are usually from different colonies, and in school is taught by an outsider. A . all ases, the wife will move to her husband's colony, an event that often means a Hutterite does not have sufficient � period of some adjustment as she is separated from family and friends.

13 or being arrested by local authori­ ties for some act such as underage drinking, etc.

Socio-Economic Characteristics

Agricultural Operation. Most Hutterites depend upon agricultural enterprises as the main means of colony sustenance. Since their begirmingin Europe four centuries ago, agriculture has provided the self-sufficiency and the isolation nec­ essary to allow the religious move­ Young men, fresh from completing German/English school, run the farm machinery ment to survive. and take on the hard manual labor. Older men hold more responsible, supervisory roles. For some seasonal tasks children are released from German school to help The belief in communal owner­ the adults. These early work experiences help prepare children for their adult ship extends to all aspects of the responsibilities to the community. agricultural enterprise: all land, equipment, and colony facilities are owned by the colony. The Constitu­ Compromises in the form of the toward adulthood and punishing tion of the Hutterite Brethren enact­ local governments providing fund­ unseemly behavior. Because of ed in 1950 states very specifically ing for the outside certified teachers increased freedom during the transi­ that neither members nor defectors and the colony providing the fund­ tion to adulthood, older youth are can place any personal claims on ing forphysical facilities (school prone to more transgressions. Pun­ the communally owned property. building, electricity, heat, etc.) and ishment may take the formof admis­ supplies have been the most work­ sion of guilt before the Sunday Because material needs aremini­ able solution for both parties. All school group, having to stand in the mal, a colony needs between 3,000 colonies contacted in this study back of the room during evening and 16,000 acres of land to support indicated they operated an "Eng­ church services and, for the more its members, depending on whether lish" school. Total enrollments in severe violations, before the entire the colony is located on the grass­ all colonies amounted to approxi­ congregation at the service on Sun­ lands of Montana and Saskatchewan mately 1,200 students with a range day morning. Thismore severe pun­ or on the more productive lands bor­ in school size from 50 students to ishment is usually only for males as dering the com belt of Minnesota 13 students (average 16/school) . it is seen as too severe for girls. and South Dakota. South Dakota colonies averaged 4,731 acres in Sunday School. The fourth Such acts as being caught going 1992 or approximately 274 school is conducted entirely by the to a movie or smoking would most acres/family (45 acres/person). colony and prepares young people likely be handled within the Sunday for formal entry into the communi­ school. More severe infractions . An overview of the demographic ty through baptism. It is required would be defined as sneaking away andeconomic characteristics of the 51 of all German and English school from the colony without permission colonies in 1992 is given in Figs 6-8. students (age 6-15) plus those who have completed German/English school but have yet to be baptized (age 15-20). Sundayschool meet­ Figure 6. Population characteristics of South Dakota Hutterite ings are conducted Sunday after­ colonies, 1992. noons by the German teacher and reinforce the Sunday morning Number of colonies ------51 church sermon. Population ------4,648 Number of families ------838 The Sunday school serves the Average population/colony ------91 transition period in the lives of Average number of families/colony ------1 7 .3 young Hutterites by pushing them Average number of persons/family ------6.7

14 Figure 7. Agricultural and setting up government boards to characteristics of South Dakota review applications for expansion. Hutterite colonies, 1992. The effect of these numerous Number of colonies 51 attempts to limit expansion both in the U.S. and Canada has been the Population 4,731 dispersion of newly formed colonies Acres operated 212,889 over a much larger geographic area. % of land rental 10.2 While most colonies in South Dakota % land in cropland 73 were aligned along the James River Average acres/colony 4,730 prior to the 1955 legislation, today Average acres/family 274 they are spread throughout eastern Average acres/person 45 South Dakota and into North Dakota andwestern Minnesota.

Labor. The division of labor in the colony is according to age and All colonies are somewhat diver­ sex. Among males, those complet­ sified, operatingboth field grain ing German/English school at age and livestock industries. Specializa­ 15 are expected to enter the labor tion in livestock was more common force of young men responsible for Hutterites believe in self-sufficiency. in 1992 than in previous field stud­ running the colony's machinery. ies (Fig 8). Each colony attempts to be as Tractors, trucks, and combines are independent and self-sustaining as usually operated by young men possible by producing most of the Twelve colonies listed enterpris­ between 18 and 25 years of age. goods and services it uses. This es in which they sold products or practice goes beyond economic services to the outside. These By age 35 most men have moved motivation--it keeps down contacts amounted to: into specialty positions, tapering off with the outside world. ------Electrical product repair 3 from hard manual labor as the ------Operate lumber yard - - 1 younger males take over such ------Stainless steeVmetal fab. 3 duties. Hard work is always recog­ ------Build stock equipment 2 nized and serves as the basis for Operate ------feed mill ------1 promotion in the socialstructure. Manufac ------ture pipe ------1 No age is set forretirement, as men years), they are given more respon­ Custom combining ------1 over SO can reduce their workload sible work. By the time they reach at their own choosing. 35, most have independent jobs Colony Division. Approxi­ such as kindergarten teacher, mately every 14 to 15 years, the Young girls upon completion of kitchen boss, tailoress-seamstress, colony grows in population to an school begin as kitchen, cleaning, or gardener. By age 45, a woman optimum size (150 persons), consid­ painting, gardening, food prepara­ usually retires from organized rou­ ered a maximum formaintenance of tion and laundry helpers. As they tine work and is left to do work of the primary group. A colony must marry (at approximately 18-20 her choice (Peter 1963). be productive enough to that it can duplicate itself and establish a daughter colony. This means the accumulation of sufficient wealth to Figure 8. Livestock and poultry production, 1992. duplicate machinery, physical plant, housing, andlivestock. Livestock/ Number Colonies Range Poultry in 1992 reporting in size

This need for expansion often rais­ Beef 4,680 17 1,000-25 es suspicion and criticism from the Dairy 3,066 22 500-10 outside. Numerous attempts by gov­ Sheep 1,100 2 600-500 ernments to limit expansion have Turkeys 1 ,141 ,066 19 140, 000-24.000 taken the fonnof proposals to estab­ Hogs 165,525 46 10,000-95 .lish minimum distances between Chickens 142,200 23 80,000-400 colonies, talcingaway their corporate Ducks 24,620 28 2,000-10 status, setting maximum acres/colony, Geese 14,405 17 10,000-130

15 Economic decisions are made no who determine the sacred (religious) between various work roles. Both differently than any others. Ultimate aspects of colony life. Each Leut and, grow into positions of prestigein authority rests with the Council of in turn, the individual colonies in middle age and are allowed great

Elders, through the colony minister each Leut practice a democraticform · freedom andveneration with age. and steward (farmboss) . All mem­ of governance with elected officials. bers are required to work according The colony integrates its economic to their ability. Every week the stew­ enterprise and its kinship and social­ CONCLUSIONS ard makes the work plan and assign­ ization proces5es under an overall ments in consultation with the minis­ umbrella of its religious beliefs. It is The Hutterite Church and the cul­ ter and assistant minister, with non­ the community (colony) which car­ ture as a whole serve as a reminder routinejobs assigned on a daily ries the responsibility for socialization of America's commitment to accept basis. As on any diversified farm, and the self-sustaining aspects of life immigrants of all colors, creeds, and work load varies with the season. In designed to meet the needs of all of religious beliefs. The Hutterites are a the off-season, labor resources are its members. Authority is centered in people dedicated to a verybasic and shifted toward improving or expand­ baptized males who in turn select conservative interpretation of the ing the colony facilities-adding or elders to represent their sacred and Christian Bible. Yet their economic remodeling buildings, overhauling secular interests. From birth the indi­ enterprises represent the most engines, and maintaining machinery. vidual is socialized to set aside indi­ advanced and up-to-date agricultural viduality infavor of the group, to be technology. Different than their The discretion to explore and submissive and obedient to the rules Mennonite and Amish cousins, they experiment with new economic activ­ of colony life. Respect for order, have defined a unique way of life, a ity is left strictly to the colony. There authority, hard work, and coopera­ combination of the sacred and the is no need to seek permission from tion are dominant features of the secularwhich allows for a religious Leut and Church authorities. This Hutterite personality. practice rich in tradition and relative­ differs from the "sacred," as the over­ ly free from dependence on and all Hutterian Church has ultimate Education is totally within the intrusion from the outside world. authority in directing any changes in colony as kindergarten, German and the religious sphere of colony life. English schools, and Sunday schools dominate the lives of children from age 3 until baptism at approximately Published In accordance with an act passed In 1881 by the 14th Legislative Assembly, Dakota SUMMARY 20 years of age. Freedom of Territory, establishing the Dakota Ag ricultural courtship and mate selection allows College and with the act of re-organization passed In 1887 by the 17th Legislative Assembly, Which for the exchange of persons between The Hutterite Brethren is one of established the Agricultural Experiment Station at the oldest swviving communal soci­ colonies and contributes to long last­ South Dakota State University. Educational ing friendship and acquaintances. programs and materials ottered without regard to eties known. Hutterite colonies are age, race , color, religion, sex, handicap, or under authority of a Council of Elders Work is divided by age and sex as national origin. An Equal Opportunity Erfl>loyer. representing fourbranches (Leuts) in men tend to specialize in various eco­ 4,000 printed at a cost of 50 cents each , the United States and Canada and nomic endeavors. Women rotate September 1993. AX 124

REFERENCES Khoshkis, A. 1976. Decision-making within Riley, M.P. 1974. Hutterites and their agri­ a communal setting: a case study of the culture: 100 years in South Dakota. Hutterites. International Review of Soci­ Brookings: SDAES Bull 669. Bradley, M.D. et al. 1992. Churches and ology 6:52. church membership in the U.S.: 1990. Riley, M.P. 1970. South Dakota Hutterite Atlanta: Glenmary Research Center. Luebke, F.C. 1977. Ethnicgroup settlement colonies: 1874-1969. Brookings: SDAES on the Great Plains. Western Historical Bull 565. Constitution of the Hutterian Brethren Quarterly 8(4):412. Church and rules as to community of Riley, M.P. 1966. Hutterites: South Dakota property. 1950. Hutterian Brethren. Miller, T.R. 1965. Story of Christian loyalty. communal farms. Brookings: SDAES Bull Fordville, N.D.: Forest River Hutterite 530. Glazer, N., and D.P. Moynihan. 1970 Beyond Colony. the melting pot Cambridge: MIT Press. Treece, J.W. 1967. Theories of community Peter, K. Values, states, and organiza­ 1963. development. Storrs, Conn.: Societyfor tion of systems variables. Journal of the Hostetler, J.A. 1974. Hutterite Society. Bal­ the Scientific Study of Religion. timore: Johns Hopkins University Press. SociologyClub. Edmonton: Universityof Alberta. Westhorpe, A.W. 1919. Quaint people since Hostetler, J.A., and G.E. Huntington. 1967. third century. Sioux City, Ia.: Daily Tri­ Peters,V. 1976. Process of colony division Hutterites in North America. New York: bune, July 19. Holt, Rinehart, Winston. among Hutterites. International Review of Modem Sociology 6:63. Hutterites win debate to limit land expan­ sion. 1992. Sioux Falls, S.D.: Argus Pratt, W.R. 1969. Anabaptist explosion. Leader, February 5. National History Magazine, February: 335.

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