Chief Scientist’s Office
Friends for Life New partners in support of protected areas
Edited by Jeffrey A. McNeely
Friends for Life New partners in support of protected areas
Edited by Jeffrey A. McNeely
Friends for Life New partners in support of protected areas
Edited by Jeffrey A. McNeely
IUCN – The World Conservation Union 2005 The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and UNEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
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Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK
Copyright: © 2005 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
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Citation: Edited by McNeely, Jeffrey A. (2005). Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. ix + 232pp.
ISBN-10: 2-8317-0834-6
ISBN-13: 978-2-8317-0834-8
Cover design by: McHale Ward Associates
Cover photos: © Jim Thorsell, Russell A. Mittermeier/Conservation International, Haroldo Castro/Conservation International, Thomas O. McShane (see inside back cover for details)
Layout by: McHale Ward Associates
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The text of this book is printed on Fineblade Smooth 115gsm made from low chlorine pulp. Table of contents
Foreword Kenton Miller vii
Preface Jeffrey A. McNeely ix
Introduction: building broader support for protected areas Jeffrey A. McNeely 1 1 A taxonomy of support: how and why new constituencies are supporting protected areas Jeffrey A. McNeely, Kent H. Redford and Assheton Stewart Carter 11 2 Extractive industries as a new constituency for protected areas Assheton Stewart Carter 21 3 Urban dwellers and protected areas: natural allies Ted Tryzna 35 4 The role of hunting in promoting protected areas Kent H. Redford and Miranda Mockrin 49 5 Building support for protected areas using a “one health” perspective Steven A. Osofsky, Richard A. Kock, Michael D. Kock, Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka, Richard Grahn, Tim Leyland and William B. Karesh 65 6 Protected areas and the security community Anne Hammill 81 7 Protected areas and development assistance agencies: at the intersection of conservation and development Thomas O. McShane 91 8 Protected areas and local and indigenous communities Lea M. Scherl 101 9 Protected areas and indigenous peoples: the Durban contributions to reconciliation and equity Peter Bille Larsen and Gonzalo Oviedo 113 10 Building cultural support for protected areas through sacred natural sites Allen Putney 129 11 Building support for protected areas through tourism Robyn Bushell 141 12 Making connections: the tactics, art and science of building political support for protected natural areas David Ostergren 155 13 Contribution of the World Heritage Convention to building support for the global protected area system Jim Thorsell 169 14 Communication as a means of building support for protected areas Wendy Goldstein and Elisabeth Auchincloss 177 15 Some conclusions and ways ahead Jeffrey A. McNeely 191
Acronyms 197
List of contributors 198
References 201
v
Foreword by Kenton Miller
Protected areas have become part and parcel of global services e.g. fresh air and water, soil, moderating debates on such issues as security, human rights, genetic climates, and buffering impacts from severe weather. resources, foods and medicines, access to land and Rather than being elective luxuries which only rich resources, social and cultural values and human heritage. societies can afford, protected areas are essential Yet, while there are growing efforts to secure these areas, components of the human enterprise in societies at all protected areas are also experiencing direct and indirect stages of development and degrees of affluence. The threats to their very survival. What must be done to body of policies that lies behind this evolving vision protect these precious and often unique places has been includes the premise that achieving human security debated over the past several decades since the earliest depends upon guaranteeing the security of nature itself. World Parks Conference in 1962. In the meantime, Planning and managing protected areas in the 21st however, accelerating forces of change are bringing century will require forms of integrative thinking and greater challenges to the protected areas management practice that reach “outside of the box”. For example, enterprise at local, national, and global levels. Climate new social and economic thinking and practice include a change, rising sea levels, invasive species, changing focus upon the Millennium Development Goals, the habitats and expanding human settlements have direct Convention on Biological Diversity, the World Heritage impacts on existing protected areas. Current and Convention, and the Wetlands Convention (among other proposed sites are facing new policies related to international agreements). These instruments now governance, finance and access to resources. Growing provide goals and objectives for action and investment, populations with increasing demands for water, food, into which work on protected areas must be integrated. energy and fibre, and with changing food preferences As some would say, “that is where the action is”. and employment needs, are creating pressures around the periphery of existing sites, resulting in what Norman Integrative thinking and practice in the 21st century Myers called “the salami treatment” where small but calls for consideration of the rights of all people, with significant slices of protected areas are removed in particular concern at the present time for indigenous and favour of agriculture, forestry, mineral extraction and local communities. Several authors have stressed that human settlements. planning decisions must be based upon economic and ecological principles as well, and include corridors The authors of these chapters are a microcosm of the amongst individual areas and their surrounding participants at the 5th World Parks Congress who debated landscapes. A basic concern that continues to warrant three pioneering and controversial issues: the rapidly careful analysis is how to equitably share the costs and evolving vision of protected areas; the kinds of the economic, social, cultural, spiritual and other integrative thinking and practice that will be needed in benefits derived from the “use” of protected areas. The the coming decades; and the imperative of cooperation authors stress the need for continuing research and and agreement among protected area constituents, as sharing of experience on this issue. well as between them and society at large, if we are to achieve secure human communities that benefit from Finally, perhaps the most profound issue emanating and enjoy nature and natural resources. from the Congress is the recognition that little progress will be made in coming decades without agreements The evolving vision of protected areas encompasses being forged on fundamental issues amongst critical not only individual parks, but also areas which protect constituencies. These same individuals and groups must agricultural and settled landscapes and reach across establish new and effective ways to cooperate in taking national boundaries. In the past, idealistic values sufficed decisions, formulating and implementing standards, to justify the establishment of protected areas. evaluating progress, and deducing and sharing “lessons Increasingly, however, well managed systems of learned”. protected areas are recognised as requirements for human wellbeing and survival, through protecting All of the aforementioned issues are further biological diversity and providing vital ecosystem complicated by the growing trend towards decentralizing
vii the management of protected areas, one implication of This book brings together, like no other, the experience which is the challenge of sharing and disseminating and wisdom of the leading thinkers and practitioners of effective strategies. Similarly, science and practice are protected area planning and management. Jeff McNeely generating new knowledge, yet little is being shared has long been an effective instigator of new ideas and where it is most needed. debate related to protected areas; in this book, he successfully integrates the disparate and often complex literature and debate regarding protected areas, deducing the “lessons learned” by so many researchers, managers, teachers and local communities.
Kenton Miller (retired) (recently, Chair, IUCN/WCPA, and Vice-President, Conservation and Sustainable Development, World Resources Institute)
viii Preface by Jeffrey A. McNeely
Every ten years since 1962, IUCN has worked with with communicating the benefits of protected areas, as various partners to convene a major international a means of providing a more coherent picture. All of conference bringing together those individuals who are this work has also contributed to the Durban Action working on protected areas. The first two, held in Seattle Plan, the Durban Accord, the recommendations of the (1962) and Yellowstone and Grand Teton national parks Congress and other products (IUCN, 2005). (1972), dealt primarily with national parks. Starting in As one contribution among many, this book certainly 1982, as the concept of protected areas began to spread does not attempt to cover all of the critical issues facing well beyond national parks of the Yellowstone model, the protected areas. Other volumes are expected to deal Congresses have been held in developing countries. In with topics such as effective management, protected 1982, the Congress met in Bali, Indonesia; in 1992, the areas and urban environments, economics of protected Congress was convened in Caracas, Venezuela; and in areas, completing the system of protected areas, 2003, the Congress gathered in Durban, South Africa communications (Auchincloss and Goldstein, 2004), (the latter was postponed for a year because of a tourism in protected areas, links to local people (Scherl scheduling conflict with the World Summit on et al., 2004) and building links to the numerous Sustainable Development, also held in South Africa). international conventions that are relevant to protected Over the years, the Congresses have grown steadily, areas. We hope that this book will provide support to all from a few dozen participants in 1962, to a few hundred of that work as well. in 1972, over 500 in 1982, about 2000 in 1992, and over 3000 in 2003. This growth reflects the growing The workshops that led to this synthesis would not international interest in protected areas and parallels have been possible without the support of numerous the growth in numbers and extent of protected individuals and institutions. Funding for this series of areas themselves. workshops came from numerous donors, led by the government of Germany through GTZ and the Global As the numbers grew, so did the complexity of the Environment Facility through the UNEP Division for meetings. The first two Congresses each produced a GEF coordination. Shell International also contributed. single volume (Adams, 1962; Elliott, 1974); the Bali Thanks also go to Conservation International and the meeting produced a major proceedings volume Wildlife Conservation Society for their significant (McNeely and Miller, 1984), plus two technical contributions. Workshop organizers included David volumes (MacKinnon et al., 1984; Salm and Clark, Ostergren, Allen Putney, Ana Puyol, Kent Redford, Lea 1984), and the Caracas meeting produced a Scherl, Uday Sharma, Jason Switzer and Ted Tryzna. proceedings volume (McNeely, 1993), plus numerous Secretarial support was provided by Elise Jueni and additional volumes (McNeely, 1994; Barzetti, 1993; Wendy Price, and Frederik Schutyser provided Amend and Amend, 1995; Harmon, 1994; Lewis, administrative support to organizing the workshops. 1996; Thorsell, 1992; Kemf, 1993; Saunier Thanks also are due to the IUCN Protected Areas and Meganck, 1995; McNeely, Harrison and Dingwall, Programme, including David Sheppard, Peter Shadie 1994). and Pedro Rosabal Gonzales, who were responsible for The Durban Congress undoubtedly will lead to even organizing the overall World Parks Congress. Sue more useful products for the protected areas Mainka and John Waugh provided helpful comments community, of which this book is one. It is the result of on the introductory chapter. Thanks also go to all the a stream of workshops held at the Congress on the workshop contributors and participants for many broad topic of building support for protected areas. The fruitful meetings and discussions. Elaine Shaughnessy papers each present a synthesis of considerable and Tiina Rajamets oversaw the production of the additional work that was reported in each of the volume and helped us catch the inevitable respective workshops. The book also enlisted a typographical errors. To all of them we owe a great vote contribution from a separate set of workshops, dealing of gratitude. Jeffrey A. McNeely, Gland, Switzerland, 30 March 2005
ix Introduction IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim Building broader support for protected areas
by Jeffrey A. McNeely
The history of protected areas Asia, and mythical and spiritual relations with plants and animals throughout the world (McNeely and Nature and humanity form a continuum, and the Wachtel, 1991; Suzuki and Knudtson, 1992). These coexistence of people and nature is the result of a traditional approaches once enabled people to live in a history of interaction as old as our species. People kind of balance with the available resources through have played an important role in forming the sustainable harvesting, though the many ecosystems that are today considered “natural”, and archaeological sites bear silent witness to past failures. drove many species to extinction when they moved into “new” territory, such as the Pacific Islands On many oceanic islands, people learned that their (Martin and Klein, 1984; Williams, 2003; Diamond, survival depended on placing certain coastal and 2005). Many protected areas surround the ruins of marine areas off limits to exploitation, either ancient civilizations. Ranthambore in India, Mesa seasonally or permanently under systems of Verde in the US, Machu Picchu in Peru, Tikal in restrictions that were given social power so that the Guatemala, and Angkor Wat in Cambodia are only a desires of individuals did not lead to socially- few of the most famous examples, but archaeological undesirable levels of exploitation (Bellwood, 1978; sites are to be found in many – perhaps most – of the Winslow, 1977; Radcliffe-Brown, 1939). Such world’s protected areas and many contain religious cultural agreements to keep certain areas off limits – shrines or sacred sites. protected – served as an implicit form of self- regulation that prevented over-exploitation, targeted at While civilizations ebbed and flowed, the thousands critical spawning times for fish, ecologically sensitive of local cultures devised ways to manage their areas, or other systems of resources requiring resources to bring benefits to the community while protection. They thus served at least some of the maintaining productive levels of the harvested functions of modern protected areas in settings where resources. Surviving examples of these traditional over-exploitation would have rapid negative feedback conservation measures include sacred forests in many (Diamond, 2005). Similar social restrictions parts of Africa and Asia, taboos in the Pacific, characterize most traditional communities and can be community forest management among many reasonably effective when the pressures of population, mountain cultures, restrictions on marine harvesting technology, and external markets are low (Johannes, in eastern Indonesia (Zerner, 1994), hunting rituals in 1989). various parts of Australia, Africa, Latin America, and
Photo: Historic sanctuary of Machu Picchu, Peru.
1 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Government-declared protected areas have a long Yosemite, colonial powers established various forms history. In the year 252 BC the Emperor Asoka of of control over resource use in South Africa, India, India passed an edict for the protection of animals, and other parts of their colonial empires. Protected fish, and forests, the earliest documented areas grew slowly until after World War II, but post- establishment of what we today call a protected area war reconstruction, accelerating development, and (Gadgil, 1989). The first nature reserve in Indonesia rapid population increase began to put greater was established in 684 AD by order of the king of pressure on resources. Governments recognised that Srivijaya, on the island of Sumatra (Schnitger, 1964). pre-war forms of conservation were inadequate, and Babar, the first Moghul Emperor of India, is said to that stronger measures were required to prevent have hunted rhinos in special reserves established for environmental degradation. In order to meet national that purpose in the floodplains of the Punjab during needs for an appropriate balance among economic the 15th century (Gadgil, 1989). Forest reserves growth, resource exploitation, and conservation of covering some 20% of the island were established on nature, governments over the past three or four Tobago as early as 1764, designated as “reserved in decades have invested heavily in planning and wood for rains”; rain reserves still exist today as the establishing formal protected areas (Figure 1). These oldest reserves of their kind in the world (Grove, sites have also extended government influence into the 1992). most remote areas.
The modern protected area movement is generally The early protected area networks grew in an ad hoc considered to have begun with the establishment of fashion, focusing on remote areas with beautiful Yellowstone National Park in the US State of scenery or plentiful wildlife but little value for other Wyoming 1872, though in fact Yosemite in California forms of development, or building upon the hunting was declared by the US Congress in 1864 as a or forest reserves established by local rulers or nationally-recognised area of outstanding interest to colonial administrators. More recently, as the impact the general public. Prior to Yellowstone, or even of development on natural habitats has become more
Figure 1
Growth of protected areas
20,000,000 100,000 Cumulative area of sites of known date 18,000,000 Cumulative no. of sites of known date 16,000,000 80,000 14,000,000 Note: 38,427 PAs covering approximately 4 million km2 have no date and are not included in the cumulative graph 2 12,000,000 60,000
10,000,000 Area in km Area 8,000,000
Number of sites 40,000
6,000,000
20,000 4,000,000
2,000,000
0 0 1908 1913 1918 1923 1928 1933 1938 1943 1948 1873 1878 1883 1888 1893 1898 1903 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 Year
Source: WCMC, 2004.
2 Building broader support for protected areas
apparent, many countries have designed and of IUCN (1994): “Areas of land and/or sea especially established extensive protected area networks to dedicated to the protection and maintenance of conserve representative samples of the country’s biological diversity, and of natural and associated biodiversity. Indonesia, for example, established a cultural resources, and managed through legal or other national goal in the early 1980s of having 18 million effective means.” Protecting natural areas is no longer ha protected as protected areas and 30 million ha as seen as a process of eliminating people from the land, protection forests, to offset the 65 million ha to be but rather of integrating conservation objectives and used as production forest (Sudarsono and Suhartono, human activities in an appropriate manner that assures 1992). Now governments are looking increasingly to the future of both people and the rest of nature. While protected areas to provide economic opportunities some areas are so fragile or important that human both to local communities and to the nation as a whole influences must be minimized or excluded (McNeely, 1993; CBD, 2004). completely, many others achieve conservation objectives while enabling appropriate uses by people, However, governments have many competing ranging from tourism to sustainable use of some demands on their limited supplies of funds, expertise, renewable resources. and political capital. Meeting their national conservation objectives and obligations under Protected areas are of crucial, and growing, international law (such as the World Heritage importance because they help to maintain the Convention, Wetlands Convention, and Convention diversity of ecosystems, species, genetic varieties and on Biological Diversity) is encouraging governments ecological processes (including the regulation of to mobilize more support from more sources. This water flow and climate) which are essential for book will suggest approaches for doing so, in ways supporting all life on Earth and for improving human that contribute to the national interest. social and economic conditions. They do this by protecting genetic varieties and species which are vital A fundamental point is that protected areas are not in meeting human needs, for example in agriculture “set aside”, but rather are designated to provide or and medicine, and providing the basis for human support a wide range of ecosystem services that social and cultural adaptation in an uncertain and benefit various interest groups. This introductory changing world. In some countries, protected areas chapter highlights some of the development benefits also are home to communities of people with of protected areas, demonstrating that this form of traditional cultures and irreplaceable knowledge of land use can make important contributions to human nature. welfare (and the national economy) and describing some policy measures for delivering those benefits to In short, well-designed and managed protected various parts of society. It will provide a foundation areas can provide major direct and indirect benefits to for the main part of the book, which will provide local and national economies (McNeely, 1994; examples of how “non-traditional” sectors – those not Terborgh et al., 2002). usually considered part of the community of protected areas supporters – are already supporting protected Protected areas are needed in order to safeguard areas and can be encouraged to be even stronger biological diversity and other ecological services in partners in the future. their own right and as assets for the future. Indeed, they are potentially the most effective form of land use in many settings, in economic as well as The benefits of protected areas ecological terms. The fact that virtually all countries As defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity, have established protected areas indicates “protected areas” are geographically defined areas government commitment to ensuring that this which are designated or regulated and managed to generation passes on to future generations a world achieve specific conservation objectives. Several that is at least as diverse and productive as the one we other definitions are also widely used, including that enjoy today.
3 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Recognising the need for a range of approaches to categories of protected area can include sustainable protected areas, from strict protection to sustainable utilization of renewable resources as a management use, IUCN (1994 and 2004) has devised a system of objective, to conserve biological diversity, provide protected area categories based on objectives for sustainable benefits to local human communities from management (Box 1). Although national parks by the use of those resources, and maintain significant definition need to be protected against resource cultural relationships between people and the rest of harvesting on a commercial scale, other categories of nature. For example, IUCN Category V and Category protected areas – such as species management areas, VI can be used for protecting traditional forms of protected landscapes, and managed resource agriculture, as an integral part of a national protected protected areas – can be established around the strictly area system. A critical point here is for each protected protected areas to prevent them from becoming area to have a management plan that defines biologically impoverished islands, or can stand by “sustainable use” – whether consumptive or non- themselves to make important contributions to consumptive – in practical terms relevant to the systems of land management. Several of these particular site. Box 1
The IUCN system of protected area categories I. Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area. Areas IV. Habitat/Species Management Area: Protected of land and/or sea possessing outstanding or Areas Managed Mainly for Conservation representative ecosystems, geological or Through Management Intervention. Areas of physiological features and/or species, available land and/or sea subject to active intervention for primarily for scientific research and/or management purposes so as to ensure the environmental monitoring; or large areas of maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea, requirements of specific species. retaining their natural character and influence, V. Protected Landscape/Seascape: Protected without permanent or significant habitation, Areas Managed Mainly for Landscape/ which are protected and managed so as to Seascape Conservation and Recreation. Areas preserve their natural condition. of land, with coast and sea as appropriate, where II. National Park: Protected Areas Managed the interaction of people and nature over time has Mainly for Ecosystem Conservation and produced an area of distinct character with Recreation. Natural areas of land and/or sea, significant aesthetic, cultural and/or ecological designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of value, and often with high biological diversity. one or more ecosystems for this and future Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional generations, (b) exclude exploitation or occupation interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance inimical to the purposes of designation of the area, and evolution of such an area. and (c) provide a foundation for spiritual, VI.Managed Resource Protected Area: Protected scientific, educational, recreational and visitor Areas Managed Mainly for the Sustainable opportunities, all of which must be Use of Natural Ecosystems. Areas containing environmentally and culturally compatible. predominantly unmodified natural systems, III. Natural Monument: Protected Areas managed to ensure long term protection and Managed Mainly for Conservation of Specific maintenance of biological diversity, while Features. Areas containing one or more specific providing at the same time a sustainable flow of natural or natural/cultural feature which is of natural products and services to meet community outstanding or unique value because of its needs. inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. Source: IUCN, 1994a.
4 Building broader support for protected areas
Ecosystem services from While virtually all ecosystems provide at least some protected areas of the listed services, protected areas where biologically diverse ecosystems remain intact are Protected areas provide significant ecological services likely to be particularly valuable (e.g., Tilman et al., to local communities, the nation, and the international 1997; Hooper and Vitousek, 1997; MEA, 2003). community. A list of some of these services and the functions they carry out is presented in Box 2. One of the most important ecosystem services, Particularly important services at the community level especially in view of the major investments in water include soil regeneration, nutrient cycling, pollination, resource management, is the stabilizing of recreation, regulation of disease (Osofsky et al., this hydrological functions. As an example of economic volume), provision of pure water, and maintenance of costs of poorly-managed watersheds, in the USA, the functioning ecosystem which yields harvestable about 880 million tons of agricultural soils are resources, and cultural services such as a sense of deposited into reservoirs and aquatic systems each place (MEA, 2003). Such benefits are often difficult year, reducing their flood-control benefits, increasing to quantify, and even local people may take them for operating costs of water treatment facilities, clogging granted. Ecological services do not normally appear waterways, and shortening the lives of dams. The in corporate or national accounting systems, but they annual damages to water storage facilities from far outweigh direct values when they are computed; sediments carried by water erosion in the US amounts one review estimated that coastal ecosystems provide to US$841 billion per year, with another $683 billion services worth over US$4,000 per ha per year, while in damage to navigable waterways, $2 billion in per hectare annual values of tropical forests are placed damage to recreational facilities, and $1 billion for at US$3,000, wetlands at nearly US$15,000, and lakes other in-stream uses (Pimentel et al., 1995). and rivers at US$8,500 (Costanza et al., 1997). Watersheds whose functions are stabilized by protected areas could greatly reduce such damages and provide significant economic benefits.
Box 2
Ecosystem services: The benefits people obtain from ecosystems
Provisioning Regulating Cultural
Goods produced or Benefits obtained from Non-material benefits provided by ecosystems regulation of ecosystem processes from ecosystems
food climate regulation spiritual fresh water disease regulation recreational fuelwood flood regulation aesthetic genetic resources water purification inspirational biochemicals pollination educational cultural heritage
Supporting
Services necessary for production of other ecosystem services
Soil formation Nutrient cycling Primary production
Source: MEA, 2003.
5 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
gums, honey, medicinal plants, mushrooms, Maasai Mara National Park, Kenya. ornamentals, resins, and timber have been harvested sustainably for thousands of years. The local people have often developed mechanisms for managing these resources and allocating the benefits among the community, though history shows that some resources were over-exploited to the detriment of the community (Diamond, 2005; Edgerton, 1992; Le Blanc, 1999).
Tourism, which can be seen as a cultural service, is undoubtedly the most well-known economic value of protected areas, providing a source of cash income to numerous stakeholders at local, national, and international levels (Bushell, this volume). A particular challenge is involving local communities, who quite accurately view visitors as often having
© Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey very different cultures, lifestyles, and perspectives than their own, and may disrupt the local economy. Experience from various parts of the world Many local communities may have their own demonstrates that protected areas are a cost-effective perspectives on the kinds of activities that may be management option for maintaining healthy appropriate for visitors, while many visitors remain watersheds that produce a steady and reliable source oblivious to these perspectives (Scherl, this volume; of water. For example, 7600 ha of cloud forest in the Larsen and Oviedo, this volume). La Tigra National Park in Honduras provide the capital city of Tegucigalpa with 40% of its drinking Tourism from protected areas can bring water at a cost of about 5% of its second largest considerable income, without threatening the natural source; Guatopo National Park in Venezuela provides resource base (if properly managed). In Kenya, 20,000 litres per second of high-quality water to tourism is one of the largest export industries, earning Caracas, justifying an expenditure of over US$15 over US$400 million per year; thousands of jobs exist million to buy out timber and farming interests in the because of the tourists visiting Kenya’s magnificent area; and the value of the hydroelectricity produced by coast and wildlife parks. Divers spend about $30 Venezuela’s Canaima National Park (3 million ha) is equivalent to 144 million barrels of oil per year, about million per year at the Bonaire Marine Park in the US$7.2 billion at the current price (Garcia, 1984). Netherlands Antilles, $14 million in protected areas in the British Virgin Islands, over $53 million per year in Allocating protected areas can bring significant marine protected areas in the Cayman Islands, and changes in the remote areas where many such areas $23 million in Virgin Islands National Park in St. are designated. The people living in those areas have John’s (OAS/NPS, 1988). long depended on the natural resources that are available there. Experience and logic indicate that Tourists are willing to pay for the benefits they local communities are likely to support protected receive from protected areas. For example, the US areas to the extent that such areas continue to provide National Park Service has reported that despite a benefits to them, especially in the form of continued doubling in admission fees at many of its facilities, to availability of the resources such areas produce (in $10 for a carload from $5 in 1996, 112 million people other words, emphasising the provisioning service of visited the 374 federal parks, monuments and historic protected areas). Commodities such as animal skins, sites during the first six months of 1997 – an increase bamboo, beeswax, construction materials, dyes, of 4.7% over the same period in 1996. A recent study fibres, firewood, fish, fodder, fruits, game meat, of selected protected areas in Australia showed
6 Building broader support for protected areas
tourism revenues of A$2 billion, as compared to a national treasures only after they have existed long management budget of A$60 million (Driml, 1994). enough to acquire popular constituencies. In the While these examples are from industrialized formative stages, nearly all parks are established countries, visitation rates in many parts of the against fierce local opposition”. They also contend developing world are similarly high (see Bushell, this that the survival of nature “almost uniquely in parks is volume, for a further discussion). inevitable where there are no firm mechanisms in place to prevent unprotected wild lands from being A word of caution converted to human use”.
Economic assessments of the full range of the A common way of trying to earn support from local ecosystem services protected areas provide are part of people is to link development projects to the protected the global move toward a market economy. This areas, in what are often called “integrated economic valuation is broadly endorsed by conservation and development projects.” But these governments, but it can have negative impacts on the have not been as successful as hoped (McShane, this way that resources are managed. By transforming volume). And even when a new protected area is non-monetary values into monetary ones, land, successful in generating economic benefits, other labour, and nature become commodities rather than problems may arise, for example, through attracting part of the cultural heritage that binds the members of people from other parts of the country to settle in and the community to one another (Alcorn, 1997). Over- around the protected area. For example, Ericson et al. reliance on economic valuation, without considering (1999) found that rapid population growth, primarily the broader social, cultural, and ethical justifications attributed to a dramatic rate of in-migration, threatens of protected areas, can be very misleading. As the long-term viability of the Calakmul Biosphere Leopold (1949) has pointed out, “A system of Reserve in Yucatan, Mexico. conservation based solely on economic self-interest is hopelessly lopsided. It tends to ignore, and thus Providing economic benefits to local people may eventually eliminate, many elements in the land that seem to be an obvious solution to conflicts, but the lack commercial value but that are essential to its solution is often somewhat problematic, due at least healthy functioning. It assumes that the economic partly to the vagaries of politics and economics. In parts of the biotic clock will function without the most situations, only a relatively small proportion of uneconomic parts”. Protected areas are essential to the neighbouring community derives financial keep the biotic clock ticking. benefits from tourism or other revenue-earning activities, and the income per capita is relatively low. Involving local people Thus conservation efforts based solely on material A particularly dramatic new force at the 2003 World benefits are often highly uncertain. Parks Congress was the new-found assertiveness of the people who are living in and around protected Although nature and people have co-existed for areas. The indigenous and local groups represented at thousands of years, the increasing population, more Durban pledged support for protected areas and sophisticated technology, and changing social, expressed their wish to be considered as stewards of economic and political structures of today have the land (see Putney, this volume; Scherl, this volume; removed most traditional controls on how resources Larsen and Oviedo, this volume). are harvested. If sustainable benefits are to be provided to local communities (a primary objective of Some people remain pessimistic about gaining local development) and to the nation at large, more effective support for protected areas, at least in the early stages controls may be required to ensure that populations of of establishment. This holds for both the wealthy plants and animals are maintained at productive industrialized countries and the rest of the world as levels. The means of doing this will vary from place to well. For example, Terborgh et al. (2002) conclude place, but the foundations must be built on sound that, “Experience shows that parks become cherished economic and ecological principles. Establishing
7 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
problems. The latest compilation of global protected Valley of Wind in Uluru National Park, Australia. areas indicates that the area of terrestrial protected areas has now almost reached the 12% aspired to by the 1987 report of the World Commission on Sustainable Development (Brundtland, 1987). But significant management challenges remain, as many of the newly-established protected areas remain “paper parks”, little more than lines drawn on a map without a supporting management capacity, and many are found in remote mountain areas with few alternative uses while biologically important lowland areas remain unprotected. Positive forces of change include the implementation plan from the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, which defined targets in key areas that re-commit the world community to the earlier Agenda 21 promises of the Earth Summit and the Millennium Development
IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim Goals (MDGs). Perhaps more important is the well-managed protected areas may provide new renewed commitment to stop biodiversity loss and to approaches to resource management based on support the role of protected areas in doing so, sustainable use, thereby restoring at least part of the through various governmental, intergovernmental, balance that has enabled human populations to survive. private sector, and non-governmental organizations. The approval by the Convention on Biological The current forces affecting Diversity’s 2004 Conference of Parties of a detailed protected areas Programme of Work on Protected Areas is especially notable in this regard. As expressions of social and political choices about land use, protected areas are subject to the multiple The increased recognition of protected areas as forces affecting the relationship between people and potential tools for economic development is another resources. These forces can be positive or negative, or reason why more are being established. But this also both simultaneously. Typically, the provisioning means that more protected areas are competing for service has had the greatest influence on convincing limited funds, as both official development assistance decision makers to take an active interest in (ODA) and tourism income remain stagnant, if not conservation. But abundant evidence has now declining in many countries. Poverty may push people demonstrated the close links between the conservation to invade protected areas to use wild products, of healthy terrestrial and marine ecosystems and the possibly unsustainably, while greater wealth may lead delivery of regulating, cultural, and supporting to even more exploitation of natural resources. Is services. Some local communities and urban dwellers wealth or poverty the greater negative impact? show willingness to pay for such ecosystem services and to adopt land use and crop production systems Demographics remain a driving force affecting that can support the protected areas; others are protected areas, with nearly 80 million people being indifferent, or would prefer protected areas to be added to our planet each year, mostly in developing converted to “more productive” uses. countries. Migration and urbanization are particular challenges (see Tryzna, this volume). Today, about Even today, as security concerns dominate social half of the world’s 6.3 billion people live in cities, well and political agendas (Hammill, this volume), many insulated from the realities of nature (except, of countries are still creating new protected areas and course, from the climate). But one arguably positive seeking innovative ways to address protected area result of expanding population is that tourism to
8 Building broader support for protected areas
protected areas continues to grow. China alone Climate change remains a significant threat, and not welcomes one billion visitors annually to its protected only for island and coastal systems projected for area system, and countries such as Australia, flooding as icecaps and glaciers melt. Based on the Botswana, Canada, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Kenya, projections prepared by the Intergovernmental Panel Nepal, South Africa, and Tanzania, have made nature- on Climate Change, many of the major vegetation based tourism an important part of their national types in various parts of the world are predicted to economies, and recognise the role of protected areas undergo significant biogeographical changes as they in supporting this industry. shift to follow patterns of rainfall and temperature. This is likely to be particularly dramatic in mountain Civil society is accelerating its contributions to areas and in highly distinctive but geographically protected areas. Non-governmental conservation restricted vegetation types, such as South Africa’s organizations have become multinationals in their Succulent Karoo and Fynbos. own right. Fauna and Flora International, WWF, The Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, Thus the current social, economic, political, and BirdLife International, Wetlands International, the environmental forces affecting protected areas, of Wildlife Conservation Society, and numerous others, which the above is a small sample, are a complex are together spending hundreds of millions of dollars combination of positive and negative influences, annually in both developed and developing countries providing rewards with one hand while punishing in support of protected areas. At the national level, with the other, handing out benefits to some and costs numerous other civil society organizations are also to others. The overall picture is one of increasing having significant influences on protected areas, demands for the goods and services of protected reflecting the interests of local people, indigenous areas, against growing threats to the ecosystems groups, urban dwellers, farmers, students, and many which provide those goods and services on a others. sustainable basis. All of this is coupled with the pressure on many governments to expand their The private sector continues to contribute to protected area systems at a time when many rural protected areas, running concessions, providing people are clamouring for their rights to occupy these financial support, and seeking forms of sustainable same lands, often with considerable historical development that will contribute to both conservation justification. Oil, gas, and mining companies also and corporate profits; other activities of the private seek to harvest certain resources while minimizing sector may threaten protected areas. Even though the their impact on others (Carter, this volume). It is world economy is struggling, new developments in against this complex background of chaos, change, information technology (IT) offer interesting potentials and challenge that this book has sought to identify a for protected areas. First, an enhanced and less stronger constituency for protected areas. expensive internet is strengthening knowledge and access to it, which in turn is contributing to building awareness and skills. Second, IT is promoting action by civil society, providing benefits to protected areas by way of support to co-management, political mobilization, and independent monitoring. Finally, some of the wealth generated by the IT sector is finding its way into various foundations which may also provide funding for protected areas. On the negative side, virtual reality has begun to replace nature as the source of experience; watching a flock of flamingos take wing from the floor of Ngorongoro Crater is very different from doing so vicariously through the miracles of modern IT.
9 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
10 chapter 1 © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey A taxonomy of support: how and why new constituencies are supporting protected areas
by Jeffrey A. McNeely, Kent H. Redford and Assheton Stewart Carter
Editor’s introduction A balanced approach to protected area management responsibility for the system’s management under the requires many institutional players to participate in guise of privatization; reduced protection of core strengthening a nation’s network of protected areas, areas in the forlorn hope that buffer zone management so that it can deliver benefits at levels from local to and local development will reduce threats to strictly global. Strengths of a balanced approach include a protected core zones; and inappropriate levels of local fully-represented set of stakeholders, a clear set of control over nationally or internationally important agreed-upon goals and strategies, and more effective resources. This paper introduces many of the issues management of protected areas. Dangers to be that will be considered in further detail in subsequent avoided include governments abandoning their chapters.
Photo: Corbett National Park, India.
11 1 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction Involving the private Protected areas represent one of the most important commercial sector tools in the toolbox of sustainable living. From their The private commercial sector can make numerous early start as sacred groves and hunting gardens contributions to protected areas. The most obvious is through their modern appearance as national parks, financial support, but the private sector can also such areas allow humans to ensure the long-term ensure that its activities around protected areas are survival of large portions of the natural world and consistent with the objectives of the protected area, provide numerous benefits to society. Despite, or provide management expertise, lobby governments in perhaps because of, their importance, the long-term support of protected areas that are providing success of protected areas cannot be taken for granted. important goods and services to the respective Though it is complicated to establish protected areas, enterprise (for example, clean water or tourist establishment has proven substantially easier than destinations), and contribute to broader public ensuring that they are well managed, strongly support. endorsed, and sustainably financed. Attracting private sector support for protected areas Protected areas are spaces identified and declared will be facilitated by identifying and prioritizing through a political process and their success requires specific investment opportunities that can be targeted the on-going support of a broad range of social actors for private sector financing. Efforts should be made to (Redford et al., 1998). Decades of experience across create biodiversity investment opportunities that will all continents, involving thousands of sites, have appeal directly to the financial instincts of the various shown that a key component to achieving the long- interests within the private sector, ranging from term success of protected areas is involving a broad tourism to energy to genetic resources. If suitable range of institutions and interest groups (McNeely, incentives can be provided to enterprises to assume a 1995). To date the support base for protected areas has certain degree of financial risk, a wide range of private been too narrow and instead of broadening this base, investments could be secured by protected area many potential allies have been alienated. As the managers. Encouraging investment will require an world becomes increasingly integrated economically accessible framework for providing information, and increasingly dominated by humans, it is essential structuring negotiations, and ensuring project security. to build alliances and involve the constituencies who While the market itself may be able to regulate can agree on the critical values of protected areas and financially-viable investments, for high-risk ensure that these values are maintained. In order to investments some sort of claim certification must be accelerate the process this book will present synthesis provided; one possibility might be a national papers that show how various social and economic environmental foundation or trust that could provide sectors can contribute to protected areas involving a this sort of secure framework (Sitanon and set of potential allies. Markopoulos, 1996).
Important efforts around the world are seeking to While the market system is already providing a incorporate these different constituencies and some range of benefits, it is also leading to over-exploitation preliminary results are available to assess the robustness in many cases and considerable challenges face those of the new alliances across ecological and political who are seeking to achieve sustainable use. Thus settings. As the protected area estate continues to expand expanding the role of the private commercial sector in faster than protected area budgets, new partners are protected areas carries some risks, including required to enable countries to achieve their biodiversity inappropriate commercialization, lack of long-term conservation objectives. Such new constituencies will commitment, and quality control. often imply trade-offs that require careful consideration. This book will discuss options for new partnerships, The critical factor in enabling the private especially with the private sector, leading to guidelines for commercial sector to contribute more effectively to enhancing support to protected areas from new partners. protected areas is for governments to devise policy
12 A taxonomy of support: how and why new constituencies are supporting protected areas 1
frameworks appropriate to their country that will Genetic resources allow consistent and realistic goals to be developed Protected areas potentially can provide benefits in the and met, with a clear distribution of costs and form of genetic resources to the pharmaceutical, benefits; for example, tax breaks or other economic biotechnology, agrochemical, seed, horticulture, incentives for contributions to protected areas could cosmetic, and phyto-medical markets, but these generate greater private sector support. Because different markets give rise to a wide range of countries are highly diverse in size, complexity, approaches to benefit-sharing. Creating expensive ideology, and economic orientation, region-wide bureaucratic regulatory systems, for example to policies may tend to be very general. As pointed out implement the genetic resources provisions of the by the Convention on Biological Diversity, each Convention on Biological Diversity (Articles 15 and government needs to determine for itself how best to 16), could act as a disincentive to investment by the carry out the broad objectives for which protected industries that have the greatest potential interest in the areas have been established, and how it wishes to biological resources held by protected areas. One involve the private sector. But it is clear that such approach is through the use of intermediaries, policies must be based on an integrated view of the including botanic gardens, universities, research economy, society, and the environment, incorporating institutions, NGOs, and even commercial brokers who good science and assessment of risk and an will collect, identify, and guarantee re-supply of appropriate balance of ecological, economic, and promising materials, acquire government approval for social objectives. collections, broker benefit-sharing agreements, and
Weyerhaeuser Company tree farm in the Pacific Northwest, USA near the Mount Saint Helens National Park. Weyerhaeuser plants more than 100,000,000 tree seedlings each year around the world. © Jason Anderson/Conservation InternationalAnderson/Conservation © Jason
13 1 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
ensure that any benefits arising are shared fairly and This pressure can result in access to reserves being equitably in the source country. Benefits are likely to denied or restricted and opposition from local be maximized when the governments create incentives communities constraining production operations. For for new, varied and equitable partnerships based on the example, Shell production in Nigeria was cut to 40% use of biological resources. One advantage of modern of capacity due to opposition and sabotage from local biotechnology is that only modest amounts of living communities (Austin and Sauer, 2002). materials, sometimes only a few grams, are required to capture the genes necessary for research and As both the protected area system and mineral development, ensuring a negligible impact on the exploration continue to expand, areas of potential protected areas where such collecting is permitted conflict are also likely to increase and the case for the (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen, 1984). conservation community to engage the extractive industries becomes more compelling.
Oil, gas and minerals The long-term nature of oil, gas, and mineral As global demand grows for energy and minerals, development projects presents an opportunity for mining, oil and gas exploration is expanding into companies and civil society organizations to work in some of the world’s most fragile ecosystems within or partnership to mobilize resources and together direct near to the boundaries of protected areas (Rössler, their efforts towards conservation within an 2000). This trend, while promising significant appropriate time scale. Socially responsible energy economic opportunities for both companies and host and mining companies can demonstrate their governments, brings with it risks to important commitment to support protected areas by catalysing biodiversity. Energy and mining companies are often the involvement of government agencies, economic pioneers in relatively undeveloped areas conservation and development organizations, and and their presence can lead to further economic and communities to stem the decline of biodiversity social activities, including migration, spontaneous through systematic planning at a regional scale. settlement, agricultural conversion and infrastructure Careful planning can accommodate both the development that put additional pressure on natural biodiversity values of protected areas and the need for resources and can cause even more harm to economic development from mineral extraction. biodiversity. Because hydrocarbon and mineral development projects have a life of many decades, it is possible for Technological advances have led to a vast much of the initial harm done to biodiversity to be improvement in environmental management at ameliorated. In some cases, benefits to biodiversity mining and oil and gas projects and many potential may even be enhanced; for example, companies can environmental impacts can now be overcome. manage their concession as de facto protected areas. Companies do have limits to their ability to manage Moreover, conservation efforts initiated or impacts outside of their concessions, and forming championed by a company can benefit from a partnerships with conservation organizations can help sustainable flow of funding and political support. them expand their scope for benefiting biodiversity.
Governments and NGOs concerned about Hunting/fishing biodiversity conservation, development opportunities The luxury market for consumptive use of certain for local communities, and rights of indigenous charismatic mammals, birds and fish is increasing. people are paying greater attention to companies Trophy and sport hunters and fishers are willing to choosing to operate in or near protected areas. In pay large sums to be able to obtain a lion, mountain 2000, the IUCN World Conservation Congress sheep, ocellated turkey, tarpon, or steelhead trout. recommended that ‘IUCN’s State members …. Often the animal population from which the Prohibit by law, all exploration and extraction of hunted/fished individual is obtained is found in or mineral resources in protected areas corresponding to near a protected area and all too often none of the IUCN Protected Area Management Categories I–IV’. money paid by the hunter returns to help ensure the
14 A taxonomy of support: how and why new constituencies are supporting protected areas 1
protection of the source population. The same pattern Chitwan National Park, Nepal. is true for local communities whose cooperation is often essential to maintain the wildlife populations. In both cases, hunting and fishing organizations are important new constituencies in ensuring both sustainable businesses and conservation, in protected area categories where such use is permitted (Categories IV, V and VI) (Lewis and Alpert, 1997).
Forestry In many parts of the world, protected areas are surrounded by forest lands designated for logging or being logged. In most of these forests the practices used by forestry companies are actively detrimental to the conservation values of the neighbouring protected area, either through interruption of ecological processes such as waterflow and stream pollution, direct loss of animal species through hunting, or cutting and/or destroying of trees essential for feeding A. McNeely © Jeffrey and nesting of animals with essential resources managed effectively, tourism development can have located beyond park boundaries (Putz et al., 2000). minimal negative impact on natural environments and With the rise of forest certification, logging can act as a catalyst for social development and companies may have the incentives to modify their biodiversity conservation. practices so as to lessen threats to neighbouring protected areas (Rametsteiner and Simula, 2001) Perhaps more than any other industry, the tourism sector has a vested interest in protecting the natural Tourism and cultural resources of the areas in which they Tourism is arguably the world’s largest industry, operate. These resources are often what attract generating more than $4 trillion per year and travellers to a destination in the first place. In an area providing employment for nearly 250 million people blessed with rich biodiversity, it is even more likely worldwide. While all segments of the industry are that tourists are seeking natural and cultural attractions rapidly expanding, nature-based tourism in areas with (Sweeting and Wayne, 2003). significant levels of biodiversity in or near protected areas is increasing at a much faster rate than the Involving public utilities industry as a whole. This rapid expansion represents One of the most important ecological services both a threat to fragile ecosystems and an opportunity provided by protected areas is the stabilizing of to harness resources for biodiversity conservation and hydrological functions. This is particularly important community development. in view of the major investments in water resource Large-scale tourism development involves the management being made in much of the world. As an construction of major infrastructure, increased example of the economic costs of poorly-managed demands for water, energy and waste disposal, and an watersheds, about 880 million tons of agricultural influx of new people, ideas and cultures into an area soils are deposited into reservoirs and aquatic systems (Tour Operators Initiative and Conservation each year in the USA alone. This reduces their flood- International, 2002). This increased activity can lead control benefits, increasing operating costs of water to widespread habitat conversion, pollution and treatment facilities, and shortening the effective lives resource degradation. However, when planned and of dams (Pimentel et al., 1995). Watersheds stabilized
15 1 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
by protected areas could greatly reduce such damages flow of flood waters and allow sediments to be and provide significant economic benefits to those deposited within the floodplain rather than washed operating the dams. into downstream bays, oceans, or reservoirs. Isolated wetland protected areas may serve as detention areas Water scarcity, water-based poverty, and the during times of high rainfall, delaying saturation of equitable allocation of water, are some of the key upland soils and overland flows into rivers, thereby challenges facing global development. Although damping peak flows. Retaining the integrity of these considerable spending is required in the water sector if wetlands by protecting vegetation, soils, and natural the freshwater crisis is to be averted (The “Framework water regimes can reduce the severity and duration of for Action” of the Second World Water Forum [2000] flooding along rivers, thereby contributing to the estimated that total investments in the water sector irrigated agriculture which is so important in many need to increase to US$180b a year), decision makers parts of the world. have been reluctant to attach sufficient importance to water and treat it as a priority for investment. One of Involving non-governmental the reasons is that decision makers are receiving distorted signals from different people who give organizations different values to water, including environmental NGOs, both national and international, have been values, social values, public health values, economic major contributors to protected areas in virtually all values, production and product use values, political countries, providing funds and expertise, building values and gender values. For water to receive the public support, promoting training, taking action, and investment it needs, these different values need to be advocating conservation interests (Redford et al., more effectively communicated between stakeholders 2003). While NGOs can provide very practical and unambiguous messages directed to decision support to protected areas, their contributions are makers. In particular, ways need to be found to bridge likely to be most useful when a clear understanding the divide between the economic perspective held by has been reached between the NGO and the protected the commercial private sector, and the ‘in situ’value area management authority. NGOs can diversify attributed to water by conservationists. One of the efforts and approaches to management of protected most effective ways to achieve this is through dialogue areas, sometimes using methods very different from and voluntary arrangements set in place through the those adopted by government agencies. Locally-based shared adherence to common value perspectives. NGOs can often use their familiarity with local issues and resources to operate effectively where Experience from various parts of the world government agencies or national NGOs have demonstrates that protected areas are a cost-effective difficulties. management option for maintaining healthy watersheds that produce a steady and reliable source NGOs also have their limitations. It is often difficult of water. Many cities in both developed and to provide oversight of their activities; their funding is developing countries depend on drinking water often uncertain, making them dependent on produced by protected areas. Natural vegetational changeable donor priorities that can limit their long- cover on watersheds also regulates and stabilizes term commitment to a project; and they often are water run-off. Deep penetration by tree roots or other dependent on one or a few charismatic leaders. vegetation makes the soil more permeable to National NGO leaders are not typically associated rainwater so that run-off is slower and more uniform socially, economically, and culturally with the rural than on cleared land. As a consequence, streams in communities they seek to empower, because of forested regions continue to flow in dry weather and difficulties in finding appropriate leadership skills floods are minimized in rainy weather. Protected among the very poor, often illiterate, rural people who wetlands also have substantial ecological values, live closest to protected areas. Grassroots NGOs do especially through their role in flood control (Ewel, not suffer as much from this problem, but may have 1997). Floodplain forests and salt marshes slow the difficulties in reaching those in authority. Many
16 A taxonomy of support: how and why new constituencies are supporting protected areas 1
government officials view environmental NGOs – example, NGOs could become more effective by particularly those that engage in advocacy work – as strengthening their capacity for working with the foes of economic development and unwelcome private sector through establishing partnerships with monitors of environmental and human rights abuses. private sector actors with a proven track record in tourism, genetic resources, and small-scale At the same time, some government agencies have sustainable enterprise, both national and international. found it useful to cooperate with NGOs in designing and implementing conservation projects since NGOs are important stakeholders in protected area government agencies often have less relevant discussions, but do not provide the single ultimate experience and operational flexibility. NGOs at the answer. In order to enhance their contribution, many national level can better target the services they NGOs need help in strengthening their capacity in provide with personal knowledge of their clientele, project administration and management, as well as in and many donors have found the NGO sector to be the kinds of expertise relevant to modern protected more flexible, easier to monitor, more responsive to areas. Numerous examples of NGO support are their needs, and less encumbered with politics than the available to provide lessons to learn, adapt, and public sector (Meyer, 1997). replicate, but our book is emphasising “new” or under-utilized constituencies so the NGO sector is not
Carrying out research in Indonesia given as high a profile as it might deserve.
Involving universities and research institutions Research and monitoring are critical parts of protected area management. Successful policy making requires continuous feedback from field-level resource management activities, through monitoring ecosystem structures and processes and various indicators of human welfare so that the results of management actions can be compared against expectations of the plans that led to the actions. Results from monitoring programmes must be made available to planners, managers, policy makers, and scientists so that they can adjust plans, management actions, policies and research programmes, thereby creating a loop, called “adaptive management”, between implementing field actions, monitoring the affected ecosystems and human responses, comparing the results against expectations, and adjusting future
© Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey actions, with each reiteration of activity based on past experience (Holling, 1978). The contributions of NGOs will need to expand to meet growing demands. They especially need to find Universities and research institutions have been ways of working in partnership with many other conducting research in protected areas for many years, interest groups, especially the private sector (as and their work has been especially important in sources of funds, influence, and expertise), local identifying sites worthy of inclusion within national communities (as those with the most immediate systems of protected areas. Their research in interests being affected), and governments (as those agriculture, botany, forestry, geology, biogeography, holding sovereignty over land and resources). For animal behaviour, ecology, rural development,
17 1 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
anthropology, and related subjects has provided sustainable use and the economic development of important guidance to protected area managers, and to renewable resources. Such a centre – perhaps located economic development in general. Protected area on a university campus – could also carry out the managers have benefited greatly from scientific essential monitoring of status and trends of key research, because protected area management is at species and ecosystems. For regions with limited least partly dependent on the knowledge and wisdom scientific capacity, such as the Pacific, regional that comes from science (McKerchar and Dingwall, research programmes might be more sensible, 1984). However, increasing pressures on protected involving universities and the protected area areas call for a concerted effort to mobilize additional management agency. research in support of protected area management. The basic principle for protected areas should be to Involving indigenous and provide conditions by which research can be local communities encouraged rather than discouraged. Such research could be significantly increased if greater efforts were Detailed knowledge of the people whose lives are made to facilitate collaboration, for example through affected by the establishment and management of accelerating granting of permits and identifying protected areas is at least as important to protected suitable local counterparts. area managers as information about the plant and animal species to be conserved. The cultural, socio- It might be sensible for at least some countries to economic, and demographic characteristics of local develop a biodiversity research centre that is oriented toward applications in protected areas and the people – including the age and gender divisions of surrounding buffer zones, focusing on problems of labour – form the basis for measures to promote the
African Mountain Association meeting in March 1993 in Mount Kenya National Park, Kenya. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
18 A taxonomy of support: how and why new constituencies are supporting protected areas 1 sustainable use of natural resources, alleviate poverty, Involving the military improve the quality of human life, and create support In many countries, national military forces have for protected areas. jurisdiction over substantial areas. In some cases these The history of relationships between protected areas areas are bases used for training and weapons and local communities generally has been a rather development while in other cases the area is considered of importance for national security – negative one. Local peoples need to be seen not particularly in border regions. But in most cases access simply as threats to conservation efforts but as one of to the land and its resources are tightly controlled and the “new constituencies” whose involvement is therefore the impact of human use is considerably less essential for sustainable protected area management. than in surrounding areas. In a variety of settings, It is now widely accepted that local communities have national militaries have begun to be sensitized to the a legitimate right to participate in at least some aspects conservation importance of the land under their control of protected area management in most places. Indeed, and in some cases taken measures to ensure that these because of a range of economic and social factors, the conservation values are maintained (McNeely, 2003). supply of biologically-rich areas that could become At least some of these are adjacent to protected areas protected areas is doomed never to meet the needs of and can help contribute to making their wildlife a comprehensive protected area system without a populations ecologically viable. concerted effort by the world community to make conservation an attractive option to the rural people Involving the global community who have practical jurisdiction over the resources (McNeely and Guruswamy, 1998). It is increasingly being recognised that the global community is an important constituency in protected As the human population continues to grow and areas. The “global importance” value of certain places more economic pressures are put on forests, wetlands, has long been recognised, and a great deal of coral reefs, and other natural habitats, it is even more international money has been spent on such areas. But important to recognise and implement locally-instituted the formalization of the global community as a mechanisms to control access to resources, to ensure stakeholder in decisions about protected areas is a appropriate participation in decision-making processes, complicated issue involving concerns of national and to develop procedures for resolving conflicts. In sovereignty, local values, and accountability. It is many cases, the indigenous approaches to these clear, though, that if international funds are to mechanisms are more effective than those imposed continue to flow to protected areas and if the global from outside, and can complement protected areas. community is to be seen as a legitimate “new constituency”, then rules and procedures need to be At a minimum, local communities need to be deeply formalized. Many of these issues are discussed in involved in buffer zone development activities, and Ostergren (this volume). should be consulted on any decisions that affect them. In many cases, giving the local people preferential Institutions to support treatment in terms of employment within the protected areas protected area, providing economic incentives to establish tourism or other income-generating activities A protected area system needs wide diversity in in the buffer zone, and ensuring an appropriate flow of institutional approaches and varied and benefits from the protected areas to the surrounding complementary constituencies that together map onto lands can help to build a positive relationship between the threats to conservation and the strategies necessary protected areas and local communities. This positive to alleviate these threats. Many biological processes relationship will hopefully lead to greater support for operate at small scales that vary dramatically in the protected area – a proposition that is essential to climate, elevation, structure, and importance from one test. This considerable challenge is being addressed in setting to the next. There is often a “mismatch” various ways in many parts of the world. between institutional and ecological scales, and an
19 1 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
over-emphasis on large-scale institutional Which institutional arrangement is most logical or arrangements, such as centralized protected area successful will vary according to the national agencies, can undermine institutional mechanisms at objectives that have been established for the protected smaller scales, such as traditional approaches to area system and the specific objectives determined for conservation (Folke et al., 1998, Pritchard et al., each individual site. Because protected areas do not 2000). Local knowledge about specific complex come in just one size or habitat, neither should their interactions and concerns about natural capital can be arrangements for management. A greater diversity of applied in daily life, especially at the smaller scales. institutional approaches helps to stimulate creativity, This clearly is not an either-or situation, but instead enabling different kinds of institutions to take rather calls for creating complex, nested systems of different kinds of approaches. Different kinds of complementary governance for protected areas, with protected areas demand different kinds of different institutions having different responsibilities management and involve different sets of interest at different scales (Ostrom, 1998). Simply stated, groups, so no single institution can meet the full range large-scale, centralized governance units do not, and of requirements. However, it is essential that the cannot, have the variety of response capabilities – and central government establishes national objectives for the incentives to use them – that complex, polycentric, the protected area system, ensures that the various multi-layered governance systems can have. This approaches to protected area management are implies finding many ways of enlisting new contributing to the national system, supports the constituencies for protected areas. interests of protected areas in the face of alternative land uses, establishes means for exchanging lessons In general, the success of a protected area is enhanced learned from the participation of the various interest when organizations that have a vested interest in groups, and provides an appropriate regulatory maintaining the protected area are strong and effective, framework to ensure quality control. But all of these and thus are able to prevent unacceptable uses of the steps will fail without a well knit, properly managed protected area. Well-designed protected areas require: set of constituencies who can collectively ensure the ● clearly defined conservation targets for each long-term success of individual protected areas and protected area; portfolios of protected areas. ● clearly defined boundaries; ● zones of management which allow for management activities to ensure that all targets can be maintained; ● an understanding of the threats to the conservation targets and the strategies necessary to alleviate these threats; ● specific regulations on how much, where, when, and how different goods and services can be used from within the protected area; ● involvement of all the relevant stakeholders in decisions that affect the protected area; ● a system of monitoring the use of resources; ● sanctions on those who violate regulations; ● inexpensive local mechanisms for resolving conflict among stakeholders; ● the rights of the stakeholders to devise their own institutions; and ● a way of organizing these activities in multiple layers, with clearly-differentiated responsibilities at each layer. Jasper National Park, Canada. © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey
20 chapter 2 © Patricio Robles Gil/Sierra Robles Madre © Patricio Extractive industries as a new constituency for protected areas
by Assheton Stewart Carter
Editor’s introduction One of the major threats to protected areas in many drawing from many years of experience in working parts of the world is mining, either within the with extractive industries, identifies the interests of the protected area or sufficiently close to it that the extractive sector in protected areas and the recent protected area is substantially affected by pollution measures that they have undertaken to be partners of associated with the mining, or by activities by miners. protected area managers rather than opponents. IUCN has called for its State Parties to pass Beyond the financial contributions that extractive legislation banning any mining from protected area industries may provide (and undoubtedly would categories I–IV. On the other hand, modern societies provide more if government policies were more are heavily dependent on minerals, and as the supportive of their doing so), the extractive industries protected area estate continues to expand, the also contribute to environmental planning and interests of miners and conservationists will management, carry out important research that is increasingly overlap in at least a geographical sense. relevant to protected areas, and contribute to building This is a situation that could easily lead to conflict. As stronger public support for protected areas. One a response, many forward-thinking companies in the critical element is a commitment by the extractive mining and energy sectors have recognised their companies to be explicit about their impact on responsibility to ensure that their activities do not biodiversity and protected areas, and to design and have adverse effects on protected areas. BP, for implement management measures to minimize any example, has recognised the IUCN category system, negative impacts and – in the best case – to provide and Shell has pledged not to operate in any natural net benefits to the protected area system of a country. World Heritage sites. Assheton Stewart Carter,
Photo: The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) of India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Bangladesh, was the first recognised tiger subspecies. Kaziranga National Park in northeastern India, an alluvial plain grassland, is known to hold the highest adult tiger density – almost 17 tigers per 100 km2 – evidence that tiger densities can still be high in optimal habitats. Himalaya hotspot.
21 2 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction are, and always will be, places where development and the conservation of the natural features valued by Mining for minerals and drilling for oil and gas so many can not coexist. Some environmental takes place in or near many protected areas (Rosenfeld challenges have no ‘technical fix’. Yet, the oil and gas et al., 1997, Rosenfeld Sweeting A. and Clark A., and mining industries have made significant progress 2000; Miranda et al., 2003; Austin and Sauer, 2003; in applying their capacity for technical and Energy and Biodiversity Initiative, 2003; Farrell et al., management innovation to environmental challenges. 2004). As both the number of protected areas and Many of the devastating impacts on the environment mineral exploration projects continue to expand, areas that have occurred in the past can now be avoided or of overlap, and potential conflict, between conservation considerably reduced. Furthermore, companies that interests and oil and gas development are likely to have the will to recognise their potential impact, and increase (Energy and Biodiversity Initiative, 2003). the capacity to overcome damaging our natural world, Foreign multinationals, especially those engaged in have financial, strategic planning, business, scientific, the development of oil, gas and mineral resources, and political resources that can, are, and should be operating in developing countries have a poor mobilized to assist in the establishment and more environmental record (Warhurst, 1992) and a effective management of protected areas. If we are to turbulent history in regard to the relationships with achieve the biodiversity conservation goals needed to their workforce and local communities (Stewart secure the healthy functioning of our ecological, Carter, 1999). The physical impacts of the extractive economic and social systems, new alliances, among industries can be dramatic. Mining operations clear them partnerships with the extractive industries sector, large areas of surface vegetation, scoop off the soil are required to support the expansion and effective like icing from a cake, blast through naked rock to management of the global protected area system expose and mine the mineral vein, and leave (McNeely, Redford and Stewart Carter this volume). monuments made from mining ‘waste’ that can leak pollutants into soil and watercourses. Developing an The extractive industries sector oil or gas field is more precise – like a root canal This chapter looks at the contributions that extractive operation – but the seismic survey methods can leave industries can make to protected areas. Here the a matrix of access routes over a large area that are extractive industries sector is a description of the visible by satellite. In Alberta Province in Canada, 80% of the seismic lines that cut through the vast businesses that are involved in the exploration and boreal forest region to prospect for oil sands have development of oil, gas and mineral resources – the failed to regenerate (Creasey and Fischer, 2004). Oil energy and mining industries. Other chapters in this transmitted by pipelines or transported by seagoing book are concerned with industries that are often tankers can spill with devastating effects on wildlife, grouped under the general descriptive ‘extractive’, as the world witnessed when in 2001 the fuel tanker including logging, forestry, and fishing. Yet, Jessica grounded at the entrance of Wreck Bay in the combining the energy and mining industry sectors Galapagos spilling much of the 240,000 gallons of under this general rubric risks hiding some important fuel oil it was carrying (Lougheed, Edgar and Snell, differences between the two. 2002). Energy and mining development attracts people looking to improve their circumstances who Both industries are of considerable importance to can exert further pressure on forests surrounding many national economies. For example, 34 countries projects through deforestation or hunting (Thibauls depend on mineral exports for more than 25% of total and Blaney, 2003). exports, and many of these are significantly more reliant on mining. For instance, Zambia’s exports in The grave environmental and social risks associated ores and metals account for 66% of total exports, with the activities of the extractive industries imply Niger 67%, and Guinea 71%. Nevertheless, in the that mining and oil and gas development is global context, the mining industry is relatively small, incompatible with the protection of biodiversity. There and is dwarfed by the energy sector. The top 150
22 Extractive industries as a new constituency for protected areas 2
international mineral companies have a combined encourage their national companies to secure assets market capitalization of US$224 billion (MMSD, abroad, and seek to ensure that oil and gas energy 2002), while the single largest private sector oil products flow onto the international market through company, ExxonMobil, exceeds that with a market lending their support to the construction of capitalization of US$289 billion. transboundary pipelines and the establishment of new shipping routes. Moreover, oil and gas production is not only important for the economies of producing nations, but Despite these differences in size and importance to a critical strategic issue in international relations. For international affairs, the energy and mining industries those regions that will increasingly depend on non- have some similar characteristics. A few very large domestic supply of hydrocarbons to meet their companies, known as ‘super majors’ or ‘majors’, demand for energy, North America, Europe, China dominate both industries. Some have recognisable and Japan, continued energy security is essential to brands: Alcoa, Alcan, AngloAmerican, Barrick, BG assure the health of their diversified economies. Group, BHP Billiton, BP, ExxonMobil, Governments in these regions will promote ChevronTexaco, ConocoPhillips, Newmont, exploration and development of oil and gas reserves in RioTinto, Shell, and Total. Other companies in this countries endowed with hydrocarbon resources, size category are state-owned enterprises the names of which are less well known: CVRD and Petrobras in
Baimaxueshan, Yunnan Province, China. Brazil; Codelco in Chile; Petronas in Malaysia; PetroChina and Sinopec in China; PetroEcuador and PetroPeru in the Andean countries; Saudi Aramco of Saudi Arabia; Statoil in Norway; Pertamina in Indonesia; and Sonangol of Angola. These national companies often control the industry in their home countries and have significant market shares in exploration and production globally. These ‘super majors’ are usually integrated across commodities, in the mining industry, and vertically in the energy industry, with businesses in exploration and production, transport, and retail. They operate, are joint venture partners, or have interests in a large number of operations worldwide.
At the other end of the size spectrum, small companies, known as ‘juniors’ or ‘independents’, take high risks in pursuit of profits. In the mining industry, their business is to explore and discover new resources and negotiate an interest in operating the mine with a larger company. In the oil industry, the ‘independents’ specialize in finding and developing fields that are of little interest to the larger companies that are searching for a larger ‘prize’. The agent binding all businesses in the sector is the desire to win access to land to explore for oil, gas or minerals and replace reserves – a measure of a company’s market value. Often, the land the sector covets is in the very same places that are cherished by conservationists for their natural features. © Bill Konstant/Conservation International © Bill Konstant/Conservation
23 2 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Oil rigs being housed for repairs or awaiting deployment. Invergordon, Scotland. © Jason Anderson/Conservation InternationalAnderson/Conservation © Jason
The interests of the extractive particularly evident when looking at the future of oil industries in protected areas and gas supply. As traditional oil-producing regions mature and yield progressively less oil, the industry is Place a global map showing areas known for their exploring in new areas, and for new products such as biodiversity value over a map showing the world’s natural gas. Production is already taking place or is known mineral and hydrocarbon reserves and you will planned in regions known for their biodiversity notice a high degree of coincidence. A similar exercise richness, for example the Caspian, Indonesia, West comparing the location of known existing and planned Africa and offshore Venezuela and Trinidad. Getting mineral and oil and gas development projects with the oil and liquefied natural gas to the customer boundaries of protected areas also reveals a marked requires maritime transportation and construction of correlation. This spatial relationship has not gone pipelines (Jaffe and Victor, 2004) that will cross vast unnoticed by the conservation community. UNESCO wildernesses and conflict with both terrestrial and (2004) records that one quarter of World Heritage marine protected areas. For example the Baku-Tbilisi- Sites listed for natural value have mining or oil and Ceyhan oil pipeline in the important Caspian region gas development in or near their borders. The World crosses a National Park, the Chad-Cameroon pipeline Resources Institute reports that one-quarter of active encroaches on indigenous territories, and the West- mines and exploration sites overlap with or are within East pipeline in China crosses six state and provincial a 10km radius of protected areas categorized as I–IV protected nature reserves, twelve locations in the under the IUCN system (Miranda, 2003). And there Great Wall of China (a UNESCO Cultural World are good reasons to believe that this close association Heritage site), and passes close to four important between mining and oil and gas development and state-protected cultural heritage sites (Seymour, protected areas will strengthen. 2003).
Global demand for oil, gas, minerals and metals is At the same time, the dramatic upward trend in the expected to grow over at least the next thirty to fifty number of protected areas over the last forty years is years. To supply the world’s refineries and smelters, likely to continue over the next ten. Protected areas extractive companies will intensify their prospecting have increased tenfold since 1962 to more than and production efforts into remote and hitherto 100,000 today, though many species (Rodrigues et al., unexplored areas, many of which are currently 2004) and ecosystems are not yet represented in protected or candidates for protection. This is (Driver et al., 2003) the global system. Delegates at
24 Extractive industries as a new constituency for protected areas 2
the Vth World Parks Congress called on the global Yet, if successful, the campaign to force a voluntary conservation and development community to set new commitment from energy and mining companies not targets to enlarge and improve the effectiveness of the to explore or produce in or near to protected areas runs global protected areas system (IUCN, 2003), a the risk of a Pyhrric victory for conservation. recommendation that is reflected in the programme of Governments have to make tough decisions to balance work adopted by governments at the seventh economic development and environmental protection. Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Especially in the developing world, sovereign states Biological Diversity (2004). As both the protected will be reluctant to forego potential revenue from area system and mineral exploration continue to developing their natural resources and may resist calls expand, areas of potential conflict are also likely to to expand their protected areas system into areas that increase and the case for the conservation community have the potential to hold mineral or hydrocarbon to engage the extractive industries becomes more reserves, or choose to delineate boundaries to exclude compelling. mineralized zones.
Although it is easy to assume that the extraction of Furthermore, a strategy that seeks only to oppose hydrocarbons and minerals in protected areas would the commercial sector risks losing sight of the benefits be legally excluded, the reality is far from simple. for conservation that can be made available through Legislation varies enormously from country to collaboration. Companies in the extractive industries country. Some governments do not allow mining or sector own or control many resources that, if oil and gas development in some of their protected harnessed, can be used to expand and strengthen the areas, while others issue exploration permits in protected area estate. The remainder of this chapter protected areas (Dudley and Stolton, 2003). Despite gives examples of energy and mining companies that these legal differences, environmental campaign have provided financial, human, management and groups, and more recently the investment community planning, scientific, and political resources for the (ten Kate, 2003; Miller, 2003), are invoking the support of protected areas. recommendation made by IUCN members at the 2000 World Conservation Congress in Amman, Examples of contributions to Jordan to challenge energy and mining companies to protected areas from the make a voluntary commitment not to enter any IUCN category I–IV protected areas. extractive industries sector
The “No Go” campaign has heightened the risk to Financial contributions companies of access to reserves being denied, Budgets for protected areas have not risen restricted, or kept in limbo, and of opposition from commensurately with the rapid growth in their local communities constraining production or number. Recent studies estimate that an additional increasing the cost of operating in or near to protected US$2.3 billion each year is required simply to make areas (ten Kate, 2003; Sykes, 2003). One study on the management adequate in the existing protected area subject concludes that companies that have assets in network (James et al., cited in Lapham and or near existing or planned protected areas could see a Livermore, 2003). Financial resources necessary to loss of more than 3% of shareholder value (Austin and create and manage a broadly representative and Sauer, 2002). Pressure on the industry has resulted in effective global system of protected areas are upwards voluntary restrictions. In 2003, fifteen international of US$20 billion annually (Balmford et al., cited in mining companies, that make up the membership of Lapham and Livermore, 2003). Because the project the International Council for Mining and Metals, life cycles of oil, gas, and mineral development declared a policy not to operate in existing UNESCO projects span many years, or even decades, there is a World Heritage Sites (International Council for tremendous opportunity for companies to provide a Mining and Metals, 2003) a commitment also made sustainable flow of funding to protected areas over the by Shell, an Anglo-Dutch oil company (Shell, 2003). long term.
25 2 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Box 2.1 Madidi National Park, Bolivian Amazon, Bolivia.
The Chiquitano Forest Conservation Foundation
The Chiquitano Forest Conservation Foundation (FCBC in Spanish) was created in September 1999 and marks an agreement between two energy companies (Enron and Shell) and four conservation organizations, of which two are Bolivian (Fundacion Amigos de la Naturaleza and Fundacion Amigos del Museo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado) and two American (Wildlife Conservation Society and Missouri Botanical Garden). The founding members have committed US$30 million over 15 years to the FCBC. The companies will each contribute US$2 million annually over the first five years and will then match funds raised by the environmental groups up to a further US$10 A. Mittermeier International /Conservation © Russell million. Establishment of the FCBC has proved In the last five years there has been a marked change instrumental in mobilizing funds from other in the nature of corporate giving, however. Companies sources. In 2002 the FCBC accepted US$320,000 have reduced the size of their philanthropic budgets, in contributions from external sources and a further winnowed out from portfolios gifts to organizations $500,000 in 2003. the work of which is unrelated to their business, and The FCBC supports the long-term funding have aligned giving strategies with the core mission objectives of the conservation plan for a region of and values of the firm. In other words, a trend is more than 8 million hectares in eastern Bolivia. The towards ‘strategic philanthropy’ (Barktus et al., 2002; area includes the Chiquitano Dry Forest, the Saiia et al., 2003). Cerrado and the Bolivian Pantanal ecoregions. In its relatively short history, the FCBC has enabled the Yet, this trend may well favour conservation. creation of the 242,000ha Tucavaca Municipal Although corporate giving is declining, the share of Wildlife Reserve, provided incentives for the philanthropic pie destined for biodiversity will get implementation of a land-use plan that integrates larger. Biodiversity, and protected areas in particular, sustainable-use and private reserves over is a strategic issue for companies in the extractive 260,000ha, and facilitated the awarding of land titles industries, and thus is among the top candidates to for 34 indigenous groups. receive funding from ‘strategic’ philanthropic budgets The FCBC is governed by a Board of Directors (Stewart Carter, 2003a). For example, RioTinto, an which oversees and approves the yearly work plan Anglo-Australian mining company, in the late 1990s and budgets. Each of the four conservation supported over 80 charities and programmes. Today, organizations is represented on the board and there the company has consolidated its annual contributions is one representative for the two energy companies. of $50 million into 12 partnerships – nine of which are A stakeholder committee, which aims to represent with conservation organizations (Richards, 2003). 90% of the regional actors, including agrarian and Moreover, because companies most acutely feel the forestry superintendents, municipalities, cattle business risks associated with operating in ranchers associations and indigenous organizations, biodiversity rich and protected areas at the site level, it also exists. is at the project level that the growth in voluntary Sources: Laine Powell (2003) and Justiniano (2003). donations will most likely be seen. Collectively,
26 Extractive industries as a new constituency for protected areas 2
budgets for external contributions at the project level result was the companies’ awakening to the potential are judged to be larger than corporate-level long-term negative effects that infrastructure would philanthropic budgets, especially in developing have on biodiversity in this very special area and the countries (Rondinelli, 2002). need for a fully funded regional plan to avoid irreversible damage (Justiniano, 2003). The institutional arrangements to make these financial contributions vary, but an increasingly A compelling argument for involving companies in popular model is the Trust Fund or Corporate financing protected areas is the prospect of leveraging Foundation (Warhurst, Stewart Carter and Mohan, additional conservation funds. Some privately 2001). Endowments provided by companies can managed funds, for example the Global Conservation amount to several millions of dollars, especially in the Fund and the Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund, oil and gas industry. For example BP donated US$14 actively seek matching funds from other sources million to be disbursed over ten years to the Scottish (Stone, 2003), as do public donors such as USAID. In Forest Alliance, a partnership established to 2000, Conservation International entered into an regenerate the Caledonian Forest in protected lands in alliance with RioTinto Mining and Exploration and the Scottish Highlands (Herlugson, 2003). Meanwhile Production to undertake biological surveys in the Pic Enron and Shell will donate US$10 million over a de Fon, a protected area in the Upper Guinean Forest five-year period to the Chiquitano Forest of West Africa. The success of the collaboration Conservation Foundation that supports the creation of encouraged USAID and Ecologie Guinea, a local protected areas in eastern Bolivia (see Box 2.1). A NGO, to enter into an agreement with RioTinto and consortium of companies (EnCana, Repsol, Pecom Conservation International to form the Alliance for Energia, Occidental Petroleum, ENI-AGIP, Techint, and Forest Guinea (AFG) that has a mandate to develop a Pernco), that sponsored the construction of a pipeline in conservation strategy for the region. The Alliance was Ecuador that stretches from the country’s Amazon rain able to apply for funds from USAID through its forest to the Pacific coast, known as the OCP Global Development Alliance grant that requires (Oleoducto de Crudos Pesados), created the Ecological matching funds from partners in the commercial Fund with a multi-year capital funding commitment of sector. Together, the AFG has leveraged a total of US$16,930,000. The Fund will target biologically US$1.8 million for biodiversity protection over a important zones along the route of the pipeline and three-year period (Gill, 2003; Stewart Carter, 2003a; invest in the strengthening of protected areas. Stewart Carter, 2003b).
Although companies often describe funds as Companies also provide very effective ‘in-kind’ voluntary donations over and above environmental support to ease the financial burden of protected area compliance, such agreements are more often arrived management. It is not uncommon for companies to at through a process of gentle negotiation. In the cover the cost of salaries, donate equipment, provide example of the FCBC (Box 2.1), the companies office space, support education and awareness agreed to discuss plans for the foundation in response building projects, and run employee volunteer to strongly voiced concerns from international NGOs programmes. Shell El Salvador has supported about the 660km Bolivia-Cuiaba natural gas pipeline SalvaNatura and the running of the El Imposible that passes through areas important for biodiversity National Park since 1995. The company has covered and traditional lands of indigenous peoples. As the the salaries of two park rangers through the ‘Adopt a companies had already met all their legal obligations Ranger Scheme’, donated petrol vouchers for use at set out by the government, the FCBC was never the company’s gas stations, matched funds to finance intended to be a compensation or mitigation fund. advertising projects for the park, promoted fund Rather, the commitment came about through a raising drives at gas stations, covered the costs for balanced process of pressure and respectful and publishing a series of four bird books and Park guides, constructive discussions on the issues between local and sponsored television commercials for the park and international NGOs and the consortium. The (Alvarez, 2003).
27 2 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Environmental management Box 2.2 and planning Providing much needed, long-term financial support Destruction of tiger habitat in India: to protected areas is not compensation or a substitute The plight of the Jamwa Ramgarh for avoiding harming protected ecosystems, habitats Wildlife Sanctuary and species. In many cases, careful planning can A stark reminder of the negative impacts of mining accommodate both the biodiversity values of can be witnessed inside the Jamwa Ramgarh protected areas and the need for economic Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, India. At 300km2, development from mineral extraction. Much of the Jamwa Ramgarh wildlife sanctuary is a vital forest initial harm done to biodiversity from the activities of corridor contiguous to Sariska Tiger Reserve. Large extractive companies can be ameliorated over the life tracts were declared Reserve Forest in 1961 under of the project. In some cases, benefits to biodiversity the Rajasthan Forest Act of 1953 and additional can even be enhanced; for example, companies can areas were added to create the wildlife sanctuary in manage their concession as de facto protected areas. 1982 under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. The sanctuary holds resident populations of tigers Technologies and management techniques for and leopards and is a vital overspill area for the mitigating many of the impacts of mining and oil and young tigers of Sariska and for transient individuals. gas development are well known and documented in The importance of the Jamwa Ramgarh sanctuary the industry literature. Roads through forests to access has been recognised by the central government projects sites can be replaced by helicopter transport, whose director for Project Tiger has taken areas of seismic lines can be cut to less than 4m in width, oil the sanctuary under the administration of his office. pipelines can be buried, canopy bridges built across Although the Ministry of Environment and Forests ‘rights of way’, disturbed areas filled as extraction has prohibited the granting of new mining leases takes place and revegetated at closure, project sites and ordered the cessation of existing mining managed to prevent pollution and made safe for operations in wildlife sanctuaries and areas under wildlife, and the risk of marine oil spills can be the jurisdiction of Project Tiger, significant areas of reduced by transporting oil products in double-hulled the Jamwa Ramgarh have been deeply scarred by tankers. Not all companies apply these practices at all commercial soapstone and marble mining of their facilities, however. Immutable damage is still operations. The mining continues to add to the done by irresponsible and careless operators in every pressures and stresses on the already threatened size company, some of which operate illegally in wildlife sanctuary and some empirical evidence is now emerging: the water table has dropped and protected areas (see Box 2.2). streams have dried up, tigers have been disturbed Moreover, no ‘technical fix’ can manage all risks to and migratory routes for wildlife blocked, biodiversity from exploration and production. There abandoned quarries have not been reclaimed, re- are some areas that will suffer even when the best vegetated, or made safe for people or wild animals. available technology and management practices are Source: Environmental Investigation Agency (2003), applied. If the biodiversity values of these areas are to Undermined: Destruction of Tiger Habitat in India, www.eia-international.org persist, projects have to be planned to avoid areas that are not able to withstand the pressure from development activities. For Alcoa, operating in the naturally bountiful land of Western Australia, the answer was to forego its legal right to operate in 15% of its lease in the protected jarrah forests (see Box 2.3). In the oil and gas industry, pipelines can be routed to skirt vitally important areas, or innovative drilling technology can avoid damage by accessing an area from a distance.
28 Extractive industries as a new constituency for protected areas 2
For twenty years BP has been operating at Wytch Aloes are very Farm on the coastline of southern England. Wytch diverse in the Farm is the largest onshore oilfield in Western Europe Succulent Karoo, and is expected to yield some 460 million barrels of oil and are often very over the next twenty years. It is situated in an area that restricted in range by small differences is designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in altitude and soil the features of which include a Site of Special Scientific condition. South Interest, Special Protection Areas, Ramsar sites, Africa’s Succulent National Trust Land, Heritage Coastline and National Karoo Hotspot. Nature Reserves. To avoid intruding into these zones, BP used extended reach drilling, a technology that has enabled wells to reach more than 10km horizontally from the wellhead (IPIECA, 2004a). BP has demonstrated how investment in technological innovation, although incurring a short-term cost, can reduce the trade-off between economic development and environmental protection in the long term.
As necessary as they are, efforts to respect the boundaries of protected areas are not sufficient. International© Haroldo Castro/Conservation Conservation action is also necessary at a much larger biodiversity, the company joined with conservation scale in order to maintain the ecological and groups, communities, farmers, tourist operators and evolutionary processes on which species depend government agencies in a landscape-scale (Sanderson et al., cited in Mittermeier and Brooks, conservation planning process. The approach, 2004). This means ways will have to be found to protect Systematic Conservation Planning, identifies much more of the landscape; in some areas, such as conservation outcomes based on identifying a set of South Africa, as much as 50% is required (Driver et al., options for meeting scientifically set conservation 2003). The demand for land renders impossible targets (Maze, 2003; Driver, 2003). fencing-off the vast areas that this conclusion implies, and conservation planners have responded with the An outcome of the study is a proposal to establish a notion of ‘living landscapes’or ‘conservation corridors’ protected area that will be nested within a much larger – the linking of formal conservation reserves within a multi-use landscape with other parts being managed multiple land-use matrix. Oil, gas and mineral extensively for grazing and a third area being allocated development projects are one of the many land uses that for more intensive development activities, including must now be considered alongside areas managed for mining. A feature of the protected areas is that multiple conservation objectives. landowners, including the mining company, control the land. The landowners will enter voluntary contractual A conservation project in the Succulent Karoo in management arrangements with a conservation agency. South Africa provides an example of a collaborative In the case of Anglo American, this means managing approach to conservation at the landscape level. The some of their concession land as a protected area. Succulent Karoo is the only semi-arid biodiversity Where options exist for meeting conservation targets, hotspot and is home to 6,356 plant species, 40% of mining impacts can be offset by contributing to meeting which are endemic. Yet only 3% of its 116,000km2 is biodiversity conservation targets off the mining protected. Anglo Base Metals operates a zinc mine in property and provides the window for the company to one of the most biologically important, yet contribute to biodiversity conservation, not simply by unprotected, areas in the Karoo and has plans to begin reducing its impact but also in terms of making a operation of a second. With the intention of measurable positive contribution to the protection of minimizing the damage of its activities on biodiversity (Maze, 2003).
29 2 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Box 2.3
Bauxite mining in the protected jarrah forests, South-west Australia
Alcoa has been mining bauxite in the biologically rehabilitated. Monitoring and research programmes unique jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forests of carried out in the rehabilitated areas show that mine Western Australia since 1963. The mining company’s sites rehabilitated in the past are becoming more like lease that runs until 2044 covers just less than the surrounding, un-mined forest. 713,000 hectares and coexists alongside designated To be successful in its reforestation efforts, Alcoa areas that are managed for conservation objectives. has had to face a pervasive threat to the forest Although Alcoa was not operating in protected areas ecosystem from the root pathogen Phytopthera under the original agreement, since it commenced cinnamomi that causes the ‘dieback’ disease that can operation a series of assessments of the biodiversity kill jarrah trees. Because the disease is easily spread and reviews of the state’s conservation strategy throughout the forest by human activities, Alcoa put resulted in the establishing of protected areas within in place the Dieback Management Strategy (DMS). the original lease area. Alcoa’s operations are now The DMS uses aerial photography and GIS to restricted to multiple-use jarrah forests and the produce dieback hygiene maps of affected areas in company has made a commitment not to access the mining lease at least 10 years ahead of mining conservation reserves. In all, Alcoa has relinquished operations to effectively minimize the spread of 15% of its bauxite reserves for biodiversity. dieback from mining activities and protect the To ensure that its operating standards are adjacent forests from infection or intensification of consistent with the objectives of the protected area the disease. Machinery operations are subject to strict system, each year Alcoa submits a rolling five-year quarantine and hygiene procedures that include mine plan to a multi-agency committee, as well as careful routing of access roads, vehicle wash down 25-year indicative mine plans on a regular basis. facilities, and the timing of soil and vehicle These mine plans detail further policy commitments movements to periods of low infection risk. A that Alcoa has made to avoid entering important detailed monitoring programme put in place to assess the effectiveness of the DMS found that the spread of areas within the multi-use areas and protecting the disease that could be attributable to mining was biodiversity. For example, the company has made a very low, corresponding to 0.005ha infected for commitment not to disturb forests within 50m of every hectare cleared for mining. Critical granite outcrops as these are areas of high plant information about the pathogen has come from species richness and are also sites of significance for research funded by Alcoa and from the company’s indigenous peoples; not to disturb areas of old own R&D programme on the ‘dieback’. Alcoa growth forest that remain outside formal reserves; scientists contributed to data on the likely presence of and the company has established a special procedure the pathogen, while field operators had the practical for seeking approval to enter a series of ‘informal’ knowledge on transporting soil and altering drainage conservation reserves in the multi-use forest. patterns. Alcoa has also supported joint research Bauxite mining is an intensive process that projects on dieback with government agencies and destroys all aspects of the ecosystem. Alcoa has had universities over that time. One research programme some considerable success in rehabilitating mined is attempting to identify and clone seedlings that are land, however. Alcoa's rehabilitation goal is to return resistant to the fungus. Field tests show that jarrah the land to a “self-sustaining jarrah forest that can be replanted in areas affected by the fungus. Over maintains the water, timber, conservation, recreation, its 44-year history in the area, Alcoa through careful and other values of the pre-mining forest”. Currently, planning has avoided many impacts on protected about 550ha are mined and rehabilitated annually, areas and made considerable contributions to the and since the commencement of mining, 12,560ha body of applied scientific knowledge that has been have been cleared and 10,600ha have been used to improve conservation management.
Sources: Gardner and Stoneman (2003) and Gardner and McComb (2004).
30 Extractive industries as a new constituency for protected areas 2
Contributions to conservation science amphibians, fish, shrimps, mussels, algae, multiple Equal in importance to winning support for the flora species and plants, and mycorhiza and establishment of protected areas and securing funds rhizobium. To date, 18 papers have been published in for their management is the generation of scientific scientific publications (Vincelett, 2004, pers. comm.). knowledge about the species within their boundaries. As a result, there is now available some of the best Scientists have recognised only a fraction, maybe less scientific knowledge possible in regard to the than 10%, of the world’s species, and know the dynamics of the littoral forest ecosystem and specific biology of only a handful of these (Novotny et al., faunal species. These data and analyses are the 2002). Without this knowledge it is difficult, if not bedrock of the biodiversity monitoring programme for impossible, to craft strategies for biodiversity the area that is of international importance (Porter et protection and establish a representative protected al., 2001). area system. Data and analysis generated by energy and mining Either because they are legally required or because companies can be an important resource for managing they are acting to comply with their own corporate protected areas, as the example in Box 2.3 of Alcoa in environmental policies, energy and mining companies south-western Australia shows in the control of the carry out, commission, or support a great number of deadly dieback disease that threatens the unique jarrah environmental studies in the locality of their projects. forest (Gardner, 2001; Gardner and Stoneman, 2003). Throughout the project cycle, biological data is As well, the findings of scientific studies carried out gathered for base line studies, scientific analysis to explore increasingly geologically complex areas completed for inclusion in environmental impact can be of equal importance for conservation efforts assessments, and monitoring programmes put in place when used to gather information on species and to track changes in the physical environment at delineate protected areas. Nowhere is this more the various scales, from the project site to the regional case than in the marine biome, the frontier for both land or seascape. conservation efforts and oil and gas exploration.
QIT Madagascar Minerals S.A. (QMM) has been Statoil, the Norwegian national oil company, found exploring the feasibility to mine ilmenite in the first coral reef in Norway at 70˚N in 1982 using southeastern Madagascar from the mineral sands multibeam sonar, a technology used for seismic found beneath the fragile ecology of a littoral forest exploration activities and for routing sub-marine system. The company hired sixty of its own experts pipelines to avoid sensitive biodiversity. Sonar and and worked with leading Malagasy and international echo sounder technologies, combined with new specialists to undertake extensive, in-depth technologies for visualization, and video recording environmental and social studies over a ten-year cameras on remotely operated vehicles are period. QMM established partnerships with several increasingly popular tools for mapping coral reefs and leading research institutions, including Missouri their associated macrofauna. Since then the company Botanical Gardens, Oxford University, Hamburg has been working with scientists at the Norwegian University, Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, the Institute of Marine Research in a collaboration that Institute of Development Studies at Sussex University has led to the protection of the Sulia Reef, one of the and the Smithsonian Institution. Arrangements with largest coral reefs in Norway, and the designation of an inshore coral reef in the Trondheim fjord as a academic institutions have enabled 105 Malagasy and marine nature reserve (IPIECA, 2004b). international students to complete studies for professional, masters, and doctorate degrees. Public support for protected areas The range of taxonomic groups and species studied Finally, the extractive industries sector can be an is impressive. More than fifty volumes contain advocate for the global protected area system. Large information on lemur species, invertebrates and international energy and mining companies are not pedofauna, small mammals, birds, reptiles, without influence. They have an audience with
31 2 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
that all energy companies “should respect the integrity Convened by CELB, the EBI includes four energy companies and five NGOs. of protected areas” (Energy and Biodiversity Initiative, 2003). These public acknowledgements of the importance of protected areas help to communicate the importance of and the need for a representative system of protected areas worldwide.
Conclusions
Public policy, conservation and the extractive industries sector The examples given in this chapter of the contributions companies in the extractive industries sector have made in support of protected areas are only a toe in the water of the steady flow of benefits that can be channelled to conservation. This chapter sought only to synthesise the discussions and cases on the subject presented at the Vth World Parks Congress in Durban, not provide an exhaustive survey of such collaborations. Mostly, these successful collaborations
Cover of report produced by Energy & Biodiversity Initiative. Initiative. & Biodiversity Energy of report produced by Cover and outcomes rely on the voluntary actions of companies and the initiative of protected area national governments, multilateral development professionals. To harness the potential for this new agencies, international financial institutions, constituency to support protected areas, more formal development agencies, and industry bodies. Many arrangements need to be put in place. people concerned about the state of the environment and the behaviour of big business see a universal front The establishing by national governments of land-use standing in opposition to any perceived barrier to planning systems that include spatial objectives for companies advancing into areas to explore for conservation and protected areas alongside other minerals, oil, and gas. They perceive companies as economic and social needs, including mineral and oil seeking to have protected areas degazzetted and the and gas development (see World Parks Congress boundaries redrawn. Companies articulating publicly Recommendation 5.09, IUCN, 2003), would make it their support for the protected area system can help possible for the protected area system to work both to dispel this negative image and contribute to constructively with the extractive industries. In the efforts to promote the fundamental importance of absence of clear and equitable planning procedures protected areas for global conservation (ten Kate, the combative relations that have embittered the 2003). dialogue between the energy and mining companies and conservation organizations will surely continue, The announcements made by Shell and the and the potential for alliances with the sector will be International Council of Mining and Metals not to harder to realize. A review of the IUCN protected area operate in existing World Heritage Sites in 2003 is a categories recommended at the Vth World Parks progressive step (Shell, 2003; International Council Congress (Recommendation 5.19, IUCN, 2003) and on Mining and Metals, 2003). So too is BP’s public its proper use by governments will help build better statement that it recognises the importance of and relations between the two sectors. supports the protected area system. The four company members of the Energy and Biodiversity Initiative The difficulty of building effective integrated (EBI) – Statoil, ChevronTexaco, Shell and BP – planning processes should not be underestimated. subscribe to the recommendation in the EBI report There have been successes, however (Koziel and
32 Extractive industries as a new constituency for protected areas 2
Omosa, 2003). In Manitoba Province, Canada, for This burden should not fall solely on the creaking example, the process for identifying candidate resource base of government agencies but also with protected areas involves the mineral exploration the better-endowed multilateral agencies. The World industry, the Government of Manitoba, Parks and Bank Group’s safeguard policies and Natural Habitats Natural Areas Branch of the Department of policy are the de facto standard for the industry sector. Conservation, Geological Survey and Mines Branch, In response to the Extractive Industries Review (2003) and representatives from the Canadian Nature the World Bank could set the bar internationally by Federation and the World Wildlife Fund. A systematic, reviewing its environmental policies and ensure that government-led process such as this that draws in they are truly world standard, enforceable, and conservationists, landowners and other stakeholders practised. To this end the World Bank could establish to share their knowledge and goals stands a better a facility that would draw on the expertise in the chance of arriving at sustainable land-use choices, conservation community and provide technical than do decisions based on incomplete information. assistance for evaluating the environmental feasibility of mining, oil and gas development projects. Ensuring that biodiversity conservation is taken into full account by sponsors and operators of extractive Finally, governments could provide incentives for projects can ease pressure on protected areas (see companies to direct funds to conservation and World Parks Congress Recommendation 5.28, IUCN, protected areas (see World Parks Congress 2003). Unfortunately, international standards relating Recommendation 5.08, IUCN). This could be to biodiversity are poorly represented in regulations achieved through allowing part of royalties or taxes for mining and oil and gas development. This is due to the central exchequer to be offset by both in- especially the case with environmental impact kind and financial resources used to benefit land-based assessments. There are guidelines published by conservation projects. And bilateral and multilateral industry and conservation groups on how best to lending agencies, for too long the primary integrate biodiversity issues with mineral and oil and international provider of conservation funds, need to gas development (for example the Energy and recognise the deep well of financial resources that can Biodiversity Initiative [EBI 2003] and the IUCN and should be tapped through strategic alliances with ICMM Mining and Biodiversity Dialogue [IUCN the extractive industries. USAID’s GDA programme is 2004]). These guidelines could be used by a fine example of a public-private alliance (Gill, 2003) government agencies to develop contractual ‘best that should be bolstered, more generally demonstrated, practice’ and technical conditions and be attached to and news of its effectiveness broadcast widely. exploration and production permits.
Community meeting with local village chiefs with Guinea Ecology representative, Conservation International representative and Alcoa representative. In the photo they are looking at a biodiversity priority setting map for the region. Alcoa is planning on sourcing an aluminum refinery in the region and is examining biodiversity and socio-economic impacts prior to building. © Jason Anderson/Conservation InternationalAnderson/Conservation © Jason
33 2 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
34 chapter 3 © Ted Trzyna © Ted Urban dwellers and protected areas: natural allies
by Ted Trzyna
Editor’s introduction Protected areas may seem to be the opposite of cities, partnerships with students and the interested public, with the former celebrating nature while the latter are and establishing protected areas within cities. When essentially human-made environments. Yet in this cities adopt an ecosystem approach to management, chapter, Ted Trzyna shows that people living in cities they can make significant contributions to national are both highly dependent on protected areas (for strategies for conserving biodiversity, and this in turn example, protected areas provide water to cities and will greatly benefit protected areas if a real make substantial contributions to social welfare), and commitment is made to enable urban people to protected areas depend on urban people, for political experience nature. Bringing together those working support, economic support, and the biodiversity on urban problems with those working on conserved in urban settings. This chapter contains conservation problems can provide multiple benefits, numerous examples of cities that are working to not least in building a stronger political constituency enhance the relationship between urban people and that can yield significant support for sustainable protected areas, through providing opportunities for livelihoods and yield a better quality of life for the urban poor to visit protected areas, establishing urban people.
Photo: Angeles National Forest (San Gabriel Mountains) from Pasadena in metropolitan Los Angeles.
35 3 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction condemning hundreds of millions of people to an urban future of misery, insecurity, and environmental Cities have had a bad name in many quarters of the degradation on a truly awesome scale” (CA, 2004). conservation community, even though most conservationists live in cities and depend on urban These trends have important implications for the people for political and financial support. Conversely, conservation community. the conservation movement has had a bad name among many who work on urban problems, even Cities depend on though protected areas safeguard the larger protected areas ecosystems on which cities depend. Protected areas provide important benefits to city The truth is that protecting nature and improving dwellers, ranging from education and healthy city life are interdependent goals. Conservation and recreation to watershed protection, biodiversity urban leaders are natural allies. The challenge is in conservation, food and fuel, and income from making the right connections. tourism. However, these benefits have rarely been catalogued or presented in clear terms and urban A rapidly urbanizing world residents generally have a poor understanding of them. Research documenting such benefits can be The distribution of the world’s population between very useful in demonstrating the value of protected rural and urban areas is changing fast. Globally, the areas to decision makers, as is shown by the following proportion of people living in cities rose from about examples. 30% in 1950 to 47% in 2000, and is projected to reach 50% in 2007 and 61% by 2030. Contrary to a commonly held belief, the proportion of people living Documenting water supply in the world’s in “megacities” (urban agglomerations of 10 million largest cities inhabitants or more) is small, less than 4%. In fact, Over a third of the world’s hundred largest cities draw most urban dwellers live in settlements with fewer a substantial proportion of their drinking water from than half a million inhabitants, and some of the fastest protected forests. The agencies responsible for growing cities have relatively small populations. protecting these areas range from national park services to municipal water departments. Forested The world regions show marked differences in the watersheds almost always result in purer water than level and pace of urbanization. In the Americas, alternative land uses. In a world in which an estimated Europe, and Oceania, the proportion of people living one billion city dwellers lack clean water, this is a in urban areas is already over 70%. Although the powerful argument for preserving and restoring figures for Africa and Asia are currently much lower, forests (Dudley and Stolton, 2005). Protected areas 38% and 37%, respectively, many cities in those are an important means for doing so. regions are projected to double their populations in the next 15 years (UN, 2004). Demonstrating social benefits Almost all the global population increase expected The idea that protected areas provide substantial during 2000–2030 will be absorbed by the urban areas health and other social benefits to urban people is not of the less developed regions. Based on current trends, a new one. The American landscape architect Fredrick most of these new urban dwellers will live in Law Olmsted wrote in 1870 that nature “operates by overcrowded slums, often situated on marginal and unconscious processes to relax and relieve tensions dangerous land, without sanitation or easily accessible created by the artificial surroundings of urban life” access to clean water. According to the Cities (Maller et al., 2002). However, only recently have Alliance, a World Bank-based partnership of official these benefits started to be examined critically and development agencies and global associations of local systematically. One important such initiative is authorities, “ignoring this policy challenge risks sponsored by the park agency of the Australian state
36 Urban dwellers and protected areas: natural allies 3
of Victoria as part of a programme called Healthy with new development goals emphasising poverty Parks, Healthy People. About 75% of Victoria’s 4.5 alleviation and economic opportunity. Although many million population is concentrated in metropolitan people saw the open space system as elitist, initial Melbourne. Parks Victoria wanted to encourage wider research shows that it is a significant provider of use of open spaces and build support for protecting “free” goods and services such as water supply, flood them. It compiled strong scientific evidence showing protection, fishing, fuel wood, plants for traditional that access to nature in urban settings can reduce medicine, climate regulation, and waste treatment crime, foster psychological well-being, reduce stress, (Roberts et al., 2005). boost immunity, enhance productivity, and aid community cohesion and identity (Senior and The environment agency of the Australian state of Townsend, 2005). New South Wales, whose population is concentrated in metropolitan Sydney (population 4.2 million), is Measuring economic benefits developing quantitative indicators to assess the contribution of protected areas to the quality of life in Several conservation agencies are working to measure an urban community. However, this information is the economic benefits urban residents derive from seen as only a first step that will have limited utility protected areas. For example, in Durban, South Africa unless it is “part of a broader approach to influencing (population 3 million), the environmental manage- communities and decision-makers to support ment staff of the municipal government is examining protected areas and conservation,” an approach that the economic value of ecosystem goods and services includes promoting natural and cultural values from the city’s extensive open space system. This is in (Conner, 2005). response to a need to realign environmental planning
Sydney Harbour, Australia © Nick Conner
37 3 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Protected areas depend on management decisions are, they must always be urban people decided by the will of the citizens, and citizens will not decide or care about the unfamiliar” (Cunha e As cities depend on protected areas, urban dwellers Menezes, 2005). are essential to building broader support for protected areas. Throughout the world, political power, opinion City dwellers gain appreciation for nature less makers, and communications media are concentrated through conventional education than through outdoor in major cities. It follows that protected area agencies experiences. In fact, without direct experience of need a presence in those cities. A former director of nature early in life, teaching about environmental Tijuca National Park in Rio de Janeiro has made the issues can actually breed cynicism about the point eloquently: “The fight for the conservation of environment (Finger, 1994; Schultz, 2000; Schultz, the Amazon will not be won in the depths of the 2002). Growing scientific evidence indicates that Amazon forest. It can only be won in Rio de Janeiro, direct experience of nature early in life is essential for São Paolo, Brasilia, and the other large Brazilian healthy intellectual, emotional, and even moral metropolises. In democracies, no matter how obvious development (Kahn and Kellert, 2002).
A tiger in the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, India. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
38 Urban dwellers and protected areas: natural allies 3
Unfortunately, people in cities tend to be less and respectively, of 18.4 and 17.5 million). Children with less familiar with nature and the benefits of natural exceptional potential are chosen to participate in a resources. This phenomenon cuts across social nature camp at a tiger reserve (Sahgal, 2005). groups. The urban poor often have no access to nature. The more affluent are experiencing what Bob Pyle Greening cities: Examples from Los calls “the rise of the virtual in place of the real,” as Angeles and London television, computer games, the Internet and “other The global movement to “green” cities ranges from forms of second-hand entertainment have come to planting street trees and creating urban farms on one occupy an ever more enormous portion of childhood’s hand to protecting and restoring natural areas on the hours” (Pyle, 2002). As a consequence, not only does other. These are usually seen as quite separate the quality of urban dwellers’ lives suffer, they may activities, but they actually reinforce each other. In behave irresponsibly toward the environment, albeit poor areas, for example, neighbourhood gardens can unknowingly, and over the long run be less inclined to be important stepping stones to understanding nature provide political support for conservation. and visiting more distant protected areas; broader Agencies responsible for protected areas can serve support for conservation can result. urban residents through conventional activities such as Greening initiatives and responsibility for them vary preserving, restoring, and interpreting natural areas in greatly among cities, but at least two questions are and near cities, but also through less conventional probably relevant everywhere: What are possible roles roles such as reaching out to disadvantaged people, in urban greening for traditional national (and state or working to bridge social divisions through shared provincial) protected area agencies? What can these experiences in nature, and helping to “green” and agencies learn from local initiatives, and vice versa? promote sustainable development in cities. Following are several examples of successful initiatives by First, an example from a traditional, although conservation agencies and their partners to reach out unusual, protected area agency. In metropolitan Los to urban populations. Angeles (population 16 million), the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy, a unit of the California state Reaching large numbers of children: government, is creating “natural parks” in poor inner- India’s Kids for Tigers city neighbourhoods. This is an exceptional step for an Kids for Tigers was launched in 2001 by the publisher agency such as SMMC, which was originally set up in of India’s leading wildlife magazines, with support 1979 to protect remaining natural areas in a mountain from a major business corporation and the range that bisects the city and includes some of the involvement of Project Tiger, part of the Government most expensive real estate in the world. of India ministry responsible for protected areas. In During its first two decades, SMMC reached out to keeping with Project Tiger’s philosophy, the tiger is a inner-city residents by providing free outings for symbol for all of nature. Kids for Tigers aims at school and neighbourhood groups in its mountain turning large numbers of urban children, and through parks. In the mid-1990s, SMMC’s Executive Director, them their parents, into “proactive defenders of Joe Edmiston, was challenged by a city council protected areas.” As its founder Bittu Sahgal puts it, member representing a poor district in South Los “Our story was simple and direct and children Angeles to do something for her constituents. In fact, understood it easily: ‘We cannot save the tiger unless Edmiston had long been bothered by the we save its forests. If we save its forests we wind up inaccessibility of nature experiences to people living saving the subcontinent’s most precious water sources. in the inner city. The result was the 3.5ha Augustus F. And if we save our water sources, we save ourselves.’” Hawkins Natural Park, opened in December 2000. The programme reaches over a million children a year The park lies on a busy street surrounded by recycling through hundreds of schools in 13 cities, including businesses and run-down houses. Designed as a portal Mumbai and Delhi (which have populations, to the natural protected areas nearby, it has samples of
39 3 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Major restoration of the Los Angeles River Corridor by several agencies, including the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy. © Ted Trzyna © Ted
seven ecosystems, including chaparral and freshwater Second, an example from local government. In marsh. The visitor centre and other structures conform Greater London (population 11.9 million), the Mayor to the high design standards the conservancy applies adopted a Biodiversity Strategy in 2002 that aims to to all its projects. A ranger resides on site, supporting “protect and enhance London’s natural areas and their a junior ranger programme and organizing trips to the associated species and make it possible for Londoners conservancy’s mountain parks. to have greater contact with nature in their everyday lives.” According to David Goode, Head of The conservancy’s landscape architect, Stephanie Environment in the Mayor’s office and a longtime Landregan, who shepherded the project, notes that leader in urban conservation, under this Strategy, initially “there were lots of naysayers who said ‘why “New approaches with a strong social dimension, that are you giving that to those people?’” However, the may at first have seemed a radical departure from park is now seen as a great success and there are plans traditional nature conservation, have now been to replicate it elsewhere in Los Angeles. The most adopted as an integral part of city management.” For innovative of these plans is for a four-hectare natural example, access to nature for people living in park on the grounds of a new high school. The school disadvantaged or heavily built-up parts of London is will be divided into several specialized “academies,” often given priority even where sites are of relatively of which one will likely be a “Conservancy Academy” low ecological quality. Areas where residents lack devoted to education in natural resource management accessible wildlife sites “within reasonable (Trzyna, 2001a; Sorvig, 2002). proximity” are being mapped to guide future habitat enhancement or creation and even landscaping. Other
40 Urban dwellers and protected areas: natural allies 3
goals are ensuring that more people know the location remnant natural areas that contain 1400 indigenous of their local green space and can get there easily, and plant species, including 131 rare or endangered helping people understand and enjoy contact with species of which 76 are narrow endemics. These nature. plants are part of ecosystems that support a rich diversity of birds, reptiles, and other animals. Many of Another key element of London’s Biodiversity the most threatened natural areas are on the Cape Strategy is a system for protecting important wildlife Flats, once an interesting mosaic of dunes and habitats. Over 1500 sites are listed for protection under wetlands, now largely developed. Part of this the local planning process. These represent about one development is housing built under programmes to fifth of the area of Greater London. In addition, wildlife relocate and segregate non-white people during South habitat is being created by enhancing public parks and Africa’s era of apartheid, a race-based separatist open spaces and “mainstreaming biodiversity as an system that existed from 1948 until the early 1990s. element of urban design.” Then, when the apartheid controls ended, informal The Strategy evolved out of work that began in 1982 settlements sprang up on the flats to house an influx of in the public sector and was continued for many years job-seekers from rural areas. These informal by an officially sanctioned NGO called the London settlements lack proper supplies of water, electricity, Ecology Unit. One of the unit’s main objectives was or sanitation. Up to three-quarters of their residents building nature conservation into the strategic live below the country’s poverty line of US$45 per planning process in London. It produced a long series adult per month. Many earn much less. of handbooks, starting with Ecology and To put this in context, the poorest 40% of the Conservation in London (1984), and included such population of Cape Town as a whole earns less than titles as Nature Areas for City People (1990) and 4% of the total income generated in the city, while the Building Green: A Guide to Using Plants on Roofs, wealthiest 20% commands 70% of this amount. Walls, and Pavements (1993). These handbooks were Divisions in Cape Town society coincide largely with widely distributed and were crucial to gaining public ethnic and racial boundaries, and are exacerbated by and political support for urban conservation in nearly half a century of apartheid. London. They were also influential internationally. A project called Cape Flats Nature: Mainstreaming The Biodiversity Strategy is one of eight strategies Biodiversity for the People addresses “this paradox of the Mayor is required to adopt by statute. (The others biodiversity wealth and human poverty on the Cape relate to air quality, culture, economic development, Flats in a positive way.” Cape Flats Nature is a noise, transport, spatial development, and waste.) partnership of the City of Cape Town, conservation Together, they set out an integrated social, economic, NGOs, local community groups, and the National and environmental framework for the development of Botanical Institute (a parastatal conservation and London (Goode, 2005; London, 2002). research agency). It works by “engaging with people rather than by erecting fences.” Initially it focused on Bridging divisions in urban society: four pilot sites of high biodiversity value where local Examples from South Africa and the communities were willing to become involved. The United Kingdom programme is being expanded and adjusted as lessons Urban populations are often located along economic are learned. Activities are quite varied. For example, a and ethnic lines. Protected area agencies and their garden has been created to demonstrate indigenous allies need to reach out to these different groups. In plants of direct value to people, including those used addition, they can help build bridges across divisions by traditional medical practitioners. A prime coastal in society through shared experiences in nature. natural area is being reclaimed from criminal activity. Bird-banding sessions are held to expose Within the boundaries of metropolitan Cape Town disadvantaged youth to scientific methods. (population 3.5 million) is an extraordinary array of Community members are trained in fire-fighting to
41 3 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
prepare for volunteer emergency work. These and the way for all national parks to put into place and other activities are beginning to build support for resource their own initiatives to take forward the work biodiversity conservation among Cape Flats residents of establishing links with ethnic communities into the (Davis, 2005; CFN, 2004). future” (Memon, 2005; CNP, 2004).
In the United Kingdom, two NGOs set up the Since January 2005, the new Mosaic Partnership Mosaic project in 2002 to enable members of ethnic has continued its work amongst the British minority minority groups in England and Wales to “access ethnic communities, strengthening communications everything that national parks have to offer.” The and relationships between their representatives and NGOs are the Black Environment Network and the the Park Authorities, the Youth Hostel Association and Council for National Parks. BEN “works across the Council for National Parks. diverse sectors for ethnic environmental participation.” (It “uses the word ‘black’ symbolically, (The term “ethnic minority” is accepted in the UK, recognizing that the black communities are the most although it is considered inappropriate in some other visible of all ethnic groups [in Britain]. We work with places, for example South Africa, where a minority white, black, and other ethnic communities”). CNP oppressed the majority under apartheid; and California, “promotes the conservation, enhancement, quiet which no longer has an ethnic or racial majority.) enjoyment, and understanding of the national parks of England and Wales” (BEN 2004; CNP 2004). “Changing places, changing lives”: Groundwork in the United Kingdom Mosaic was inspired by an address by Judy Ling In rural areas, especially in developing countries, Wong, BEN’s director, to a 1999 conference marking conservationists routinely work to improve the the fiftieth anniversary of the act that made possible circumstances of local people. This started mainly the creation of national parks in England and Wales. because it was understood that helping people would She noted that although British society was motivate them to cooperate in protecting wildlife and increasingly diverse, members of minority ethnic protected areas. Eventually, in many cases, it was done groups were rarely seen in national parks. “People because it was the right thing to do. cannot care about what they have not experienced,” she said. “Neither will they have much interest in As protected area agencies and their allies become paying the taxes or providing the political support more involved in cities, they soon realize that which is necessary to maintain viable national parks environmental, social, and economic issues are for the next fifty years” (Memon, 2005). intertwined. One question they face is how far to go in meeting the needs of poor people in the In 2001, Mosaic was set up as a three-year project neighbourhoods where they work. to experiment with methods and develop a model for enabling national parks to “gain the awareness and Mosaic project brochure. skills to work effectively with ethnic groups and to enable ethnic groups to enjoy national parks and to represent their interests and concerns.” Mosaic first concentrated on organizing group visits of people from urban ethnic minority communities to eight national parks in the countryside. One series of visits, for example, was for separate groups of Muslim women, Sikhs, older Chinese, and Afro-Caribbean youth. These experiences were carefully evaluated. Later, Mosaic focused on involving ethnic groups in planning park activities. The final year of the project is being devoted to reviewing lessons learned, “paving
42 Urban dwellers and protected areas: natural allies 3
In the United Kingdom, the agency responsible for more demanding than the conventional kind, but national parks and countryside management was much more likely to produce results, he believes. The asked by the government in the early 1980s to do key is to “achieve social and economic benefits at the something about abandoned industrial sites and same time as achieving conservation benefits” played-out quarries in the urban fringe areas of the (Trzyna, 2001b; Groundwork, 2004). economically depressed Northwest of England. Conventional top-down approaches didn’t work, so it The key role of partnerships was decided to take a more flexible approach. An “environmental partnership” NGO called Partnerships are essential to connecting protected area Groundwork was set up to bring the public, business, agencies with urban institutions. All of the and voluntary sectors together in clearly defined programmes described above rely on such geographic areas to clean up contaminated sites, partnerships. For example, Kids for Tigers works create parks and green corridors, build hiking and through schools. California’s Santa Monica biking trails, and convert abandoned buildings to Mountains Conservancy has representatives of local offices and housing. authorities, other state government agencies, and national agencies on its governing board. South Groundwork has been a great success. Almost fifty Africa’s Cape Flats Nature is a multi-partner project. local Groundwork “trusts,” as the local organizations are called, exist in the UK. They include more than a However, two special kinds of partnership quarter of the country’s population. The areas in which organizations can be particularly useful to protected they operate now span inner city and countryside, as area agencies in connecting with city people: urban well as urban fringe, but they are still places where the cooperating associations; and metropolitan umbrella quality of life is poor owing to a combination of organizations. A third model, urban biosphere economic, social, and environmental problems. reserves, approaches the problem from a different Overall, Groundwork has an annual budget of some perspective. US$100 million and over a thousand employees. It is involved in over 3000 projects at any given time. Urban cooperating associations Groundwork’s motto is “changing places, changing Cooperating associations are NGOs dedicated to lives.” Its purpose is to “build sustainable serving the needs of one or more protected areas. A communities through joint environmental action.” good example of a cooperating association in an urban Although many of its projects still relate to parks, area is the Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy. open space, and outdoor recreation, it is also heavily The Golden Gate National Recreation Area, known involved in such areas as environmental education and informally as the Golden Gate National Parks, advising small businesses on compliance with contains natural, cultural, and historic units of the US environmental regulations. One programme aims to National Park Service covering 30,000 hectares in reduce crime among teenagers by involving them in California’s San Francisco Bay Area (population 7.3 hands-on environmental improvement projects. million). Its NGO partner, the conservancy, was Another programme trains unemployed people for established in 1981 to increase awareness of the new “green collar” jobs in such fields as recycling. Golden Gate parks and their value; provide avenues for public engagement to bring more resources to the The main ingredient of Groundwork’s success is parks; and preserve the parks over time by building engagement with local communities and serving their long-term constituencies. The conservancy expressed needs. John Davidson, co-founder and “leverages” the role of its public partner. It raises former chief executive of Groundwork UK, explains substantial amounts of money for projects such as that “We had to get into a dialogue with people. For visitor centres, youth programmes, and restoration of there to be sustained regeneration, we had to invent natural areas, and engages over 110,000 volunteers incentives.” Such “participatory planning” is much annually in the parks.
43 3 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
According to the parks’ General Superintendent Park van Woluwe, Brussels, Belgium Brian O’Neill and the conservancy’s Executive Director Greg Moore, the key to the conservancy’s success is community awareness. It “has worked to make the parks as well-known and well-loved as other cherished public assets.” Its goal is to “elevate parks to the same level of community importance as other civic assets: as basic as schools; as essential as libraries; as necessary as hospitals; as valuable as clean air and water; as culturally important as symphony halls, opera houses, and museums. The conservancy has achieved this goal with a well- developed strategy of research, opinion sampling, marketing, branding, and public opinion-making” (O’Neill and Moore, 2005).
Metropolitan umbrella organizations A good example of an umbrella organization that promotes cooperation systematically in an urban region is Chicago Wilderness, a consortium of over 170 organizations in greater Chicago (population 9.4 million). Members include local, state, and national loose network of partners.” Its sole purpose is to agencies; museums and botanic gardens; colleges and facilitate collaboration among its members. Its small universities; and NGOs ranging from branches of staff is housed within member organizations, rather major national associations to small neighbourhood than centrally located (Hutcherson, 2005). groups. Four teams develop and carry out collaborative activities in science, land management, Urban biosphere reserves education and communication, and sustainability. The “wilderness” is a mosaic of natural areas covering Yet another approach to partnerships is the urban some 100,000 hectares of protected lands and waters, biosphere reserve. Biosphere reserves are areas that as well as many that are unprotected. These areas have are internationally recognised within the framework a high concentration of globally significant natural of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere programme. communities, including tallgrass prairie and oak They consist of a core protected area, or cluster of savannah. such areas, a buffer zone, and an outer transition area. Groups in several countries are taking the biosphere The ingredients for the consortium’s success are a reserve concept, typically used in rural areas, and critical mass of people eager to make it succeed; applying it to urban settings. Under UNESCO sharing of expertise and resources across guidelines, each biosphere reserve is intended to organizational boundaries; and early and highly fulfill three complementary functions: (1) visible accomplishments. A year after the consortium conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species, and was formally launched in 1996, it published an genetic variation; (2) local economic development attractive atlas of biodiversity in the region; more than that is culturally, socially, and ecologically sustainable; 50,000 copies have been distributed. Another early and (3) research, monitoring, education, and accomplishment was agreement on a regional information exchange related to local, national, and biodiversity recovery plan that still serves as the guide global issues of conservation and development. for the work of Chicago Wilderness. A further reason Biosphere reserves bring together stakeholders for the consortium’s success is a “conscious decision ranging from conservation agencies and scientists to to define it not as an entity unto itself, but rather as a economic interests and local authorities. In addition,
44 Urban dwellers and protected areas: natural allies 3
one of their main purposes is to foster international This is elaborated as follows: “The Mayor will exchange of information and experience. UNESCO foster working links and exchanges with international has set up a network of committees for this purpose bodies and organizations in other major cities, to give (UNESCO, 2004). a lead in urban greening and biodiversity conservation. The Mayor will support enterprising Although several biosphere reserves exist in urban new flagship projects for urban nature conservation areas, their role has generally been limited to and people’s enjoyment of the natural world, which coordinating conservation activities. The idea of a may further London’s reputation as a World City. The distinct category of urban biosphere reserve is being Mayor will encourage the formation of a partnership considered in several countries. In October 2003, an for excellence in global biodiversity conservation, international conference was held by Columbia harnessing the skills and expertise of London’s centres University and UNESCO in New York to discuss the of excellence.” concept (CUBES, 2004). Proposals for urban biosphere reserves are most advanced in Cape Town, This partnership includes the Greater London New York, and Seoul. The Cape Town Urban Authority, the London Zoo, the Natural History Biosphere Group has suggested that guidelines for Museum, the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, the such areas provide for cultural, as well as natural, Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, and the UK cores; include protection of human and cultural, as Environment Agency (London, 2002). well as natural, diversity; and allow for applying the zoning system (core, buffer, transition) “in a Other major cities might well follow London’s functional way, and not necessarily spatially specific example. as with traditional rural biosphere reserves” (CUBES CT, 2003; Stanvliet et al., 2004). Needed policies
The proponents of the new category of urban Two fundamental policy changes are needed to meet biosphere reserve are a lively and creative group. They the needs of city dwellers and build stronger urban offer a different perspective on the people-city-nature constituencies for nature conservation. These are triad. Their ideas and energy could also help to adopting an ecosystem approach to managing cities invigorate the biosphere reserve concept, a good idea and their surroundings, and making a serious that has yet to reach its potential. commitment to provide ways for urban people to gain access to nature. Local authorities and Adopting an ecosystem approach to international conservation managing cities and their surroundings Although most organizations active in international The disconnections between cities and protected area conservation are based in large cities, few of them systems are part of a bigger problem. What is needed make connections between their international work first and foremost is an ecosystem approach to policy and urban conservation in their own cities. And it is making and policy implementation that recognises the rare for local governments to become involved in interdependence of cities and the larger environment. international environmental matters, except in cases An ecosystem approach to natural resource where transboundary issues affect them directly. management treats a region as a system of interrelated London is an unusual exception. One of the parts – environmental, social, economic – and fourteen policies in its Biodiversity Strategy, embraces the major governmental and other interests discussed above, states that “The Mayor will promote affected. In some places, the larger environment is London as a world centre for biodiversity simply the local watershed. In other places, cities conservation, working with London’s world-class reach much farther afield. Los Angeles, for example, organizations for greater influence globally and to receives its water supply from protected areas many learn from experience at home and abroad.” hundreds of kilometres away.
45 3 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
The barriers to ecosystem management are mainly reason is a feeling that involvement in cities detracts political. Responsibility for environmental matters is from what is perceived as the main task of fragmented among levels of government and single- conservation, protecting biodiversity, even though purpose agencies. Each agency acts within its own research in many parts of the world shows that urban framework of laws, purposes, constituencies, and and periurban areas are exceptionally rich in organizational culture. Highly effective tools are now indigenous species, and that threats to such species are available to support integrated decision making. These usually higher in these places. Another important include sophisticated methods of collaborative barrier to getting conservationists more interested in problem-solving, as well as geographic information cities may be resistance to becoming involved with systems that show the interrelationships in a region as urban social issues for which they are unprepared. never before possible (CIPA, 2001). None of these methods will work, however, without the political will The conservation community needs to be educated to change, and this depends on an informed public. about the “why” and “how” of links with urban institutions and city dwellers. This can be done most Making a serious commitment to provide effectively by those who are succeeding in making those links. Some prominent examples are mentioned urban dwellers with access to nature in this paper. All levels of government need to make a serious commitment to providing urban dwellers with access Bringing urban and conservation actors to nature, with particular attention to serving the needs together of disadvantaged people. This commitment should be With few exceptions, separate sets of people and formalized in legislation and plans. An excellent institutions work on urban issues and on conservation. example is the London Mayor’s Biodiversity Strategy, At local, national, and international levels each side which is as much a social as an environmental would benefit from better understanding of the document. concerns of the other. Both would benefit from Many kinds of public agencies can contribute to this identifying common goals and working toward them goal, ranging from traditional protected area and together. wildlife agencies to municipal park departments and A good place to start is dialogue at international and schools. Much of this work can be done most local levels between conservationists on one hand and effectively in partnership with NGOs. In addition, urban officials, managers, and planners on the other. many activities can be carried out by NGOs on their At the global level, international conservation own initiative. The private sector can also contribute, organizations such as IUCN could invite prominent for example, in the way businesses landscape and mayors and leaders of the major associations of local provide access to their lands. authorities, city planners, and related professions to Many examples of ways of providing access to major events such the World Conservation Congress. nature are given in this paper; they and others are Conservation organizations could arrange for discussed in more detail in Trzyna (2005). speakers and panels at conferences of such city- oriented associations. These international activities Actions required in the should be complemented by meetings of local leaders from both sides of the conservation-urban equation, coming decade beginning with experiments in a few carefully chosen Educating the conservation community cities. All these discussions should be aimed at setting up and reinforcing partnerships. Interest in cities is not widespread in the conservation community. One reason for this is that many people In addition, IUCN, whose membership is are attracted to conservation careers because they dominated by traditional conservation organizations, want to spend their lives in the countryside. Another should follow a recommendation of the World Parks
46 Urban dwellers and protected areas: natural allies 3
Congress (see below) that it “recruit as members Cities are particularly suited to international organizations engaged in urban environmental issues, cooperation because they often have more in common and invite prominent leaders and experts in urban with each other than with their hinterlands. Cities in management to participate in the work of IUCN.” industrialized countries have much to learn from those in developing countries, as well as vice versa. Training leaders Examples of this are India’s Kids for Tigers and South Leadership development is critical. This should Africa’s Cape Flats Nature project. include an international short course for leaders with high potential, as well as leadership forums in Reaching political leaders individual cities. In both cases, participants should More must be done to reach elected and senior come from urban institutions as well as conservation appointed government officials with the conservation organizations. They would learn from local and message. First of all, a better case must be made for international speakers, share experiences, and build connecting urban dwellers with nature. Those who networks of people and institutions. decide on budgets increasingly want measurable objectives against which results can be evaluated. Assembling a toolkit A toolkit is needed for practitioners responsible for Students in Costanera Sur Reserve, Buenos Aires, Argentina linking conservation and urban issues, and for instructors training those who want to engage in such activities. Toolkits typically include case studies and guidelines drawn from them, along with other material about specific methods.
Case studies and guidelines are widely accepted models for international sharing of experience among conservationists. They are usually very helpful to practitioners and educators. However, it often helps if the case studies are written by people who have not participated in the cases being described, which is rarely so.
A toolkit for linking urban dwellers to protected areas, and promoting the larger concept of managing cities as parts of larger ecosystems, should also include advice on such methods as collaborative decision- making and use of such technical resources as satellite imagery and geographic information systems.
Conducting exchanges, study tours, and technical assistance Toolkits are useful, but they are not a substitute for direct sharing of experience through exchanges, study tours, workshops, and technical assistance. Such sharing can be among cities within a country or world region, or by theme or language. An initiative on cities and conservation in the world’s five Mediterranean-
type ecosystems is already underway (CIPA, 2004). Argentinas Aves © Eduardo Haene,
47 3 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Such evaluation is difficult in this instance, because Conclusion results take place over time and have to do with An urbanizing world poses new challenges for changing persons’ values. A substantial body of protected areas, but also new opportunities. Building scientific evidence supports the value of nature broad support among urban dwellers may be the most programmes in cities, but it is compartmented in important goal conservationists can adopt to preserve different disciplines. This research should be and expand protected areas everywhere. However, synthesised and translated into points easily building such support means paying more attention to understood by busy decision makers. the needs of city people and the places where they live. Second, it is important for conservationists to talk For individual conservationists, this requires face-to-face with senior officials and show them how changing long-established attitudes – without things work on the ground. Visiting places like the compromising core values – and acquiring new skills. nature reserves on the Cape Flats in South Africa, or For conservation organizations, it requires adopting an the Hawkins Natural Park in inner-city Los Angeles enlarged, but not radically different, perspective. can be mind-changing experiences. For particularly important political figures, study tours in which they Urban pioneers in the conservation movement, meet with counterparts in other countries and see including those mentioned above, have strived toward what is being accomplished on the ground can be this goal for many years. A new generation of leaders especially valuable. can move us much closer. Those more seasoned in this exciting new arena must do all they can to help them A role for IUCN do so. At the global level, IUCN is well-positioned as a forum for discussing ways to improve urban dwellers’ The Urban Imperative. Published by California Institute of access to nature and to promote an ecosystem Public Affairs. approach to managing cities and their surroundings. IUCN leaders started to look seriously at the connections between cities and nature in the mid- 1990s (McNeely, 1999). In 2001, a special number of IUCN’s Parks journal on “Cities and Parks” (McNeely, 2001) drew attention to the subject. This led to the workshop on “The Urban Imperative” at the Vth World Parks Congress in 2003. The workshop resulted in a Congress recommendation on “Cities and Protected Areas” (WCPA, 2003) calling on conservation agencies, NGOs, local authorities, and local communities to give more attention to the importance of protected areas and green spaces to people living in cities, and recognise the interdependence of cities and protected areas. It also called for incorporating an urban dimension in IUCN’s own activities. To follow up this recommendation, the World Commission on Protected Areas has created a Task Force on Cities and
Protected Areas (WCPA, 2004). illustration ©2005 L.R. Caughman Cover
48 chapter 4 IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim The role of hunting in promoting protected areas
by Kent H. Redford and Miranda Mockrin
Editor’s introduction For many people, the idea of protected areas is direct financial benefits to the local communities associated especially with protection of animals from involved. Hunters also contribute to managing the hunting. But throughout history, hunters have shown a habitat, monitoring wildlife and managing the offtake, capacity for managing their game animals in a providing considerable knowledge about wildlife that sustainable manner, provided the necessary cultural may be useful to managers, helping to enforce and social controls are effectively in place. For many regulations and controlling pest species. While categories of protected areas, hunting is a permissible hunting is not permitted in all protected areas, in activity. For example, category I wilderness areas may those areas where controlled hunting is a permit indigenous hunting, and many category IV management objective, protected area managers can areas are managed especially as game reserves. Kent gain substantial benefits by working closely with Redford and Miranda Mockrin provide a historical hunting associations, safari operators, and local overview of hunting and explain the many ways that hunters. hunters support protected areas, and often deliver
Photo: Bear, Canada.
49 4 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction In all of these cases, the purpose of the institution was to prevent the elimination of animals so that they For millennia humans have realized that their actions could continue to be harvested. This seems to have were capable of exhausting natural resources on most frequently have been accomplished by which they relied. Though actions were not always identifying and demarcating areas and limiting use taken on these realizations, in a broad variety of within these areas. These “protected areas” were often cultures, times, and geographies human societies did called “parks” as in “deer parks” (Whitehead, 1950) put into place institutions designed to prevent resource and the English word park comes from the prehistoric exhaustion. Such institutions have focused first on German word for ‘enclosed place’ (Oxford English those resources most susceptible to overexploitation. Dictionary). In the American tradition a park became Until the last century or two, the resource that has associated with preserving wilderness, but even here arguably been most susceptible to human overuse is the association with animals was maintained as vertebrate species. It is then no surprise that humans Williams (1989) states that etymologically, have created a variety of institutions designed to “wilderness” comes from “the place of wild beasts.” manage this resource and prevent overexploitation. In In its modern usage, the term park encompasses a some traditional forest-dwelling or fishing societies much broader meaning being subsumed under the these institutions have focused on taboos and spatial umbrella term “protected area”. IUCN defines a patterns of management In other, more agrarian protected area as “an area of land and/or sea especially societies, management institutions have often dedicated to the protection and maintenance of involved monopolization of hunting rights by elites. biological diversity, and of natural and associated Such systems usually involved exerting control over cultural resources, and managed through legal or other areas of land and limiting harvest of certain species of effective means” (IUCN, 2004). Some categories of animals on that land. Though this was usually protected areas are strictly protected while others associated with killing of “royal animals” the same allow specified types of use or protect anthropogenic system was applied to capturing of elephants for features. Increasing understanding of the ubiquity of domestication in India (Rangarajan, 2001). human influence worldwide has created a climate The custom of allocating areas for hunting often where increasingly controlled human use is involved enclosing areas of natural habitat and considered acceptable if it provides support for restoring or enhancing populations of game animals protection of many other, non-targeted components (Redford, 2000). For example, in Assyria in the 8th and attributes of biodiversity (Redford and Richter, century BC King Saragon II was reported to have 1999). Hunting is a recognised use of protected areas stocked royal hunting grounds with wild bulls, lions, worldwide (Rosabel, 1997; Freese, 1998), and legal ostriches and apes (van Zuylen, 1995). Often however, code for protected areas and hunting is increasingly these reserves were just habitat protected from integrated (Cirelli, 2002). But it is important to note hunting by commoners. Such systems were that even in the absence of other impacts, hunting has widespread from Venice in the 8th century AD (Allin, been shown to affect genetic, species, and ecosystem 1990), to Mughal India (Rangarajan, 2001), to Java in components of biodiversity (Freese) so areas where the 17th century (Boomgaard, 2001). The rulers of hunting takes place do not achieve the same England, as elsewhere in Europe (Cartmill, 1993), biodiversity objectives as areas with no hunting designated large areas as “royal forests” where only (Redford and Richter, 1999). the King and chosen guests were allowed to hunt. In It is important to highlight the fact that the fact the “forest” was defined as “…a certain territory relationship between hunting and protected areas is of woody grounds and fruitful pastures, privileged for not a simple one. Hunting itself has been responsible wild beasts and fowls of forest, chase and warren, to for many extinctions, and left uncontrolled, is one of rest and abide in, in the safe protection of the king, for the most prevalent threats to huntable species his princely delight and pleasure…” (Manwood, 1665 worldwide. The ability of hunting to be useful as a tool in Whitehead 1950).
50 The role of hunting in promoting protected areas 4
in support of a given protected area will depend on hunting and power is part and parcel of the European how the ecological, political, historical and social experience (Cartmill, 1993) and was carried by context shape the nature of the interactions. For Europeans to their colonies, colouring the way both example, while trophy hunting seems to offer promise hunting and park establishment were conducted as a means of generating significant money for some (Mackenzie, 1997). For example, the British occupiers protected areas, it is much less feasible in tropical of India, wishing to hunt tigers and lions, treated with forest areas with no animals of interest to trophy favours those Indian princes who could offer big game hunters. Additionally, some species do not have the hunts in hunting preserves (Rangarajan, 2001). biological characteristics to allow hunting to be sustainable in any economically significant fashion. Control of hunting by those in power inevitably Likewise, where laws prohibit all types of resource results, and has always resulted, in the extinguishing extraction, hunting could not become a conservation of harvest rights by those less powerful. Rights to hunt tool. have been taken and either kept or reassigned in non- traditional patterns. This fact is part and parcel of all consideration of hunters as collaborators in park Description of the establishment and management. In many settings interest group outside of Europe and the United States hunting is Humans have hunted since before they became among the most contentious of topics for people human and hunting remains of interest and living in and near protected areas and wishing to importance to many human populations around the continue their cultural practices of hunting (c.f. world. Animals have been, and are, valued by humans Oilwatch and World Rainforest Movement, 2004). In for a broad variety of reasons (Redford and Robinson, this piece we do not specifically address the issues of 1991; Redford et al., 1995) ranging from food to traditional rights and legality of the hunting, but these religion. Arguably, the most important value humans are vital issues for all practitioners engaging hunters place on animals is for food both for subsistence and as a new constituency for protected areas. commercial purposes. Wild animals are also used for other subsistence purposes including clothing, tools, medicine and material for handicrafts and ritual. Kayapó young woman with hummingbird, Brazil. Many of these animal products have acquired commercial value in local, national and international markets – particularly for luxury uses such as furs, ivory and meat, or for traditional Chinese medicine. Wild animals have other values that are non- consumptive in nature. These include religious and spiritual values, values due to the willingness of tourists to pay to see them, and value as components of function of ecosystems (e.g. seed dispersal, predation, nutrient cycling). Though usually valued positively, animals can have negative values in some contexts such as when feeding in gardens, preying on livestock or humans, or transmitting diseases.
Although hunting is very common, it has often been controlled by social factors. In different settings hunting is limited by season, by sex, by bag limit, and by type of hunter. Control of hunting has often been done by those in power, wishing to control the harvesting by others. This association between © Kent Redford © Kent
51 4 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Description of the interests of Parks that allow hunting make significant hunters in protected areas contributions towards the total area of land protected, on local, regional, and global scales. This increase is Hunting plays an important role in promoting due, in part, to the increase in community-based protected areas, both through the designation of wildlife management. Areas reserved for sport protected areas to be used for sport or subsistence hunting and areas designated for subsistence hunting hunting, and through the creation of protected areas to are discussed separately below. serve as harvest refugia that protect game populations within their borders and supply dispersing animals to Sport hunting areas beyond the refugia. Providing sport hunting opportunities may result in significant amounts of land being contained in Hunting in protected areas protected areas. On a local level, Cameroon’s Hunting in protected areas can be broadly described as Northern Province includes 28 hunting zones, which motivated by three main factors: hunting for combine with three national parks to make up 44% of recreation, hunting for subsistence, and hunting to the province’s land surface (Jell and Machado, 2002). manage invasive or overabundant species. These motivations are not mutually exclusive: recreational Countries in eastern and southern Africa that allow hunting may provide valuable game meat (Freese, sport hunting may devote very high percentages of 1998) and is often used to accomplish management national territory to sport hunting, leading to a goals of reducing numbers of overabundant or non- significant amount of land protected on a regional native species. Finally, hunting may have cultural scale. For example, Tanzania and Botswana have significance as well. In the following section, we will some of the highest percentages of land included in focus on the recreational and subsistence hunting that protected areas worldwide, with 27% of mainland occurs in protected areas. Hunting for management Tanzania and 30% of Botswana set aside in protected purposes will be discussed in the next section, under areas. management. In Tanzania, 80% of these protected areas allow Sport and subsistence hunting may be further hunting. In total, protected areas that allow hunting separated, occurring in different types of protected include 43 Game Controlled Areas and 23 Game areas, although there are exceptions. Where sport Reserves, which combine to make up 22% of 2 hunting occurs, hunting is often the primary use of the mainland Tanzania, or 207,919km (Leader-Williams, protected area. Hunters are often foreign tourists, 2000). The Selous Game Reserve alone is the largest 2 although they can be nationals as well. Local protected area in Africa, comprising 43,000km , and inhabitants may be prohibited from residing or holds 35% of Tanzania’s hunting blocks, with hunting 2 hunting for subsistence in these parks. blocks an average of 955km (Creel and Creel, 1997).
However, within the past decade, protected areas Brazilians selling prawns by roadside. that explicitly include subsistence hunting and human habitation have become more common (IUCN, 1994). Local people are increasingly involved in natural resource management, including parks, and the management of wildlife hunting (Adams and Hulme, 2001). Some parks controlled by communities, such as wildlife management areas in Botswana, allow both subsistence and tourist hunting (Arntzen, 2002). © Kent Redford © Kent
52 The role of hunting in promoting protected areas 4
In Botswana, 24% of national territory, or Subsistence hunting 2 139,680km , is zoned as Wildlife Management Areas Many kinds of protected areas allow subsistence (WMAs), and an additional 18% of national territory hunting, and some have been created with the express is reserved in protected areas where no hunting occurs purpose of maintaining traditional human cultures. (Rozemeijer, 2003). WMAs are subdivided into Subsistence hunting is a recognised part of traditional Controlled Hunting Areas, the units used by the culture (Ross, 1994). For example, the Bolshoi Department of Wildlife and National Parks to Arkticheskiy State Nature Reserve in Russia is administer hunting licences. Communities may apply inhabited by 4,000 indigenous people who hunt, fish, to manage Controlled Hunting Areas, for both and herd reindeer over 42,000km2. The reserve is subsistence and sport hunting, and sport hunting also classified as a Wilderness Area (Category Ib under occurs on privately owned game ranches (Barnes, IUCN designation) (IUCN, 1994). 2001). In Zambia, hunting occurs on 34 Game Management Areas, covering more than 140,000km2, In South America, the Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco or 20% of the country. In Zimbabwe, protected areas National Park of Bolivia, and the Tamhiyacu-Tahuayo with hunting make up 17,360km2, 34% of Communal Reserve of Peru both allow the exploitation Zimbabwe’s parks and wildlife estate, and 4.5% of the of wildlife for the benefit of local communities. Both country (Martin, 1996; Price Waterhouse, 1996). reserves rely upon a pattern of zoning that designates central protected areas where no hunting occurs, and Privately-owned and communally-owned lands that surrounding buffer zones that allow for extraction of allow sport hunting are also increasingly common in resources, with human habitation removed one more southern Africa, when law allows private or layer beyond (Bodmer, 1994; Taber et al., 1997; Noss community wildlife ownership of wildlife and and Cuellar, 2001). This multiple-use module design is individuals and communities can reap the financial also used in Man and the Biosphere (MAB) reserves, rewards of sport hunting (Child and Chitsike, 2000). which may allow subsistence hunting. MAB reserves An estimated 75% of Namibia’s wildlife is found focus on human-inhabited areas by definition, and outside governmental protected areas, mostly on work towards the sustainable use of resources and the commercial farming operations (Jones and Murphree, conservation of biodiversity. 2001). In South Africa, the majority of sport hunting takes place on private property, with over 8,000 In Amazonia, legally-recognised reserves for private game ranches or farms in 1992 (Price indigenous people make up 248 of 459 officially Waterhouse, 1996). recognised conservation areas, or 52% of protected areas. In the Brazilian Amazon, the total size of these In the United States, hunting is allowed on the parks is 1,000,000 km2 (Zimmerman et al., 2001). In majority of the National Wildlife Refuge system, and Africa, the Lobéké Reserve of Cameroon has been on other state and federally controlled land. In total, proposed as a similar multiple use reserve (Jell and the National Wildlife Refuge system includes 542 Machado, 2002), and legal codes in West and Central refuges and more than 3,000 small areas for waterfowl Africa allow the creation of reserves for subsistence breeding and nesting, comprising more than hunting in Guinea, Burkina Faso, Mauritania and 2 388,000km . More than 300 refuges allow hunting Cameroon (Cirelli, 2002). In Southern Africa, (http://refuges.fws.gov/). However, the vast majority community controlled conservancies and wildlife of hunting (more than 80%) takes place on private management areas may allow subsistence hunting, but land (U.S. Department of the Interior et al., 2002). in some instances, sport hunting precludes the use of Similarly, hunting in Europe is often conducted on wildlife resources by local inhabitants. For example, in private lands, managed through communal hunting Tanzania, although national residents can purchase associations (Cirelli, 2002; Schwenk, 1991; Ruzicka, licences for sport hunting, the requirement to purchase 1995). a licence for each animal effectively precludes any local residents of wildlife management areas from hunting for subsistence (Leader-Williams, 2000).
53 4 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas © Digital Vision © Digital
Hunting “from” protected areas The use of harvest refugia is not a novel concept in (sink/source etc.) wildlife management. Harvest refugia have been used in traditional societies in marine and terrestrial Hunters also benefit from protected areas that do not settings (Joshi and Gadgil, 1991; Colding and Folke, allow hunting, and use these areas as a form of 2001) and were advocated by Aldo Leopold (1933) at hunting management. Termed harvest refugia, these the advent of modern wildlife management. In the areas are purposefully protected from hunting to United States, harvest refugia were often established increase the sustainability or yield available from after overhunting, to allow formerly abundant species hunting. Hunting refugia prevent local extinctions of a chance to recover (McCullough, 1996). Harvest species, and they provide a steady supply of wildlife refugia may be a valuable management strategy in that can disperse into hunting areas (Joshi and Gadgil, remote areas where the level and distribution of 1991; McCullough, 1996). As a result, higher offtake hunting is difficult to control (Leopold, 1933; Novaro can be sustained in hunting regions. Human hunting et al., 2000). pressure therefore creates a “sink” sustained by dispersing animals from the protected “source” or Today, harvest refugia are used in a wide variety of harvest refugia (sensu Pulliam, 1988). The dispersal ecosystems, in developing and developed countries. Harvest refugia may be established in multiple use behaviour of organisms varies between species and reserves, in the form of a core protected area that will among individuals of the same species, but source prevent total overharvest and allow animals to populations may sustain both nearby and far away disperse into hunting areas (e.g., the Tamhiyacu- sink populations. Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Bodmer and Puertas, Similar to protected areas dedicated to hunting, 2000). In Burkina Faso, the law allows for “local protected areas designated as hunting refuges can refuges” to be reserved by local authorities to facilitate attain significant size and conserve important habitat the reproduction and exploitation of wildlife, and law for wildlife populations. Because hunting grounds in both Albania and Portugal envisions “repopulation may be placed immediately outside the hunting zones” (Cirelli, 2002). In France, an estimated 5% of refuge, hunting and non-hunting areas combine to the national territory, over 12,000 reserves, covering form sizeable complexes on a landscape. 25,300km2 is included in harvest refugia, with
54 The role of hunting in promoting protected areas 4
communal hunting associations also setting aside Mountain National Park are thought to be inhibited 10% of their hunting grounds. These harvest refugia from moving outside the park because they can not have been credited for supplying dispersing organisms easily switch social groups (Lubow et al., 2002). to nearby and distant hunting grounds in significant Hunting on the periphery of parks can also have numbers (Trouvilliez, 1997). effects on populations and social structures that extend within parks. Populations that are not fully The placement of harvest refugia often focuses on contained in no-hunting protected areas, but extend high-quality habitat or breeding grounds to ensure the into hunting areas, may be vulnerable to overharvest. enhanced reproduction and eventual dispersal of For example, none of the wolf packs that utilize animals to hunting areas. This function is well Bieszczady National Park in Poland are confined to demonstrated in waterfowl. In North America, pothole the park boundaries, a factor which must be included wetlands produce half of North America’s waterfowl, in management plans to prevent overharvest earning the title “North America’s duck factories” (Smietana and Wajda, 1997). In the Serengeti, harvest (Abell et al., 2000). These wetlands are purposefully of male lions outside protected areas attracts males conserved as national wildlife refuges (USFWS, from the park and distorts sex ratios within the 2003). protected area (Sinclair, 1995). Hunting areas may also be arranged around a protected area, allowing them to capitalize on Box 4.1 dispersal of animals from protected areas. Both recreational hunting managed by the state and Regulation of puma hunting by informal hunting activities may concentrate on the designating hunting and no-hunting outskirts of protected areas (e.g., Mathevet and zones Tamisier, 2002). Sport hunting positioned outside a no-hunting area in Tanzania allows hunting outfitters Laudré and Clark (2003) proposed regulating puma to use habitat in relatively good condition, in a region (Puma concolor) hunting over an 18,600km2 with low human occupation, so that “the ideal safari landscape in the Idaho/Nevada/Utah region through hunting situation is in an area surrounding a national the creation of hunting and no-hunting areas. park” (Hurt and Ravn, 2000). However, the Location, size, and arrangement of hunting and no- motivation for arranging hunting areas outside no- hunting areas proposed were dependent on hunting protected areas may not always be to biological data: they identified natural biological capitalize on wildlife dispersal. This spatial sinks (mountain ranges less than 100km2) and used arrangement could follow from the practice of radiotelemetry data to determine dispersal establishing protected areas in remote regions with distances. Creation of hunting and no-hunting zones little human habitation. Human uses such as hunting was seen as a good policy option, buffering puma may then be relegated to more accessible regions populations from politically-motivated and surrounding parks, as is the case with ibex hunting in biologically unsustainable changes in state hunting the French alps (Skonhoft et al., 2002). In southern regulations, while also allowing ample Africa, hunting areas may be positioned as buffers to opportunities for harvesting. Laudré and Clark protect national parks from human encroachment (2003) are of the opinion that traditional quota from more heavily populated areas (Price Waterhouse, hunting is endangering puma populations, and they 1996). have turned to spatial management as a way to safeguard populations. However, authors stress that It should be noted that game refugia will not dispersal is critical to the function of the proposed increase harvests of absolutely every species, but will systems; if dispersal capabilities are altered through depend upon population structure, behaviour, and land use changes, the genetic structure and dynamics of individual species, as well as the size, population structure will be altered. placement, and habitat of hunting and no-hunting Source: Laudré and Clark (2003). areas. For example, elk (Cervus elaphus) in Rocky
55 4 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Marine parks and fishing Kayapó man with fish and heron, Brazil. Harvesting refugia are also used in marine ecosystems as a management technique to safeguard or improve the offtake of aquatic protein. Marine parks benefit commercial, subsistence, and recreational fishers. Marine parks are used for fisheries management by prohibiting harvesting within the reserve. Marine protected areas generally prohibit all fishing, so no protected areas are specially designated to fishing, as some terrestrial protected areas are dedicated to hunting. In some cases, marine protected areas may not completely halt fishing, but rather implement restrictions on fishing gear, or the nature of the fishing (recreational, and not commercial, for example) (Rosenberg, 2001). When harvesting is halted, populations increase inside the protected area, allowing “spillover” of adults and juveniles beyond park boundaries, and increasing the number of the export of larvae outside the reserve. Fish inside park boundaries will also tend to be older and bigger, with Redford © Kent a concordant increase in reproductive potential, or the year (Welcomme, 2001). In contrast, marine ability to export eggs and larvae (Gell and Roberts, protected areas have been discussed in fisheries 2003). science over the last 40 years, but only recently have Commercial and subsistence fishers will therefore many been enacted (National Research Council, benefit as fish populations inside reserves increase. 2001). Recreational fishers also benefit as populations The effects of marine protected areas on fish stocks increase, because more fish are available to catch, and are still being researched, and studies postulating the fish may be of a better quality. Recreational fishers benefits have often relied on theoretical simulations are often interested in harvesting large individuals as (Sladek Nowlis and Roberts, 1999; Sumaila et al., trophies. Because marine protected areas allow 2000; Gerber et al., 2002). However, the ability of individuals within to achieve large sizes, the areas harvesting restrictions to increase biomass within park outside marine protected areas yield larger fish. For boundaries is now generally accepted (Halpern, 2003; example, the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge Russ and Alcala, 2003). In addition, the benefits of in Florida has been closed to fishing pressure since the marine protected areas for fish stocks and harvesting establishment of the Kennedy Space Center in 1962. outside the protected area are increasingly recognised Recreational fisheries adjacent to the reserve have (Gell and Roberts, 2003). The benefit of marine produced exceptional numbers of world-record-size fish, with most of the fish size records from Florida protected areas to fishers depends on the amount of originating from around the reserve (Gell and spillover and larval export achieved by protected Roberts, 2003). areas, which is in turn heavily dependent upon reserve placement, duration of harvesting prohibition, and Similar to terrestrial hunting refugia, spatial species’ life histories and ecologies. For example, fish techniques have also long been used by traditional overspill can range from a few hundred metres to a people to regulate fisheries, for example, in Pacific few kilometres in coral reef habitats, but more mobile islands (Colding and Folke, 2001). Fishers utilizing species in estuaries, continental shelves and rocky inland waters have similar traditional customs of reefs can travel distances of tens to hundreds of prohibiting harvesting in certain areas for part or all of kilometres (Gell and Roberts, 2003). Significant
56 The role of hunting in promoting protected areas 4
larval dispersal outside reserves has also been noted ecological knowledge on which protected area for invertebrates, which are less mobile and may management depends. Finally, hunters provide spend their entire lives inside reserve boundaries. political support for protected areas, both Larval dispersal need not be long-distance; new domestically and internationally. evidence suggests dispersal may leave larvae near reserves (Gell and Roberts, 2003). Funding for protected areas
Marine protected areas therefore share a number of Sport hunting is capable of generating substantial similarities to terrestrial harvest refugia. In both revenue, which can then be used to support national realms, no-take refugia are a traditional system of parks. Funds may directly pay for park maintenance, management, and benefit resource users by making management, and acquisition, or may be returned to harvesting more sustainable and of a higher quality. In local people, which increases support for protected both settings, placement of reserve, duration of areas. protection, and species’ life histories are likely to determine the types of benefits enjoyed by resource Amount and methods of generating users (Gell and Roberts, 2003; Milner-Gulland et al., revenue through hunting 2003). One important different between the two types Revenue from hunting is generated in a variety of of harvesting is that recreational fishing is often ways, either through direct payments to governments, conducted on a catch and release basis, with no or through taxes levied by the government. In Africa, analogous terrestrial hunting activity. Because catch hunters must pay a variety of fees which can include and release fishing is non-consumptive, some feel that hunting licences and fees, trophy fees, conservation it should be allowed in marine protected areas. For fees, observer fees, weapons import fees, and ecologically sensitive areas, however, the presence of sometimes fees to communities, in addition to catch and release fishing may still cause degradation payments to hunting operators and expenditures (National Research Council, 2001). towards transport, hotels, trophy processing. Hunting outfitters also pay the government a concession fee in How hunters contribute to order to have exclusive access to a hunting area. protected areas In total, hunters from North America and Europe People who hunt in protected areas, or who derive are willing to pay from US$14,000–$60,000 or more hunting benefits because of game refugia, have an for a 10–21 day safari to hunt African trophy species, incentive to support protected areas and hunt including elephant, buffalo, lion, and eland (Wilkie sustainably. The significant revenue generated by and Carpenter, 1999b). The availability of elephant sport hunting is an example: hunters must manage can substantially increase the revenue generated from wildlife resources wisely to yield a continued source a safari. A single African hunting concession without of revenue (Salvatori et al., 2002). These benefits are elephants can generate $150,000 in government not limited to income but can also include food, revenue through trophy fees, each year, while a recreation, medicine, and the maintenance of concession with elephants can generate $340,000 sociocultural systems (Freeman, 2001). (Wilkie and Carpenter, 1999b).
Hunters contribute to protected areas through a Significant earnings accrue to national govern- multitude of actions. The most direct may be funding: ments. In 2000, Botswana generated gross revenue of hunting generates a great deal of revenue that can then US$12.5 million through the recreational hunting be used for protected area management. Hunters also sector (Arntzen, 2002). In 2000, the trophy hunting directly participate in protected area management, industry in Namibia hosted 3,640 trophy hunters for a including habitat management, monitoring wildlife total of 15,450 hunter-days, and 13,310 game animals populations, limiting access to hunting, and were hunted (Humavindu and Barnes, 2003). Trophy controlling pest species. Hunters also provide hunting generated at least US$19.6 million in direct
57 4 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
expenditures, or gross output. In total, trophy hunting distribution schedules can be complex and may vary makes up at least 14% of the total tourism sector and between different types of protected areas, and even is a significant component of the Namibian economy. between individual protected areas (Leader-Williams, Some 24% of the income earned in the trophy hunting 2000). Problems with financial oversight and leakages industry accrues to poor segments of society in the can also occur, complicating the flow of funds back to form of wages and rentals/royalties. About 21% of protected areas and local people. For example, income generated is captured by the government, revenue from sport hunting in Cameroon is required through fees and taxes. Trophy hunting is considered to be split between the national treasury (70%) and a an important contributor to development. special fund for conservation (30%) (Mayaka, 2001), but Wilkie and Carpenter report that the conservation Sport hunting therefore has the ability to generate a fund has experienced problems with accounting and significant portion of funds needed for management transparency. of protected areas (hunting and non-hunting) and conservation programmes. For example, When used by governmental authorities, revenue approximately 180 safari hunters visit Northern derived from hunters can pay for acquiring new land Cameroon each year. The state receives US$650,000 as protected areas. In the United States, 11,000km2 or dollars per year from hunting activities (Mayaka, approximately 3% of National Wildlife Refuges, have 2001), or an estimated 34% of annual management been acquired using funds raised from hunting, costs for protected areas (Wilkie and Carpenter, including import duties on firearms and ammunition, 1999a). refuge entrance fees, and migratory bird hunting and conservation stamps, also known as duck stamps One final advantage of revenues generated from (90% of stamps are purchased by hunters) (USFWS, sport hunting is that they may be more reliably and viewed February 20, 2004). Revenue can also pay for evenly distributed than revenues generated from management, research and staffing needs of protected wildlife viewing. In Tanzania, tourist hunting is areas. dispersed over a wider range of protected areas than wildlife viewing, which concentrates on a few well- In developing countries there has been increasing known national parks (Leader-Williams, 2000). impetus to return revenue to communities managing, Hunters may be more willing to “rough it” and travel occupying, or living adjacent to protected areas to areas with minimal amenities and infrastructure (Adams and Hulme, 2001). Because of their (Wilkie and Carpenter, 1999a). Hunting revenue is proximity to parks, these communities have reduced also considered more resistant to recessions and civil access to natural resources for food and building strife than revenue from wildlife viewing (Ndolanga, materials, and suffer an increased risk of crop and 1996). During Zimbabwe’s civil war from 1970 to property damage. Therefore, profit-sharing from 1980 the sport hunting industry continued largely hunting revenue is predicted to increase community unabated (Martin, 1996). support for wildlife and national parks, resulting in better management, and increase the effectiveness of Hunting revenue benefits protected areas parks. Revenue-sharing can take the form of increased Hunting revenue benefits protected areas by providing social infrastructure and efforts to improve a governments with funds for protected area community’s standard of living, as well as increased management and expansion, and through opportunities for employment. programmes that disperse funds to communities adjacent to parks. For hunting revenue to benefit Communities are now receiving far more of the protected areas by either of these means, it is essential profits from hunting than they were in the past, which that funding return from the central treasury to in turn benefits protected areas. At one point in the protected areas and their environs. The flow of 1980s in Zambia less than 1% of safari hunting revenue generated from hunting is often contentious revenue was returned to local village economies. and may be revised frequently. The resultant Local attitudes towards safari hunting were negative
58 The role of hunting in promoting protected areas 4
Kayapó boy with fish, Brazil. Hunting and protected area management Hunters play significant roles in protected area management. In both protected areas dedicated to sport hunting and protected areas dedicated to subsistence hunting, sport hunting outfitters and hunters may engage in a variety of management practices, including habitat management and restoration, monitoring wildlife and managing hunting offtake, and protecting the area from poaching or hunting by outsiders (Mayaka, 2001). Hunters also contribute ecological knowledge which can be utilized by protected area management. If hunting areas are located outside no-hunting protected areas, enforcement and maintenance in hunting areas
© Kent Redford © Kent will also benefit no-hunting protected areas (Pasanisi, (Lewis et al., 1990). By 1994, communities received 1996). Within protected areas, recreational hunting 67% of the total government revenue from hunting, may be used to control pest species. and approximately 20% of hunting-industry receipts from hunting in GMAs (Lewis and Alpert, 1997). Habitat management Habitat management and restoration are some of the The increased funding to local communities is more profound alterations of the environment that beneficial for protected areas because some of this may be undertaken to improve or maintain hunting. funding has paid for community game guards, and because community attitudes towards wildlife The manipulation of habitat to increase hunting has a conservation have improved (Lewis and Alpert, long history, and was present in 19th century Germany 1997). The ability of revenue-sharing projects to and England (Schwenk, 1991; Leopold, 1933). Habitat improve biodiversity conservation in national parks alterations may be motivated by a desire to maintain a depends upon their ability to meet livelihood needs single species (e.g., heather Calluna vulgaris moorlands and generate real income and subsistence products. managed for red grouse Lagopus lagopus), to maintain Community-level projects may encounter difficulties a suite of related species (e.g., increasing wetlands to achieving these benefits across individuals and maintain migratory ducks), or to maintain a diverse households (Emerton, 2001). However, small array of species. Management alterations may be carried communities can receive substantial benefits from out by governmental agencies or hunting outfitters in sport hunting revenues. Tiburón Island in Mexico protected areas in order to maintain hunting contains a community of approximately 800 people opportunities. who share the profits from bighorn sheep hunting, with permits raising $100,000 per trophy sheep In western Zimbabwe and northeastern Botswana, (Medellin, 2003). When less resources are available habitat management in sport hunting protected areas per individual, funds that provide subsistence hunters is undertaken to “provide the wildlife community with with alternative sources of livelihood can have a a diversity of habitats and waterpoints, and provide the substantial impact on wildlife conservation within high paying hunting client with access to a diverse parks. Reducing subsistence hunting also makes more community of trophy quality game and an exclusive animals available for sport hunting. Annual revenue wilderness experience” (Hunter, 1996). Management saved from animals not illegally hunted exceeds actions include controlled burns, bush clearing, water $300,000 (Lewis, 2003). provisioning (through pumping or damming seasonal rivers), annual cutting, and occasional planting of
59 4 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
native grasses. Because hunting protected areas in this example, specific fruit trees may be planted in region make up more than 13,000km2, management managed forest areas for game species, and plant activities undertaken by hunters have the potential to species not utilized by people may be maintained or significantly influence the region’s biodiversity. planted if they are an important resource for a valued game species (Wadley et al., 1997). Protected areas Habitat restoration has received the most attention established to maintain traditional lifestyles will allow in the restoration of wetlands for waterfowl hunting. these game management practices to continue, along In the United States, wetlands restoration and with other traditional uses of natural resources. conservation projects in protected areas may be carried out under the North American Wetlands Potential habitat alteration, together with the Conservation Act (NAWCA), a partnership-based introduction of non-native species and the artificial programme using public-private partnerships to provisioning of food may comprise some of the more protect, restore, and manage wetland habitat for significant alterations hunters can make to hunted migratory birds and other wildlife. Ducks Unlimited, landscapes. The use of these management a hunting advocacy organization in the United States, interventions in protected areas may have varying currently receives $6.8 million in federal funding to effects on biodiversity in the system, and need to be work with governmental, NGO, and private partners carefully investigated. and carry out wetlands restoration and conservation projects in North America (Ducks Unlimited, Monitoring wildlife and managing accessed April 19, 2004). offtake Subsistence hunters manage other natural resources Where reserves allow continued subsistence hunting at the same time as they pursue hunting, for example by residents, communities may play an integral role in by using a combination of agroforestry, swidden rice monitoring harvest and managing wildlife, working in cultivation, and hunting to procure food. Some of this cooperation with government agencies, NGO habitat management may be purposefully undertaken extension workers, and researchers (Bodmer and to increase or maintain game populations. For Puertas, 2000). For example, in the Tamshiyaco- Tahuayo Communal Reserve, hunting offtake is monitored through collection of skulls from hunters Ache with armadillo on fire, Paraguay. and their families, working with extension agents. Decisions regarding resource use are made by democratic voting processes at community meetings (Bodmer and Puertas, 2000). Data from recreational hunters, such as species harvested, effort expended, and spatial distribution of the harvest, also contribute to governmental efforts to monitor wildlife populations and regulate harvests.
In a sport hunting context, participatory on-the- ground animal counts can be combined with additional census data, a safari operator’s perception of population levels or measurement of catch and effort, and community perceptions about hunting levels and wildlife populations (Taylor, 2001). The use of participatory monitoring techniques may encourage higher levels of stewardship and greater involvement in conservation. Collecting data from hunters in the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve provides not only a valuable source of © Kent Redford © Kent
60 The role of hunting in promoting protected areas 4
biological data for monitoring, but also an opportunity 2000). In protected areas where subsistence hunting is for broader education and discussion between allowed, hunters often work to maintain community residents and wildlife extension workers (Bodmer and access to protected areas while excluding outsiders Puertas, 2000). from utilizing natural resources. For example, the impetus for creating the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Hunters as sources of knowledge Reserve originated when community members Indigenous knowledge of wildlife and local ecology is organized a system of controls to prevent outsiders considerable and is important for the management of from commercially hunting meat, fishing, and protected areas and hunting. Local people can extracting timber (Bodmer and Puertas, 2000). contribute knowledge likely to be important to hunting management, including habitat use and Hunting to control pest species reproductive cycles (Jell and Machado, 2002). For Hunters benefit protected areas by hunting within example, Inuit hunters in northern Canada are aware them to control non-native and overabundant species of denning areas used by polar bear females, and (Rosabel, 1997). For example, a number of exotic prevent land use predicted to negatively affect areas ungulates were originally introduced into New important for denning (Freeman, 2001). Zealand for hunting, but are now regarded as pests. Recreational hunting remains the main method of In many cases, hunting-related knowledge has control (Davys et al., 1999). The ability of species to positively contributed towards research and self-regulate population densities, without carnivores conservation in protected areas. For example, in in historic abundances, is controversial (Shafer, 2000). Central Africa, indigenous net hunting techniques However, replacing natural carnivore offtake with have been used to conduct scientific research (Hart, human predation is one motivation for allowing 2000) and proposed as a possible management tool to human hunting in protected areas, and can be be used by local people (Noss, 1999). Skills acquired considered as part of efforts to restore and maintain from hunting also enable local people to work as biologically diverse systems (Berger et al., 2001). research assistants and make valuable contributions towards scientific research and management (Marks, Tenure and management 1996; Hill et al., 2003). Uncertainty about concession tenure, however, may Finally, maintaining strong indigenous culture and decrease motivation to invest in management. Tenure knowledge may strengthen support for protected areas is often not secure in sports hunting areas. In Tanzania, and conservation because indigenous culture may hunting blocks are allocated for periods of five years bestow values upon wildlife and provide incentives to (Hurt and Ravn, 2000), and in Botswana, preserve it (Freeman, 2001). Although indigenous communities are awarded management of Controlled culture benefits conservation efforts, these cultures Hunting Units for six years (Rozemeijer, 2003). These and knowledge are maintained through the use of the short time spans do not allow outfitters or environment, including wildlife hunting. Therefore, communities to achieve long-term goals, such as the maintenance of local hunting may be intimately effectively managing elephant populations for a linked to stores of ecological knowledge; one will not trophy-sized male. Even over the short term, long survive without the other. investment in management may be lacking. In Cameroon, safari hunters generally do not maintain a Enforcement year-round presence. This investment may not be In some cases, the presence of safari hunting in a worthwhile because concession tenure may be region may dissuade poaching. In other cases, safari uncertain from year to year, or because it will not yield operators have started benefits-sharing and policing worthwhile results – subsistence hunters generally programmes with communities in an attempt to lessen target non-trophy species, and increased protection of illegal hunting in the area (Tanzania Game Tracker hunting concessions may not increase revenues Safaris and Robin Hurt Safaris, 1996; Hurt and Ravn, (Wilkie and Carpenter, 1999b).
61 4 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Box 4.2
Ability of hunters to conserve large carnivores in the Carpathian Mountains Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Romania contain over approval. Hunting may be conducted by local people 90% of the Carpathian Mountains, and harbour the or foreigners, and the trophy fee from foreign hunters greatest populations of large carnivores found in goes to hunting ground managers. Therefore, these Europe. Brown bear (Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis large forested areas remain largely under local control, lupus), and lynx (Lynx lynx) populations in the often the control of hunters, and the local people who Carpathians are estimated to represent 14%, 35% and manage the environment and wildlife can gain 30% respectively of the total European populations. benefits from trophy hunting. Hunting works More than 80% of forested areas in these states belong effectively to conserve game populations found here. to the government, but are divided into hunting In addition, due to their similar political histories, these management units, or hunting grounds, which range in countries have remarkably similar mechanisms for size from 25km2 to 100km2. Hunting grounds are regulating hunting, and also display similarities in generally regulated by non-governmental bodies, often opinion towards large carnivores, in addition to a hunting clubs (Table 4.1). Hunting ground managers shared cultural tradition of hunting. Working with are responsible for setting and enforcing quotas each hunting ground managers would therefore offer an year, and only in Romania and Slovakia are quotas excellent opportunity to promote the conservation of submitted to a central governmental authority for large carnivores.
Table 4.1 Political support for protected areas Management of hunting grounds in In West Africa, recruiting the support of hunters is the Carpathians seen as a way to garner domestic support for national Country Management of parks. In traditional cultures in West Africa, hunting hunting grounds skills were linked to war and defence, a tradition that has existed at least since medieval empires. During Slovakia 86% non-governmental colonialism, hunters’ brotherhood associations (church, municipality, hunting club) 14% Ministry of Agriculture became important organizations for mobilization against the French (Leach, 2000). These brotherhood Poland 92% hunting clubs associations are identified by initiation, 7% State Forest Administration apprenticeship networks, and shared ceremonies. In 1% research institute Guinea, hunters brotherhood associations have been Ukraine 80.5% hunting clubs tapped to play a key role in management and 13.9% State Forest Administration protection of national parks (Leach, 2000). 3.9% research institutions 2.7% Ministry of Defence Hunters have been recruited for this role because
Romania 72% hunting clubs they are seen as possessing valuable ecological 26% State Forest Administration knowledge. The brotherhood associations have been 2% Research Institutes used to form an environmental programme that attempts to reinvigorate traditional systems for Source: Salvatori et al. (2002). managing hunting, and use hunters to spread goals of new environmental education and management programmes. In some cases, hunters are being used as park guards, or work with local hunters’ associations is undertaken to reduce hunting and therefore eliminate the need to have park guards. Alliances
62 The role of hunting in promoting protected areas 4
between conservation organizations and members of 5. Conservation managers should work with hunters hunters’ brotherhood associations are also formed to implement management practices that optimize with the goal of enabling hunters’ organizations to the conservation of all components and attributes prevent outside or commercial hunters from of biodiversity, not just increase quantities of harvesting resources. Hunters outside of these game to be harvested. associations may lack experience, cultural knowledge, 6. Hunting management by hunting associations or and the formal initiation that members of hunters’ in hunting areas should be coordinated with associations possess, although commercial meat national park management (for example, habitat hunting still earns them a good income (Leach, 2000). manipulation or assessment of abundance, or behavioural effects on harvested animals). Policies needed to support the 7. Tender for hunting areas should be distributed in interests of hunters a fair, transparent process, to maintain consumer Listed below are policies needed to maximize the confidence and a stable trophy-hunting market. contributions of hunters towards protected areas and 8. Systems should be put in place to ensure that an conserving biodiversity. Putting these policies into place agreed-upon portion of trophy hunting fees is should be the priority actions in the coming ten years. returned to local human communities (e.g. “green 1. First and foremost, hunting affects biodiversity at bullet” certification (Lewis)). the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. 9. Hunting fees for sport hunting should take an Therefore, conserving all components of animal’s ecosystem services into consideration, and biodiversity requires significant areas protected be set after examining other prices in the region. from all consumptive use. 10. Hunting fees should go to support protected areas 2. Not all areas are suitable for hunting or would and conservation on hunting areas. Strict provide the economic or cultural returns to satisfy oversight and diligence are necessary to ensure potential hunters. For example, in Botswana, only equitable disbursement of funds. an estimated one-sixth of the country is thought to be suitable for sport hunting with another sixth 11. Hunting can have significant benefits by suitable for wildlife viewing. The wildlife viewing providing incentives to return wildlife to private areas are higher quality, and can earn more land, conserve wildlife on communally owned or revenue than hunting. The recommended sport managed land, and generating revenue for hunting areas are slightly lower in quality (areas government. To promote hunting in these where animals disperse in the wet season). Sport situations, the legal rights of people to own or hunting is the best use of this land in terms of manage wildlife and land must be ensured. generating revenue, but can not profitably be 12. In the context of subsistence hunting, co- expanded throughout the country (Barnes, 2001). management of hunting between state and 3. IUCN should develop an integrated “learning communities may be appropriate when the efforts portfolio” consisting of a global set of protected of individuals, communities or the state will not areas where hunters are thought to be a significant be effective in controlling over-hunting (Jell and force for conservation. This portfolio could be Machado, 2002). used to test assumptions about the relationship 13. Hunting management should incorporate the between use and conservation. traditional ecological knowledge of local people 4. IUCN should work to develop social and and skills of local people should be utilized in biological monitoring systems to provide tools for carrying out management and monitoring. The testing the impact of hunting and the trade-offs role of hunting in developing and maintaining generated as a resulting of hunting in protected ecological knowledge and support for areas. conservation should be acknowledged.
63 4 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
64 chapter 5 AHEAD © Building support for protected areas using a “One Health” perspective
by Steven A. Osofsky, Richard A. Kock, Michael D. Kock, Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka, Richard Grahn, Tim Leyland and William B. Karesh
Editor’s introduction Issues affecting the interplay among wildlife health, is often in short supply. Building a more appropriate the health of domestic animals, and human health are response to the problems of disease transmission receiving inadequate attention from protected area across the interface between wildlife and domestic managers. This chapter encourages an innovative animals can also lead to improvements in the health framework, called the “One Health Paradigm,” by status of the people living around protected areas, taking a broad ecological definition of health that thereby building a more positive attitude towards the brings together many disciplines that too often have protected area and conservation authorities. This remained isolated from each other. This ecosystem chapter also emphasises the highly dynamic approach to health issues is especially pertinent in the relationship between people, domestic animals, and parts of the world where domestic animals often wildlife, calling for significant investments in training, interact with the wild species of greatest interest to monitoring and research in order to ensure a healthy protected area managers. Steve Osofsky and his outcome for all concerned. The elements in the “One colleagues also provide a perspective on the many Health” paradigm provide a solid basis for building relationships between the health of wildlife and the support for protected areas from those living near health of people living in the often-remote areas them and those working on human and animal health. adjacent to protected areas, where human health care
65 5 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction ● bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is now known to occur in buffalo, lion, and a range of other species in Kruger In 1933, Aldo Leopold observed that “the role of National Park (Clifton-Hadley et al., 2001; Bengis, disease in wildlife conservation has probably been 2005; Michel, 2005); radically underestimated” (Leopold, 1933). Despite ● brucellosis is compromising bison populations in this recognition early in the 20th century, conservation North America in terms of management efforts worldwide are still being hampered because of implications (Bienen, 2002; Gillin et al., 2002); and their failure to recognise the critical role that health ● foot and mouth disease outbreaks in southern Africa plays in animal population dynamics, species survival, affect livestock and wildlife as well as land-use and follow-on impacts on the human condition. policies over vast areas (Thomson et al., 2003). Improving the health of people and their domestic It is clear from these examples that the issues of health animals is not only a key step to raising living and disease need to be brought into the conservation standards and improving livelihood security, it is the mainstream (Osofsky et al., 2000; Deem et al., 2001; single most effective way to reduce the incidence of WCS FVP, 2003a). disease transmission to highly susceptible wildlife populations (WCS FVP, 2003c), including those that live within or utilize protected areas. Box 5.1
Throughout the world, domestic and wild animals The AHEAD Initiative are coming into ever more intimate contact. Without adequate scientific knowledge and planning, the The AHEAD (Animal Health for the consequences can be detrimental on one or both sides Environment And Development) initiative, led of the proverbial fence. But with the right mix of by the Wildlife Conservation Society and expertise armed with the tools that the animal health partners, focuses on several themes of critical sciences provide, conservation and development importance to the future of livestock, wildlife, objectives have a much greater chance of being and, of course, people: competition over grazing realized, particularly at the critical wildlife/livestock and water resources; disease mitigation; local interface where conservation and agricultural interests and global food security; zoonoses (diseases meet head-on. transmitted between animals and people); and other potential sources of conflict related to the Infectious diseases are increasingly being overall challenges of land-use planning and the recognised as important “emerging issues” by health pervasive reality of resource constraints. Prior to specialists, disease ecologists, conservation biologists, this initiative, neither non-governmental organi- wildlife managers, and protected area planners zations, nor aid agencies, nor academia have (Meffe, 1999; Deem et al., 2002; Lafferty and Gerber, holistically addressed the landscape-level nexus 2002; Aguirre et al., 2002; Daszak and Cunningham, represented by the wildlife health/domestic 2002; Graczyk, 2002; WCS FVP, 2003b; Kalema- animal health/human health triangle, especially Zikusoka, 2005; World Parks Congress Outputs 2003; as it relates to protected areas. Osofsky et al., 2005). Examples of emerging diseases www.wcs-ahead.org that have impacts on human health and biodiversity include: Impacts from interactions between livestock, wildlife and people (and habitat) are profound in ● from 2001–2003 the Ebola virus killed dozens of many parts of the world. The issues at this interface people and wiped out hundreds of gorillas in central represent an unfortunately all-too-often neglected Africa (WCS FVP, 2003a) and remains of major sector of critical importance to the long-term concern; ecological and sociopolitical security of protected ● West Nile virus has afflicted a wide range of areas and grazing lands worldwide. Whether the issue domestic and wild animals and people in North is the ongoing bovine tuberculosis crisis in and around America ( Marfin et al., 2001); South Africa’s Kruger National Park, or Yellowstone
66 Building support for protected areas using a “One Health” perspective 5
Village meeting, Zambia. © Steve Osofsky, DVM Osofsky, © Steve
National Park’s ongoing brucellosis saga costing U.S. The “One Health” paradigm: authorities millions of dollars to manage, these issues some basic concepts merit more proactive attention than they have received People and the natural resources from which they to date. It is important to note that many of the derive their livelihoods are integral parts of their given diseases of concern to landscapes of conservation ecosystem – a dynamic complex of plant, animal and importance are essentially invasive alien species, and micro-organism communities and the nonliving are either already negatively affecting biodiversity or environment interacting as a functional unit. The have the potential to do so. As people and their World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as domestic animals penetrate once pristine areas and a state of complete physical, mental and social well- expand their range and intensity of activities, the risk being and not just the absence of disease and infirmity of transmitting serious diseases to wildlife increases (Deem et al., 2001; Last, 1983), and this definition significantly. Diseases of people, domestic animals implies a link between human health and ecosystem and wildlife are now being recognised as an integrity. Ecosystems provide vital services to human increasing challenge to biodiversity conservation, as and animal communities, for example, by providing well as to efforts to improve the quality of life for natural filtering systems, sources of food and fibre, people. Although endemic (i.e., native) wildlife and clean water (Rapport, 1998). Disruption of some diseases play important ecological roles, human of these natural services, these ecosystem “products,” activities in many cases have disrupted ecosystems, will have impacts on air, water, and other renewable leading to both gradual and catastrophic losses of resources and thus health. wildlife populations. A “One Health” approach is not about interfering with nature – it is about trying to The concept of “One Health” – the interface help systems already perturbed by pathogens that may between human health and that of the environment – or may not “belong” within them to re-establish a state is not new. During the 1960s and 1970s visionary wherein disease does not threaten vital conservation attempts were made to construct a bridge between, for and development objectives. Many factors affecting example, medicine and agriculture. Discussions on health and the basic epidemiology of multi-host medical ecology and zoology, animal monitors of the diseases are still poorly understood, and conservation environment, and comparative biology and medicine and wildlife management decisions are often made were the precursors to a more holistic approach to without complete information. The critical edge – animal and human health (Schwabe, 1974). This where the health of wildlife, domestic animals, and concept has been further developed through people meld together and are best addressed as “One programmes such as Envirovet (Beasley, 1993) and Health” – exists at the borders of most protected areas the development of ecosystem health as an integrative of the world. science (Rapport et al., 1998).
67 5 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
The AHEAD approach fosters information sharing and consensus building among, for example, wildlife health scientists and rural livestock keepers. © Robert A. Cook, WCS A. Cook, © Robert The “One Health” concept takes conservation development, or public health lens. Powerful medicine a step further by broadening an ecological biomedical tools are fortunately available to address definition of health (Kock, 1996), while these complex issues and develop preventive acknowledging that conservation medicine’s primary approaches. goal is the pursuit of ecological health – the health of ecosystems and the species that live within these The state of health of an ecosystem can be judged systems (Else and Pokras, 2002; Tabor, 2002). by criteria very similar to those used for evaluating the Conservation medicine attempts to bring together health of a person or animal, namely, homeostasis many disciplines, including human and public health, (having balance between system components), epidemiology, veterinary medicine, toxicology, absence of disease, diversity and complexity, stability ecology, and conservation biology (Meffe, 1999). and resiliency, and vigour and scope for growth. An Adopting an ecosystem approach to health issues ecosystem can be viewed as a patient (Rapport, 1998) related to protected areas and the communities that and can be evaluated in terms of objective standards live close to or in these areas represents an attempt to that relate to the system’s capacity for organization, bridge the gaps that exist between the different vigour, and resilience. Identification and diagnosis of disciplines and create an enabling environment for problems and the application of solutions along with expanding benefits to both protected areas and local biodiversity assessment and monitoring represent a people. Conservation medicine indeed encourages basic approach to ecosystem health care. In practitioners to look both upstream and downstream biomedical terms this would be achieved through for potential environmental impacts of land uses and detection, diagnostics, prognostics, treatment, and activities (Tabor, 2002). A “One Health” approach can prevention. In the case of ecosystem health, the be attractive to a broader constituency, as it can be precautionary principle supports an approach based viewed with equal clarity through a conservation, on the tenets of preventive medicine – anticipatory
68 Building support for protected areas using a “One Health” perspective 5
action to protect the environment from possible or growing exponentially but the economies of most irreversible harm (Calver, 2000). The “ecosystem as countries are not keeping pace correspondingly. patient” metaphor can also help shape our overall Poverty is both acute and widespread, with significant approach to conservation: “Critical clinical problems portions of the continent’s people living on less than mandate a rigorous diagnostic plan, a multifaceted US$1 per day (FAO/UNEP/CGIAR, 2004). therapeutic plan, clear communication, and short- as Communities are often food insecure, especially well as long-term monitoring. Critical conservation where land degradation is prevalent and social problems deserve no less.” (Osofsky, 1997). In systems have broken down, which often happens addition, a preventive medicine approach allows for during times of war or other unrest. Consequently, action to be taken with a causal relationship being there is considerable international pressure to reasonably suspected if not proven, thus lessening the accelerate development and alleviate poverty (Thrupp risks of uncertainty. and Megateli, 1999). With rapid economic development, environmental change and loss of The development of ecological indicators can yield biodiversity can be expected; indeed, this has been the powerful tools that can generate scientific information experience in many countries, where one form of on the status or trends of important ecosystem health poverty is thus replaced by another. parameters (Sayre et al., 2000). In parallel, epidemiological tools such as disease surveillance and Eighty percent of Africa’s population is rural and 70 monitoring can be linked to various indicators in million people are wholly dependent on livestock with terms of disease and health trends. The use of no alternative source of food or wealth (AU/IBAR, indicators will help simplify data for decision makers, 2002). Yet Africa accounts for only 2% of the total and provide a focal point for strategic planning, policy value of world trade in livestock and livestock formulation, resource allocation, and specific products and imports twice as much as it exports, with management actions (Boyce, 2003). the net imports increasing at 4% per year (Thambi, 2003). The single most important constraint on the The wildlife-livestock disease African livestock export trade is the “Sanitary and interface in Africa Phytosanitary Measures” of the World Trade Organization (WTO) (OIE, 2003). The status of The wildlife-livestock interface means different things endemic livestock disease(s) in many African to different people. The many facets of the interface, countries limits exports of meat, serving as a barrier to such as health, conservation, environment, culture, trade that is a key concern of policy makers. However, and economics, have been issues since livestock the impact of these trade-sensitive diseases is minimal became an integral part of the landscape. The within Africa, especially among pastoral livestock and interface has positive and negative aspects and it has poor farmers (Perry et al., 2002). As the maintenance been a source of conflict in many areas, often as a of these extensive livestock systems, and to some result of misunderstanding and polarization of opinion extent the close association between wildlife and between ecocentric and anthropocentric forces in livestock, is the main reason for the current disease society (Boyd et al., 1999). Attention here is given to status, pressure is building among certain political those elements relevant to the health of the large elements in Africa for changes that may threaten both mammal communities in Africa, where it is urgent to traditional pastoral society and also wildlife resources find solutions to the problems of abject poverty, poor (R. Kock et al., 2002). These WTO rules are set up by health status for people and animals, and threats to the the developed nations, essentially in their own self- environment and biodiversity. interest, and African nations have not been able to influence changes in these regulations to their own In Africa’s dry-land pastoral systems, livestock and advantage (Thambi, 2003). people share resources with the most diverse array of wild ungulates on earth (R. Kock et al., 2002). With Some feel that the international community’s desire improvements in human health care, the population is to conserve Africa’s wildlife as a global environmental
69 5 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
good underpins its reluctance to support livestock Jansen et al., 1992; Cumming and Bond, 1991). To development based on the belief that livestock is a further support this, studies of mixed systems indicate major factor in land degradation and loss of wildlife considerable environmental benefits as well as (Bourn and Blench, 1999). However, positive economic ones in some settings (Western, 1994). It environmental benefits can be attributed to well- can be argued that one of Africa’s main advantages managed livestock systems as much as poor (perhaps the only one in economic terms) over the rest management can lead to negative impacts (Mace, of the world is its extensive and diverse wildlife 1991). Often, livestock are only part of the picture in resource, which is so attractive to tourists. This is not terms of the trend towards a general fragmentation of to say that livestock are not important on the continent habitats and disruption of natural ecosystems, but, to put it into context, Chile and Argentina taken including the disappearance of large mammal species together currently have a larger livestock industry than across much of their historic range, increases in all the countries of Africa combined (FAO, 2003). So agriculture and settlement, and disruptions to to sacrifice wildlife in favour of developing a traditional systems of transhumance and mobility. competitive commercial livestock sector has little Recent studies have shown that pastoralists’ strategies justification, but to develop both wildlife and are optimal for sustaining communities and resources, livestock resources together (not necessarily and that they are a force in conserving the defaulting to one or the other exclusively) is a key to environment to the benefit of wild species (Roth, efficient utilization of available resources. 1996; Scoones, 1994). Given the economic benefits of wildlife, health The improved understanding of the role of livestock issues are an increasing concern in this field in dry lands is accompanied by an increasing especially where epidemics and chronic disease awareness of a new potential value of the wildlife problems occur as a result of introduced (alien) resource through community-based management. disease. A review of the co-existence of livestock and Ecotourism and other forms of utilization (both wildlife (Bourn and Blench, 1999) reported that consumptive and non-consumptive) are becoming wildlife disease was not a constraint, but lack of increasingly important in the economies of at least information on diseases in the field makes this a risky some African countries (Chardonnet et al., 2002; conclusion. Other studies have found that disease can
Plains zebra, southern Africa. © Robert A. Cook, WCS A. Cook, © Robert
70 Building support for protected areas using a “One Health” perspective 5
adversely affect wild animal population dynamics in persistent problems in wildlife and livestock the short and long term (Hudson and Dobson, 1989; populations. The wild species had not been exposed to Rodwell et al., 2001; Jolles, 2003; Lankester, 2003; these agents for millennia, so no co-evolution of host Hwang, 2003) and increases the risk of the extinction and disease agent had developed, with serious and of rare species (Andanje, 2002). The initial impacts of persistent consequences (Bengis et al., 2002; de Lisle exotic disease can be devastating and depress et al., 2002). Besides these initial introductions of population growth for decades (Mack, 1970; major diseases through importation of livestock to the Plowright, 1982; Kock et al., 1999); conversely, continent, the co-existence of people and their control or eradication of these pathogens can lead to livestock with wildlife is not governed by “natural” dramatic recovery of populations (Sinclair, 1970). The mechanisms; at best they are only partially integrated, more subtle effects of disease are to make the especially in pastoral systems when contact may occur population more susceptible to other impacts, such as seasonally or only in drought years. Thus endemism predation, and effectively depress numbers well below of disease organisms is disturbed and this is another limitations related to food resource available (Joly, reason the interface deserves close attention. 2003). The decision on what to accept as a natural or an acceptable disease dynamic within a biological Countries where extensive wildlife populations are system may well in the end be a value judgement, but integrated with pastoral systems have no possibility of in terms of resource use, consumptive or otherwise, effective separation. In these locations the proposed depressed populations will limit the options. solution is the creation of small export zones from which wildlife is excluded. Effectively, this means the The emergence of wildlife and livestock disease in creation of ‘protected areas’ for livestock, where foot many parts of the world is partly a result of the and mouth disease, for example, can be controlled. expansion of human and livestock populations into This approach could resolve the conflict and provide wildlife areas, with dramatically disturbed habitats the opportunity for commercial livestock and novel interactions, but may also reflect increased development without much affecting the important awareness and monitoring of diseases. The trend wildlife resources in these parts of Africa. This would towards establishing larger and more integrated also support the culture and traditions of pastoral wildlife systems is also evident in Africa, e.g., through peoples. The concept does not exclude the opportunity transfrontier parks (Gelderblom et al., 1996) and for links between pastoral communities and the export extension of wildlife management areas into zones, although a system of quarantine and the communities, conservancies, and wildlife corridors mechanisms for this would need to be explored. A (IIED, 1994; Hulme and Murphree, 1999). Clearly, fundamental issue relates to product quality and conserving wildlife requires a more integrated market preferences, and it will be interesting to see if approach that will incur costs. These initiatives will some improved penetration into markets can be inevitably be a compromise with other land use achieved for range or pastoral cattle (Thomson et al., practices, and will result in complex disease 2004). As the loss of key grazing resources has phenomena (Rosenzweig, 2003) that will need novel been a factor in the decline of pastoralism, this solutions and interventions – ideally proactive ones. potential reconnection with mainstream livestock This is the contemporary challenge to the veterinary economics and what would amount to fattening areas community, disease biologists, development could strengthen the overall livestock economy and specialists, and protected area managers alike. It is reduce pressure on protected areas, which are vital that the interests of livestock keepers living frequently used for this purpose. This will also around protected areas are taken into account in the enable traditional peoples to benefit from a management of the wider wildlife systems. mixed-species system and develop wildlife-related Conditions have changed significantly over the past livelihoods in addition to their livestock, while century, with many examples of transcontinental bypassing the veterinary restrictions that have been a disease introductions (rinderpest, BTB) causing constraint to market access.
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The “One Health” paradigm surrounding and influencing health. Classic disease and protected areas control methods include vaccination, test and slaughter, blanket slaughter, vector control, and In balancing the needs and expectations of Africa’s movement controls including fencing. Many of these rural inhabitants with those of wildlife require “out-of-the-box” thinking by traditional conservationists, including protected area managers, it veterinary and animal health authorities, including the is necessary to consider how disease interactions promotion and legalization of community-based influence human, livestock, and wildlife health animal health systems. The indiscriminate use of (WCS, FVP, 2003a, 2003b; Kalema-Zikusoka, 2005; fencing to control disease transmission between Kock, 2005b; Bengis, 2005) while keeping in mind livestock and wildlife without considering that the role of wildlife health in conservation goes connectivity and vital linkages between ecosystems is beyond the presence or absence of disease (Mainka, an example of a cause for concern (Albertson, 1998; 2001; Deem et al., 2001). Wildlife health, in the Keene-Young, 1999; Scott Wilson and EDG, 2000; broadest sense, is a holistic concept with a focus on Thomson et al., 2003; Kock et al., 2002; Martin, populations and the environments in which they live. 2005). This focus must of course include human populations and livelihood needs, especially at the wildlife- Historically, African protected areas have been livestock interface. While some caution is merited to managed without due concern for the communities prevent making too simplistic a linkage between that live nearby. This “hard edge” approach has done “ecosystem health” and “human health,” potentially at little to foster support for conservation and the expense of wildlife and conservation funding environmental issues and this legacy can be seen in (Osofsky et al., 2000), it is clear that a paradigm shift the lukewarm response that the wildlife industry in Africa is needed. Health is the key linkage that can receives from politicians and other decision makers in contribute to human well-being and, therefore, serve many parts of postcolonial Africa (Kock, 2005a). In as a logical entry point to promote environmental southern Africa, the adoption of community-based stewardship and healthy ecosystems (Margoluis et al., approaches to resource management, such as 2001). CAMPFIRE (Communal Areas Management Program For Indigenous Resources) in Zimbabwe, In many instances, both historically and currently in softened the hard edge and allowed communities to Africa (Kock et al., 2002), disease control methods benefit from protected areas, be they national parks, that have been adopted by veterinary and health game reserves, safari areas, or private conservation authorities have been drastic, have had a significant initiatives (Child, 1995). Other Community-Based negative impact on ecosystem health and biodiversity, Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) and have rarely considered the broader issues programmes continue to be developed and evaluated
Oxcart, Zambia. © Alfonso Torres, Cornell University Torres, Alfonso ©
72 Building support for protected areas using a “One Health” perspective 5 in East and southern Africa (Murphree, 2000; DFID, Box 5.2 2002; Weaver and Skyer, 2005; Murphree, 2005; Lewis, 2005) including the DFID-funded Mpomiba Transboundary management of project with 19 villages close to the Ruaha National natural resources and the importance Park in Tanzania and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für of a “One Health” approach Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)-funded project with forty villages adjacent to the Selous Game The transboundary management of natural Reserve. In Namibia, the National Community resources, particularly of water and wildlife, and Wildlife Conservancy Programme has led to the the associated development of transfrontier registration of significant numbers of community- conservation areas (TFCAs) has been a major focus of attention over the last few years in owned conservancies, many of which have entered southern Africa. Twenty potential and existing into joint ventures with the private sector. TFCAs have been identified in the Southern In general, pastoralist communities are likely to African Development Community (SADC) perceive the main CBNRM benefits to be the region, involving 12 continental African member states. The TFCAs include many national parks, managed and more sustainable cropping of bush neighbouring game reserves, hunting areas and meat; increased revenues gained from consumptive conservancies, mostly occurring within a matrix tourism (hunting) and nonconsumptive tourism of land under traditional communal tenure. (wildlife viewing), or enterprise and employment Altogether the proposed TFCAs cover about 120 opportunities in the tourism sector; as well as access million hectares. to grazing and water resources for their own animals. Transboundary natural resource management Indirect gains come from investments in wildlife- and TFCA development have also been closely related tourism, which lead to improved infrastructure linked to emerging Spatial Development such as roads, water mains, electricity and Initiatives (SDIs) and corridors within southern communications. Africa. A key economic driver linking these conservation and infrastructure development To ensure that these protected areas are able to initiatives is wildlife-based tourism that seeks to provide the resource base for these benefits to maximize returns from marginal lands in a sector communities, addressing disease issues should be an where southern Africa enjoys a global integral part of protected area planning and comparative advantage. However, the management and should involve veterinary and other management of wildlife and livestock diseases health authorities. This is crucial as the impact of within the envisaged larger transboundary emerging and resurging diseases on the health of landscapes remains unresolved and an issue of people, their livestock, and wildlife is likely to major concern to other economic sectors in the constrain the maintenance and development of region. The interactions at the interface between protected areas and compromise conservation animal health, ecosystem services, and human initiatives into the future. The potential for spread of health and well-being are also poorly understood, with the result that policy development is bovine tuberculosis from Kruger National Park to compromised by a lack of appropriate surrounding human communities (Michel, 2005) is a information and understanding of the complex case in point. In the 21st century, management of systems and issues involved. protected areas needs to go beyond just concern for Whatever the potential of wildlife-based improved relationships with communities through tourism to generate wealth in such areas, the benefits such as cash returns related to CBNRM. It current reality is that small-scale agro-pastoralists must consider the health of the overall ecosystem, living in the adjacent communal lands depend including people, their livestock, and the flora and greatly on livestock for their livelihoods. The need fauna that are part of the larger community. to balance their livelihoods and environmental security with the development of alternative land uses and opportunities gives rise to a very
73 5 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Box 5.2 (cont.)
complex set of development issues. A central focus There is probably no region on earth where of these issues, and one that provides a unifying animal health policies have had as tangible an theme across sectors and disciplines, is that of effect upon the biotic landscape as in Africa. In animal, human and environmental health – “One many parts of the world, land-use choices are often Health”. Innovative and integrated approaches to driven by government (domestic and/or foreign) disease and natural resource management based on incentives or subsidies that can favour sound knowledge and understanding are urgently unsustainable agricultural practices over more needed. An integrated, interdisciplinary approach ecologically sound resource management schemes. offers the most promising route forward in tackling And the most obvious beneficiaries of more these issues. holistic management are small landholders and With the ongoing philosophical and practical pastoralists: people who derive much of their expansion of the transfrontier conservation area subsistence directly from livestock, people who are concept, the needs of communities living in and almost always marginalized in African economies near these areas must be addressed, as transfrontier and political systems. conservation areas have the potential to have both Wildlife and livestock disease issues will likely positive as well as negative impacts on sustainable have a significant impact on the future livelihoods. In particular, disease issues are a development of sustainable land uses, significant concern when contact between wild transboundary natural resource management, animals and domestic stock increases with changes biodiversity conservation, and human livelihoods in land-use patterns. Corridors themselves, in the marginal lands of southern Africa. Some designed to (re)connect protected areas, can serve 65% of southern Africa is semi-arid to arid where not only as biological bridges for wildlife, but also extensive livestock and wildlife production for vectors and their pathogens – so thorough systems are the most suitable and potentially assessments of disease risks should be made before sustainable forms of land use. The need to arrest areas with potentially different pathogen or parasite desertification and enhance the capacity of these loads are joined. marginal areas to generate wealth and sustain Livestock will remain critically important improved human livelihoods is of paramount culturally and economically – and of course as a importance to the region. There does not appear to vital source of sustenance – in much of the region. be an existing formal policy on animal health and However, when it comes to animal health disease control for the TFCAs being developed, programmes and policies in transboundary and this must be addressed sooner rather than later. landscapes, where domestic as well as wild Source: Adapted from Cumming et al., 2004 and Osofsky et al., 2005. animals have opportunities to cross international borders, making the right decisions becomes even more critical.
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Protected areas, human Although there are relatively few documented cases livelihoods, and healthy of disease transmission between people and wild animals: how to improve primates, the number of cases of suspected disease conservation and development transmission is growing. A disease for which interventions transmission from primates to people has been proven is Ebola, from a chimpanzee in Cote d’Ivoire Disease is becoming increasingly recognised as a (Formenty et al., 1999) and, more recently, in outbreaks threat to wildlife conservation, especially for involving western lowland gorillas and chimpanzees endangered species (Werikhe et al., 1998). The (Leroy et al., 2004). The origins of HIV in chimpanzees relative risk is often increased by diseases that can be are of course now well-known (Gao et al., 1999). transmitted between closely related species, such as people and primates or cattle and buffalo. Chimpanzee. Transmission of such diseases at the interface of protected areas with human settlements can be exacerbated by mixing of people, wildlife, and domestic animals, for example, when wild animals leave the park boundaries, when domestic animals graze illegally within the park (Bengis et al., 2002), and when tourists, researchers, and field staff enter protected areas to view primates (Macfie, 1992; Woodford et al., 2002).
Protected areas and diseases Disease transmission is of particular concern for local communities around protected areas, which in developing countries tend to be surrounded by some Vision © Digital of the poorest of the population (Balmford and Diseases that have reportedly been transmitted Whitten, 2003). Problem animals threaten these between domestic cattle and Cape buffalo (Syncerus people’s lives and property (Karanth and caffer) in Africa include BTB (Woodford, 1982; De Madhusudan, 2002), in some cases reducing the value Vos et al., 2001), rinderpest (Plowright, 1968; Kock, of land around protected areas. In Uganda, with a 1999), and foot and mouth disease (Dawe et al., 1994; gross domestic product (GDP) per capita-purchasing Chilonda et al., 1999; Sutmoller et al., 2000). power parity of $1200 (CIA, 2003), those community Examples of disease transmission between species and rural settings have very limited basic health care that are only distantly related include mongooses because most people have no transportation and live at (Mungos mungo) in Botswana and suricates (Suricata least 30km from the nearest health centre (Ministry of suricatta) in South Africa that have contracted human Planning and Economic Development, 1997; TB (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) from rubbish heaps Homsey, 1999). This marginalized group also has outside tourist lodges visited by someone with a very little access to information on zoonotic disease chronic cough (Alexander et al., 2002). A particularly prevention because very little content has been dramatic example of disease transmission from developed for local education (Grant, 2002). Even people to wildlife is the outbreak of scabies – a skin when people manage to get to health centres, many affliction caused by mites – affecting mountain centres are not adequately equipped to diagnose and gorillas in southwestern Uganda’s Bwindi treat diseases. This has resulted in a persistence of Impenetrable National Park (BINP) in 1996 (Kalema- preventable diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) and Zikusoka et al., 2002). This outbreak is thought to scabies that can be transmitted between people, have been associated with scabies in the local wildlife, and domestic animals. human community.
75 5 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Box 5.3
Case Study – Mountain Gorillas in ecotourism programme in BINP. Sustainable Bwindi and the Virungas ecotourism is dependent on maintaining gorilla health, improving the welfare of local communities Mountain gorillas and people are very closely through tourism, and promoting the national related and are therefore potentially at risk of economy. The welfare of local communities in transmitting pathogens to each other (Ott-Joslin, BINP has been improved through tourism revenue 1993; Wallis and Rick, 1999). Approximately 300 of (via sharing of funds), development of income- the estimated 655 mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla generating activities (selling crafts, food, and beringei) live in the 33,100ha of Uganda’s Bwindi lodging), and employment in restaurants and Impenetrable National Park (BINP). A small forest lodging facilities (Kamugisha et al., 1997; Ratter, remnant in Sarambwe, Democratic Republic of 1997). The national economy is enhanced by the Congo (DRC), is contiguous with BINP. The funds generated by mountain gorilla tourism, remaining individuals of this highly endangered which amount to up to 50% of the overall income species are found in Rwanda, DRC and Mgahinga of the Uganda National Park System in some years National Park in Uganda (McNeilage et al., 2001). (McNeilage et al., 2001). However, successful The area surrounding Bwindi and the Virungas has management of gorilla health is undermined by an one of the densest human populations in Africa, with unhealthy buffer zone surrounding the gorilla an estimated 200–300 people per km2 (UWA, 2001). habitat. According to the district medical personnel The establishment of BINP in 1991 restricted surrounding BINP, the most commonly treated people’s access to the forest to controlled activities diseases in people are malaria, respiratory tract such as tourism and research, while allowing infections, diarrhoeal diseases, scabies, ringworm, multiple-use access for products such as medicinal intestinal parasites, tropical ulcers, and eye plants, basket-weaving materials, and honey (UWA, infections, including river blindness (Robert 2001). Sajjabi and Benon Nkomejo, personal communication, 2001). Bwindi gorillas have close contact with tourists The first reported scabies outbreak in mountain and researchers (Macfie, 1992) and with local gorillas occurred in 1996 in a tourist-habituated farmers when crop raiding (Madden, 1998) or group of four gorillas adjacent to the Buhoma foraging on community land. In addition to tourist site in BINP (Kalema-Zikusoka et al., receiving inadequate health services and 2002). The source of the scabies was never information, the local communities lack hygienic determined, although people were suspected for amenities such as clean water and pit latrines two reasons: scabies is common in the local (Ministry of Planning and Economic communities; and the gorillas’ severe reaction to Development, 1997; Homsey, 1999). These factors the disease indicated a lack of prior exposure to this have resulted in a large percentage of people mite from a closely related host. Four years later, a suffering from preventable diseases that can spread scabies outbreak occurred in another group of to gorillas. These include scabies, diarrhoeal gorillas being habituated for tourism in Nteko diseases, measles, and TB (WHO, 2002). TB is parish, also in BINP, resulting in morbidity of some exacerbated by a greater than 35% co-infection of the group. They, too, recovered with ivermectin with HIV/AIDS (Kibuga, 2001) of which Uganda, treatment (Graczyk et al., 2001). While the Rwanda, and DRC are among the highest ivermectin treatment was successful, interventions prevalence nations in the world (Castro, 1995) and addressing the public health situation around BINP are among the 22 countries contributing to 80% of were needed to prevent further outbreaks. In early the global TB burden (WHO, 2002). to mid-2000, UWA conducted health education Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), a national workshops with local communities to improve the conservation authority, has developed an situation. Over 1000 people in five of 19 parishes
76 Building support for protected areas using a “One Health” perspective 5
Box 5.3 (cont.) Silverback Gorilla. surrounding BINP participated in the community outreach, which included eight villages. During these participatory rural appraisal workshops, the team presented lectures in the local language to introduce diseases common in the BINP area that can be transmitted between gorillas and people. Prevention strategies were also discussed. Protected area managers were initially concerned that the local community would believe the park authorities valued gorillas more than people. However, those communities that had directly benefited from the creation of the national park were actually very receptive to these ideas, and gave more recommendations than Vision © Digital those communities that had received fewer Health education appears to be a conservation tool benefits from the creation of Bwindi that can bring the public health, wildlife conservation, Impenetrable National Park. Recommendations and ecotourism sectors together. Local communities from the communities were divided into three that received mountain gorilla ecotourism benefits categories: medical, non-medical, and hygiene. recognised that they could protect mountain gorillas Responsibility for implementation of improved from human diseases by doing things like digging practices was shared among government and local better pit latrines and covering rubbish heaps. communities. However, some recommendations were beyond the Having a multidisciplinary team of communities’ control, such as improving access to community conservation, wildlife health, human better health services or safer water. The lack of access health, and education personnel appears to have to clean water not only contributes to a range of been helpful. Additionally, the target communities gastro-intestinal illnesses but also undermines efforts seem to realize that healthy gorillas can generate to control scabies, as the mites survive on dirty clothes income to support villages, which have already that can be handled by curious wild animals, such as become trading centres as a result of ecotourism. mountain gorillas (Fossey, 1983). Encouragingly, communities that received conservation education appear to have a greater Improving conservation and understanding of the need to protect mountain development interventions gorillas both for conservation and a sustainable income (Kalema-Zikusoka et al., 2001). By An integrated approach to controlling disease contrast, one community in DRC that had transmission between wildlife, people and domestic received very little conservation education and animals in a given area needs to be developed by a full virtually no tourism or gorilla research benefits range of stakeholders. This could start with dialogue did not trust the participatory rural appraisal team among the affected communities and professionals enough to admit that they had seen gorillas. from the wildlife, human health, veterinary, agriculture, education, media, and communication technology sectors, and could lead to sharing of knowledge using print, radio broadcasts, video, CD- ROM, handheld computers, databases, or the internet to play a supportive role in improving education and enhancing access to health information and services (Grant, 2002).
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Multidisciplinary teams from these sectors could be on interrelated wildlife conservation and public health established to carry out joint education, health issues. In addition to promoting collaboration, local training, and research programmes while helping to community involvement could be encouraged through maximize the use of limited resources. Close “training of trainers” to educate others. collaboration among governments, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, universities, and Research on interrelated wildlife conservation and schools is needed to develop effective and efficient public health issues should be encouraged to increase programmes, focusing specifically on interrelated understanding of these links, and results should be human and animal diseases such as (for example) TB, shared with policy makers. Such research could help scabies, brucellosis, rabies, Ebola, avian influenza, to identify the most common diseases that pose a West Nile virus and HIV/AIDS. Local involvement in threat to public health, wildlife conservation, animal designing these programmes is crucial for long-term agriculture, and ecotourism in a given area. Other success. These grassroots programmes would benefit research studies could help to evaluate local from input from all key stakeholders to ensure that the community attitudes and behaviour that facilitate materials developed would be relevant to the local disease transmission at the interface. Because public situation and available in local languages. health is dependent on people’s behaviour, evaluation Participatory rural appraisal techniques can also help of programmes integrating wildlife conservation and to promote local community ownership of the public health should focus on how people's behaviour recommendations put forward. is changing (or not) over time. Studies to determine Joint training programmes could involve medical how poor wildlife conservation and public health and veterinary technicians carrying out laboratory practices are affecting socio-economic development work together; and could help wildlife personnel, would be useful. Furthermore, research could explore veterinarians, medical doctors, and other health models for sustainability for integrated conservation workers to carry out integrated education campaigns and public health programmes.
Kenyan children. © Steve Osofsky, DVM Osofsky, © Steve
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Developing “multiple use” health care and Conclusions diagnostic services and facilities can potentially be Disease is becoming an important issue in conflicts more effective in preventing diseases that spread between protected area authorities and adjacent between people, domestic animals, and wildlife communities. These frequently poor communities because information can be shared more easily. increasingly perceive wildlife negatively, especially Sharing facilities and services could also save costs. where they have no stake in the management or use of Many places with wildlife have poorly developed that wildlife resource. Under these circumstances infrastructure and few resources for transporting disease outbreaks can trigger conflict, and historically, needed goods to the population. Tour operators and politics have dictated that interventions by public wildlife managers with access to good vehicles could health and (agriculturally oriented) state veterinary help by transporting free medication, such as TB services take priority: this usually has negative medication (WHO, 2002), to the people who need it. impacts on the wildlife resource. On the other hand, Such a programme has been carried out via the those same poor communities and livestock are seen Healthy Community Initiative of the Kayapo Health as a threat to many protected areas as they compete Project in Brazil, where researchers bring malaria medication to people residing next to the forest with wildlife for resources and also because of a (Margoluis et al., 2001). Joint domestic and wild history of disease introductions. This situation is animal laboratories at the interface of protected areas counterproductive for all concerned and cannot lead and human settlements could help to facilitate to better decisions being made for healthier information sharing and better control of disease ecosystems or human environments. outbreaks, as could functional community-based To reduce this conflict, as well as the risks and impacts animal health systems made up of trained community of disease, in particular at the interface between members, under the supervision of veterinarians, who wildlife and livestock but also at the interface with can provide services to the animals of fellow people, a “One Health” approach is required. Public community members as well as assist in disease education, training and awareness-raising regarding surveillance. human, domestic animal, and wildlife health issues Finally, an integrated approach to wildlife are crucial. In addition, more research on land-use and conservation and public health can maximize the disease management at the interface is needed, as are limited resources available to control disease new philosophies, attitudes, and approaches to transmission between wildlife, people and domestic livelihoods and resource use. New practical measures, animals at the interface. Funds from wildlife such as multiple-use diagnostic centres, should be conservation could be allocated to public health, introduced in order to improve both animal and where it directly affects conservation, such as the case human health. This will be beneficial to community of scabies in the Bwindi mountain gorillas. Similarly, development and biodiversity conservation alike. donor funds earmarked for health improvement could By raising the profile of the management, be allocated to wildlife conservation where it directly development, and research implications of the affects public health, such as the situation of people impacts of infectious diseases on the ecological and contracting Ebola from eating gorillas or chimpanzees socio-political security of protected areas, especially (Leroy et al., 2004). Beyond reducing the risks of in (but not by any means limited to) Africa, this disease transmission across the human-wildlife- chapter has sought to sensitize the reader to the critical domestic animal interface, a favourable outcome of importance of these issues. As socio-economic improving the health status of local communities progress demands sustained improvements in health living around protected areas and of the domestic for people, their domestic animals, and the animals on which they depend is the potential to environment, the value of moving towards a “One cultivate a more positive attitude towards wildlife Health” perspective is hopefully clear. conservation and public health. Developing new constituencies for conservation, especially local ones, is certainly worthwhile.
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80 chapter 6 © Charles Besançon Protected areas and the security community
by Anne Hammill
Editor’s introduction Protected areas are often located in remote areas that conflict analysis, help integrate conflict sensitivity into are subject to conflict, but they can also make protected area design and management, offer support important contributions to peace. The security in conflict management and resolution processes, and community includes the military, peace and integrate protected area activities into post-conflict development agencies, and governing bodies that are reconstruction and peacebuilding. The relevant formulating and enforcing policies related to conflict government decision makers can ensure that and peacebuilding. This community increasingly is appropriate measures are taken to avoid conflict in recognising that protected areas represent numerous protected areas, ensure that financial and technical strategic interests and are often located in volatile assistance continues to be provided to protected areas socio-political settings. Anne Hammill has shown the during times of social unrest and conflict and close relationship between protected areas and encourage the appropriate use of protected areas in security, and suggests appropriate roles for the demobilization, disarmament and re-integration various parts of the security community. The military policies in post-conflict situations. The complex links can help provide assets for biodiversity protection, between protected areas, human security and conflict and engage in practices that are not harmful to deserve much greater attention, leading to benefits for protected areas. Peace and development agencies can both biodiversity and rural people. help to build the capacity of protected area staff in
Photo: Approaching the border of Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to track mountain gorillas. The region has been at the centre of violent conflict for decades as armies, militias, poachers and refugees move between Uganda, Rwanda and the DRC.
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Introduction: the links between Uranium mine in Kakadu NP, Australia. protected areas and security Issues related to the design, establishment and management of protected areas (PAs) have traditionally been the purview of conservationists, resource managers, and with the advent of community-based conservation, community development practitioners. But with a growing body of research showing that environmental degradation, access to natural resources, and targeted conservation strategies – including the management of PAs – are contributing to and affected by conflict and security, the range of groups interested in PA issues is expanding to include security actors.
The links between PA and security are complex. Protected areas are inherently political, as they are mechanisms of resource control and power, with a IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim wide range of interests seeking access to PA resources. In fact, protected areas represent different post-conflict settings. Thus, the (mis)management of things to different interests. For conservationists, they PAs can be both a cause and symptom of insecurity. are an effective measure for protecting biodiversity; This chapter will elaborate on why the security for private tourism companies, a basis for tourism community (defined below) has a vested interest in development; for pharmaceutical companies, a source the design and management of protected areas, and of genetic information for drug development; for oil how their interests can be best strengthened and and mining companies, an unexplored potential translated into mutually supportive policies that supply of revenue; for the military, a refuge and contribute to conservation and peace-building goals. It strategic target during times of violent conflict; and will start with a brief discussion on the links between for surrounding local communities, PAs can signify restricted access to livelihood resources, forced environment and security, which will set the stage for relocation, opportunities for income generation a more in-depth look at the links between specific through tourism revenues, or a source of ecosystem environmental concerns (i.e. biodiversity and services. With so many (sometimes conflicting) ecosystem conservation) and certain security interests political and economic understandings of the role of (i.e. social disruption, violent conflict and PAs, it comes as no surprise that they can present risks peacebuilding). Attention will then be turned to how of conflict. the security community can contribute to the effective establishment and management of PAs. In addition to the multiplicity of interests surrounding PAs, it is important to remember that they Background: the environment exist within complex social and political contexts as a security issue where issues such as poverty, inequity, contested resource rights, corruption, and ethnic tensions – Understanding the mutual interest in the relationship factors that traditionally contribute to conflict – can between PA and security communities requires an further politicize PA policies, creating grievances that, understanding of the broader links between when left unaddressed, can escalate into more open environment and security. The body of work that has forms of conflict. PAs can also become embroiled in analysed and sought to address these links has ongoing military conflicts, through their use as included academic and conceptual, scientific, policy- strategic bases for combatants or refugee camps in oriented and even very practical applications. While at
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times confusing and even contradictory, these ● Research on how environmental cooperation – such different approaches to addressing environment and as international river basin commissions or security linkages have brought together researchers, transboundary protected areas – contributes to policy makers and practitioners from two seemingly peacemaking (Conca and Dabelko, 2002). disparate communities to work on new ways of In recent years there has been a move towards reconciling environmental sustainability with socio- focusing on environment and ‘human security’, which economic issues. focuses on the sub-state or intrastate level, understands The current interest in environment and security the relationship between individual/community issues can be attributed to two significant political security and state security to be a two-way street (i.e., just as secure states can mean secure people, insecure developments at the end of the 1980s/beginning of the communities can challenge or undermine state 1990s: the end of the Cold War and the resurgence of security), and recognises that manifestations of the environmental movement. The absence of a ‘insecurity’ are not limited to violent conflict, but sharply defined East vs. West political standoff to include social disruptions (Najam, 2003). Where does govern international relations, coupled with mounting the environment fit into the human security approach? concerns over the state of the Earth’s environment, left Environmental degradation and resource scarcity is researchers and policy makers contemplating a both a cause and symptom of insecurity, ultimately changing security landscape, prompting some to having profound impacts on humans by affecting the rethink the definition of ‘security’ and the forces that availability of and access to resources that are threaten it. Research yielding sobering evidence of necessary to their health and well-being. Without these tropical deforestation, species extinction, ozone crucial environmental resources and services, depletion, global warming, and air and water communities can become further impoverished and pollution, demonstrated that environmental more vulnerable to shocks and disruptions such as degradation and resource depletion could threaten disease, famine, climate-related disasters, market human well-being – and even survival – just as much collapse and war. In some instances, such protracted or even more than the threat of external military conditions of vulnerability and insecurity can become aggression. As Najam (2003) states, “indeed, one grounds for insecurity in the more traditional sense – could argue that the wrong end of a smoke stack can open violent conflict. Thus, while not entirely be as much of a security concern to humans as a barrel shunning matters of state sovereignty or violent of a gun”. conflict, the more people-centred approach of human security, which prioritizes the immediate needs of the The ensuing research and most vulnerable and disadvantaged segments of the discourse on environment and world’s population, provides a more nuanced security consisted of several understanding of the relationship between distinct approaches: environment, poverty and social stability. For conservationists, the links between environment ● Conceptual debates over the need to expand or and security are relevant in several important ways. redefine the concept of ‘security’ to include non- First, as over a decade of research has revealed, conventional or non-military threats, such as environmental degradation and resource scarcity environmental mismanagement is a contributor to (Ullman, 1983; Mathews, 1989; Myers, 1993 and human insecurity. It follows then that through their Sooros, 1997); work, conservationists may play a role in achieving ● Empirical case studies explaining how resource and sustaining human security. Similarly, scarcity/resource dependence contributes to violent conservation is essentially a mechanism of resource conflict – a more tangible and testable condition control and management, which has implications for than ‘security’ (Baechler and Spillman, 1996; a number of stakeholders including resource- Collier, 2000; Collier et al., 2004; Homer-Dixon, dependent communities. Because their work can be 1994 and 1999; Homer-Dixon and Blitt, 1998); and intricately linked to the welfare of vulnerable
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livelihoods, misguided conservation activities can also unrest. Members of this community are usually from play a role in undermining conditions of social the national and international military establishment stability and peace. It would do conservationists well (army, navy, and UN peacekeepers), domestic security to be cognizant of the broader socio-political forces (i.e. police forces, coast guard), intelligence implications of their work, as instability and conflict services (such as the CIA, Interpol, and MI6), and are ultimately detrimental to biodiversity protection. people in government ministries or departments (i.e. And finally, conservationists are increasingly called defence, foreign affairs, etc.). Yet the expansion of the upon to work in areas experiencing potential or open security agenda to include non-traditional or non- conflict, not only to sustain conservation activities (for military threats has conceivably translated into the example, gorilla protection in war-torn Congo) but to expansion of the security community to include actors participate in post-conflict assessments and such as international development practitioners, reconstruction. Understanding the links between natural resource managers, and health experts. environment and security issues will ensure that their contributions are integrated into the broader social and Nonetheless, for the purposes of this discussion the economic development agendas. ‘security community’ refers to three types of actors working on various aspects of conflict issues – i.e. the Thus, whether linking environment and security prevention, management, and resolution of potential concerns has been the result of Cold War players or open conflicts, as well as associated recovery looking for “new threats to justify old institutions” efforts. Members tend to include people working in (Barnett, 2001), or environmentalists seeking to raise the following sectors: the political status of environmental issues by using a ‘power word’ such as security, there has been a a) Military establishment: Individuals and groups growing consensus that the links do exist and that they involved with the support, training and warrant further attention. As traditional members of deployment of combat personnel, ranging from the ‘environmental community’, conservationists high level decision makers, to technical support have a role to play in analysing and addressing the staff, to ground troops. These individuals and links. One particular approach to biodiversity groups can be associated with international conservation that is relevant to the security debate, and military forces (UN peacekeepers, NATO forces, which will be the focus of the rest of this paper, is the etc.), national militaries, and informal or establishment and management of protected areas underground armed groups (rebels or insurgents, (PAs). While central to conservation strategies at terrorist networks, etc.) global, national, and local levels, PAs are also b) Peace and development agencies: These actors becoming increasingly relevant to ‘security’ issues – are concerned with unarmed or ‘soft’ approaches both in traditional (state-centred, conflict-focused) to conflict prevention, management and and expanded (human-centred) understandings of resolution. They include civil society groups, ‘security.’ NGOs, departments in bilateral assistance agencies, UN agencies, and regional Who is the ‘security organizations. As Anderson et al. (2003) community’? describe, their goals are twofold, “both to end war and to build just, sustainable societies that resolve Before going on to explain how the establishment and conflicts nonviolently”. Activities range from (mis)management of protected areas are linked to education and training in conflict analysis and security issues, it is useful first to say a few words mediation, dispatching civilian peace monitors to about the ‘security community,’ to whom this chapter conflict zones, and designing conflict-sensitive frequently refers and is largely directed. To many reconstruction and development programmes, to people, the security community consists of those convening informal negotiations between actors and decision makers responsible for protecting communities or governments. their constituents – and interests – from violence and
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cooperation and sustainability in post-conflict The endangered black-and-white ruffed lemur (Va recia variegata) is found in the rainforest of eastern Madagascar, and reconstruction processes. is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. Recent information indicated that it might be divided into three distinct Geography plays an important role in determining subspecies. Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands Hotspot. the relevance of protected areas to security interests, as not all regions in the world are equally endowed with biodiversity. In some parts of the world, namely developing countries, protected areas and nature conservation can be highly politicized endeavours that feed into broader social justice problems. As Brechin et al. (2002) observe:
“…most areas considered to be high-priority “hot spots” are also social and political ‘hotbeds.’ These rural areas in countries such as Colombia, Brazil, Madagascar, Tanzania, Malaysia, Indonesia and the
© Russell A. Mittermeier/Conservation International © Russell Ivory Coast often feature high levels of poverty, c) Government and decision makers: Members of insecure land tenure and landlessness, unstable local, regional, national and international and/or undemocratic political systems, and histories governing bodies who formulate and enforce of state-sponsored repression.” policies related to conflict and peacebuilding. These policies can range from decisions on Moreover, because PAs are zones with a relatively where and when to take military action, to how to high concentration of economically-valuable natural resolve different types of conflict (mediation, resources (timber, wildlife, and plant genetic economic sanctions, use of armed force, etc.) and resources) and are often situated in frontier regions at guidelines for reconstruction efforts. the fringes of state control, they attract a wide range of interests and stakeholders, such as tourism agencies, Although their specific mandates, policies and oil and mining companies, guerrilla groups, practices may differ, each of these members of the pharmaceutical companies, the military, and security community has strategic interests associated development banks. With so many strategic interests with protected areas. The first step in engaging these represented in geographically defined areas and members in protected areas issues is to outline the embedded in complex and sometimes volatile socio- links between PAs and peace/conflict. political settings, it is hardly surprising then that protected areas should garner the attention of the Description of the security security community. community’s interest in protected areas Protected areas and conflict The security community’s interest in protected areas The role of PAs in creating and sustaining conflict lies in both the challenges and opportunities they can take various forms. As instruments of resource present for peacebuilding. This is not to overstate the control, they can be a direct cause of social instability, role of PAs in preventing violent conflict or brokering which can sometimes lead to violence. For peace deals. Obviously the forces and conditions that surrounding rural communities, the establishment of a shape local and regional security dynamics are much protected area often signifies restricted access to broader and more complex than the need to conserve livelihood resources or even forced relocation, which biodiversity and sustainably manage natural can undermine economic security and socio-cultural resources. But in some parts of the world, PAs can identify. According to Brechin et al., (2002), “For contribute or help sustain conflict situations, or outsiders looking in, such as resource-dependent conversely, play a role in promoting peace,
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agrarian communities, protected areas are not groups may deliberately contaminate water supplies necessarily understood as a means of providing and defoliate or burn forests in order to deprive ecological and economic services but rather as opposing forces of shelter and resources. In 1991 the territorial control strategies.” Even where provisions Rwandan army cut 50–100m wide swathes of are made to allow for limited local resource access or bamboo forest that link the Virunga volcanoes in order to financially compensate communities, crop damage to minimize the risk of rebel ambushes (Kalpers, from wild animals, unequal distribution of benefits, 2001). conflicting resource rights regimes (statutory vs. customary) and exclusionary and/or non-transparent In addition to providing physical support to military decision-making processes can continue to fuel groups, resources in protected areas help to finance tensions. military operations. Wildlife, timber, oil or minerals can be plundered and sold to local and foreign The perceived imposition of unjust policies markets in order to pay troops and purchase weapons. associated with the establishment of PAs can become For example, the Angolan rebel group UNITA catalysts for violent conflict. In areas with ethnic (National Union for the Total Independence of tensions, widespread poverty, unemployment, land Angola) reportedly financed their military campaign shortages, and/or recent histories of violent conflict, through sales of ivory, teak, oil and diamonds (Austin the impacts of PA strategies may mobilize group and Bruch, 2003). Similarly, in Mozambique, identities and serve as a rallying point for resistance elephant poaching and the ivory trade helped finance and opposition against government authorities. Where insurgent activities, while Charles Taylor’s coup in the implementation of conservation interventions Liberia was made possible through revenues from brings up memories of elite control and colonial timber and valuable minerals (Boutwell and Klare, power dynamics, protected areas can symbolise 2000). Moreover, the consequences of financing wars legacies of imperial domination. Thus it is important with natural resources from protected areas extend to recognise that: further than immediate biodiversity loss or ecosystem degradation. According to Austin and Bruch (2003), “…the conservation community…contributes heavily to shifts in power dynamics in rural areas “Aside from depriving a country of capital that is that are already highly politicized. This is a result of desperately needed for development or social [the community’s] relative wealth and influence programs, financing wars with natural resources compared to most local actors. In short, prolongs the misery of war and often wreaks greater conservation practices are not benign. They alter the environmental harm, as constraints and mitigation local playing field, sometimes drastically” (Brechin requirements that may be placed on resource et al., 2002). extraction during peacetime are ignored in the urgency of conflict. The emphasis of short-term Apart from directly contributing to emergence, gains over long-term sustainability drains national escalation and incidence of conflict, PAs can also play resources and makes it more difficult to return to a strategic role in sustaining ongoing military peaceful life after the conflict.” conflicts. The remote and relatively inaccessible location of some PAs can make them refuges for In fact, post-conflict settings give rise to new military groups, as they offer physical protection, security concerns associated with protected areas. food, water, fuel and medicine. The high concentration Refugees, internally displaced people (IDP) and of wildlife can provide a ready supply of bushmeat for demobilized troops may move into protected areas, as armies. Guerrilla groups in Colombia, Sierra Leone, they contain unsettled lands and livelihood resources. Burundi, India and Nepal, for example, have In some instances, resettlement in PAs has been established bases in protected areas, sometimes encouraged by governments when no other land is costing parks staff their lives (Austin and Bruch, available and the overarching priority is to establish 2003; McNeely, 2000). As a result, protected areas can peace, address immediate humanitarian needs and become strategic targets in military operations. Some create some semblance of order. Following the
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positive role in post-conflict reconstruction and A memorial honours Virunga Park guards killed on duty. peacebuilding. Among the most prominent examples of this potential are transboundary protected areas (TBPAs). TBPAs are being established at a remarkable rate: In 1998 there were a total of 59 transboundary complexes involved 136 areas; by 2001, the number had jumped to over 169 complexes involving over 666 areas. This recent proliferation of TBPAs is generally welcomed as a sign of good will and cooperation, particularly in areas with relatively recent histories of conflict. In fact, TBPAs represent the confluence of several seemingly mutually reinforcing interests, namely those of biodiversity conservation, economic development, cultural
IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim integrity and regional peace and security. The Rwandan genocide in 1994, 50% of the country’s possibilities are impressive: large, contiguous population was estimated to be displaced or ecological habitats that simultaneously protect temporarily settled. Hundreds of thousands of biodiversity, create widespread opportunities for refugees crossed the border into the Democratic tourism development, alleviate poverty, reunite Republic of Congo and settled in and around Virunga previously separated ethnic groups, and promote good National Park (Lanjouw, 2003), while the Rwandan political relations between neighbouring states. government opened portions of Akagara National Park to resettlement and considered proposals for This latter point has led some TBPAs to be called degazetting 5% of Volcanoes National Park to ‘Peace Parks’, although their actual peacebuilding accommodate IDPs. The acute need for land, shelter potential and impact is rarely evaluated systematically. and resources that leads displaced and demobilized Cooperation and peacebuilding is an assumed populations to PAs (and their immediate outcome of bringing together different – sometimes surroundings) has the potential for fuelling further previously opposing – stakeholders for the common tensions and conflict. When host communities, who purpose of managing biodiversity and protecting are also dealing with the social and environmental livelihoods. This assumption is drawn from a broader consequences of war, are faced with competition for literature on ‘environmental peacemaking’, which livelihood resources from refugees and displaced claims that environmental cooperation can have people (sometimes of different or previously opposing positive spin-offs for peace. As Conca and Dableko ethnic groups), tensions can rise and conflicts can (2002) explain: (re)ignite. When considered against a background of “The basis for this [environmental widespread arms circulation, demobilization, and peacemaking] claim lies partly in the general general disorder and confusion in post-conflict conditions understood to facilitate cooperation, settings, the gathering of different groups in refugee partly in the issue characteristics common to many camps or settlements around relatively resource-rich environmental problems, and partly in the kinds of protected areas can become a flashpoint of conflict. social relations that are engendered by ecological interdependencies.” Protected areas in post-conflict reconstruction They go on to describe two ways in which and peacebuilding environmental cooperation may occur: While the discussion above has outlined some of the 1. “Changing the strategic climate”: Exploiting potential security threats associated with protected environmental problems as opportunities in areas, it is important to note that they can also play a conflictual situations. That is, using discussions
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over environmental issues as a means to create at How can the security least minimum levels of trust, cooperation, and community contribute to transparency between actors, thereby improving protected areas? the ‘contractual environment’ in the bargaining process; and Having outlined how PAs can contribute to both peace and conflict, how can the security community 2. “Strengthening post-Westphalian governance”: contribute to PAs? Just as decades of lessons in Looking outside of formal, state-sanctioned conservation and development can inform our negotiations to broader social dynamics – i.e. understanding of ‘security’and the forces that threaten using environmental concerns to deepen trans- it, the security community can play a role in the societal linkages, strengthen regional identities, design, management and protection of PAs, and transform state institutions to become more particularly for those located in conflict zones. Below open, democratic and accountable. are some suggestions of how the different members of the security community can contribute to PAs. TBPAs have the potential to promote environmental cooperation along both pathways. For example, the Roles for the military. Because military actors are technical cooperation needed to establish and manage political and by definition linked to armed conflict, PAs across borders could serve as an opening to other involving them in PA activities can be a sensitive topic forms of cross-border cooperation, while the opening – i.e. there is a fear of militarizing protected areas, of borders to allow for animal migrations and which is not only counter-intuitive but detrimental to personnel exchanges may deepen trans-national their conservation mandates. That said, the military relations and regional identities, thereby lessening the establishment can contribute to PAs in a few relatively incentives for conflict. TBPAs may therefore prove to benign ways: be one of the more viable opportunities for peacebuilding in a post-conflict setting. 1. Share or donate assets for biodiversity protection: Many protected areas continue to be Related to but not exclusive to TBPAs are the underfinanced and insufficiently equipped to economic opportunities associated with PAs and their monitor and evaluate ecological conditions. role in promoting social stability and peace. Although Access to assets such as satellite imaging and the establishment and management of PAs is a highly communications technology would certainly fill politicized process, particularly in conflict-prone this gap. Satellite imaging could assist with regions, when done right PAs can offer opportunities monitoring land use changes, while to resource-dependent communities to diversify their communications equipment would help staff livelihood options and generate supplemental members working in large PAs, such as TBPAs, incomes, namely through tourism revenues and other community development benefits. For example, A transboundary protected area agreement being signed on 11 tourism operations in PAs can offer employment June 2001 between Lesotho and South Africa at Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho. opportunities to local community members, mostly to work as park rangers or general labourers; create or enhance the market for locally-produced goods (food, handicrafts, etc.); improve local infrastructure such as roads and water supplies; and fund community institutions such as schools and churches through revenue-sharing schemes. The benefits of PAs can therefore increase human security for surrounding PA communities, addressing some of the root causes of violent conflict and promoting peace. © Greig Stewart
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to maintain regular contact and inform each other 2. Help to integrate conflict sensitivity into PA of important developments (poaching activities, design and management plans: Building on the disease outbreaks, rebel movements, etc.). point above, PA authorities can reflect their understanding of the links between PAs and 2. Green military practices: Although peace/conflict dynamics by integrating conflict- environmental protection is not a priority for sensitivity into their work. In other words, they military actors (in fact, environmental destruction must assess and adapt their work to ensure that, at may be part of a military strategy), efforts can still the very least, PA-related activities do not be made to raise awareness of and provide exacerbate tensions or contribute to conflict, and alternatives to PA destruction in armed conflicts. ideally that they strengthen human security and Declaring PAs (especially World Heritage Sites) peacebuilding. Again, the security community as ‘no-go’ zones, or heightening security around can facilitate this process and use examples from PAs to prevent incursions are two simple the humanitarian, development and business (simplistic?) options, as are policies against sector to highlight how conflict-sensitivity can be poaching, water contamination, and clearcutting. achieved.
Roles for peace and development agencies. Because 3. Offer support in conflict management and PA managers and staff members are finding resolution processes: Because PA managers and themselves working in areas of potential or open staff can become directly or indirectly involved conflict, there is an increasing need to build their with local and regional conflicts, they can find understanding of conflict situations and adapt their themselves in positions of trying to manage or work accordingly. Peace and development resolve conflicts. While conservationists have practitioners can help conservationists assess and developed some guidelines for addressing PA- redesign their operations so that security risks are related conflicts (Lewis, 1996), a continued minimized; conflict-sensitivity is integrated into PA- dialogue with the security community on the related activities and opportunities for peacebuilding development and use of different and emerging are maximized. This type of support can take a conflict management and resolution strategies number of shapes: would strengthen their position.
1. Build capacity of PA managers/staff in conflict 4. Integrate PA activities into post-conflict analysis: PA managers and staff usually have reconstruction and peacebuilding technical and scientific backgrounds in natural programmes: Natural resource and resource management/ecosystem management. environmental services are closely tied to the Moreover, they operate under mandates which livelihoods and human security of many generally require them to measure the impact of vulnerable communities in conflict zones, and yet their work according to biologically or environmental considerations are usually environmentally-defined criteria. While this is overlooked in post-conflict settings when more not to underestimate the intimate knowledge that immediate needs take priority. As such, local PA managers and staff have of the social and conservation activities should become central political forces that affect their work, those components of at least some reconstruction and working in conflict zones should be trained to peacebuilding programmes. Engaging understand the conflict setting and how their communities in activities within and around PAs work is directly and indirectly linked with the root – either in (re)building park infrastructure, causes of conflict. The security community can monitoring poaching activities, carrying out certainly offer insights and tools for analysing ecosystem assessments, developing the tourism such relationships, such as conflict plans, etc. – may present some win-win options. analysis/assessment frameworks, checklists, indicators, etc.
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Roles for government decision makers. Finally, for 4. Encourage the use of PAs in demobilization, government decision makers, the biggest contribution disarmament and reintegration policies in they could make to PAs is to establish a policy post-conflict situations. Where appropriate, the environment and regulatory framework that enables restoration, management and operation of PAs the implementation of the recommendations above. should be integrated into post-conflict policies so This might include developing or strengthening that the parallel and complementary goals of policies that: biodiversity protection and peace-building can be simultaneously met. This can include guidelines 1. Ensure that all measures will be taken to avoid for offering PA-related employment opportunities conflict in and damage to PAs, particularly and training to demobilized soldiers or including World Heritage Sites. For example, further PA eco-tourism and community development developing and adopting IUCN’s Draft schemes as part of reintegration programmes. Convention on the Prohibition of Hostile Military Activity in Protected Areas. Conclusion 2. Provide for continued financial and technical The links between protected areas, human security assistance in PAs during times of social unrest and conflict are complex. This chapter has attempted and conflict. Environmental protection is often to summarise some of them, highlighting both the perceived as a luxury during times of crisis, positive and negative impacts PAs may have on leading authorities to divert funds from security dynamics. Much of this is not new to conservation activities such as PA management. conservationists – they have long searched for an Recognising the complex links that exist between optimal resolution to people vs. nature conflicts, PAs, human security and conflict, and where biodiversity protection goals are not met at the maintaining a minimal amount of support and expense of social and cultural concerns. Similarly, in training for PA managers and staff during times the wake of rising levels of local and regional violent of escalating or open conflict can prove to be an conflicts, conservationists have been developing investment in conflict resolution and post-conflict guidelines and management strategies for maintaining reconstruction. basic levels of biodiversity protection in times of 3. Promote Peace and Conflict Impact conflict (Shambaugh et al., 2001). These efforts have Assessments (PCIAs) of PAs. Just as been met with varying degrees of success. Bringing in government policies require Environmental the security community to buttress these efforts could and/or Social Impact Assessments (EIA or SIA) be an effective way of addressing the gaps, helping PA of development projects/programmes, there authorities to maximize the peacebuilding should be a requirement for PCIAs for PAs opportunities and minimize the conflict risks situated in conflict zones. The process would associated with their work. raise awareness of the different links between PA activities and peace/conflict dynamics, and force PA managers to rethink activities so that conflict risks are minimized, and peacebuilding opportunities are maximized.
90 chapter 7 © Thomas O. McShane Thomas O. © Protected areas and development assistance agencies: at the intersection of conservation and development
by Thomas O. McShane
Editor’s introduction While development assistance agencies are hardly a protected areas in the coming decade will require “new constituency” for protected areas, much has clarity about goals and objectives, an improved been learned over the past decade about the understanding of the constraints of project structures, relationship between protected areas and the an expanded scale of intervention that often extends to development assistance agencies. Early enthusiasm the landscape level, a component of policy change for so-called integrated conservation and that accompanies site-level intervention, developing development projects (ICDP) has been tempered by appropriate local institutions that can support experience and many important lessons have been improved relations between local people and learned about how to design protected area projects protected areas, clear acknowledgement of trade-offs so that they can be relevant to the objectives of between conservation and development objectives, an development assistance. In summarising this work, improved understanding of poverty, and adaptive Tom McShane has emphasised the importance of management that enables an active process of linking protected areas to larger contexts, learning from experience and then modifying acknowledging trade-offs between conservation and interventions. As other papers in this book development, and identifying incentives for protected demonstrate, protected areas have much to offer to area conservation. Maintaining the development human welfare, and are therefore worthy of assistance agencies as important supporters of investments from development assistance agencies.
Photo: Mosaic of natural forest and agricultural land in Ethiopia. The future of this landscape rests with a new generation.
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Introduction to manage the protected area estate under their jurisdiction. Growing pressure on protected areas from Even though protected areas now cover 11.6% of the increasing populations, persistent poverty and the world’s land area (Chape et al., 2003), penetration of the market economy have all conservationists argue that protected areas are not compounded the futility of trying to manage parks by enough; that even if all of the ecological systems isolating them from human activities. contained in protected areas remained intact, this would still be woefully insufficient for humanity’s Conservation organizations responded during the future needs. Protected areas face a myriad of threats 1980s by pioneering new approaches to protected area to their integrity and few are adequately managed, management that promised to build support among especially in the tropics where biodiversity is local constituents by sharing social and economic concentrated (WWF, 2004). There is now a broad benefits from protected areas. The goals of these consensus that most protected areas will have limited initiatives included compensating local people for future prospects without the cooperation and support lack of access to protected areas and providing of the people living around them. This has been a key alternative income sources that would allow people to doctrine of international conservation efforts for at benefit economically from conservation while least two decades. Putting this doctrine into practice refraining from environmentally-destructive practices. has proven frustratingly difficult, however, especially in developing countries (cf. McShane and Wells, Numerous terms have been used to describe these 2004). efforts to reconcile protected area management with local needs and aspirations. Although none of these Park management has often prioritized keeping local labels has proven entirely satisfactory, experience people out, following the view that human activities are suggests that Integrated Conservation and Development incompatible with ecosystem conservation. Many Project or Programme (ICDP) continues to be a viable protected area residents and neighbours have lost their collective description for site-based conservation with homes and their livelihoods as a result. Having social or economic development goals, including alienated their primary users while failing to build community-based conservation, ecodevelopment and political support, most national conservation agencies other terms (Wells and Brandon, 1992). have also shown neither the capacity nor the resources
Maintenance of forest cover ensures regular source of clean piped water to rural communities in Bhutan. © Thomas O. McShane Thomas O. ©
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ICDPs initially offered the attractive prospect of Although technically part of the United Nations contributing to three of the most sought-after goals on system, the World Bank and International Monetary the international sustainable development agenda: more Fund (IMF) are governed in a different manner than effective biodiversity conservation; increased local other parts of the UN – according to weighted shares community participation in conservation and held by member states. They are sometimes called the development; and economic development for the rural Bretton Woods institutions or, together with regional poor. Such an approach found an enthusiastic audience development banks (such as the Inter-American among the international development assistance Development Bank, African Development Bank, and agencies that had just added environmental conservation Asian Development Bank), the International Financial to their mission of stimulating economic growth. Institutions. While the World Bank and regional Support from these agencies provided financial development banks provide loans and technical resources for biodiversity conservation on an assistance for development purposes, the IMF is not unprecedented scale during the 1990s. The result was a directly involved in development – rather its purpose proliferation of conservation projects supporting is to promote international monetary cooperation. development activities amongst poor, rural communities around protected areas, to such an extent that a Perhaps the most important multilateral institution conservation project without a major emphasis on local when it comes to financing biodiversity conservation people’s welfare would have been almost unthinkable. and protected areas is the Global Environment Facility (GEF), an independent financial organization that provides grants to developing countries for projects Development assistance that benefit the global environment and promote agencies and their goals sustainable livelihoods in local communities. GEF Bilateral official development assistance (ODA) projects are managed by three implementing agencies are government agencies set up to channel agencies: UNEP, UNDP, and the World Bank. GEF assistance to other countries – typically this assistance projects address six complex global environmental goes directly to the government. The largest such issues: biodiversity, climate change, international agencies are in North America, Europe and Japan. waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and Some examples are the Canadian International persistent organic pollutants. Since 1991, the GEF has Development Agency (CIDA), the Department for provided US$4.5 billion in grants and generated $14.5 International Development (DFID) of the United billion in co-financing from other partners for projects Kingdom and the Japan International Cooperation in developing countries and countries with economies Agency (JICA). The European Commission’s ODA in transition. GEF funds are contributed by donor agencies are considered bilateral agencies in that they countries. In 2002, 32 donor countries pledged $3 provide assistance to other countries, not to the billion to fund operations between 2002 and 2006 European Union members. (GEF, 2004).
Multilateral ODA agencies are composed of The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and member’s governments that agree by international Development’s (OECD) Development Assistance treaty or convention to establish them. These agencies Committee (DAC) groups the world’s principal aid have a wide variety of objectives and interests. donors. The DAC brings together development Multilateral agencies providing official development assistance agencies from OECD governments assistance include many parts of the United Nations – (bilateral donors) as well as representatives of the such as the United Nations Development Programme World Bank, the IMF and the UNDP (multilateral (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme donors). The OECD groups thirty member countries (UNEP), United Nations Educational, Scientific and that generally share a commitment to democratic Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the UN Food and government and the market economy. The DAC is the Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Health principal body through which the OECD deals with Organization (WHO) and others. issues related to co-operation with developing countries.
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The Millennium Development Goals and targets Integrating conservation and come from the UN Millennium Declaration signed by development 189 countries, including 147 Heads of State, in September 2000 (World Bank, 2002). The The implementation response Millennium Development Goals are used by The investment in protected areas has taken place in development assistance agencies as a common the shadow of a broader debate about the framework to guide their policies and programmes compatibility of environmental conservation and and to assess effectiveness of the development aid economic development. This argument, which being provided worldwide (see Box 7.1). continues today, is about whether biodiversity conservation can co-exist with economic Box 7.1 development. ICDP proponents have generally argued that biodiversity conservation goals could be achieved Millennium Development Goals through the means of economic development by using an approach that balances the two, while opponents 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger argued that such an approach would be disastrous for 2. Achieve universal primary education biodiversity. This argument has been particularly vitriolic in cases where indigenous people’s interests 3. Promote gender equity and empower women were concerned (Christensen, 2004; Wilkie, Redford 4. Reduce child mortality and McShane, in press). 5. Improve maternal health The conservation response to this debate has been 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases mixed. Some conservation NGOs have started to 7. Ensure environmental sustainability question or even reject protected area approaches targeting local people. The increasing focus of 8. Develop a global partnership for development development assistance agencies on poverty reduction The eight Millennium Development Goals aim for a and the Millennium Development Goals has started to world free of poverty and free of the misery that poverty limit the funding available for biodiversity, while the breeds. The goals and targets are seen as interrelated and steadily increasing pressure to demonstrate quantifiable represent a partnership between developed and and early successes from projects seems to be reducing developing countries determined, as the Declaration the appeal of ICDPs within these agencies (Hulme and states, “to create an environment – at the national and Murphree, 2001). Perhaps to counteract these signs of global levels alike – which is conducive to development donor agency disenchantment, some conservationists and the elimination of poverty.” The environment is one have vigorously renewed their calls for protected areas of eight goals and the targets of the environmental to make even greater contributions to poverty reduction sustainability goal are: (IUCN, 2003; Christensen, 2004; Roe and Elliott, 2004). ● Integrating the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes It is clear that any framework for a “new” approach and reversing the loss of environmental resources. to protected area management emphasising poverty reduction must be informed by a careful analysis of ● Reducing by half the proportion of people without the ICDP experience. The basic rationale that led to access to safe drinking water by 2015. the popularity of ICDPs remains unchanged. ● Achieving significant improvement in the lives of Demonstrating constructive ways of involving local at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020. stakeholders in the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in and around the most significant None of the targets explicitly address protected protected areas remains one of the most important areas, though one of MDG 7’s indicators for progress challenges and priorities for nature conservation at the is “land area protected to maintain biological beginning of the 21st century. diversity”.
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Many ICDPs have been built on precarious and the activities selected seems distant or vague, as assumptions. ICDPs often began with the assumption has often been the case with ICDPs, attention that farming and hunting by poor people were the inevitably becomes focused on the project activities major threat to protected areas, and targeted their themselves rather than the impacts of these activities. responses accordingly (McShane and Newby, 2004). This often leads to an excessive focus on getting But the activities of local people are often less of a activities completed (on the part of the project threat to biodiversity than mining, roads, dams, implementer) or getting as much as possible out of the irrigation schemes, resettlement programmes, project (on the part of the intended beneficiaries). This plantations and commercial logging and hunting, disconnect between development activities and often backed by rich and powerful interests operating desired conservation impacts within ICDPs has often well outside the influence of park managers or short- led to a divergence between the benefits obtainable term projects. Compounding this problem, many park from biodiversity conservation and the benefits managers are disconnected from the land use and obtainable from the project. Many projects start by economic development planning processes that are emphasising the former but end up concentrating critical to parks (Brandon, Redford and Sanderson, almost entirely on the latter. 1998; Wells et al., 1999). One might feel at this point that the “pathology of Considerable efforts are usually invested in projects” is so fundamental that other approaches encouraging local people to participate in, or at least should be found. But the reality is that the not to oppose, ICDP activities. However, projects overwhelming majority of external funding for seriously interested in fostering local participation biodiversity conservation in developing countries may need to spend many years, if not a decade or either originates from or passes through international more, helping build the capacity of local institutions, development agencies. While these agencies do have even assuming that local and national laws, customs non-project financing models, the dominant method and tenure arrangements permit and support such an of financing in the environmental sector, and approach. While local people are usually intended especially in biodiversity conservation, continues to beneficiaries of ICDPs, the original decision to launch be through projects. There is no sign that they are an ICDP is rarely theirs and few projects cede about to decline in importance (Sayer and Wells, significant decision making to local stakeholders 2004). despite much rhetoric to the contrary. This means that ICDPs remain outside local systems and any gains Working with non-traditional constituencies such as the Scouting movement offers opportunities to raise awareness and improve they may achieve are unlikely to persist beyond the community involvement in both conservation and development. project life.
Most ICDPs tend to ally themselves with a single major stakeholder, usually either the protected area management agency or an environmental NGO. As such the project automatically becomes (or at least is perceived as) biased towards this stakeholder’s interests. As a result, other stakeholders then lack incentives to engage with the project and its goals.
Projects tend to focus on activities (social programmes and income creation through alternative livelihoods) rather than impacts (on biodiversity). ICDPs usually emphasise community-level social and economic development activities as an indirect step towards more effective conservation in the long-term
future. When the linkage between the eventual goal McShane Thomas O. ©
95 7 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
The development assistance response While governments are well aware of the three Many development assistance agencies today focus pillars of sustainable development, the market their support for biodiversity conservation and economy has taken priority over social development protected areas at the macro policy level through the and environmental concerns in recent decades. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The CBD market economy is seen as the primary force for was one of several major initiatives stemming from poverty reduction and attention to the environment the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which and natural resources is primarily utilitarian. together form an international agreement on References to natural resources now concern their sustainable development. The Convention now has provision for use by society and that of the 188 Parties, which reflects a worldwide recognition environment to quality issues related to health. that human activities are changing and destroying In the early years of development assistance it was habitats and natural ecosystems on an increasing common for aid funds to be invested in ‘institutional scale, with unprecedented loss of species. Parties support’ for government agencies in developing recognise that action must be taken to halt this global countries. International advisers were sent to work loss of animal and plant species and genetic resources within the host institutions. Later the drive for and that each country has the primary responsibility to accountability and the need for international donors to conserve and enhance biodiversity within its own be able to target their support more precisely led to the jurisdiction. At the same time, they agree to develop emergence of the ‘development project’ as the main national strategies, plans and programmes for the delivery mechanism. This meant that donors worked conservation and sustainable use of biological with their national counterparts to define discrete, diversity, and to share resources to help implement time-bound packages of development assistance. such programmes. These packages have allowed donors to apply their The most recent manifestation of support was the own accountability mechanisms and allowed adoption of an ambitious programme of work on development to be reduced to bite-sized components protected areas by the Parties to the CBD in February for which donors can assume responsibility and take 2004. This programme of work is one of the most credit (Sayer and Wells, 2004). significant documents adopted by the CBD. It sets clear targets, including the establishment of a global network This trend away from institutional support and of comprehensive, representative and effectively towards projects has been reflected in international managed protected area systems. Emphasis is also development agency support for biodiversity placed on strengthening the management of protected conservation. Early aid programmes supported game areas and ensuring that the costs and benefits of rangers, wardens, researchers and others working protected areas are equitably shared. Time will now tell within national protected area programmes. As if development assistance will be available to support international donor support for biodiversity this bold programme of work. conservation has been significantly reduced over the last five years, protected areas often have been at the However, the move by development assistance top of the list when it comes to cutting expenditures as agencies to focus their work on poverty reduction as governments aim to balance their budgets and meet their primary goal, and sustainable development as a other development objectives. The external funds broad strategy to meet this, has meant that protected available for protected areas continue to shrink despite areas are not a high priority for funding. In fact, a ever-increasing demands on these areas to provide number of development assistance agencies no longer clean air and water, tourism and recreational have units within their structure to specifically deal opportunities, in addition to the protection of with biodiversity conservation. This cutting of their biodiversity and the ecosystem processes that support own institutional support network for conservation it. Against this backdrop, protected area managers activities is a clear indication of where development have no choice but to master the language of values assistance agencies have set their priorities. and benefits that protected areas represent and adopt
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Rural community in Ethiopia discusses protected area boundaries, use rights and access with park authorities. © Thomas O. McShane Thomas O. © more business-like approaches, including developing symptoms while ignoring underlying policy business plans and generating income to supplement constraints or deal with macro-level issues while ever-decreasing funding allocations. ignoring local realities.
Alternative, non-project financing models have More effective protected area management requires recently grown in importance within at least some local-scale interventions to be complemented by international development agencies. For example, stronger law enforcement within protected areas, more than half of the World Bank’s lending is now in more effective environmental screening of nearby the form of programmatic support linked to structural development projects and more aggressive policy adjustment, sector-wide investment programmes and interventions in support of biodiversity conservation. social action funds. It is often necessary to support or build partnerships to pursue these objectives, sometimes with those who Influencing development are not traditional allies of conservation. The use of assistance agencies diverse field- and policy-oriented approaches must be vertically integrated, ensuring that site-based Linking to broader contexts interventions are directly supported by policy-level actions both nationally and internationally. Understanding of the root causes of biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation in general, has become more sophisticated. It is clear that many of the Acknowledging trade-offs between most important threats to biodiversity originate far conservation and development from protected area boundaries and involve issues and Experience shows that site-specific biodiversity institutions well outside the traditional realm of conservation is rarely compatible with unfettered conservationists. What does this mean for project development, income generation or livelihood identification and design? Site-specific efforts will interests. In practice, there will be winners and losers. always be necessary. However, these need to be nested So better techniques are needed to identify and within broader-based land use strategies supportive of understand the goals and interests of the major biodiversity conservation and more ecologically stakeholders in and around parks. Once these different friendly forms of economic development. interests have been identified and understood, the Interventions must occur at different scales. Policy opportunities for negotiation and trade-offs can be change is as important as field-level intervention. explored. Until recently, there have been few These two should ideally go hand-in-hand with local systematic attempts to help stakeholders identify and action helping people to influence the policies that then make rational choices between competing affect their lives. Too many of the interventions of scenarios in conservation or development, partly conservation and development agencies address local because of the persistence of the “win-win” myth.
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More recently, however, applied researchers have Paying directly for conservation performance may begun to develop and test tools that may prove be simpler and more effective than the ICDP approach extremely useful in helping diverse groups of in certain specific cases. This type of conservation stakeholders understand each other’s viewpoints and contracting can simplify the achievement of make informed and appropriate choices (Brown, conservation goals and strengthen the links between 2004). One of the more exciting aspects of this work individual actions and habitat conservation, thus has been to dispel the conventional wisdom that creating a local stake in ecosystem protection outsiders can simplistically predict the outcome of (Ferrero, 2001; Ferrero and Kiss, 2002). Although such choices. conservation contracting does seem to offer considerable promise in North America and Europe, Identifying incentives for protected areas its success depends on governance arrangements and Are there alternative ways of providing adequate an institutional framework that provides clarity over conservation incentives at the site level, particularly land use and access rights as well as the consistent where conflicting stakeholder interests do not appear enforceability of legal contracts. These are still resolvable through a project intervention? One lacking in many developing countries. possibility would simply be to pay cash in return for Finally, the assumption implicit in the discussion biodiversity protection (Ferrero and Kiss, 2002). above, that protected areas will only survive if they Selected local or national government entities, NGOs or communities would receive payments, to use as they receive external donor support in some form, is see fit, in exchange for park management and simply not true. Many protected areas in developing conservation commitments. Payment schedules over countries can themselves be profitable through user extended periods would then be subject to independent fees, environmental taxes and other charges. For performance reviews. The funding for such example, Botswana raised its national park entry fees arrangements could originate from international for foreigners by 900%, leading to a dramatic increase sources or from the government budget. in total revenues that effectively eliminated the subsidy being provided by the central government to Governments could consider inviting tenders for the game reserves and national parks (Barnes, 1998). management of individual protected areas. For example, During this time, the number of visitors actually rose a government would commit to taking whatever steps by 49% in the first two years after the fees were necessary to protect a particular park, say for 25 years, increased. The Pacific island republic of Palau while allowing independent monitoring. Interested requires each of the 80,000 foreign divers who visit parties (development assistance agencies, NGOs, even annually to pay a USD 15 fee, which generates around private sector organizations) would then bid the amount USD 1 million a year for conserving Palau’s marine they would be prepared to pay to secure this protected protected areas (Spergel, 2002). The key to financial area, payable over the full term of the agreement as long autonomy is supportive government policies that as the government continued to live up to their allow protected areas to retain the fees they take in and protection commitment. If adequate offers of the requirement that these funds be invested back into international funds were not forthcoming, the the protected area. For example, Ecuador’s “Special government could then decide whether to finance Law for the Galápagos” requires that 90% of the USD conservation activities domestically (perhaps based on 100 park entry fee be used to protect and maintain the an assessment of watershed protection, tourism Galápagos’ natural environment. Nepal allows potential, or other national economic benefits) or to turn individual protected areas to keep 50% or more of the the protected area over to other uses. Such an approach entry fees that they collect (Spergel, 2002). could also help sharpen the discussion concerning the level of financial resources that should be transferred to developing countries to support biodiversity conservation (Wells et al., 1999).
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Actions required in the coming avoided for integrated conservation and development ten years to work in the future. The following features are key to this success in the coming ten years (adapted from Integrated conservation and development is intuitively McShane and Wells, 2004): appealing. It offers something for everyone. It promises to defuse the major threats to biodiversity, 1. Clarity about goals and objectives. Biodiversity create better opportunities for people to earn a decent goals are often in partial opposition to living and gain access to basic services, and equitably development goals and this is rarely explicitly address the rights and interests of everyone who uses acknowledged and addressed from the start. land and resources in and around protected areas. It is not a surprise that the integration of conservation and 2. Constraints of project structures. The constraints development has been so easy to sell to a broad range imposed by the project structures of many of interests, from park managers and conservation conservation and development agencies are still organizations, to local communities, governments and inhibiting real engagement with local development assistance agencies. stakeholders and preventing the integrated management of natural resource systems. The problem is that the myth of “win-win” solutions has created a culture in which overly ambitious 3. The scale of intervention. Too many of the projects have proliferated based on weak assumptions interventions of conservation and development and little evidence. There is no doubt that poverty agencies are scale-specific, often addressing local reduction and conservation of biodiversity must work symptoms but ignoring underlying policy hand-in-hand in today’s world. However, some trade- constraints or dealing with macro-level issues offs must be recognised, and mistakes need to be while ignoring local realities.
Culture plays an important role in linking conservation and development. Traditional land use practices around Punakha Dzong in Bhutan ensures the maintenance of riverside habitat for endangered species such as the white-bellied heron. © Thomas O. McShane Thomas O. ©
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4. Policy change. Field-level intervention and policy Protected areas simply are not practical if people’s change should ideally go hand-in-hand and local needs and aspirations are not taken into account. To action should help people to influence the succeed in the future, integrated conservation and policies that affect their lives. development will need to be based on explicit testable assumptions, clearly stated objectives, and measurable 5. Institutions. Community-based development conservation targets. It should promote simple and requires strong local institutions and legal adaptive conservation and development initiatives that frameworks. Defensible land tenure and access are consistent with strengthening protected areas. rights are vital and securing these rarely receives Integrated conservation and development needs to enough attention in conservation and identify and address diverse stakeholder interests, and development programmes. Many otherwise it must work in partnerships to address larger excellent concepts for reconciling conservation problems that defy local solutions. To effectively and development founder because they are not address these issues will require a vertically integrated supported by the institutional and political mix of site-based programmes, policy initiatives and structures concerned. campaign action. The appropriate positioning of 6. Trade-offs. Acknowledge and address trade-offs integrated conservation and development relative to between conservation and development these other complementary conservation activities objectives. Too many programmes have raised operating on a variety of spatial and temporal scales funds on the basis of false claims about potential will be one of the major challenges of the emerging win-win outcomes. landscape- or ecoregion-scale conservation approaches. Development assistance agencies will 7. Understanding of poverty. Poverty reduction is continue to be a key actor in this process of learning, indeed linked to environmental deterioration, change and adaptation. but many conservation and development programmes proceed on the basis of very simple and incorrect assumptions about the nature of relationships between poor local people and natural resource systems.
8. Adaptive management. Learning from experience, and then modifying interventions, is often preached but rarely practised. This requires constant monitoring of design and management and the systematic testing of assumptions and adaptation of activities.
100 chapter 8 © Corbis Protected areas and local and indigenous communities
by Lea M. Scherl
Editor’s introduction As the first of three chapters dealing broadly with and benefits, and empowerment and governance, this protected areas and local people, this one provides a chapter seeks to promote social justice in synthesis of the workshop organized by IUCN’s Inter- conservation as a means of building support for Commission Task Force on Indigenous and Local protected areas. A fundamental issue is the lack social Communities, Equity and Protected Areas (TILCEPA) impact assessments when protected areas are being at the World Parks Congress. The people living in and established, along with appropriate measures to around protected areas may seem to be the primary address any negative impacts identified. Part of this beneficiaries from conserving the ecosystem services social justice is to ensure that globalization does not provided by protected areas, but in fact they often feel make communities living in and around protected disenfranchised and are denied access to resources areas any worse off than they already are; even better that they consider rightfully belong to them. Lea would be to find ways to ensure that they are able to Scherl summarises the various grievances and gain from participation in the global economy if they suggests ways for moving ahead. While noting the choose to do so. This chapter also raises the important view that an exclusionary approach to protected areas idea that community conserved areas can make a is favoured by many conservationists, this chapter significant contribution to national efforts to conserve argues that the continuing dichotomy between human biodiversity, and thus provide an important and environmental interests prevents significant complement to protected areas. The chapter collaboration that could provide important support concludes with a set of policies and actions that will for protected areas on a sustainable basis. Focussing go a long way toward building support for protected on the themes of poverty and sustainable areas among indigenous and local communities. development, rights and equitable sharing of costs
Photo: Woman carrying her child in Thailand.
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Introduction The relationship between local Protected areas cannot survive as islands, sheltered and indigenous communities from the broader physical, social, cultural and and protected areas economic context within which they are located. Professionals in the field of protected area Dudley et al. (1999), in addressing challenges for management are moving away from the notion that protected areas in the 21st century, note that protected the interests and rights of local and indigenous areas need to expand in size, in concept, in the number communities (which also includes the concept of of partners involved, in vision from islands to a system mobile peoples) are in conflict with the objectives of where the parks connect to each other, to the wider protected areas. However, some continue to believe landscape, to society, to the economy and to other that a weaker interface with local and indigenous countries. The progressive shift towards a more communities will be better for protected areas. The integrated context highlights the fact that a much promotion of a dichotomy between human and broader constituency of actors needs to be empowered environmental interests will not lead us towards to manage protected areas in order to ensure their supporting and sustaining protected areas into the survival. future. Conflicts surrounding establishment and management of protected areas are, nevertheless, This chapter will analyse the link between protected more the norm than the exception. However, the areas and the wider context from the perspective of existence of conflict implies that protected areas local, traditional and indigenous communities that are contain something of value to a variety of groups, and residents of these areas or neighbours to them. it is the understanding and promotion of these values Conserving biological and cultural diversity within and their harmonization that need to be emphasised. and around protected areas, while maintaining and promoting sustainable livelihoods of local and The effective management of the relationship indigenous communities, is at the core of between local and indigenous communities and understanding this linkage. Local, traditional and protected areas is of paramount importance for their indigenous communities have been extremely survival in the long term. First, because numerous important to the support, management and issues permeate such relationships that need to be maintenance of protected areas in many parts of the addressed. These include: world. However, much debate still rages about the role that local and indigenous communities can play and ● Inequality with respect to the distribution of costs the power and the rights they may have with respect to and benefits of protected areas; establishing and managing protected areas. “The ● Loss of control by local and indigenous groups over single most important missed opportunity for natural resources; conservation today may well be the misunderstanding, ● Governance systems for protected area neglect and disaffection of civil societies – and of management that still largely exclude local and indigenous and local communities in particular” indigenous groups from effective (Policy Matters 12, editorial). The following participation/power sharing; discussion reflects the evolution of the protected area Indians Chachi on the management paradigm towards being more people boundaries of the Cotacachi focused, less centralized in management and looking Cayapas Reserve in the for better balances between conservation and social, Chocó Region in Ecuador. economic and cultural objectives (Phillips, 2003). CARE funded by USAID CARE funded by
© SUBIR project implemented by
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● Rights and knowledge of indigenous/traditional Box 8.1 populations with respect to protected areas that are not yet fully recognised; Facets of the relationship between ● Unsustainable poaching and illegal harvesting local and indigenous communities and inside protected areas that are still taking place, with protected areas policies for sustainable harvesting lacking in many places; Livelihood security: opportunities for local and ● Lack of compensation for loss of livelihood indigenous communities to: obtain food, clean opportunities, land and resource rights; and water, construction materials, medicinal plants; to ● Lack of effective mechanisms for payment for maintain genetic resources, pollinators, cycling of environmental services. nutrients and natural chemicals that are important to sustaining agriculture, livestock and fisheries; And second, because of the special nature of the maintain wild food supply in times of scarcity; relationship that local and indigenous community reduce vulnerability to natural hazards and have with protected areas, being so dependent on environmental change; and access infrastructure put them for their social, cultural and economic survival in place to manage protected areas. Addressing the relationship Economic: opportunities for local and indigenous communities to obtain: direct economic benefits between local and indigenous through employment in the management of communities and protected protected areas (e.g. park rangers, tourist guides) areas and payment for the conservation of environmental The emphasis throughout this chapter on the term services; and indirect economic benefits through an relationship reflects the reality that one cannot increase in visitors that can help to promote and understand the contributions of local and indigenous sustain a myriad of small businesses. communities to protected areas in isolation from an Cultural and spiritual: maintenance of cultural analysis of the factors and conditions that may hinder integrity through the protection of important places or promote such contributions. The relationship of identity, including sacred sites that hold symbolic between local and indigenous communities and meaning of spiritual importance, and by the provision of materials for traditional indigenous arts and utensils. Figure 8.1 Psychological well-being and recreation: a sense of identity and belongingness from feeling secure Dimensions for addressing the with the existence of place, from being able to relationship between local and maintain and enjoy the knowledge that areas will indigenous communities and remain protected and relatively unchanged, thus protected areas preserving landscapes, geological features and species diversity. Social Justice in Conservation Educational: opportunities to learn about nature Poverty and sustainable development and from nature, to transmit traditional values and customs, and for reciprocal learning amongst different groups on how to most effectively manage protected areas. Governance: opportunities to empower local and indigenous communities to participate in decision- Rights and equitable Empowerment and making processes along other groups of actors and sharing of costs and governance benefits to be partners in conservation.
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protected areas can be seen from many perspectives, the environment, lack of participation in decision of which three are particularly important. They are making related to management, and lack of related to: poverty and sustainable development; appreciation and fair reward for their stewardship role rights and equitable sharing of costs and benefits; and (e.g. Brechin et al., 2003; Ghimire and Pimbert, 1997; empowerment and governance. This chapter will Nelson and Hossack, 2003). An ethical consideration provide an overview of these themes. Other chapters that is increasingly being voiced relates to in this volume address specific aspects related to the displacement, and the poverty and dispossession themes (e.g. Putney, this volume; Larsen and Oviedo, (including a sense of place) that the establishment of this volume; McShane, this volume). Figure 8.1. protected areas can create (Geisler, 2003a and 2003b; presents graphically the themes that will be discussed Cernea and Schmidt-Soltau, 2003). below and their linkages. Geisler (2003a) refers to these victims of planned Poverty and sustainable development human intervention as “conservation refugees”, advocating that the establishment of protected areas is Poverty is an overarching issue that needs to be akin to any form of major development. Even when considered in the relationship between local and such linkages and dependency on protected areas by indigenous groups and protected areas. Many of the local and indigenous communities are fully residents and neighbours of protected areas are poor acknowledged, much still needs to be done to properly and highly dependent on the environmental resources understand and manage them. A global study on and services provided by protected areas to meet their wildlife-poverty linkages (also covering protected daily survival needs. The Vth World Parks Congress areas) came to the conclusion that despite the fact that emphasised the need to promote discussion on all poor people in many parts of the world depend on aspects and levels, including ethical, moral and wildlife for food security and livelihood, this practical issues, related to protected areas, local and dependence is not reflected in policy documents and indigenous communities and poverty (Fisher, 2003; the public goods value of wildlife is still ‘paid for’ by Gichere, 2003; Roe and Elliot, 2003; Scherl, 2003). the poor (Roe and Elliot, 2003). A major issue is the Poverty is a multi-dimensional concept that lack of proper social impact assessments of protected incorporates assets and income, vulnerability, voice, areas that recognise that the social relevance of empowerment, and capacity (World Development protected areas includes issues of rights, cultural Report, 2000/2001). Where poverty is endemic, the importance, economic opportunities, compensation linkages between management of protected areas and for loss of access, and empowerment and poverty alleviation need to be addressed for the very participation. The lack of such assessments makes it survival of protected areas. However, through what difficult to put in place associated mitigating and mechanisms this can be achieved, and whether compensatory mechanisms. protected areas should be considered as a means to alleviate poverty, still remains a vast area for In summary, the main overall messages reflected in expanding understanding, analysis and exploration the recommendation adopted at the WPC on ‘Poverty (Scherl et al., 2004). A better understanding of the and Protected Areas’ (IUCN, 2003) include: negative impacts that the establishment and management of protected areas have had on many 1. Poverty, displacement, hunger and land local and indigenous communities can help address degradation have a profound impact on the issue of poverty with respect to protected areas. biodiversity and protected areas and pose a very Many protected areas have been established and are serious threat to their survival; still managed at the expense of the poor, often local 2. Biodiversity should be conserved both for its and indigenous communities. The traditional value as a local livelihoods resource and as a approach to conservation has frequently had a national and global public good; negative impact on the livelihoods of local communities through their loss of rights over 3. Protected areas should strive to contribute to resources, loss of control to influence what happens to poverty reduction at the local level (either directly
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Forest management meeting in Tanzania. © Liz Aldern-Wily © Liz
or indirectly), and at the very minimum not McShane, 2003; Namarra, 2003; Scherl and Morales, create, contribute to, or exacerbate poverty; 2003; Wells, 2003). 4. In order to achieve their potential both to conserve biodiversity and to assist in reducing Rights and equitable sharing of costs and poverty, protected areas should be integrated benefits within a broad sustainable development system; Principles and guidelines (Beltran and Phillips, 2000) and provide understanding of the rights of indigenous and traditional communities with respect to protected 5. Knowledge about the linkage between protected areas. However, these guidelines are yet to be fully areas and poverty needs to be improved. embraced (e.g. Nelson and Hossack, 2003). Debate on this theme is increasingly placing the relationship between local and indigenous Land tenure. The rights of indigenous communities, communities and protected areas into a broader in particular, are more thoroughly addressed by context. It is becoming more imperative to understand Oviedo (this volume). I will highlight here one the role of protected areas within larger ecosystems, particular set of rights – land tenure. This topic is landscapes and seascapes (e.g. Maginnis et al., 2003; critical to efforts towards integrating the management Redford et al., 2003), all of which contain bio- of protected areas with the needs and aspirations of physical and social-cultural characteristics. local and indigenous communities, particularly with Contributing to this broader level of discussion are respect to sustaining livelihoods and promoting many years of practical experience with approaches empowerment. What was revealed with respect to that aim to integrate conservation and development analysis of land-tenure in the context of protected (see McShane, this volume) which were also analysed areas for Africa and Latin America (Wily, 2003; and during the WPC (Barrow, 2003; Franks, 2003; Morales, 2003, respectively) is the following:
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● Recognition is increasing of the importance of Sherpa girl in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. land-tenure rights in the conservation and management of protected areas and as a key factor to sustainability of conservation practices.
● Protected areas often overlap with indigenous territories, or are established in areas already occupied by indigenous and local community groups, where land-tenure issues and rights of access then become central to any conservation efforts.
● Recognition of these rights is highly diverse; Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim communal rights are also being recognised and should local and indigenous communities subsidise multiple tenure regimes are becoming more the cost of protected areas? What are the rights of poor common, demanding new ways to manage local and indigenous communities to benefit protected areas. These different tenure financially for stewardship of global public goods? arrangements may require different management responses and governance models. Many approaches are available to ensure that local and indigenous communities benefit (in an economic ● Land tenure security is a very important step in sense) from protected areas. Analysis of numerous rights recognition but is not sufficient to guarantee case studies across the Asia-Pacific region confirmed control over resources and decisions; local that enterprise-based approaches could lead to empowerment is also necessary, supported by conservation, but only under specific conditions. They enabling and inclusive governance. are best employed where a major threat to biodiversity is local people’s need for cash and where a viable Case studies illustrate that tenure is essential for enterprise is possible. Moreover, they should be more effective land management and poverty supported with other strategies such as education and reduction (Masoud and Wild, 2003), is of critical awareness or direct protection (Salafsky, 2003). One importance for biodiversity conservation within very promising mechanism to bring biodiversity into protected areas (Tongson, 2003), and how land the marketplace is payment for ecosystem services, ownership is critical within larger eco-developments such as carbon sequestration, watershed protection, (Dutt, 2003). landscape amenity, and biodiversity conservation. But All in all, land tenure, as one set of rights, is market-based approaches require information on increasingly becoming a critical issue that needs to be benefits, establishing and enforcing rights and addressed in the relationship between local and responsibilities, and relieving policy constraints and indigenous communities and protected areas. disincentives (Bishop, 2003). A review of payments for environmental services related to water catchment Equitable sharing of costs and benefits. Another services (Pagiolo, 2003) reveals the following: critical issue is the perceived need to fully understand the costs and benefits of protected areas, beyond 1. Payments for environmental services are not simply management costs, as much of the hidden cost poverty reduction programmes, while trying to is borne by communities. The unbalanced distribution make them so can undermine their utility; of these costs and benefits (with most opportunity 2. Payments for environmental services can help to costs incurred at the local level, while benefits accrue maximize positive impacts/minimize adverse elsewhere) is noted as a deterrent to conservation impacts on poverty, as many natural resource efforts from the part of local and indigenous users are poor and payments can improve their communities. Important questions then arise. Why welfare;
106 Protected areas and local and indigenous communities 8
3. The extent to which payments for environmental distribution of costs and benefits should be addressed services affect the poor and their livelihoods is at all levels, local, national and international, and the still an empirical issue and is likely to be case- linkages between these levels should be more clearly specific; understood. We need better understanding of the 4. Appropriate contract design and support for impacts that trade-offs that benefit international, effective participation of the poor are required; regional and national levels can have at the local level. and Empowerment and governance 5. How markets for environmental services can affect the tenure situation or leave those with Central to establishing and promoting effective tenure insecurity (often the most poor) even more relationships between local and indigenous vulnerable remains a concern. communities and protected areas is empowering community members to actively participate in the An interesting case study by Child (2003) showed management of these areas. Empowerment needs to how governance models can affect the distribution of begin prior to the establishment phase. Empowerment benefits and incentives. Bottom-up approaches means not only giving local and indigenous (second generation community-based natural communities the opportunity to voice and represent resource management projects) were found to be their interests during decision-making processes, but much more effective in distributing benefits than also engaging them as partners, creating incentives for representational democracies (more top-down), not them to mobilize resources, and recognising the value only at the household level but also with respect to of giving community members real rights and benefits that go to public objectives. However, the ownership of resources (e.g. Brandon et al., 1998; literature shows that in only a few cases have Jeanrenaud, 1999; Kothari et al., 2000; McNeely, payments actually gone to local communities and 1999; Pimbert and Pretty, 1995; Jaireth and Smyth, benefited poor people. Benefits have stayed, by and 2003; Policy Matters, 2003; Wells and Brandon, 1992; large, with the private or public sector that manages West and Brechin, 1991). Empowerment of local and the protected area (Pagiola et al., 2002). indigenous communities is essential for a number of Some of the overall conclusions from discussions at reasons: to mobilize close allies for protected areas; to the WPC related to incentives for conservation and ameliorate the negative impacts caused by the fair reward for stewardship were: establishment of many protected areas (displacement and denial of a range of rights); to provide a critical ● Conservation-based enterprises have great potential element that addresses the linkages between protected to generate incentives for conservation, but it is areas and sustainable livelihoods; to take advantage of important to recognise that non-cash benefits may local and ancestral knowledge for the management of be as important as cash benefits. protected areas; to permit better integration of the ● The effectiveness of revenue-based incentives objectives of protected areas with other land-uses depends crucially on the mechanism for distributing
benefits at the community level. Chokwe Mozambique. ● Payments for environmental services have the potential to generate local benefits, but need further exploration. Understanding incentives for conservation and equitable ways of allocating costs and benefits is of paramount importance for protected area management. However, much still needs to be done to highlight the obligations of national and international agencies supporting conservation of protected areas to ensure that this occurs. Moreover, inequalities in the © Chico Carneiro
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adjacent to those areas; and to provide an important areas “should reflect and address relevant social, element for a more eclectic and inclusive system of ecological, cultural, historical and economic factors, governance for protected areas that benefits from and what constitutes ‘good governance’ in any area diversity. needs to be considered in light of local circumstances, traditions and knowledge systems” (IUCN, 2003). However, this will not be accomplished easily and many barriers exist. These barriers may include a lack Governance issues with respect to protected areas of capacity within local and indigenous communities should not be addressed only at the local level, but to participate in decision-making processes and on the also at national, regional and international levels. part of management agencies to deal effectively with Establishing linkages among all these levels is crucial the participation of local and indigenous groups. for multi-scale governance systems, all of which Other barriers may include models of participation affect local and indigenous communities on the which are not sensitive to cultural needs, the ground. organizational structures of local and indigenous communities that concentrate power within certain Social justice and human rights in groups and lack of willingness to relinquish power on conservation: An ethical consideration for the part of managers. “Empowering indigenous and future policies and actions local communities in conservation may require a Globalization, with its economic decision making and difficult sharing of authority and responsibility, but governance structures that are far removed from the conservation can no longer afford to consume its local protected area context, has further contributed to precious resources fighting its most promising allies” the alienation and deterioration of living conditions of (Policy Matters 12, editorial). The WPC provided local and indigenous communities in many places. further support for empowering indigenous and local This concern needs to be addressed and, at a communities by endorsing a recommendation on ‘Co- minimum, protected area conservation and Management of Protected Areas’ that defines co- management should not make communities living in managed protected areas (CMPAs) as those “where and around them worse off than they are already. The management authority, responsibility and re-distribution of benefits (particularly from global, accountability are shared among two or more regional and national levels to the local level) needs to stakeholders, including government bodies and take place for this to occur. Governance mechanisms agencies at various levels, indigenous and local need to be flexible and inclusive, and policies and communities, non-government organizations and planning frameworks need to be supportive and private operators, or even among different state address the linkage between conservation and the governments as in the case of transboundary protected needs and aspirations of local and indigenous areas” (IUCN, 2003). communities. Moreover, the relationship between local and indigenous communities and protected areas The empowerment of local and indigenous must be viewed within a broader context of communities requires governance systems that are sustainable development and poverty reduction efforts inclusive and flexible, and embrace in an equitable which nowadays dominate many such policy and way the diversity of perspectives from different planning frameworks. interest groups. Within this, gender considerations should also be taken into account (e.g., Aguilar et al., It is time to recognise that we need to foster a better 2002; Flintan, 2003). Governance is considered to be connection between biodiversity conservation and of central importance to the effectiveness and survival social justice. The concept of social and of protected areas within larger political, economic environmental justice (i.e., the equitable achievement and social contexts (e.g., Borrini-Feyerabend, 2003). of human and environmental rights) is evolving and is The recommendation from the WPC on “Good articulated in partnerships between environmental and Governance” promoted better understanding of this development NGOs (CARE-WWF Social and concept. It recognised that governance of protected Environmental Justice Initiative, 2002; Brechin et al.,
108 Protected areas and local and indigenous communities 8
2003). This approach does not detract from the main Actions and central goal of protected areas, to conserve nature, ■ Understand the linkages between protected areas but it does promote the goal of social justice to a (their functions and governance systems) and higher level comparable to the one of protecting poverty (reduction or exacerbation) nationally and genes, species and habitats. It is also an approach that globally. purposefully seeks to position the role of protected ■ Incorporate protected areas in National Poverty areas more broadly within the sustainable Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) and in the development agenda. Much remains to be understood Millennium Development Goals (not just for about practising social justice and addressing human MDG7 – Environmental sustainability). rights in conservation. This is no doubt an ethical ■ Develop mechanisms to integrate the livelihood consideration with practical implications that will security needs of local and indigenous increasingly permeate debates surrounding nature communities with conservation goals for conservation. protected areas. ■ Form partnerships, oriented towards common and Policies and actions needed integrated goals, among conservation and development organizations. to support the relationship ■ between local and indigenous Encourage active participation of environmental groups in the development of PRSPs at the communities and protected national level, highlighting the role of protected areas over the coming ten years areas in these strategies in particular. ■ Include assessment of the linkages between Protected areas within sustainable protected areas and poverty within the programme development of work of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Policies ■ Undertake routine social impact assessments (that ● Protected areas are integrated within a broad includes poverty impact assessment) for sustainable development planning agenda. establishment, and throughout on-going ● Conservation strategies and poverty reduction management, of protected areas. and policy frameworks are integrated and ■ Recognise the services that ecosystems conserved oriented towards common goals. through protected areas provide and the role of ● Protected areas are integrated within larger these in livelihood protection for local and multiple land-use and marine systems. indigenous communities. ■ Highlight the nature of these services in national Park planning, Sri Lanka. poverty reduction strategies and the MDGs. ■ Highlight the role of protected areas among other land-use types, and the complementarity they provide. ■ Promote involvement, inclusiveness and transparency in the process of assigning protected area categories between government agencies and other stakeholders in order to better position protected areas within larger land-use planning contexts. © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey
109 8 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Lake Niassa, Mozambique. © Chico Carneiro Human rights and sharing of costs and ■ Develop, strengthen and promote the adoption of benefits legislation and policies that create the conditions for recognising and respecting indigenous and Policies traditional knowledge in protected area ● Respect and recognise customary ownership, use management. and access rights for local, indigenous and ■ Continue to develop and apply mechanisms to traditional people in protected area establishment provide fair compensation for losses incurred by and management. local and indigenous communities as a result of ● Incorporate traditional knowledge into protected restricted access to protected areas and from area management. displacement and decreased environmental ● Incorporate mechanisms to reward environmental services. stewardships, including payments for ■ Continue to develop and apply mechanisms for environmental services, as part of management equitable distribution of benefits from protected strategies for protected areas. areas. ● Include mechanisms to compensate for losses ■ Document and assess the effectiveness of incurred as part of establishment and mechanisms to provide for compensation and to management of protected areas. reward stewardship. Actions ■ Ensure informed consent for equitable ■ Promote the implementation of indigenous and compensation for any resource use restrictions, traditional peoples and protected area guidelines, total displacement and for equitable benefit and monitor and assess their implementation. sharing. ■ Provide secure tenure for local and indigenous ■ Develop more comprehensive costs and benefit communities, particularly in areas essential for analyses for protected areas. livelihood resources and cultural identity. ■ Extend the principle of equitable sharing of ■ Continue to understand and apply traditional benefits to include all components of biological knowledge to protected area management. diversity within the Convention on Biological ■ Document and acknowledge communities’ own Diversity. efforts to manage protected areas. ■ Develop, strengthen and promote the adoption of ■ Promote the notion that, beyond state-owned legislation and policies that create the conditions protected areas, community conserved areas for fair reward for stewardship and compensation (CCAs) are important efforts to conserve for loss of access rights. biodiversity and that a wider concept of protected areas should prevail.
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Empowerment and governance Social justice in conservation Policies Policies ● Empower local and indigenous communities to ● Promote respect for human rights as a premise manage protected areas. upon which protected areas are established and ● Local and indigenous communities are crucial managed for the conservation of biodiversity. partners for the management of protected areas. Actions ● Inclusive and flexible governance is an important ■ Promote the concept of social justice in component of management mechanisms of conservation to the range of protected area protected areas. stakeholders. Actions ■ Develop mechanisms to better articulate and ■ Develop and promote inclusive and flexible reconcile conservation objectives and respect for governance systems for protected area human rights. management that are site-specific and culturally ■ Develop guidelines for the practice of social sensitive, and provide legitimacy of voice, justice in conservation. empowerment, transparency, fairness, accountability and appropriate mechanisms to Acknowledgements deal with conflict. The Workshop from which this paper draws also ■ Ensure that within inclusive and flexible included significant contributions from: Maria governance systems for protected areas there are Fernanda Espinosa, Phil Franks, Alison Johnson, mechanisms to clarify rights, roles and Jennifer Jones, Tom McShane and Robert Wild. Their responsibilities. contributions are gratefully acknowledged. ■ Promote capacity building for protected area managers and the range of stakeholders, particularly indigenous and community groups, for the effective implementation of inclusive and flexible governance systems. ■ Build partnerships with local and indigenous communities as actors and stakeholders in conservation and management of protected areas. ■ Develop mechanisms to deal with inequities in protected area establishment and management (such as those related to gender, economic status, ethnicity, religious affiliation). ■ Incorporate a gender perspective that encompasses the different roles of women and men, and their respective knowledge and use of biodiversity in protected areas. ■ Describe and document protected areas worldwide by their governance systems, assessing the empowerment of local and indigenous communities within such systems. ■ Develop, strengthen and promote the adoption of legislation and policies that empower local and indigenous communities to contribute to the management of protected areas.
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112 chapter 9 IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim Protected areas and indigenous peoples: the Durban contributions to reconciliation and equity
by Peter Bille Larsen and Gonzalo Oviedo
Editor’s introduction About half of the world’s protected areas have conserving larger landscapes, with varying degrees of historically been occupied by indigenous peoples, and protection applied on the basis of the management creating protected areas has frequently entailed at requirements of the ecosystems involved, would seem least some degree of restrictions on access to natural a useful strategy for leading to a more productive resources upon which the indigenous peoples have relationship between indigenous peoples and long depended. Many indigenous peoples argue that protected areas. This chapter recognises that while they are effective custodians of the land, and indeed some conflicts will inevitably remain, much common are largely responsible for the rich biodiversity that ground can be found through building the interests of often characterizes indigenous territories. Others indigenous peoples into protected area systems. The point out that indigenous peoples are as likely to over- kinds of collaboration described in this chapter would exploit as anyone else, given the pressures of benefit both indigenous peoples and protected areas, increasing populations and the demands of an but will require some new approaches and new ways expanding economy. These perspectives have tended of thinking by protected area managers, to polarize opinions between conservationists and conservationists, and indigenous peoples. While indigenous peoples, when in fact they share many strictly protected areas remain an essential element of common objectives. Peter Larsen and Gonzalo conserving biodiversity, complementing them with Oviedo describe a substantial effort at promoting a substantial areas of indigenous lands can help dialogue between indigenous peoples and advocates contribute to larger conservation objectives. This and managers of protected areas, seeking more builds on the understanding that protected areas are common ground. Given that many indigenous peoples most likely to achieve their objectives when the have a deep attachment to their land and a real surrounding lands are managed in compatible ways. commitment to conservation, then approaches to
Photo: Men and women in Golden Mountains of Altai, Mongolia.
113 9 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction Altogether, the Durban outputs represent an impressive set of achievements in relation to the views Durban served as a unique meeting point, where and interests of indigenous peoples on protected areas representatives from indigenous peoples, more (all are available at www.iucn.org/wcpa/). numerous than in any previous World Parks Congress WPC, and protected area professionals, jointly took The process of building mutual support and trust important steps forward in recognising their common between conservation organizations and indigenous concerns and interests and achieved real progress on peoples has a long history, albeit often dominated by indigenous involvement in protected area design and polarized positions, conflicts and lack of dialogue. In the management, based on addressing and redressing the past decade, a wide range of international and national past wrongs. On the one hand, the protected area policy efforts have sought to overcome these differences, community recognised the legitimate interests of stimulated by increasing dialogue between indigenous indigenous peoples in conservation matters, and the peoples and conservation actors. These have included need to overcome the heavy legacy of insensitive the Seventh Conference of the Parties to the Ramsar protected area policy and practice towards indigenous Convention, which adopted “Guidelines to establish and peoples. Good practice of recent years and policy strengthen participation of local communities and advancement on the links between protected areas and indigenous peoples in the management of wetlands”. people, further consolidated by the CBD programme The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests, the of work on protected areas adopted by COP7 in Intergovernmental Forum on Forests and the United February 2004, were reviewed and discussed in Nations Forum on Forests have all made strong Durban, and prompted initiatives that included recommendations on matters related to indigenous qualitative benchmarks for protected area peoples and protected forest areas. The World Heritage performance in the areas of indigenous rights, more Convention has been increasingly addressing diverse governance options and equitable cost and indigenous peoples issues, especially in the context of benefit-sharing as part of a broader reconciliation the protection of cultural landscapes. The CBD is the effort. environmental agreement with most relevance to indigenous peoples, and its recently adopted On the other hand, indigenous representatives Programme of Work on Protected Areas mentions the conveyed their commitment and interest in protected role of local and indigenous peoples. Among non- areas, confirming their share of responsibilities in governmental conservation organizations, WWF issued reaching biodiversity conservation objectives. a Statement of Principles on Indigenous Peoples and The outputs of the Congress testify to this window Conservation in 1996. The IUCN World Conservation of opportunity. The Durban Accord urges Congress has adopted several resolutions on indigenous commitment to a wide range of indigenous concerns. peoples and conservation, such as 1.53 on Indigenous The Durban Action Plan lists recognition and Peoples and Protected Areas; and the joint IUCN-WWF guarantee of indigenous rights in relation to natural Principles and Guidelines on Indigenous and Traditional resource management and biodiversity as one of ten Peoples and Protected Areas were adopted in 1999. A major outcomes. Further, the importance of taking range of policy statements and decisions of conservation into account indigenous rights, interests and organizations and fora exist on the matter. For a review aspirations and their full involvement and of these processes, see Oviedo (2003a) and Castelo and participation runs through other major outcomes and Schielmann (2001). suggested activities of the Action Plan. Many problems remain, however, at the government Of the 32 Congress recommendations, six have and national implementation level. Protected area major sections on indigenous concerns. Another 15 legislation and policy have slowly changed in some mention indigenous peoples in their problem analysis countries on matters relevant to indigenous peoples; in or recommendations, and nine more relate to other countries, changes are yet to be seen. In the field, indigenous issues, in the context of broader equity, despite policy progress, examples of conflicts and community and poverty-oriented language. inequities still abound.
114 Protected areas and indigenous peoples: the Durban contributions to reconciliation and equity 9
Box 9.1
Durban outputs relating to indigenous concerns
Durban Accord Action Plan Major recommendations
We urge commitment to… Outcome 5: V.13 Cultural and spiritual values of ● the integral relationship of people with The Rights of Indigenous Peoples, protected areas protected areas, fully incorporating Mobile peoples and Local Communities V.17 Recognising and supporting a the rights, interests and aspirations of Recognised and Guaranteed in Relation diversity of governance types to Natural Resources and Biodiversity both women and men. V.24 Indigenous peoples and Conservation ● involve local communities, indigenous protected areas Key Target 8: and mobile peoples in the creation, V.25 Co-management of protected All existing and future protected areas proclamation and management of areas protected areas. shall be managed and established in full compliance with the rights of V.26 Community Conserved Areas ● ensure that people who benefit from indigenous peoples, mobile peoples V.27 Mobile indigenous peoples and or are impacted by protected areas and local communities by the time of conservation have the opportunity to participate in the next IUCN WPC. relevant decision-making on a fair and equitable basis in full respect of their Key Target 9: human and social rights. Protected areas shall have representatives chosen by indigenous ● protected area management that peoples and local communities in their strives to reduce, and in no way management proportionate to their exacerbates, poverty. rights and interests by the time of the ● protected area management that next IUCN WPC. shares benefits with indigenous Key Target 10: peoples and local communities. Participatory mechanisms for the ● innovation in protected area restitution of indigenous peoples’ management including adaptive, traditional lands and territories that were collaborative and co-management incorporated in protected areas without strategies. their free and informed consent ● recognise, strengthen, protect and established and implemented by the support community conservation areas. time of the next IUCN WPC. ● value and use all knowledge systems on protected areas, both scientific and traditionally based.
In this light, Durban outcomes are even more The CBD programme of work on protected areas important. They acknowledge a history of neglect and built on the Durban outputs and confirmed the global continuous problems such as indigenous peoples importance of these approaches. The adoption of the often “bearing most of the costs and receiving few of programme of work demonstrates global political the benefits”, yet also put forward a new vision in commitment to the new protected area vision, with which such costs and benefits are equitably shared, legal obligations for signatory countries – and moral while promoting new governance approaches to obligations for the few that remain outside of the protected areas overlapping with indigenous lands and global consensus. This chapter seeks to contribute to waters. A strong ethical foundation for addressing the identification and implementation of the steps indigenous peoples issues became a major necessary to effectively respond to the Durban and the achievement of the Durban Congress. Furthermore, CBD consensus on indigenous peoples and protected participants at the event recognised that such areas, thereby solidifying and enhancing lasting approaches would not only benefit indigenous reconciliation and bringing indigenous peoples peoples, but would also help in filling remaining strongly into the protected areas constituency. protection gaps and strengthening protected area effectiveness.
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Box 9.2 Indigenous peoples and protected areas Indigenous peoples – who are they? “Why have ancestral domains of indigenous and Global estimates list between 300 and 400 million traditional peoples, in so many cases, been considered people worldwide with substantial historical, valuable enough to deserve their designation as cultural, social and economic differences which, protected areas? Isn’t it because their resources, together with a range of internationally defined biodiversity in particular, have been conserved and standards, identify them as indigenous and tribal maintained in better condition than those in areas peoples and distinguish them from other outside their ancestral domains? If that is the case, population groups. isn’t it possible that traditional institutions – from customary tenure to control systems and authorities – According to the ILO Convention 169 on have played an important role in conserving lands and Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent resources? If the answers to these questions were Countries, indigenous and tribal peoples are: affirmative, then the conclusion could be that 1. (a) Tribal peoples in independent countries conventional approaches to protected areas whose social, cultural and economic overlapping with ancestral domains of indigenous and conditions distinguish them from other traditional peoples have been fundamentally flawed in sections of the national community, and having promoted the eviction of traditional peoples whose status is regulated wholly or from their territories as a pre-condition for long-term partially by their own customs or traditions biodiversity conservation, since in doing so they have or by special laws or regulations; lost an ally and an asset, and have gained instead (b) Peoples in independent countries who are conflicts and discredit” (Oviedo, 2002). regarded as indigenous on account of their Many existing, as well as potential, protected areas descent from the populations which overlap considerably with the ancestral territories of inhabited the country, or a geographical indigenous peoples. This common history and interest region to which the country belongs, at the in the same areas has not been without problems or time of conquest or colonisation or the conflict. Although no systematic data exist (Oviedo, establishment of present State boundaries 2002), several regional and global studies (Oviedo and who, irrespective of their legal status, et al., 2000) have revealed considerable overlaps in retain some or all of their own social, major eco-regions of the world. Oviedo (2002) lists economic, cultural and political 50% as a reasonable global estimate. This does not institutions. mean that all indigenous peoples engage in 2. The Convention states that self-identification conservation, nor that all protected areas concern as indigenous or tribal shall be regarded as a indigenous territories. It rather reflects customary fundamental criterion for determining the presence, use and ownership structures, which have groups to which the provisions of this often been overruled by exclusionary protected area Convention apply. practices. Conservation principles and practices are also “The declaration of protected areas on indigenous relevant to other categories such as ‘traditional territories without our consent and engagement has peoples’ and ‘mobile peoples’. The different resulted in our dispossession and resettlement, the terms may appear overlapping or confusing, yet represent an effort to identify, address and violation of our rights, the displacement of our develop appropriate policies for groups of peoples, the loss of our sacred sites and the slow but people with particular conservation interests continuous loss of our cultures, as well as and rights, deriving from their history, culture impoverishment”. (Closing plenary indigenous and forms of natural resource use. statement in Durban)
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Indigenous values of biodiversity. Biodiversity plays Workshop on the Role of Local Communities in the a fundamental role in many indigenous livelihood, Management of World economic development and food security strategies. Natural Heritage in Biodiversity may also be imbued with particular Southeast Asia West cultural and spiritual significance. Pacific, Australia and New Zealand, Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife The significance of ecological services. The Sanctuary, TH, 19-23 ecological services provided by protected areas are January 1998. fundamental for indigenous peoples, who often, more than other segments of society, rely on healthy IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim environments for their well-being. The negative impacts of exclusionary protected area practices on indigenous peoples have now been The importance of protection of the territories and widely documented and include: resources. Protection of areas of land and water is not ● Denial of indigenous rights new to indigenous peoples. Various forms of traditional protected areas and mechanisms have been ● Forced displacement and resettlement documented (e.g. Borrini-Feyerabend, 2003). ● Lack of participation in protected area design and Furthermore, territorial protection has become in management many cases a central element of indigenous strategies ● Socio-economic and cultural disintegration in their efforts to effectively manage their customary ● Loss or restriction of livelihoods and lack of lands and waters, in the presence of diverse threats sharing in the benefits of conservation emerging from national societies and competition for Indigenous priorities involve addressing the legacy lands and resources. In this context, indigenous of protected areas (e.g. MacKay, 2002). Indigenous peoples perceive protected areas as a useful tool to representatives at Durban welcomed “the recognition solidify and strengthen their territorial control and and guarantee in the Durban Action Plan, in particular management. Outcome 5, on the rights of Indigenous Peoples, mobile peoples and local communities in the relation Indigenous knowledge: from past to the future. to natural resources and biodiversity conservation” Long-term presence, ancestral attachments to and expressed their hopes that “Key Target 10, which customary territories, understanding of the present aspires to implement participatory mechanisms for and active management of ecological change have led the restitution of indigenous peoples’ traditional lands to an accumulation of traditional ecological and territories taken as protected areas without the knowledge and conservation practices integrated with free, prior consent of indigenous peoples will be broader livelihood strategies. This does not make realized”. (Closing plenary indigenous statement in them, as is frequently misunderstood, sustainable per Durban) se; rather it involves direct or indirect knowledge and efforts to identify comprehensive (in contrast to The common interest of conservation actors and ‘narrow’) conservation solutions. indigenous peoples in these territories under the new paradigm, however, also build on a number of shared Indigenous land and seascape visions. Based on objectives. Generally, conservation matters for customary cultural attachments to broader land and indigenous peoples. Indigenous communities of the seascapes, indigenous visions of territorial world have many interests for the protection of the management typically emphasise linkages between territories and resources that they own, occupy or use; productive zones, conservation areas, and sustainable although the perspectives and views on protection resource use, as well as broader processes including may differ from those of protected area professionals local development planning, political reform and agencies, most of the interests of such processes and education systems. Such visions communities significantly concur with protected area provide local “frameworks” for protected area objectives. Among them: strategies to ground the sustainable development
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efforts. More than in Western approaches to protected environment, values attributed to conservation and the areas, conservation and protection of lands and priority given to (un)sustainable development. resources in indigenous communities is a vital and integral part of cultural strategies for survival. However, the presence of diverging priorities, in particular cases, does not remove the particular Conservation as part of indigenous rights. conservation interests of indigenous peoples, and the Indigenous peoples often emphasise conservation and fact that vast portions of their lands and resources natural resource management as an integral part of a overlap with protected areas and with areas of high broader set of territorial rights connected to self- conservation value. Rather, this provides an important determination. In Australia, designation of protected basis for indigenous peoples and conservation areas by indigenous peoples in their lands has been agencies to re-establish common ground for moving advocated as an expression of self-determination – towards new ways of addressing such conflicts. If “self-declaration for self-determination” as coined by protected areas are to strengthen their relevance to Szabo (1996) and others. Durban outputs recognised such internal debates and discussions, it is the right of indigenous peoples to freely consent to fundamental that their relevance is consolidated activities affecting them, setting a new benchmark for through real and tangible contributions to indigenous how conservation agencies go about design and conservation interests. This is already happening in management planning for protected areas in many countries, where indigenous peoples are indigenous lands and territories, and implicitly actively involved in and promoting protected area recognising the self-determination dimension of establishment reflecting their rights and concerns. indigenous peoples’ involvement in decision making Durban showcased several examples of indigenous on these matters. peoples establishing their own protected areas both within and beyond the formal protected area system, Interests in management. Indigenous conservation and explicitly integrating protected area management interests go beyond the “substantive” issues, and also objectives in their self-development strategies. relate to process and cultural questions: how to effectively participate in protected area design and Durban emphasised the need to “fill the gaps” in management and what mechanisms are or should be protected areas coverage and effective protection at their disposal for that. Indigenous peoples have long through comprehensive systems in order to fulfil the emphasised the role of their customary institutions 2010 target to reduce the rate of biodiversity loss. (such as common property regimes), practices (e.g. Recognising the wide presence of indigenous peoples conflict resolution) and representative organizations in these processes. A char fish caught by an Inuit in the Northwest Territories Province, Canada. Such a list of indigenous conservation interests does not minimize the importance of real conflicts between conservation actors and indigenous peoples. Such conflicts are often significant in areas with considerable cultural change, strong external pressures, population growth and increasing market demands. Some indigenous groups or individuals practice unsustainable use of natural resources. There are cases where they are involved in ‘poaching’, over- exploiting or harvesting species close to extinction. Others may support non-conservation friendly land use priorities or be in favour of expanding extractive industries. As in other segments of society, indigenous peoples harbour a vast diversity of relationships to the IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
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in priority conservation regions, it seems reasonable to ● Improving protected area governance, recognising build on the existing conservation interest and the role of traditional forms of land management practices of indigenous and local communities. This and innovative approaches linking protected areas to will only be possible if a reconciliation agenda is surrounding landscapes and seascapes; further consolidated through a common agenda on ● Improved quality, effectiveness and reporting of key policy elements. protected area management. This vision was accompanied by a range of policy Key policy elements for IP-PA options and suggested approaches. reconciliation Indigenous rights as building blocks for One of the major outputs of the WPC was the high protected areas profile given to alternative and innovative ways of working with indigenous peoples in protected area “We want to stress our insistence for the recognition planning and management as a way of building and respect of the rights of indigenous peoples in support from this “old”, but often neglected, protected existing and proposed protected areas and to prioritize area constituency. This new consensus was driven by the recognition of indigenous-owned and community- equity concerns (conservation should be based on a owned territories and areas as a sound basis for fair sharing of costs and benefits and build upon conservation. We also reiterate indigenous peoples’ rights) and effectiveness concerns (conservation will vital role in the achievement of sustainable not happen without the commitment of local development and to recognize that indigenous peoples stewards). It was further underlined by a new have their own concepts of protected areas and conservation vision situating and specifying the role conservation that are based upon their customary of protected areas at the ecosystem level including laws, traditional knowledge and profound connection through providing a more accurate valuation of the with their lands, territories and resources.” (Closing biodiversity and broader ecosystem values they plenary indigenous statement in Durban) provide. The consolidated “Durban vision” Under Key Target 12, to achieve further support emphasises the importance of: from major stakeholder constituencies, the Durban ● The rights of indigenous peoples, mobile peoples Action Plan recommends national governments and and local communities in relation to natural local authorities to “demarcate and recognise resources and biodiversity as a building block rather indigenous peoples’ territories in support of than an obstacle to effective protected areas; community conservation”. Such approaches form part ● Protected areas’ critical role in global biodiversity of the Durban consensus to establish clear legal conservation; frameworks recognising the rights and concerns of ● Protected areas’ fundamental role in sustainable indigenous peoples and thus creating further certainty development and poverty alleviation; when establishing protected areas. Furthermore, Key ● Consolidating the contribution of protected areas to target 8 aims for “all existing and future protected broader Millennium Development Goals through an areas” to be “managed and established in full emphasis on equitable cost and benefit-sharing, “do compliance with the rights of indigenous peoples, no harm” approaches and poverty-oriented mobile communities and local communities”. An protection strategies; important difference between the Durban Action Plan ● Reconciling past and present conflicts and and the CBD Programme of Work on Protected Areas grievances suffered by indigenous and local is the inclusion in the former of a target to establish communities; and implement “participatory mechanisms for the ● Broadening protection objectives to cover restitution of indigenous peoples’traditional lands and biological, economic, social and cultural values; territories that were incorporated in protected areas ● Strengthening scientific approaches to protected without their free and informed consent” by 2008. area design and management; This target could be pursued as part of the broader
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mechanisms for equitable sharing of costs and community managed areas, and private and benefits. For protected area agencies, the critical indigenous reserves”. Further, indigenous commit- question is how to engage in restitution, while ensuring ment to all protected area types affecting their lands viable protection efforts. Experiences in countries, and waters, under conditions of respect for indigenous such as Australia, which have combined restitution rights and interests, should also be mentioned. This efforts with protected area agreement building, provide entails a double approach of strengthening the relevant lessons in this respect. In Canada, protected establishment and recognition of new types of areas are a major component of comprehensive land protected area management, along with a revision of claim agreements with indigenous peoples. However, the status of existing protected areas so as to ensure even where rights remain unresolved, mechanisms are full indigenous participation and mechanisms to in place to continue collaboration on shared guarantee equitable cost and benefit-sharing. It conservation objectives. For example, in the Gwaii particularly involves linking indigenous protection Haanas National Park Reserve, covering 149,500ha, efforts to the overall system design and planning, to Haida and Parks Canada have agreed to disagree on fully recognise the conservation value of indigenous land-ownership matters, yet continue to collaborate on territories in key biodiversity areas. In the Indian common conservation objectives (Gladu et al., 2003). Himalayas, for example, research has revealed how This is a salient feature of the four-step process of community conserved areas can fill major gaps negotiating land claims with First Nations in Canada between officially protected areas (Kothari, 2003). In (Oviedo, 2002). the Russian Arctic, indigenous natural sacred sites, an integral part of the customary land and water Comprehensive protected area systems: management mosaic, form a cultural basis for linking the need to build on the role of protected areas to surrounding landscapes (Raipon indigenous peoples and their territories and Caff, 2004). In the Brazilian Amazon, indigenous The Durban Action Plan specifically notes territories not only fill many existing protected area the potential of “community conservation areas, gaps, but often provide more effective protection
Memorial poles from the Haida Indigenous population in Anthony Island Park (SGaang Gwaii), one of the Queen Charlotte Islands, Canada. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
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measures compared to conventional protected areas sophisticated approaches addressing the specific (Maretti, 2002). Often, however, such conservation contexts and objectives of protected areas in their contributions are not fully recognised and fully linked surrounding landscapes. Scientists have challenged up with protected area systems. the biodiversity value of political compromise-based protected area design (Mulongoy and Chape, 2004) Protected areas should contribute to calling for the establishment of specific, sustainable development, equity and representative and viable biodiversity and ecosystem poverty alleviation service goals. Furthermore, the Durban vision established the necessity to integrate socio-cultural Effective sustainable development approaches are and sustainable development objectives as integral essential to build indigenous support for protected elements of protected areas. The CBD Programme of areas, especially considering that in many places Work on Protected Areas responded to this vision by indigenous communities belong to the poorest emphasising the need to establish “mechanisms for segments of society. Unless recognition of indigenous the equitable sharing of costs and benefits”. This involvement in design and management is responds to a major claim by indigenous peoples: the accompanied by comprehensive development need to address their conservation interests as part of strategies to ensure local and tangible benefits, a broader vision for the ancestral lands and waters conservation support has proven difficult to sustain. explicitly including their cultural, customary use and The CBD call for equitable sharing of conservation livelihood security objectives, rather than limiting costs and benefits cemented this approach as a conservation to “narrow” ecological objectives. In fundamental objective rather than a stand-alone Colombia, for example, the Alto Fragua-Indiwasi activity. A critical element emphasised in the Durban National Park created in 2002 is in the management Action Plan is the need for action to ensure that hands of the Ingano people as part of their Life Plan, protected areas strive to alleviate poverty and in no a broader long-term vision for the entirety of their case to exacerbate it (Key Target 3); this would territory and the region (Oviedo, 2002). In many other include strictly eliminating forced resettlement of cases, promoting equity and benefit-sharing presents indigenous peoples and local communities and the a profound challenge as well as opportunity for the involuntary sedenterization of mobile peoples, as such protected area community. actions usually have led to impoverishment of the affected communities. Key developments to address such challenges involve indigenous contributions to Strengthening scientific approaches: zoning arrangements and regulation regimes, which harmonizing natural and social sciences support customary livelihoods such as grazing, Durban emphasised that only an adequate hunting and harvesting of wild species along with understanding of the patterns of distribution of species, conservation objectives. Such efforts need to be habitats, ecosystems and ecological processes across all situated in a revised approach to protected area scales would allow for truly systematic conservation objectives. plans and decision-support tools. The call for “biodiversity-based targets” in comprehensive systems An array of biological, economic, social clarifies goals at stake when engaging with indigenous peoples regarding concrete conservation planning on and cultural objectives should replace their lands and waters. A clear set of scientifically based conventional protection objectives, and objectives can then be discussed, complemented and recognise the value of indigenous weighed against indigenous conservation interests and conservation visions use priorities. In conjunction, strengthened social The conventional view involving government- science skills (e.g. Cernea and Schmidt-Soltau, 2003) designated and government-run areas with protection and tools are fundamental to effectively reach an objectives defined as a strictly national or regional understanding of the costs and benefits at stake as well concern is being challenged by increasingly as identifying the range of potential management
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responses – in order to “implement sustainable Protected Areas Program, sought to accommodate development” and “equitable cost and benefit sharing” cultural priorities, while linking protection efforts to in protected areas. Scientific argumentation should, and the National Reserve System. When establishing such will, remain a basic principle of protected area planning Indigenous Protected Areas, aboriginal communities and management. Indeed, it can and should serve to review and apply the IUCN Protected Area fully recognise indigenous concerns through clear and Categories. Nantawarrina, for example, established by transparent problem identification, impact assessment, the Nepabunna community, is a protected area strategy feasibility studies and effectiveness evaluations. declared under four IUCN Protected Area Finally, indigenous knowledge is no longer seen as in Management categories (II, IV, V and VI). contradiction to scientific approaches. Rather its value in identifying critical species, habitat and ecological Adopting new governance approaches linkages and processes is being strengthened as well as including community-driven and co- its role in identifying locally appropriate management managed protected areas responses. Durban emphasised the growing presence and The IUCN protected area category system can also recognition of community-conserved areas and co- help build conservation alliances with indigenous management as effective management strategies in a peoples, if properly understood and applied. For renewed emphasis on good governance of protected example, when identifying major protection gaps in areas. While such overall general typologies may make Australian bioregions, many were found to overlap sense in some countries, most countries will require with aboriginal lands and waters. In response, efforts tailoring policy options to fully reflect particular such as the establishment of an Indigenous Peoples governance characteristics. This typically requires
Mbutu pygmy village in Ituri forest, Okapi Fauna Reserve, Democratic Republic of the Congo. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
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clarifying roles and responsibilities between national In order to avoid compartmentalized action, four key and subsidiary levels. Most countries will require the steps are proposed below to situate these policy combination of several governance approaches e.g. elements in overall system design and through strengthening co-management mechanisms in implementation. As these targets are mainly existing government-managed areas, supporting ‘procedural’ involving the conduct of reviews, indigenous peoples in establishing community- ensuring participation, and establishing mechanisms conserved areas and, importantly, establishing corridors and systems, it is fundamental to qualify between, and networks of, protected areas. In implementation through a number of benchmark Colombia, for example, the Matavén Forest Indigenous indicators to review progress on the substantive issues Territory, covering 1,849,613 hectares, comprises 16 at stake. Such indicative benchmark indicators are indigenous territories of six indigenous peoples, who suggested below. collaborate on management issues through an association of traditional authorities, while relying on STEP 1: Effective involvement of the central support of the government (Oviedo, 2002). indigenous peoples in national and regional gap analyses, protected area Improving quality, effectiveness and reviews and system planning processes reporting of protected area management Goal 1.1, considered the ‘overall purpose’ of the CBD Improving quality and effective delivery of protected programme of work on protected areas, aims to area objectives serves as a major incentive for establish and strengthen national and regional securing indigenous buy-in to protected area protected area systems by 2010 (terrestrially) and strategies. The Durban Action Plan emphasised the 2012 (marine). Suggested activities by Parties include importance of ensuring “sufficient knowledge of gap analyses (1.1.5) and national reviews, by 2006, of trends in ecological, environmental, social, cultural “existing and potential forms of conservation” and economic indicators” along with recognising the including “innovative types of governance” – with full value of indigenous and traditional knowledge. This and effective participation of indigenous and local means emphasising the role of socio-economic and communities (1.1.4). Furthermore, Parties are cultural objectives in assessing effectiveness. Are suggested to “encourage the establishment of protected areas effective in reaching cultural protected areas that benefit indigenous and local objectives? Do they provide indigenous peoples the communities” (1.1.7). These activities are all the more benefits agreed upon? The Durban CBD message important given that the gap analyses will establish highlighted the importance of socio-economic criteria baseline data for the further establishment of new for evaluating the performance of all protected areas. protected areas. The considerable overlap between Even, and perhaps especially, strictly protected areas areas of high biodiversity and those of cultural have socio-economic impacts, which need to be fully diversity (Oviedo et al., 2000) provide a fundamental addressed when evaluating effectiveness. reason for fully exploring effective conservation solutions with the indigenous peoples concerned. Four key steps and their Second, it is fundamental that indigenous protected benchmarks towards area strategies are effectively linked with, rather than 2010/2012 targets separate from, national systems and approaches. Suggested activity 2.2.1 is clear on the necessity of A broad reconciliatory agenda is needed responding participatory national reviews. It calls for protected to the aforementioned policy objectives in the area agencies to “Carry out participatory national implementation of the Durban Action Plan and the reviews of the status, needs and context-specific CBD programme of work on protected areas. Such an mechanisms for involving stakeholders, ensuring agenda could be structured around the key elements of gender and social equity, in protected areas policy and both instruments, with their targets guiding specific management, at the level of national policy, protected actions and serving to monitor and assess progress. area systems and individual sites.” In order for this to
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happen, it is essential that the following benchmarks STEP 2: Ensure full and effective are reached: participation of indigenous local communities in existing and new Benchmarks 1 protected areas in full respect of their i. System gap analyses identify overlaps with the rights and recognition of their lands and waters of indigenous peoples. responsibilities by 2008
ii. National reviews fully reflect indigenous Step 2 responds to goal 2.2 of the CBD programme of concerns, rights and responsibilities in relation work on protected areas. Reaching this goal and the to current policies, existing and potential accompanying 2008 target will depend on the conservation approaches including interim outcome of the review process outlined above. Such measures, alternative governance options to “fill building blocks establish the necessary understanding the gaps” and address existing problems. and knowledge allowing Parties to craft appropriate policies, institutional reform and action plans. iii. National reviews document the costs and benefits of establishing and managing protected In this context, it is also relevant to emphasise CBD areas for indigenous and local communities. goal 1.4 to “substantially improve site-based protected area planning and management … using participatory iv. National reviews explore appropriate processes, and science-based site planning processes that the relevance of alternative governance options incorporate clear biodiversity objectives, targets, and suggest context-specific mechanisms and management strategies and monitoring programmes”. roadmaps for involving indigenous peoples Activity 2.2.2 suggests that Parties: building on their rights. “Implement specific plans and initiatives to v. Goal 2.2 on full and effective participation is effectively involve indigenous and local communities, applied in the gap analyses and national review with respect for their rights consistent with national processes. legislation and applicable international obligations, Box 9.3
Relationship between the CBD programme of work on protected areas and the Durban Action Plan
CBD Programme Element 2 Durban Action Plan
Programme Element 2: Outcome 5: Governance, participation, equity and benefit sharing The Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Mobile peoples and Local Communities Recognised and Guaranteed in Relation to Natural Resources and Biodiversity Conservation
Goal 2.1 Key Target 8: To promote equity and benefit-sharing All existing and future protected areas shall be managed and Target: Establish by 2008 mechanisms for the equitable established in full compliance with the rights of indigenous sharing of both costs and benefits arising from the peoples, mobile peoples and local communities by the time of the establishment and management of protected areas next IUCN WPC. Goal 2.2 Key Target 9: To enhance and secure involvement of indigenous and local Protected areas shall have representatives chosen by indigenous communities and relevant stakeholders peoples and local communities in their management proportionate to their rights and interests by the time of the next IUCN WPC. Target: Full and effective participation by 2008, of indigenous and local communities, in full respect of their rights and Key Target 10: recognition of their responsibilities, consistent with national law Participatory mechanisms for the restitution of indigenous peoples’ and applicable international obligations, and the participation of traditional lands and territories that were incorporated in protected relevant stakeholders, in the management of existing, and the areas without their free and informed consent established and establishment and management of new, protected areas. implemented by the time of the next IUCN WPC.
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Benchmarks 2 Manu indians in Manu National Park, Peru. iPolicy and judicial reviews to clarify indigenous rights and responsibilities consistent with national law and international obligations.
ii. The identification of barriers preventing adequate participation at all levels of protected area planning, establishment, governance and management.
iii. Agreement on a joint action planning process.
iv.Agreement on joint protected area action plans, which address all levels of protected area planning, establishment, governance and management.
v. Existence of safeguard policies requiring the use of Prior Informed Consent if resettlement is proposed for the establishment and management
IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim of protected areas. and stakeholders at all levels of protected area vi. Appropriate legislation, policies, capacities, and planning, establishment, governance and resources in place to facilitate appropriate management, with particular emphasis on identifying participatory processes and the employment of and removing barriers preventing adequate governance alternatives such as co- participation.” management, community-conserved areas and The key issue here involves joint action planning private protected areas. processes between indigenous peoples and protected area agencies. Activity 2.2.3 suggests to “support STEP 3: Establish mechanisms for the participatory assessment exercises to identify and equitable sharing of costs and benefits harness the wealth of knowledge, skills, resources and arising from the establishment and institutions of importance for conservation” forming a management of protected areas by 2008 natural starting point for action planning processes. A What is needed to reach the 2008 target of having key element will also involve responding to national established mechanisms for the equitable sharing of review processes and “promote an enabling costs and benefits arising from the establishment and environment (legislation, policies, capacities, and management of protected areas? Given that an resources) for the involvement of indigenous and local improved understanding of costs and benefits for communities in decision making, and the indigenous peoples is achieved in the gap analysis and development of their capacities and opportunities to review process, the participatory action planning establish and manage protected areas, including process outlined above should emphasise the community-conserved and private protected areas” establishment of such mechanisms. (2.2.4). Most likely, this will require further work to tailor appropriate policy solutions, particularly on how This would include policy measures requiring new, to work in “full respect of indigenous rights and … as well as existing, protected areas to assess both responsibilities”. Finally, Parties are suggested to economic and socio-cultural costs for indigenous ensure that resettlement only takes place with the prior communities. Such policies would need to be informed consent of indigenous peoples (2.2.5). accompanied by sufficient financial and technical
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resources to conduct impact assessments and ii. Protected area policies recognise and promote a implement the necessary follow-up activities. broad set of governance options such as Adopting a different governance approach to community-conserved areas, co-management protected area management, such as the establishment and private reserves. of community-conserved areas rather than the introduction of a new authority, is one mechanism iii. Indigenous and local communities and relevant which can contribute to equitable cost and benefit- stakeholders are engaged in participatory sharing. If indigenous communities are found to bear planning and governance, recalling the the major burden of an existing protected area, are principles of the ecosystem approach (2.1.5). they involved in planning effective responses? If a iv.Policies and joint planning followed up by protected area is identified as providing significant concrete compensation measures for benefits to indigenous communities, are their conservation costs and equitably shared benefits governance solutions sufficiently engaged? Whether according to indigenous priorities. government, co-management or community-driven protected area approaches are chosen, such structures v. Minimum standards and best practices for need to be enabled through sufficient resources and indigenous involvement in existing and new capacity to provide indigenous communities tangible protected areas developed and adopted. benefits in response to opportunity costs. Such benefits can often partly be dealt with through STEP 4: National and regional protected appropriate design, zonation/demarcation practices area systems, recognising indigenous and sustainable use approaches, yet may also involve rights and responsibilities, established various other forms of compensation. and strengthened by 2010 (terrestrial) Benchmarks 3 and 2012 (marine). Will the first three steps get us closer to the Durban i. Protected area policies are adjusted to avoid and goal “to fulfil protected areas’ critical role in global mitigate negative impacts through appropriate biodiversity conservation” through filling the gaps compensation measures and equitable sharing of and improving effectiveness? The goal of step 4 is to benefits (2.1.1). ensure the integration of indigenous rights,
The Lapponian Area of northern Sweden is the home of the Saami, or Lapp people. It is the largest area in the world (and one of the last) with an ancestral way of life based on the seasonal movement of livestock. Every summer, the Saami lead their huge herds of reindeer towards the mountains through a natural landscape hitherto preserved. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
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conservation priorities and responsibilities in the Policy reform aspects are wide-reaching. Further, the overall system building and maintenance process. new paradigm consolidated by the CBD programme Effective reconciliation can only happen if good of work shifted emphasis from de facto recognition of practices and tools are established system-wide. indigenous concerns towards increasing de jure recognition of indigenous rights. This has led to a Benchmarks 4 conceptual, political and legal shift in the protected i. System-wide capacity for the planning, areas paradigm concerning indigenous peoples that it establishment and management of protected was difficult to conceive of a few years ago. This goes areas on indigenous lands and waters. as far as working with indigenous communities and their representative institutions in establishing and ii. Sufficient financial, technical and other managing protected areas in their territories, much the resources are available to meet the costs of same way government agencies are key actors in effectively involving indigenous peoples recognising and establishing protected areas in their throughout the system. national jurisdictions. The implications of the new protected areas paradigm for indigenous self- iii. Protected area gaps overlapping with indigenous determination are evident and may be in some cases territories filled through the employment of decisive to reformulate the relationships between rights-based and culturally responsive indigenous communities and national governments management solutions such as community regarding management of their lands. conserved areas. The paradigm change repositions protected areas iv.Effectiveness of protected areas overlapping from being of general interest of society to one which with indigenous territories strengthened to recognises the value of specific social and cultural address both biodiversity targets and other priorities. How can this be put in practice without indigenous priorities. fragmenting broader ecosystem priorities and thus v. National and regional monitoring systems undermining the basis for global and national address effectiveness in involving indigenous conservation priorities? The considerable theoretical peoples and ensuring equitable cost and benefit- overlap between indigenous conservation interests sharing and sustainable development/MDG and broader biodiversity priorities should facilitate targets. integration rather than fragmentation. But still, considerable conflicts and differences over livelihood In summary, these four steps condense the policy practices and land use priorities do exist, and they objectives related to indigenous peoples in the broader could expand as cultural change, particularly Durban and CBD action plans to bridge existing prompted by the expansion of market forces, affects protection gaps and build effective protection land and resource management. Retaining the strategies. Different regions and countries may be reconciliation agenda as an integral part of more or less close to these benchmarks and, implementing the Durban Action Plan and the CBD furthermore, apply diverse planning approaches. The programme of work on protected areas is fundamental four steps are not meant as a blueprint to replace the to addressing such conflicts in a constructive manner. latter, but rather as a checklist to help ensure effective progress in relation to international commitments. The establishment of large-scale protected areas on ancestral lands requiring the reduction or even halt of certain customary livelihood activities may be Concluding remarks deemed necessary for the preservation of particular The reconciliation agenda with indigenous peoples species or ecosystems. In this sense, the new developed in Durban is one of the elements of the new paradigm does not compromise on halting protected area paradigm with the most profound biodiversity loss. On the contrary, it retains the need implications for design and management practices. for strong scientific priorities, but combines this with
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Dani tribe in Wamena market, East Indonesia. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim a new, rights-based, approach to establish equitable planning realities are seldom as rational and linear, trade-offs and compromise solutions with the these benchmarks are fundamental in bridging gaps communities concerned. Customary livelihoods may through the full recognition and involvement of need to undergo change, but how this takes place must indigenous peoples. be identified with the consent of indigenous communities – and equitably. The implications are Fully understanding the conservation concerns of enormous for the protected area world, not least in indigenous peoples allows for a bottom-up terms of revisiting the costs of protected area construction of a common agenda of issues for establishment. strengthening protected areas and facilitating indigenous contributions. This cannot happen through Yet if protected areas are expected to contribute to compartmentalized micro-level interventions alone, sustainable development goals, as established in both but requires solid policy and system level Durban and the CBD, they must benefit, or at least do developments, which recognise and build on no harm, to indigenous and local communities. This indigenous rights and interests as much as on more may make protected areas more expensive, but also objective, science-based, less emotional conservation make them more relevant as viable solutions to frameworks. On the ground, creativity and efforts of governments struggling to reconcile social, economic concerned individuals and groups to reconcile the and conservation priorities. The legacy of “paper indigenous peoples vs. protected area dilemma can parks” needs urgent attention. What is important is the provide many useful lessons to enrich and feed into need for the protected area community to integrate overall policy goals. In the end, it is protected area indigenous concerns in all levels of policy managers and community representatives, not distant development and strategising. The four key steps and policy makers, who have the knowledge and their accompanying benchmarks listed above intend experience to make the paradigm shift work to offer concrete advice in this respect. Although in practice.
128 chapter 10 IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim Building cultural support for protected areas through sacred natural sites
by Allen Putney
Editor’s introduction The previous chapter focused on issues of base for management decisions is especially reconciliation and equity for indigenous peoples, important, enabling particular elements within while this chapter addresses a very different set of protected areas to be identified as particularly issues, namely values and the sacred nature of important to the local culture. This chapter also particular sites for particular cultures. Drawing on presents a ten-year action plan for building non- case studies from many parts of the world, Allen material concerns into the global system of protected Putney presents a typology of 11 non-material values areas, involving policy, planning, management and emphasises the importance of sacred natural sites programmes, capacity building, and technical and both within and outside of the established protected financial assistance. The many commonalities areas. He calls for a multicultural approach to between the modern approach to protected areas and protected areas that sets the criteria for the the traditional approach to sacred natural sites development of the system from science-based indicates that improved collaboration between approaches and incorporates in the system plan the indigenous and traditional peoples with the protected value-based approaches characteristic of indigenous area management agencies could yield significant and traditional peoples. Developing the information benefits to both.
Photo: Forest of the Cedars of God, Lebanon.
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This volcanic archipelago, with its spectacular landscapes, is situated off the coast of the Hebrides and comprises the islands of Hirta, Dun, Soay and Boreray, Scotland, United Kingdom. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
Introduction Current discourse on PAs pays scant attention to the intangible, non-material values. It is as if scientific, The values associated with the world’s protected areas technical and economic criteria were considered (PAs) vary considerably from place to place and adequate for managing the intricate web of life (Posey between interest groups. In most cases, however, non- 1999). This approach ignores the humanistic, cultural material values associated with PAs are as important and spiritual criteria that are so important to an as material values, or more so. While the material integrated approach to management, and to living. resources of protected areas contribute to the physical standard of living, the non-material values of PAs In recognition of the importance of the non-material enrich the intellectual, psychological, emotional, values of PAs, IUCN’s World Commission on spiritual, and/or creative aspects of human existence Protected Areas (WCPA) established a Task Force to (WCPA, 2000). assist park managers in defining, recognising and integrating non-material values into PA management. People seem to have a basic need for a connection As pointed out by English and Lee (2003): to the environment of their origin. The park establishment can use this need as an entry point for “protected area boundaries are overlain on encouraging society to seek harmony with the environments that have a history of human presence environment and the rest of humanity. This potential and in many cases a recent or existing human use. role for PAs is only dimly perceived by most protected This means they cannot be neatly excised from human area managers and advocates, but in time could memory or culturally defined ways of perceiving and become a dominant one, reconnecting increasingly valuing landscapes. Parks are embedded in social, urbanized societies to nature and encouraging a re- economic, and political systems that ensure the values encounter with the knowing of oneness (Harmon and we place on them are linked to ongoing debates about Putney, 2003). our place in the world.”
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Typology of non-material values cooperative management across international One of the first activities of the Task Force was to land or sea boundaries (Transfrontier Conservation Areas); as ‘intercultural spaces’for develop the following typology of non-material values the development of understanding between related to PAs (Harmon and Putney, 2003): traditional and modern societies, or between 1. Recreational values: Those intrinsic qualities of distinct cultures or age groups; or as refuges for natural areas that interact with humans to nurturing internal peace and harmony for the restore, refresh, or create anew through individual. stimulation and exercise of the mind, body and 11.Therapeutic values: The relationship between soul (i.e., re-creation). people and natural environments in protected 2. Spiritual values: Those qualities of protected areas that creates the potential for healing, and areas that inspire humans to relate with for enhancing physical and psychological well reverence to the sacredness of nature. being. 3. Cultural values: Those qualities, both positive Sacred natural sites and negative, ascribed to natural, cultural or mixed sites by different social groups, traditions, Early on, the Task Force chose to give particular beliefs, or value systems that fulfil humankind’s attention to sacred natural sites (SNS) because of their need to understand, and connect in meaningful cultural and spiritual importance to many societies, ways, to the environment of its origin and the and their value for biodiversity conservation. Sacred rest of nature. natural sites are defined as “areas where nature, the 4. Identity values: Those natural sites that link divine and remembrances come together in special people to their landscape through myth, legend combinations that are particularly meaningful to a or history. community, society or people. They can be the abode 5. Existence values: The satisfaction, symbolic of deities, natural spirits and ancestors. They can be importance, and even willingness to pay, derived feared and secret places, and they can be benign areas from knowing that outstanding natural and for contemplation and meditation allowing also cultural landscapes have been protected and communication with the transcendental. Common to exist as physical and conceptual spaces where all most sacred natural sites is that they are areas removed forms of life and culture are valued and held from everyday access and resource use” (Putney and sacred. Schaaf, 2003). 6. Artistic values: The qualities of nature that inspire human imagination in creative The SNS of indigenous and traditional peoples expression. around the world frequently serve as community- 7. Aesthetic values: Appreciation of the harmony, based conservation areas that fulfil functions similar beauty, and profound meaning found in nature. to the PAs of western societies. They are also integral 8. Educational values: The qualities of nature that parts of ethnic identity and play a key role in enlighten the careful observer with respect to the indigenous and traditional peoples’ culture and relationships of humans with the natural lifestyles. Because of the spiritual values ascribed to environment, and, by extension, the relationships them, these sites (groves, mountains, forests, islands, between humans, thereby creating respect and desert oases, lakes, rivers, caves, etc., as well as entire understanding. landscapes) many times contain relatively unaltered 9. Research and monitoring values: The function of ecosystems where human-induced impacts are natural areas as refuges, benchmarks and minimal. They have been spared environmental baselines that provide scientists and interested degradation because their protection is embedded in individuals with relatively natural monitoring local cultures and traditional belief systems. As a sites less influenced by human-induced change result, they frequently contain rare and endangered or conversion. species, and serve as gene pools for species that can 10.Peace values: The function of protected areas in be reintroduced into surrounding degraded fostering regional peace and stability through landscapes. However, in recent years the community
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controls that once served to protect SNS have become Quechua shaman doing a ceremony to ask the Ausangante Sacred increasingly tenuous due to poverty, population Mountain permission for our Task Force on Cultural and Spiritual pressures, insecure land tenure, and a lack of Values to work on the Gran Ruta Inca. participation in decisions that affect them (Jeanrenaud, 2001).
NOTE: The location of SNS are secret in many indigenous and traditional societies, and can only be shared by spiritual leaders or the initiated. Thus all references to SNS in this chapter refer only to those that are willingly identified by their stewards.
Description of the interest group and its relation to protected areas While potentially all PA interest groups relate to non- material values in one way or another, the interest groups associated with SNS are much more limited. Two major groups can be discerned: (1) indigenous and traditional peoples (I&T peoples), and (2) sympathetic groups within the globalized society.
I&T peoples the world over are closely associated with, and dependent on, nature and the natural
resources of their immediate environment. They often © Allen Putney recognise sacred landscapes, SNS, and/or sacred establish PAs in order to protect ancestral lands and/or species as essential components of their environment. specific SNS. This sacred geography provides a cultural and spiritual connection between the people, their Where SNS have been incorporated into PAs surroundings and the universe, and plays an essential without consultation, the reaction has often been to role in maintaining the vitality and survival of pursue the recognition of such sites within the PA, and indigenous and traditional cultures (Otegui, 2003). to seek free access and the right to practice traditional rituals and ceremonies. In some cases, I&T peoples Within the more globalized society, which in have advocated closing general public access to these general is disconnected from the natural environment, sites, either totally, or during specific periods when some small groups remain sympathetic to the ceremonies are held. The official recognition of sacred worldview, lifestyle, and/or rights of I&T peoples. sites within PAs has in exceptional cases led to the Some of these groups are organized, such as development of special institutional arrangements to environmental and human rights groups, but guarantee the meaningful participation of the individuals in all sectors of society form part of this indigenous or traditional peoples in the management “sympathetic group”, and can potentially be of the landscapes or sites that are sacred to them, and mobilized around specific issues or causes. recognition of their cultural values and ecological knowledge. Historically, the interest of I&T peoples in PAs has been reactive, usually in response to the incorporation, The interests of those individuals and groups of the without consultation, of ancestral lands and/or sacred wider globalized society who are sympathetic to the sites into PAs. In recent years, the opposite has been belief systems and rights of I&T peoples are often true in a few cases where I&T peoples have sought to expressed through development of alliances on
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specific issues or conflicts, through the adoption of fibres, their function within the ecosystem, and their belief systems and/or through participation in, or relationships to hydrological cycles. Many imitation of, traditional practices, rituals and sophisticated classification systems of I&T peoples ceremonies. Though human rights and environmental have been documented, some indicating more groups have many times initiated alliances with I&T complete taxonomies than western science (Oviedo, peoples, the results have been mixed. Sometimes, as 2004). relationships evolve and interests are more clearly defined, it is found that the community of interest is Ramakrishnan (2003) notes that studies in India not sufficient to warrant maintenance of the alliance have shown that sacred species are often ecologically over time. significant keystone species, thus linking the ecological and the social at the process level. He Examples of how indigenous and further notes that: traditional peoples contribute to PAs “such socially selected and ecologically important I&T peoples contribute to PAs, and to the keystone species, by their very presence in the conservation of biodiversity in general, in three main ecosystem, contribute to enhancing associated ways: sharing their traditional ecological knowledge; biodiversity at ecosystem and landscape levels. This participating in the management of established interphase between ecological and social processes, protected areas; and maintaining biodiversity in which contributes to ecosystem integrity, represents a sacred natural sites outside of legally protected areas. major gap in scientific knowledge that is understood Modern groups sympathetic to I&T peoples’ through TEK” (Ramakrishnan, 2001). worldviews, knowledge and rights contribute by recognising the importance and value of these cultural Groups and individuals from modern society play attributes, and advocating the integration of these an important role in accepting and applying TEK in cultural inputs into the practices of the wider society. their own lives and work. For scientists, the challenge is to decipher this knowledge, validate it and integrate Traditional environmental knowledge it into the modern scientific and technical paradigm (TEK) (Ramakrishnan, 2003). They can also be a catalytic I&T peoples have gathered an intimate knowledge of force in promoting the recognition and application of their environments through thousands of years of this knowledge by natural resource management interaction with their surroundings, trial and error agencies, private landowners and businesses. management, and knowing, channelled from the spiritual level. They have co-evolved with their Participation in management environment, modifying natural conditions, but I&T peoples can, and in many cases do, participate in actively maintaining it in a diverse and productive a variety of ways to support the management of PAs. state, based on TEK, socio-cultural practices and/or They can make significant contributions to the spiritual beliefs (Ramakrishnan, 2003). This development of the information base, decision knowledge, and associated traditional management making, resource protection and management, public practices, can provide an important complement to the education, and as staff. Sympathetic modern groups scientific knowing of modern society, and to its can promote and facilitate the participation of I&T application to the management of specific peoples in management. environments in general, and PAs in particular. Development of the information base: Traditional TEK is particularly important because of the long- environmental knowledge, management practices, term perspective it provides on ecosystem dynamics and cultural perspectives of I&T peoples can provide based on ancestral interaction with habitats and an important complement to the usual types of species. I&T peoples have also accumulated a vast information that are developed for decision making knowledge about individual plants and species, their for protected areas. However, as English and Lee nutritional and medicinal properties, the use of their (2003) point out:
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“If we wish to manage protected areas in a way that interests of all stakeholders are considered (Tranel, respects and sustains intangible values, we must do it 2003). In this context, the decision-making process is collaboratively and be conscious of our thought enhanced immeasurably when I&T peoples processes and our cultural biases. In addition, often participate directly in the decision-making processes the way to elicit traditional knowledge or values is not affecting their ancestral lands, rather than having their at brainstorming sessions in meeting rooms or interests and concerns interpreted through others. through scientific analysis. The landscape is the book in which the values are written, and being on and in Resource protection and management: I&T peoples the land is far more likely to elicit intangible values living within protected areas or in buffer zones must cooperate with, or actively assist, resource through experience, reminiscence, and storytelling. management if it is to be successful. The alternative is How to capture these values in such a way that constant conflict and management failure. The respects their intangible nature but still allows them to example of Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in be analyzed and understood and transmitted into Australia is a case in point (see Box 10.1). management practices is the challenge. In many cases, the recording of place names and the associated Public education: The worldviews, traditions and stories can lead toward determining what management practices of I&T peoples can provide management regimes or action would be appropriate. rich resource materials for public education This is because the stories often carry implicit or programmes. Of particular importance are their explicit advice on how people should behave toward beliefs and myths that convey an understanding of the land, the animals, plants, and each other. ” their oneness with nature and total dependence on it. These are the “voices of the earth”, the “archaic Decision making: Participation of I&T peoples in whisper”, that express with such directness and decision making can take a variety of forms, the most simplicity the need for harmony with nature. This is a common of which are simple consultation, truth that is corroborated extensively by modern participation in stakeholder committees, and formal science, yet is ignored by many of the actions in co-management. In the end, however, decision making modern society. in the context of PA management is about values, and no matter how park planners and managers personally Staffing: I&T peoples can, and in many cases do, perceive their roles, they function as ‘arbiters of play a direct role in management by serving as staff value’. Thus, it is their responsibility to make sure that members of the protected area agency. This provides all values are considered when making management a daily link between original peoples, non-I&T staff, decisions, defining park values broadly so that the and the visiting public.
Olga group of rock domes in Uluru National Park, Australia. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
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Box 10.1 Maintenance of biodiversity outside of PAs Traditional stewardship of Uluru-Kata Ample documentary evidence shows that the sacred Tjuta National Park natural sites of I&T peoples have played, and continue to play, an important role in preserving biodiversity Traditional stewards have been integrated into the outside of PAs by serving as refugia for vulnerable management of protected areas in many sites and, species and preserving ecosystem functions that have in most cases, this has evolved over time. One of been lost in surrounding landscapes. Additional the more interesting examples that traces such an documentary evidence is provided by: Barrow (2003) evolutionary path is that of Uluru-Kata Tjuta on sacred groves worldwide; Bernbaum (2003) on National Park in Australia (Beazley et al., 2001). sacred mountains worldwide; Malhotra, Gokhale and The Park was established in 1977 on the ancestral Bhutia (2003) on India; Secaira (2003) on Guatemala; land of the Aboriginal Anangu Peoples. They Pei Shengji and Moseley (2003) on Southwestern indicated their interest in the Park’s management, China; Ntiamoa-Baidu (2003) on Africa; Todishev including a request for protection of sacred sites (2003) on Siberia; Amaya and Rodriguez (2003) on and the right to build shelters for older people so Colombia; LeBeau (2003) on California; Alem, de la that they could camp at Uluru to teach young Cruz and Robles (2003) (for Otegui, Torres and people about Tjukurpa, the traditional law. In Luque) on Mexico; de la Torre (2003) for Ecuador; 1979 a claim was lodged under the Aboriginal and Torres, Espinosa and Argumedo (2003) for Peru. Land Rights Act for an area of land that included These examples provide specific and convincing the Park. While the Anangu were found to be the evidence on the extent and importance of SNS traditional owners, it was decided that the park worldwide to biodiversity conservation. land could not be returned to them because it was no longer unalienated Crown land. Title One example provides a glimpse of just how uncertainty and negotiation of joint management extensive SNS may be worldwide. India, where arrangements led to a decision in 1985 to grant considerable work has been done to document sacred the Anangu title to the land on the condition that groves, has an estimated 100,000 to 150,000 sacred it be simultaneously leased back to the Territorial groves nationwide (Chatterjee et al., undated). Parks and Wildlife Department to be managed by a Board with an Anangu majority. At the same Policies needed to support the time, the Anangu were awarded a share of Park interests of indigenous and revenues as annual rental for use of their land as a traditional peoples Park. Difficulties in making these arrangements work led to the transfer of day to day management In order for I&T peoples to be fully integrated into the from the Territorial Parks and Wildlife management of PAs and continue to contribute to Department to the Australian National Parks and biodiversity conservation outside of PAs, policies are Wildlife Service. Since 1985 the Anangu have required to recognise traditional rights and support played a strong role in park management, and in multicultural approaches to management. Modern accordance with Tjukurpa, it is the prime groups sympathetic to the interests of I&T peoples responsibility of Parks Australia and the Anangu, can play an important role by promoting and to “look after the country” within the context of implementing the required policy framework. the joint management arrangements. Management practices aim to retain and protect Recognition of traditional rights both cultural and biodiversity values. In those cases where PAs have been established on the ancestral lands of I&T peoples, government policies need to recognise their right to have a voice and participate in the management of these lands, and to
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conservation and development objectives.” Aerial view of the Tronador Sacred Mountain in Nahuel Huapi National Park, Argentina. The peak in the far background is (www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/policy/indi Osorno Volcano in Vicente Perez Rosales National Park, Chile. genous_people/rights.cfm).
The UN Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples also gives full recognition to traditional rights (Posey, 1999). In part VI, Paragraphs 25–26 it states, “Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain and strengthen their distinctive spiritual and material relationship with the lands, territories, waters and coastal seas and other resources which they have traditionally occupied or used, and to uphold their responsibilities to future generations in this regard”. Further, “Indigenous people have the right to own, develop, control and use the lands and territories, including the total environment of the lands, air, waters, coastal seas, sea-ice, flora and fauna and resources which they have traditionally owned or otherwise occupied or used. This includes the right to the full recognition of their laws, traditions and customs, land-tenure systems and institutions for the development and management of resources, and the right to effective measures by States to prevent any interference with, alienation of, or encroachment upon, these rights.”
Multicultural approach Policies are needed to recognise and implement a multicultural approach to PAs, and to biodiversity conservation outside of established PAs. At the system level, the most basic element of such a policy is the
© Allen Putney development of a multicultural system plan that sets the have free access and conduct traditional ceremonies criteria for the development of the PA system from the related to SNS. Policies are also required for lands science-based approach characteristic of western outside of PAs, so that as a minimum, SNS and related cultures, and the value-based approaches characteristic traditional practices are respected. of I&T peoples. A system plan of this type would also establish mechanisms to incorporate the management The WWF Statement of Principles on Indigenous of SNS outside of the current PA system. This may Peoples and Conservation makes the point when entail the development of new management categories. noting that “without recognition of the rights of indigenous peoples, no constructive agreements can For example, Canada has followed a multicultural be drawn up between conservation organizations and approach by seeking to include aboriginal cultural indigenous peoples groups…. WWF recognizes the landscapes in their protected area system. An right of indigenous peoples to exert control over their innovative process has been set up to identify, lands, territories, and resources, and establish on them categorize and evaluate the significance of aboriginal the management and governance systems that best cultural landscapes as a prelude to selecting those that suit their cultures and social needs, while respecting will be integrated into the national, and in some cases national sovereignty, and conforming to national regional, protected area systems (Lee, 2000).
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As part of the recognition of the first rights of I&T deal simultaneously with five major action themes: peoples with respect to individual PAs already created policy; planning; management programmes; capacity on ancestral lands, policies are required to establish building; and technical and financial assistance. and implement a multicultural approach that While there would be overlap among these action guarantees I&T peoples’ participation in themes, this overlap would serve to inform and management, including development of the reinforce actions among the individual themes. information base for management decisions, decision making and implementation. Participation in Policy development of the information base for management The development and implementation of the decisions is an important starting point, because it required policy framework could be catalysed by allows I&T peoples to identify those elements of the research, the synthesis of model policy statements PA that are of particular importance to their culture and laws, and advocacy at both the international and and worldview. These elements can then be an integral national levels. part of the common information base that is used for decision making. A multicultural approach to decision Research. Some of the needed policy elements making would guarantee that I&T peoples participate outlined in the previous section have been developed in setting up the mechanisms for the decision-making and implemented in individual countries, or in states process for PA management and for management or provinces within a country. Research is needed to itself on ancestral lands. identify these specific policies, and to highlight the An example of such an approach is that which was lessons that have been learned from their adopted in New South Wales in Australia (English, development, adoption and implementation. 2000). In 1996, legislation was passed that allowed Model policies. Once the policy research has been joint management of protected areas with aboriginal completed, model policy statements and a listing of people where park values were considered to be of related lessons learned can be developed and cultural significance. This policy was augmented in distributed internationally as a reference. 1998 when a “Visions Symposium” recommended that traditional and contemporary associations with Advocacy. These model policies could be the land be recognised, and the “indivisibility of the promoted through international treaty processes, environment’s natural and cultural values should form such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the the basis for working with Aboriginal people”. As a World Heritage Convention, the Man and the follow-up, an Aboriginal People and Biodiversity Biosphere Programme and the Ramsar Convention; Project was undertaken to enhance understanding on the IUCN-sponsored World Conservation how this approach could be implemented, and a series Congresses; through United Nations agencies, such of recommendations on practical approaches have as UNDP, UNEP and FAO; international been developed. development banks; bilateral technical cooperation programmes; and the action programmes of major Actions required in the coming international non-governmental organizations such ten years as IUCN, Fauna and Flora International, WWF, The A strategic approach is required to catalyse the Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, policies suggested above on a global level, and to BirdLife International and the Wildlife Conservation promote the consequent implementation programmes Society. that need to follow at the regional and national levels. The recognition, protection and management of SNS In order for this advocacy to be effective, technical is part of the larger concern for multicultural meetings would be required to present and discuss approaches to PA management where relevant. A these policies and enlist the support of each of the multi-faceted approach is recommended that would potential advocate agencies.
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Planning Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area, China. Formal planning methods have been established for most of the world’s PA systems, and this is a sound entry point for the required action programmes. Of particular interest are effective I&T peoples’ participation in development of the information base, multicultural system plans, management plans for individual PAs, and detailed programme plans for individual PAs on ancestral lands seen as “intercultural spaces”.
Information base. As indicated earlier, a multicultural approach to development of the information base is an extremely important starting point for management planning. At this point the perspectives, knowledge and interests of I&T peoples can be put on the table and integrated into the scientific, geographical, contextual and situational information normally developed for management planning.
System plans. Perhaps the most important implication of a multicultural policy for PAs is the development of a multicultural system plan that includes criteria for the identification of areas that are considered of importance for protection by I&T peoples, as well as the areas considered important from the perspective of the dominant culture. System plans also provide an opportunity to deal in a comprehensive way with the protection and management of SNS, both through the use of existing mechanisms or through the establishment of complementary mechanisms.
Multicultural Management Plans. Traditional IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim environmental knowledge, traditional management Elements for an International Programme: practices evolved over thousands of years, and cultural 1. Compilation of an international database of perspectives of I&T peoples represent the existing policies relating to SNS, and lessons accumulation of human knowledge about specific learned in their application. landscapes. This information is extremely important 2. Synthesis and distribution of model policies for inclusion in the information base for management based on experiences around the world. plans. The management planning process also 3. Inclusion of model policies in the work provides I&T peoples with the opportunity to make programmes of major environmental conventions. inputs and influence decisions on the objectives, 4. Promotion of resolutions at global meetings to zoning, management programmes, and budgetary and support model policies. administrative arrangements for individual PAs. This 5. Technical seminars at major world environmental is basic for the recognition, protection and meetings to promote model policies. management of SNS within the PA.
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Elements for an International Programme: that contrast I&T peoples’ and modern worldviews, 1. Development and distribution of case studies on and subsequent impacts on the environment. In most multicultural approaches to PA planning that cases, the perspectives of I&T cultures offer the include the recognition, protection and opportunity for visitors to analyse their own attitudes management of SNS, and treatment of PAs on to nature, and to encourage experiences of oneness. ancestral lands as “intercultural spaces”. Interpretation and education programmes can also 2. Publication of addenda to the WCPA Best develop the notion of PAs as spaces where inter- Practice Guidelines for system planning and for cultural harmony is actively pursued. management planning of protected areas through multicultural approaches where relevant. Staffing is also important. If properly structured, 3. Publication of an addendum to the IUCN participation of I&T peoples as PA staff provides an publication on PA categories to include opportunity for daily contact between I&T staff, non- guidelines and criteria with respect to the cultural I&T staff and the visiting public, and the development and spiritual values of PAs, especially SNS. of mutual understanding and respect. 4. Presentation of seminars at world and regional Elements for an International Programme: environmental meetings on the integration of SNS into PAs through multicultural approaches 1. Development and distribution guidelines, and an to planning. accompanying video, on the integration of I&T peoples into the implementation of PA Implementation of management management programmes around the world, programmes especially in relation to SNS. Actions are needed to promote I&T peoples’ 2. Utilization of park-to-park exchange contributions to management programmes such as programmes to facilitate the sharing of protection, resource management, and public use, experiences related to the integration of I&T peoples into management programmes, which go beyond planning to include implementation, especially in relation to SNS. monitoring and evaluation. 3. Compilation and distribution of model Protection. Resource protection programmes will interpretation and education programmes that not be successful unless I&T people in and around integrate cultural and spiritual values and seek to PAs are integrated into the management process. As a promote harmony between cultures, and minimum I&T peoples must understand and accept harmony with nature. the protection programme, but the ideal is that I&T Capacity building peoples play a direct role in monitoring and Actions are needed to build capacities at the enforcement. This can be particularly effective in international, national and individual PA levels so that portions of the PA that are recognised as SNS by their I&T peoples can effectively contribute to PA traditional stewards. management, especially as related to SNS. Capacity Resource management. Resource management building will be a particularly important component programmes can be made more effective by for the development of multicultural system plans and incorporation of traditional stewards of SNS on bi-cultural management plans, as well as for the management committees and/or by including them in integration of I&T peoples into PA agency staff implementation programmes. Often, special provision positions. for resource management will be needed to regulate Building on the example provided earlier for Uluru- traditional uses. Kata Tjuta National Park in Australia, an interesting Public use. Public use programmes can benefit experiment in staff capacity building for that Park is enormously from the contributions of I&T peoples. worth noting. A “Kinship Project” is being carried out They can play a central role in developing culturally to evaluate whether the Aboriginal concept of kinship sensitive interpretation and education programmes with the natural world can be respected by, and
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influence, the role of non-Aboriginal field staff (NSW Conclusion National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003). The Building broader support for protected areas through central element of this evaluation has been to consider sacred natural sites is an approach to biodiversity the possible effects, both positive and negative, of conservation that is finally receiving increasing developing an experimental programme where attention. It is an approach fraught with difficulty Aboriginal elders and staff will work with non- because of the legacy of conflict between I&T peoples Aboriginal rangers in adopting aspects of the and PAs established on ancestral lands, and the Aboriginal notion of kinship with nature as part of general lack of recognition of, and respect for, SNS. their work practice and identity. Yet in many traditional societies, SNS have functioned Elements for an International Programme: as a community instrument for biodiversity 1. Development of course modules on multicultural conservation that has many commonalities with approaches to PA management, giving prominent western society’s PA approach. attention to SNSs. The recognition and management of SNS is part of 2. Staging of mini-courses on multicultural a wider need for policies and programmes to approaches to PA management at international recognise and respect the rights of I&T peoples and to and regional environmental meetings attended by PA staff. adopt and implement a multicultural approach to PAs that would specifically address the formal recognition Technical and financial assistance of and management of SNS. This would include both In many cases, countries interested in adopting and those within established PAs, and those that are implementing the model policies and consequent currently outside of PA systems. It is a challenge faced actions may require technical and financial assistance. in varying degrees by many countries around the This assistance might be provided by the advocate world. If approached in an honest and forthright agencies, especially if model policies and associated manner, and if accompanied by good will and lessons learned are available, and a core of qualified perseverance, SNS could indeed play a significant consultants are identified and listings made available role in catalysing broader cultural support for PAs. to, and promoted with, the advocate agencies.
Elements for an International Programme: 1. Development and funding of an international project on multicultural approaches to PA planning and management with pilot projects in the major regions of the world. A central component of the project would be an emphasis from the start on tracking lessons learned, developing case studies, and the use of video as a tool for sharing experiences. 2. Establishment of an international SNS Emergency fund to provide technical and financial assistance for SNS in danger. 3. Building of a database of PA practitioners with experience in multicultural approaches to PAs and the management of SNS. Dissemination of information regarding the database to potentially interested institutions and agencies.
140 chapter 11 © Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. © Paul Building support for protected areas through tourism
by Robyn Bushell
Editor’s introduction Tourism has been a key partner of modern protected from the general public to the improved management areas from the very early days, but the recent rapid of protected areas. But tourism also carries some expansion of both tourism and protected areas calls dangers if it is poorly planned and managed, leading for a reassessment of the relationship between to undermining the very attractions that led to the protected areas and tourism. Robyn Bushell reviews establishment of the protected area. This chapter also the major issues that need to be involved in developing includes numerous examples of private tourism and maintaining a productive relationship between operations that are either adjacent to protected areas protected areas and the tourism industry. Drawing on and contribute to protected area objectives, or are the work of the WCPA Task Force on Tourism and well separated from protected areas but still make Protected Areas, this chapter highlights the many significant contributions to conserving biodiversity. benefits of tourism for protected areas, including The impact of tourism is certainly going to continue to economic benefits, opportunities for communities to expand, and mobilizing the tourism sector to help acquire land for community conserved areas, greater ensure the sustainability of protected areas as prime appreciation of cultural and natural heritage, and tourism destinations would seem a useful part of any increased interest, understanding and commitment overall strategy to maintain public support for nature.
Photo: Conservation and ecotourism are effective partners, both in national parks and private nature reserves. Sabi Sabi Private Game Reserve, South Africa.
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Introduction expected and twice the 3.8% rate of 1998/99. As demand for tourism, both international and domestic, Tourism is an increasingly important feature of continues to grow, particularly from the rapidly rising protected area management, an opportunity for new middle class of the Asian region, so too is commercial conservation partnerships and a potential source of interest in the development of the most ecologically financing. It can also increase pressure on protected fragile, diverse, and aesthetically, culturally and areas due to rapidly escalating interest in visitation spiritually rich locations. These natural and cultural and nature-based tourism. Tourism and visitation to heritage conservation hotspots are the drawcards for protected areas is thus an important area that will gain much tourism development both within and outside prominence in conservation planning and protected areas. The challenges and the opportunities management. this represents have never been so great. It will require The relationship between tourism and natural the concerted and collaborative efforts of all interested heritage has become more prominent over the past parties to combine expertise, knowledge, resources decade. The industry, government agencies, academia and influence to ensure that this continued growth and NGOs involved in research, policy and trajectory is managed within the guidelines of sound development have all embraced the concept of policy frameworks. Protecting the environment from sustainable tourism due to the heightened awareness the impacts of tourism will require proactive brought about by the 1992 Earth Summit. Strategies participation of tourism bodies and operators. stressing the urgent need for policies and practices that During the past decade, nature-based and adventure ensure tourism is developed in line with principles of travel has emerged as one of the fastest growing sustainable development have been recommended by segments of this vast industry. It is not all ecotourism a wide range of international organizations including nor sustainable tourism, though these labels are the World Tourism Organization (WTO), the United frequently used as marketing tools. From cruise ships Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), plying the unspoiled waters and islands of the Indian UNESCO, the United Nations Commission on Ocean, home to some of the rarest plants and animals Sustainable Development (CSD), regional UN on Earth, to Antarctic adventures and groups trekking commissions, and the international banks. In 2002 the the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica, increasing International Year of Ecotourism brought together the numbers of intrepid travellers are seeking out nature largest gathering of stakeholders involved in or and indigenous people in remote places (Mittermeier, affected by ecotourism, and focussed much attention 2003). and interest on the ecological, social and cultural costs and benefits of tourism (UNEP and WTO, 2002). This Conservation International (CI) reports that same year the World Summit on Sustainable biodiversity-rich places once covered more than 12% Development (WSSD) also focussed some of its of the Earth’s land surface. Nearly 90% of the original attention on tourism and its potential to support the vegetation of these places has been lost with a mere UN Millennium Development Goals. 1.4% of these unique terrestrial environments remaining. Yet they are habitat for more than 44% of Despite this progress and recognition of tourism all plants and 35% of endemic species of mammals, impacts, the WTO sees the road to achieving the goals birds, reptiles and amphibians found nowhere else. of sustainable tourism much longer than it was a These same areas are home to more than one billion decade ago, due to the unstoppable growth of tourism people, many of whom live in extreme poverty. These around the world, and the more liberal attitudes that places are a crossroads where biodiversity most governments and peoples have adopted towards conservation, survival of many indigenous groups and its development (Yunis, 2003). According to WTO tourism meets (Mittermeier, 2003). Christ et al. statistics the number of international tourist arrivals (2003) show how tourism development in such areas reached nearly 700 million in 2000, well over 10% of has profound consequences to the future of the world population. This represents a growth of biodiversity conservation and to the health and well- 7.4% since 1999. This is a much higher rate than
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quality of life are essential if these people are to be Trail erosion, Hohe Tauern National Park, Austria. given hope, and if they and their governments are to be expected to support both tourism and conservation (Putney, this volume).
The relevance of tourism to the role of IUCN and to the concept of ‘benefits beyond boundaries’ is in working together with key stakeholders to build support for conservation and ensure tourism policy and practice results in:
a) the protection of nature conservation areas from being loved to death by visitors or exploited by industry, as feared by many conservationists; b) the potential of tourism being harnessed to help finance conservation; c) support for local communities through nature based tourism; and d) visitor services and interpretation strategies that foster a greater level of understanding of the many values of protected areas and wider support for conservation. These objectives are best achieved through high level negotiation between key conservation and tourism bodies, together with on-the-ground partnerships between natural resource managers, local communities and tourism operators.
The interest between tourism and protected areas One of the world’s fastest growing and largest © Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. © Paul being of these local people. Biodiversity and human industries, tourism is the epitome of the globalized welfare are inextricably linked, not just for the people world. As such the world’s tourism and recreation living in these biodiversity hotspots, but globally. industries can potentially be highly influential on investors, on the travelling public and on nations who WSSD identified biodiversity conservation as one look to tourism for economic growth. It can also of the five priority areas. As tourism is one of the provide significant benefits to conservation and fastest growing sectors of the global economy, it is society. These can include: economic benefits; imperative it be strategically aligned with opportunities for communities to acquire land for conservation. A number of highly ethical tourism community conserved areas; greater appreciation of operations lead the way and demonstrate that it is cultural and natural heritage; greater knowledge of the possible that tourism in partnership with conservation interplay between humans and their environment; and can work to benefit the health and well-being of local increased interest, understanding and commitment people at the same time as achieving conservation from the general public to the conservation of places objectives and economic growth. The benefits are not of significant natural and cultural value. Well planned confined to wealth creation alone. The protection and and executed tourism can contribute to increased conservation of non-material values important to tolerance and respect for diversity of all sorts –
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Craft shop in Maasai village, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. © Paul F.J.Eagles © Paul biological, cultural, religious and political – and levies, concession fees and licences, taxes on retail provide incentives to support indigenous people’s purchases by visitors and increased general tax traditional customs and values; protect and respect revenues from economic activity associated with sacred sites; and enhance the legitimacy of traditional tourism. Natural resource management agencies can knowledge. The tourism industry is therefore a critical run their own tourism operations, collecting fees for component in fostering global support for heritage entrance, guided tours, camping, accommodation, conservation, poverty alleviation and community sales in shops and cafes. They may also sell licences well-being. and permits to tour companies or contractors to provide any of these visitor services; provide long- On the other hand, if poorly planned and managed, term leases to tourism operators who develop the ecological, social and cultural consequences of infrastructure within protected areas, or have a range tourism can be considerable. Tourism development of partnerships, such as public-private transboundary that does not aspire to the goals of sustainable conserved areas; or private funding of full-time park development can contribute to the deterioration of staff to run visitor services. The other model that is cultural landscapes, threaten biodiversity, contribute increasingly common is private reserves that use to pollution and degradation of ecosystems, displace tourism to fund conservation activities on private land. agricultural land and open spaces, diminish water and Private safari parks in Africa, for example, often have energy resources, and drive poverty deeper into local a strong conservation mandate. communities. Unfortunately, the environmental costs of tourism Providing financial support for protected development are typically externalized by operators and visitors wanting access to the resource, and often areas place unreasonable expectations on park agencies or While national and local governments worldwide are unaware of the primacy and high cost of provide the base funding for protected areas, in recent conservation in these places and complain when asked times, many governments have reduced their funding to make modest financial contributions. support. Tourism is frequently viewed as an alternate and supplementary source of funding. Income from The need for external funding creates pressure for visitation and tourism in protected areas can be higher visitation and the granting of more concessions generated through donations, entrance and user fees, and licences. This demand raises a number of issues,
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including impact on protected area values from the Linking practice to conventions and increased visitation with negative consequences for guidelines biodiversity protection, cultural heritage and the The growing demand for tourism in protected areas visitor experience. The challenge is to derive frequently challenges the capacity of management to economic benefit without unacceptable degradation meet this demand without unacceptably affecting the of other values. The impetus to achieve this is values for which protected areas exist. Protected area considerable because the economic benefits of park- managers encounter difficulties when seeking to based tourism can far exceed government integrate the demands of conservation and visitors. expenditures to manage these sites (Driml and Increasing visitation is a global phenomenon, and Common, 1995; Taskforce on Economic Benefits, these challenges will increase, as worldwide, parks 1998). become major attractions for visitors (Worboys et al., Many people are concerned that the more protected 2001). area managers rely on visitation-based funding, the This requires expanding the knowledge of more likely compromises will favour development managers into visitor management; educating visitors and visitor activities rather than conservation priorities and up-skilling the private tourism sector to better (Figgis, 1999). Setting appropriate and equitable fees understand conservation priorities. In the short term, is a complex task and fraught with contentious politics guideline documents such as minimum impact reflecting conflicting ideologies about protected areas. principles and codes of ethics are designed to reduce Park managers require greater training in visitor problems, though the relative success of these is service management and ecotourism in order to questionable to date. Public access and private sector maximize the benefits. use of public lands, nature reserves and national parks is often uncontrolled and unmanaged due to lack of Supporting sustainable use of natural funds. The use of accreditation and on-site training and cultural heritage schemes can help limit access to only appropriately While revenue generated from touristic activities may qualified or well intentioned operators. be helpful in funding conservation, tourism development and activity may threaten the values for State tourism authorities and protected area which protected areas are established. agencies should collaborate on the development of nature-based tourism strategies. This can assist The major causes of environmental impacts due to tourism businesses to translate national and visitors in national parks vary according to the international guidelines on biodiversity conservation features of the site (soils, topography, aspect and into the local context and appropriate frameworks. vegetation), prevailing conditions (for example, temperature and precipitation), plus the specific Meyer and Garbe (2001) and Foxlee (2003) behaviours in which visitors engage (Leung et al., reviewed existing charters, declarations and 2001; Leung and Marion, 2000). Buckley and Pannell guidelines for sustainable tourism noting the emphasis (1990) broadly summarise the types of impacts, on developing partnerships, minimal impact suggesting systematic approaches to address the management, raising awareness, and the need for numerous, complex issues associated with visitor integrated and strategic tourism planning and management (Gilligan and Allen, 2001). It is management. Documents such as the Quebec important to ensure the visitors have a good Declaration on Ecotourism (2002) also acknowledge experience and develop a commitment to protecting the need to share the task of conservation among all nature – both in the park and in their own stakeholders. Conservation objectives are not the sole environments. This requires adequate and appropriate responsibility of protected area managers; tourism infrastructure, zoning, staffing, codes of conduct and operations, visitors and the general public have equal good environmental interpretation. responsibilities.
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2002) that are engaging and effective for visitors of Ngala tented accommodation, Conservation Corporation Africa provides ecotourism experiences to discerning visitors from around different ethnicity, ages, interests and levels of literacy. the world. The profits directly fund conservation work and An effective conservation message changes attitudes community development programmes. and behaviour. Considerable effort has gone into modes of delivery and communication techniques, including ecotour-guide training programmes and accreditation schemes, such as the Savannah Guides programme in Australia. Much less attention has been given to content of the message and how it translates into actions.
Tourism can be a powerful vehicle for conservation messages through guides, story telling, brochures, displays, souvenirs including books, games, products and performances, that all extend well ‘beyond the boundaries’ and can actively build support for conservation.
Encouraging a stewardship ethic among the public
© Conservation Corporation Africa Corporation© Conservation Residents often hold large amounts of knowledge about their local area. Protected areas often hold Fostering attachment to heritage through spiritual or cultural significance to locals and visitors. visitation and effective conservation Managers can exploit these interests through visitor education programmes that develop sensitivities to the Due to rapid urbanization, many citizens have little conservation mission of the area, and through connection with nature. Consequently they are less management actions that acknowledge local interests aware of the benefits of natural areas, and may be less and encourage involvement from all age groups in likely to support conservation (Tryzna, this volume). conservation initiatives, such as volunteers, guides and through environmentally aware actions at home. Visitation to protected areas is valuable, not just in an economic sense, but also to take people back to Working with local stakeholders and nature, and to foster environmental awareness and a industry conservation ethic. The benefits associated with visitation to protected areas can be significant, As the shortcomings of government policies and ensuring more people enjoy and value nature. funding for protected area conservation become more apparent, increased support from non-government Greater research is needed into the role and sources such as local communities, private effectiveness of conservation education/interpretation, landowners, landusers and NGOs become more and the multicultural dimensions of these strategies. important (McNeely, 1994). The tourism industry is Comprehensive information on visitors (visitation included among these important stakeholders. numbers, source markets, demographic profile of Tourism in and around protected areas should lead to visitors, patterns of visitation, motivation for visiting) economic benefits to the local community such that is lacking for many protected areas. Little effort has they have incentives to support conservation and gone into understanding the different ways people tourism. Other non-material values relating to construct and relate to nature, and how this aesthetics, recreation and health aspects of protected understanding should inform approaches to areas should not be underestimated in their influence environmental education programmes (Staiff et al., on community attitudes (Putney, this volume).
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Minnamurra Rainforest Centre Budderoo National Park, NSW Australia. A raised boardwalk takes around 100,000 visitors per year through the canopy of the remnant rainforest while protecting the forest floor. © NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service Wildlife and © NSW National Parks
Working to support local and indigenous community and the conservation work has been community development, poverty successful in a number of countries. alleviation, and co-management of Protected area-based tourism is not without protected areas problems for traditional owners, especially if they are The rights of indigenous peoples to access protected excluded or displaced. For example, Machu Picchu, a areas and the values they contain are complex, and at World Heritage Site, has outstanding cultural and times, controversial (Scherl, this volume). Issues of agrarian values as a 500 year old Inca city. It is one of traditional use of biological resources, land rights, and the most important tourist destinations in Latin ownership, particularly for colonized peoples who America. For the poor people of this land, it is sacred, have been dislocated, dominate much of the policy yet the system which declared it ‘protected’, removed discourse in this arena. them and then encouraged hundreds of thousands of visitors, generating vast income while the asset was The issues of indigenous people are often over- degraded, both spiritually and ecologically, and they simplified and romanticized. The debates over experienced loss of basic necessities of food and water appropriate use of protected areas and models of (Andrade, 2000). management have been linked to efforts to restore and address the land rights of indigenous peoples. A range of cultural and ethical issues surround the Contributing to civil society, engendering identification, evaluation and management of cultural respect for others and for our natural landscapes, particularly those associated with the and cultural heritage history of indigenous people and the associated issues The construction of nature varies in time across of territory, dislocation, secret knowledge, lost cultural, political and social beliefs and economic language, and sacredness. Co-management of status. This influences the values placed on nature and protected areas and the use of locally managed what is regarded as priority for protection and what is tourism to generate income for both the local acceptable use (Bushell, 1999; Staiff et al., 2002).
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Appreciating how different groups of people value A second example demonstrates how user fees and nature is essential to making decisions about levies on the private sector help finance public appropriate park-based tourism and visitor conserved areas. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park management. Authority (GBRMPA) requires commercial tour operators to pay an Environmental Management Visitor use must be compatible with the overriding Charge (EMC). For most types of operations in mission of a protected area. It occurs within a 2002/2003 this was $A4.50 per day for each tourist dynamic social, cultural, legal, institutional and carried. The total income generated was $A6.7 geographic context. Compatibility among users is million, approximately 20% of the entire budget of the important to the financial success and effective GBRMPA. The EMC is also applied to mariculture, management of a protected area. Incompatible user vessel chartering, vending operations and sewage groups can lead to conflict, loss of support and wasted discharge, though insignificant in comparison (0.3% investment (FPATF, 2000). Overuse and misuse can of the budget). Other charges apply to the tourism lead to destruction of the asset. Tourism, recreation industry, including permit application assessment and visitation to protected areas must be designed to fees. The EMC is a highly successful and equitable respect the ecological and social carrying capacity of component of financing the GBRMP (Skeat and any site, and with respect for the rights of others Skeat, 2003). especially local people. Supporting sustainable use of natural How tourism contributes to and cultural heritage protected areas Conservation Corporation Africa (CC Africa) demonstrates private sector tourism supporting Providing financial support for protected conservation and impoverished neighbouring areas communities. They integrate the needs of local people An exemplar of private sector contribution is SabiSabi with their overall conservation and development Private Game Reserve situated in the Mpumalanga objectives through very successful high yield tourism. province of South Africa, bordering the Kruger This approach for the past 13 years has resulted in the National Park. It is a 5000ha property that has been development of 36 luxury camps and lodges in six operating for 25 years. It has three separate lodges African countries. Informed by their guiding with a total of 46 luxury units, based on a model of principles of ‘Care of the Land, Care of the Wildlife, high yield, low volume tourism. Care of the People,’ CC Africa’s conservation model attracts discerning global travellers whose leisure SabiSabi espouses a philosophy that the only way for expenditure funds the development of conservation, conservation to survive in Africa is by justifying itself land-restoration and community empowerment. economically. It epitomises the link between tourism, conservation and community, each supporting the Examples of the benefits to the natural environment other. The conservation is the tourism product, and the include funding the conservation of 340,000ha of tourism provides the funds for the conservation work on African wildlife land. CC Africa currently spends the property. Together they support the local $US3m annually directly on conservation, community community. Through employment of 190 locals they empowerment, and national park gate fees and provide economic benefit to over 1200 people. wilderness traversing rights. Their contribution towards the future prosperity and conservation of Africa through SabiSabi is one of four properties in South Africa to alliances and joint ventures is incalculable. At several of receive the IUCN South Africa Fair Trade in Tourism their properties they have transformed former hunting South Africa trademark. It has earned this through grounds employing a few people into sustainable working conditions, employment principles and ecotourism models providing employment for conservation outcomes (Shorten, Harper and Loon, hundreds of people. 2003).
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On each property the benefits to wildlife classrooms and 18 pre-schools, training 250 teachers conservation are significant, for example at Phinda, and 4500 pupils in environmental awareness through adjoining the St Lucia Wetlands, CC Africa conservation lessons; awarding university level pioneered the translocation of family herds of scholarships to more than 150 students and building elephants. They also pioneered lion reintroduction. three health clinics. The Ololosokwan Clinic close to Twelve lions were initially introduced; currently 17 CC Africa’s Klein’s Camp in Tanzania now serves lions occupy the property and 45 have been relocated between 350 and 700 people a week with just one to approved reserves. Phinda was pivotal in doctor in attendance. They employ more than 1300 restocking reserves with tuberculosis-free buffalo, local staff members, with some 13,000 dependants, providing the only TB quarantine facility in and provide $US 1.7 million in wages per year KwaZulu-Natal province. It is one of the most across Africa (Carlisle and Bagley, 2003). successful free-roaming cheetah-breeding reserves in the world. Less than 30 cheetah existed in the Linking practice to conventions and province’s parks prior to Phinda. Fifteen cheetah guidelines were reintroduced; currently 18 are in residence, and A major accreditation initiative for the NSW Camping 45 have been relocated. The initial reintroduction of and Caravan Industry Association (CCIA), Australia, 26 endangered white rhinos has grown to a current uses the critical elements from a number of population of 60. international guidelines on sustainable tourism In 1992 they established the Rural Investment including the UNEP, WTO and CBD guidelines. The Fund (RIF), now called Africa Foundation, as an Gumnut Award Programme demonstrates a independent not-for-profit rural development commitment to continuous improvement in organization. The Foundation channels financial environmental sustainability and social responsibility. contributions received from guests and the corporate The caravan and camping sector is important in the sector into education, health, water provision and context of outdoor tourism and recreation. It provides other projects. The Foundation has committed approximately 51% of the accommodation sector in approximately $US 4 million to consultative Australia and has a growth rate of 15% per annum in community development projects in five African visitation (Baillie, 2002). The majority of properties countries. This includes building more than 65 are situated in or near very sensitive coastal
Game drive in South Africa where private tourism ventures such as Conservation Corporation Africa are restoring habitat, restocking mega fauna and providing jobs and income to local communities. © Conservation Corporation Africa Corporation© Conservation
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Phinda Forest Lodge: High yielding ecotourism at Conservation Corporation Africa properties throughout Africa provide world class luxury in low impact accommodation – Phinda Lodge adjoins the St Lucia World Heritage Area. © Conservation Corporation Africa Corporation© Conservation
environments, with a significant number on crown rainforest education centres managed by the NSW land, adjoining national parks and nature reserves. National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS). It has a CCIA recognises that these operations have Visitor Information and Education Centre, 2.6km of significant social, cultural, ecological and economic elevated timber boardwalk and paved walking tracks impacts. The programme seeks to increase awareness that lead visitors along the gorge cliffs overlooking the and encourage the implementation of practices that rainforest canopy and onto viewing platforms at the foster responsible management and that meet the lower and upper Minnamurra Falls. During peak expectations of park visitors, staff and the general visitation periods visitor numbers have reached 1200 community. The programme is particularly visitors in a day. They currently receive over 20,500 distinguished by the inclusion of a training component primary and secondary school students on educational in collaboration with the University of Western excursions each year. Sydney helping operators to develop their own integrated environmental management plan. The Minnamurra Rainforest Centre is a major component of the regional tourism product. A 1996 Fostering attachment to heritage through economic study showed the Centre contributes $A2 to 4 million dollars per annum in business turnover to the visitation and effective conservation regional economy; of this $A 1 to 2 million in visitor education and working with local expenditure in the Centre itself. Many marketing and stakeholders and industry promotional initiatives have been developed in The Minnamurra Rainforest, within Budderoo partnership with tour operators and accommodation National Park, is a 401-hectare remnant of the once- providers. An example of such a cooperative approach extensive rainforests on the South Coast of NSW. The was the instigation of the ‘Illawarra EduTourism area comprises four types of rainforest and is the Project’ creating a successful co-operative of the southern-most limit for many sub-tropical rainforest region’s major field based education, accommodation species. The site is a significant regional and state and transport providers catering for school groups. tourism facility receiving numerous state and national The site is also widely used as an ‘icon’ tourism awards of excellence. Minnamurra is one of three destination in promotional campaigns by all four local
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government tourism associations in the region and ecosystems, including mangroves, coral reefs and Tourism NSW. Many small tour companies and beaches, were damaged. Mr Evanson made a accommodation providers include the Centre as a commitment to restore the island and help the local highlight to complement their individual product and community. Tourism became the vehicle to achieve marketing. Park staff work closely with the NSW these goals. Turtle Island has implemented a range of Department of Education providing environmental innovative environmental and community-based education resources including CDs, a web site linked programmes and activities to achieve these objectives. to the higher school certificate geography curriculum This includes planting over one million trees and teachers’ kits for field trips (Kennedy, 2001). established from a nursery set up on the island. Vegetation cover has grown from around 10% to over They are also actively involved in environmental 82% across the island, halting erosion and provided research with a number of universities. This has habitat for birds and wildlife that are again rich in included numerous studies relating to the diversity and number. effectiveness of the interpretation at the site. Researchers have worked with the site manager to All solid waste is composted on the island. With no develop an educational mission for MRC “educating natural streams, several dams have been built to about rainforest conservation and its symbiotic ensure abundant water supply. Some 90% of fresh relationship to cultural heritage conservation through fruit, vegetables and herbs are grown in the resort a living experience of the forest. The fostering of an garden. Reforestation has provided timber for attachment to heritage is sought through the widest building works. Local staff have been retrained in possible sense of experiential education…” (Staiff and environmental management and rehabilitation, Bushell, 2004). The site is seen as a keeper of stories market gardening, complex carpentry, and building, as well as work within the resort operations. and a story-telling place about connections to nature. These include ancient and contemporary indigenous Due to the vision of the resort and the special visitor relationships to the site, early European agriculture, experience, philanthropic gestures are quite common. including cedar logging and dairying responsible for In 1992 the Yasawas Community Foundation was the destruction and clearing of much of the forest, a established to receive guest donations for special place of romance, of family picnics and recreation in projects in the Turtle Island communities. Because the the cool forest and its scenic waterfalls, of poetry and area has no secondary schools, they have been spectacular photography, and as a place of meditation, providing scholarships to assist local children to go to particularly for a local Buddhist temple, and as a place high school on another island. The Foundation recently of great interest to scientists, locals and tourists. The committed $200,000 to assist Turtle Island to build a NPWS is actively engaged in this research to ensure secondary school. The school opened in 2002, and now the environmental message is more effective in has 38 students across three forms, with four teachers. enhancing visitor concern for conservation and their Turtle Island has been augmenting the quality of enjoyment of nature. health care available through the provision of several health care resources. This includes responding to the Support local and indigenous community endemic problem of blindness due to cataracts and development and poverty alleviation diabetes. For the past 13 years, the resort closes for through nature-based tourism one week, and a team of medical professionals who Turtle Island is a 14 room five-star luxury resort have themselves been guests at the resort, donate their located on a 200ha privately owned island (Nanuya time on a pro-bono basis to set up a full eye clinic. In Levu) in the Yasawas group of islands, Fiji. Purchased this time more than 11,000 Fijians have had their eyes in 1972 by Richard Evanson, who remains as owner tested, more than 9,000 pairs of glasses have been manager, the island was uninhabited and degraded issued free of charge, over 1,000 operations have been after decades of neglect, overgrazing and clearing. performed (mostly cataracts, and 20 corneal Flora and fauna were depleted, soils eroded and the implants). The clinics are now operating from Savu
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Savu. Turtle Island runs other health clinics including government. In 1981, Gurig National Park northeast dermatology, women’s health and dental clinics, of Darwin, in the Northern Territory became the first providing specialist health services that would co-managed park in Australia. Since then several otherwise not be available. others have emerged in the Northern Territory, Jervis Bay Territory, New South Wales and Queensland Turtle Island has also provided interest-free funding (Smyth, 2001). under a social entrepreneurial programme, expending over $A 1 million in the construction of three budget The statutory Management Plan for each of these resorts. Turtle Island plays an active role in the co-managed parks looks to tourism to generate governance, marketing and management of these significant income for the traditional resorts and a proactive role in skills transfer to assist owners/community and for conservation goals of the local people to run these businesses. The Turtle Island Park. Tourism is anticipated to be the key to eventual private plane also services the needs of the budget self sufficiency and provides the pathway for Park resorts and the villagers, with Turtle Island guests values to be communicated to the wider world. heavily subsidising the service. The Australian government, through the Director of This example of privately conserved land and high National Parks and the Department of Environment yield nature-based tourism shows the mutual benefits and Heritage, is the government agency responsible to conservation and poverty alleviation through one for the joint management of each park. The Director small operation. sits on the Board of Management of each park in How tourism can support indigenous conjunction with the traditional Aboriginal owners, people in the co-management of protected and Ministerial appointments representing science, areas and contribute to civil society environment and tourism expertise plus other relevant stakeholders. The concept of Aboriginal ownership and joint management of national parks in Australia has The cultural dimension is an extremely important emerged as a response to increasing acknowledgement feature of the tourism in these parks. These parks of Aboriginal rights to traditional lands and provide opportunities to care for land that is special to opportunities. Co-management involves the both the Indigenous people and others; opportunities establishment of a legal partnership and management for Indigenous people and others to work together and structure reflecting the rights, interests and obligations learn about one another, and a window on Indigenous of the Aboriginal owners as well as the relevant Australian culture through park visitation.
The Africa Foundation provides income from wildlife tourism and guest donations to provide health and educational facilities, services and training for rural communities. © Conservation Corporation Africa Corporation© Conservation
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Kakadu National Park and World Heritage Area in Improving policies on tourism the Northern Territory is jointly managed with the and protected areas Bininj/Mungguy people. The Board of Management Careful and strategic implementation of policy has 15 members, including ten elected from the region together with proactive and effective management of representing the different regions and language tourism is essential. For tourism to be an effective groups. Kakadu is a special cultural landscape. It was conservation tool also requires increased shaped by the spiritual ancestors of Aboriginal people understanding of both its beneficial effects and its during the Creation Time. These ancestors journeyed negative consequences. This requires considerable across the country creating landforms, plants, animals capacity building of park staff and communities if and Bininj/Mungguy (Aboriginal people). They they are to ensure the desired outcomes. It also brought with them laws to live by: ceremony, requires a much better level of understanding of park language, kinship and ecological knowledge. They visitation patterns, numbers and trends; and much taught Bininj/Mungguy how to live with the land and more sophisticated understanding of effective look after the country. conservation awareness, education and interpretation Kakadu National Park is visited by approximately strategies. 200,000 people each year, most of whom stay within When used as a conservation tool, tourism is an the park for an average of three days. During 2003, essential component in raising awareness outside the commercial permits issued to tour operators included conservation movement, and contributing to 575 for camping, 45 for photography and 30 for processes needed to implement the Convention on filming. There is a high level of visitor satisfaction Biological Diversity, the CBD Guidelines on (76%) and plans to increase Aboriginal participation Sustainable Tourism in Vulnerable Ecosystems and in visitor programmes, as a means of cultural heritage many other Multilateral Environmental Agreements support, income generation for locals, increased such as the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild visitor satisfaction and understanding of the Park’s Animals, CITES, World Heritage Convention (see rich cultural history. Thorsell, this volume), the Ramsar Convention, along The Board of Management has developed an Action with many regional agreements. To achieve desired Plan for Cultural Heritage in conjunction with senior outcomes for conservation, local authorities, local traditional owners. Over 5000 cultural sites have been people, the tourism industry, and visitors must all be registered and a Register of Oral History Audio and involved and co-operate with natural resource Video Material continues to be developed. This is an management agencies, the scientific community, important aspect of the conservation work of the Park. government bodies and international agencies It will be a valuable resource for the community and concerned with biological and cultural heritage policy, for interpretative material for the visitors. and influence tourism planning.
The Plan of Management aims at capacity building One of the most notable omissions in many of the of Bininj-Mungguy staff and support for their move existing sustainable tourism declarations, charters and into senior management positions. Almost half the guidelines, in terms of protected areas, is that few staff at Kakadu National Park are local Aboriginal documents make any clear reference to the people. conservation priorities of the authorities responsible for protected areas (Foxlee, 2003). There is a need for These examples all demonstrate the success that can attitude change to see the opportunity of tourism as a be achieved through partnerships between tourism tool for conservation, rather than viewing parks as a and conservation, leading to effective outcomes in line business opportunity and resource for tourism. More with principles of sustainable and ethical effective and equitable public-private partnerships development. involving tourism need greater guidance and shared learning on many management issues, such as policies on licensing, entry fees, concessions and permits.
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Actions required in the next To achieve the aims of ‘Benefits Beyond ten years Boundaries’ and Building Support a number of key actions are necessary. The following are priorities: To harness the potential of tourism as a tool for positive change, policy development should be driven ● Seeking greater tourism industry involvement and by the international organizations with the greatest sponsorship for conservation and Task Force influence on national agendas and the tourism initiatives; industry. ● Development of an inventory of park tourism; ● The preparation of guidelines for park A key action arising from the Tourism concessions, permits and licences; Recommendation at the World Parks Congress (5.12) ● The training of current park managers in is strengthening the existing strategic alliances park/nature-based and ecotourism and strategic between IUCN-WCPA and key stakeholders, seeking interpretation planning; a more sustainable partnership between tourism and ● Strategic alignment within the WCPA and other protected areas. For example, the WCPA Task Force IUCN commissions on priority issues. on Tourism and Protected Areas proposed to SBSTTA To further the implementation of the WPC 9 in preparation for COP 7 in 2004 to extend the role Recommendation on Tourism, a joint application with of tourism beyond financing conservation to also UNESCO-WHC and WTO to the Rockefeller include the roles of visitor education and awareness Foundation has been prepared to convene a meeting of raising, capacity building, cultural heritage UN agencies and funding bodies on ‘Strategic global conservation and community empowerment. collaboration on tourism for heritage conservation, The Task Force on Tourism and Protected Areas can poverty alleviation and global wellbeing’ leading to continue to play a valuable role within the WCPA and greater collaboration and sharing of knowledge, with other IUCN Commissions, in particular the resources and joint funding of priority initiatives. Commission on Education and Communication, the Tourism in and around protected areas must be a Species Survival Commission, the Ramsar tool for conservation, building support and raising programme and the IUCN Building Support for awareness of the many important values of protected Protected Areas ten-year action plan. areas including ecological, cultural, sacred, spiritual, aesthetic, recreational and economic.
Black Bear in camp-site in Killarney Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. © Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. © Paul
154 chapter 12 © D. Ostergren © D. Making connections: the tactics, art and science of building political support for protected natural areas
by David Ostergren
Editor’s introduction In the context of protected areas, political support is example through listing under the World Heritage essential to ensuring that the protected area receives Convention. International agreements between the kind of support that is required. This often requires governments, such as the Convention on Biological building a political constituency of supporters, Diversity, the World Heritage Convention and the broadly defined as those who have a significant Ramsar Convention, offer the highest level of political interest in the effective management of the protected support for protected areas, and help to guide area. Historically, the early protected areas often were international funding in support of protected areas in established by administrative fiat by kings or other developing countries. At the national level, political powerful leaders, but beginning in the second half of support can start at the top, with a sympathetic the twentieth century, the establishment of protected government leader, as in Madagascar or Costa Rica. areas became a much more democratic process that In other cases, national support can build on a required more consultation with stakeholders, very broader grass roots movement, as in Brazil. The much a political process. The political process, as challenge is to ensure that political leaders are in fact David Ostergren points out in this chapter, also able to earn the support of the voters for the policies includes addressing the concerns of those who oppose they are advocating, and this in turn typically involves the protected area, possibly over concerns about the delivering benefits to the affected constituents. At the possible negative impact on their own welfare. An local level, indigenous and local peoples increasingly essential element for those seeking to build political are being enlisted as partners in establishing support for protected areas is a thorough protected areas, and in some cases are even given understanding of the values that are delivered through ownership of the site (as in some parts of Australia). managing the site in a particular way. This will enable Effective political support requires a combination of the advocate to build a personal relationship with local, national and international measures, but the those who need to be a committed part of the foundation is making a connection with the politicians constituency. While many will argue that all politics is and enabling them to provide benefits to their local, international support can also play an constituents through the establishment and effective important role in legitimizing the local interests, for management of protected areas.
Photo: Scant resources in Altaiski Zapovednik (IUCN category 1a). This strict nature preserve was traditionally dedicated to research but now hosts a limited number of Russian school children and international ecotourists to help defray costs such as maintenance and gas. 155 12 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction better protected; and protected areas focusing their mission to provide one or more of the many values. Political support for protected natural areas is tightly interwoven with the larger economic and socio- One question that managers, politicians or PA political forces of any society. The strategies advocates may ask is: “where and when do I adopt a employed by individuals and organizations who particular strategy?” This chapter will not provide an support protected areas reflect their own political easy answer, but many of the techniques discussed in talents and resourcefulness as well as the larger this chapter may be transferred from one nation to context of a nation’s culture and political character. another. The task for anyone successfully using these This chapter investigates some of those strategies to strategies is to be sensitive to the cultural context and build political support for protected areas, based on make the necessary translations and adjustments. case studies. Though the most influential variable Ultimately, it is up to protected area advocates to rise appears to be the national context, the case studies to the tremendous challenge of making connections in themselves are organized on the international, a fluid, changing socio-political context. regional, national and local scales. The strategies presented here are but a small sample of the many Background tremendous efforts throughout the world. The consistent theme throughout is that building For centuries, protected natural areas served the political support depends upon making connections personal desire of kings to hunt, ride or more rarely – connections between institutions, nations, provide raw material for state needs such as timber for organizations, communities and people. Successful ships. The pattern was that political support was strategies involve people communicating with each generated by the decree of an authoritarian ruler and other on a very personal level and adapting each set similarly, by dictate of colonial powers as in game of protected area needs and unique values to the reserves established throughout Africa. By the late 19th type of political support that will make the most of century, game reserves and restricted access forest the larger socio-political circumstances. lands existed in many cultures but not necessarily to protect nature nor serve the general public. Even in the Many texts and guidelines have been written to democratic United States the first federal forest manage protected areas, including those that reserves and national monuments were established by address the critical process of national planning strategies (see, for example, Davey, 1998; Eagles presidential fiat. However, even as US Presidents, and McCool, 2002) but few dedicate more than centralized governments and European monarchs were th passing remarks to political strategies. A concerted, enacting policy from the top down, in the late 19 and deliberate effort to record and disseminate early 20th centuries, protected natural areas started to successful political strategies in support of reflect the emerging political variation and political protected areas throughout the world is urgently realities of post-authoritarian rule. needed. Beginning with Yellowstone National Park This chapter is part of the process of disseminating (established 1872) in the USA, national parks were political strategies. In addition, readers may refer to established in many nations and reflected a public the hundreds of case studies, IUCN guidelines, desire to protect natural areas for recreation, articles, books and analyses on protected areas. aesthetics, and the economic benefits derived from Many of these publications document cases of tourism. These first areas emerged in early free market success which is ultimately political success. democracies such as the United States, Canada, New Examples include establishing or expanding a Zealand and Australia and reflected their unique protected area; managers working across boundaries national character as well as an extensive, intact, wild for the social or economic benefit of a neighbouring natural beauty (Butler and Boyd, 2002; Nash, 2001). community; biological treatises revealing new Special interests such as the railroad industry aspects of natural phenomena; a species or landscape undoubtedly played a role in the establishment of
156 IUCN Photo Library © Peter Shadie limits tothegeneral public foranelite and reserved Soviet established strictnaturepreserves were off andHollenhorst, 1999). USA (Ostergren Thus, the socialpositionthanin the much moresignificant communitythathelda a few elites,andascientific mobile leisureclass,apolitical systemdominatedby the early 20 of socio-politicalsystemsonprotectedareapolicy. In to illustratetheinfluence States andtheUSSRserves and Fig, 2000). A comparisonbetween theUnited a focusforenvironmental justiceandrestitution(Cock the 1990s. The South African parkshave now become in ofapartheid the widersocietyuntildestruction 2001). However NPremainedsegregated asin Kruger recreational accessandaestheticappreciation(Nash, designated toprotectwildlifeandallow for NationalPark inSouth Kruger Africa (est.1926)was established PAs withdifferent goalsandmissions. larger democraticpractice. public, andremainaccessible, was areflection ofthe notion thatpublic landswere tobemanagedforthe e for accessby thegeneralpublic ratherthan national parksbuttheseareaswere primarily designed xploitation by commercialinterest. The democratic Making connections:thetactics,artandscienceofbuildingpoliticalsupportforprotected naturalareas Malyi Semyachik Volcano, Kamchatka,RussianFederation. Other nationswithdifferent socio-politicalsystems th century the USSR had a very small, the USSR hadavery century Vi 2001). Itwas rededicated in1969asParc Nationalde (Nash, experts forasmallcadreofscientific reserved National Park in1925theCongoasaplace Albert BelgianKingLeopoldestablished participation. authoritarian controltopublic accessand of thediminishing habitatforgorillas. National millions ofvisitors fromaroundtheworld andispart the World Heritage Listin1979. This parkhashosted f landforpublicthe needtoreserve access was, onthe of thelandwas undercommunalownership andthus late emergence ofnational parksinRussiaisthatmost communities asinGreatBritain.Onereasonforthe logging areasor zonesandsometimesagricultural until the1980sandtoday includetouristzones, small the 1970s.NationalparksinRussiadidnotemerge areas thatmaximizedpublic accesspersistedthrough the Russianareasthatexcluded thepublic andtheUS boundaries (Sellars,1997). The difference between economicinterestsjust outsidepark supported attracting visitors,andincidentally (orintentionally) parks intheUSwere tourism-based, gearedtoward cadre ofecological scientists(Weiner, 1988).National ace ofit,redundant(Gaava, 1984). Several areasandsystemsreflect thetrendfrom r unga, or Virunga NationalPark, andinscribedon 12 157 12 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
character is reflected in the name of a protected area Despite the spread and success of the global protected as well as its goals. King George the Vth National area network, managers, researchers, policy makers and Park was established by decree in Malaysia in 1938 citizens recognise a wide range of problems and and renamed Taman Negara (literally “National shortcomings. The number of threatened species Park”) after Malaysian independence in 1957. Japan’s worldwide has increased over the last decades and the first national park created for primeval characteristics rate and extent of species extinction continues to was in 1964 (Natori, 1997). By the mid-20th century expand (Harmon, 2002). Though trends show the trend to provide public access to nature affected improved conditions over the last decades, indigenous private lands as well. The first national parks in Great and mobile peoples as well as the immediate Britain appeared in the 1950s and provide access to neighbours of PAs have been ignored in the planning nature through hiking trails and walkways, though and management process for many areas throughout much of the land is in private ownership (Mair and the world (Poirier and Ostergren, 2002; Brechin et al., Delafons, 2001). 2003). As the total extent of wild areas decreases we may well ask, are protected areas nature’s last great The protected area concept was well entrenched by strongholds (Burton, 1991)? Never has the need been the 1940s and the post-WWII era allowed for an so great to expand and strengthen the world’s protected internationalization of the PA. The process of area system, calling for effective political strategies internationalization both prompted an increase in the utilizing the wide array of reasons for protecting natural amount of area protected and conversely, increased areas. This chapter attempts to continue documenting the complexity of designating protected natural areas. progress and to present successful strategies to build The political scene grew to include many (often political support for protected areas. Moving from the competing) interests within nations and between international scene to the local, the political landscape nations. The list of goals and benefits from PAs has becomes immensely complicated, but in each case a grown to include biodiversity, clean water, recreation, protected area advocate makes a connection to build economic benefits from tourism, environmental political support. education, clean air, pharmaceutical reserves, wilderness, food, scientific laboratories, cultural Strategies for political support preservation, international symbols of peace, places to Essential to understanding how political support is re-connect with nature, spiritual sites and historic generated is considering “who is asking for support, interpretation. Though many goals are who is providing that support, and what does the complementary, some are interpreted as mutually support look like?” Paraphrasing Lasswell (1958), this exclusive. is the study of who gets what, when, how. The political support that is generated to establish, expand or In 1948, the United Nations Educational, Scientific bolster protected areas may materialize as funding for and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established equipment, research, or personnel allocations. IUCN and charged it with preserving the world’s Support may be legislation that creates or expands the biotic environment. Since that time 183 nations have mission, rights, roles and/or responsibilities of established protected areas and by 2002, the United protected area staff and employees. Political support Nations List of Protected Areas listed 3881 national may include the creation or strengthening of PA parks and 102,102 protected areas altogether (Chape institutions and agencies, or take the form of increased et al., 2003). Significantly, protected areas have awareness of the ecological services or economic emerged under many political systems and some influence of protected areas within society. Support international designations have occurred under may originate locally, regionally, nationally or outright defiance of national leadership. Institutions internationally. Each of the following examples may have been developed at the international and national warrant an extended investigation, but these short level to manage PAs and distribute resources in fluid vignettes provide a view of how broad and flexible the and challenging political climates (McNeely, 1999). tool kit of political strategies is throughout the world.
158 Making connections: the tactics, art and science of building political support for protected natural areas 12
Lewis, 1994). Advocates are faced with institutional Canyon de Chelly National Monument in the USA is owned by the Navajo Nation but administered to protect ancient ruins by or bureaucratic apathy, or the challenge of making the US National Park Service. connections with communities and individuals who see benefits from extraction and utilization rather than protection and preservation. These examples are directed to building political support by positive, proactive mechanisms.
Advocates seek to establish and support protected areas for many different values. To be effective they need to be aware of the wide range of potential values that may be in the PA as well as those values that are apparent and realized. Advocates need to be aware of the multiple sources of financial or administrative support, and the range of culturally unique strategies to garner support, and then they need to reach out and make connections with a broad, politically diverse audience. In sum, whether an advocate seeks political support from a politician, bureaucrat, business, international organization or community, success depends upon the advocate’s knowledge of the PA values and the ability to communicate those values.
A central message is that managers and advocates will benefit by directing resources to build relationships. In other words, they need to answer the question, “who provides the support?” Protected area advocates also need to invest in meeting with, and connecting to, community members or politicians. Personal connections increase trust, increase cooperation and ultimately increase the political support for protected areas. Part of building those © D. Ostergren © D. relationships depends upon politicians and For the purposes of this chapter, protected area community members hearing clear (direct) messages advocates form the constituency of those who are that convey how PAs serve the public good of local, asking for support. An advocate is anyone seeking to regional and national communities. establish, expand or support a protected area and may include managers, politicians, academics, researchers, Two broad perspectives answer the question: “what neighbours, non-governmental organizations is the political support?” One perspective is for (NGOs), international bodies, experts, neighbouring advocates and managers to realize that politicians (and communities, businesses, grassroots citizen civil servants) seek to garner and maintain political organizations or, most significantly, individuals. support from their constituents – most often by Opponents to developing a protected area may include providing goods and jobs through relatively a similar list, and trade-offs are very much a part of the consistent, predictable policies. That is, the ‘what’ is political process of establishing and managing a more political support to politicians. Another point of protected area. Management decisions are often view originates from the community perspective and fraught with disagreement, conflict and occasional tends to focus on concrete benefits such as jobs, water, physical opposition, but resolving conflict is clean air, plant and animal resources, existence value, addressed elsewhere in the literature (see for example, wilderness, sacred places, or food. If a government
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International connections between people and agencies help with financial and political support in Siberian tiger country. Russian Federation Department of Protected Areas, United States Forest Service and Northern Arizona University collaborate. © D. Ostergren © D.
official or community can clearly see a benefit such as International support international recognition, the cooperation of funding International institutions such as agreements, institutions, clean water, tourism or other values, then conventions and/or organizations have tremendous subsequent actions will likely favour protected natural potential to contribute to the establishment or areas. expansion of protected areas. Most often international Building support within a local or regional institutions serve as sources of financial cooperation, community requires the insight that communities will administrative advice or information clearinghouses. act in their own best interest. Those actions may or The international community provides legitimacy to may not be consistent with national or international an advocate’s position that protected natural areas interests. PA advocates need to employ a wide range benefit the entire society well beyond the PA of communication strategies to present a convincing boundaries. And, by definition, international case that a community’s best interests may be served institutions work across a range of political conditions though PA values and benefits. Discussed elsewhere and cultural perspectives to build the political support in this volume are constituencies such as indigenous that often puts a protected area on the map. and mobile people; the mining, oil and gas industries; International organizations and institutions offer advocates for protecting biodiverse ecosystems or support as a higher authority that can be harnessed to wilderness; those who benefit as consumers or effect change. An important institution is the World providers of ecotourism experiences; groups where Heritage Convention (WHC). As part of identifying the priority is to restore war-torn ecosystems or and prioritizing sites for assistance, the WHC employs communities; and urban populations seeking avenues a “danger listing” for those sites most threatened by to connect to the natural world. Each constituency human activity. The danger listing launches several provides a unique set of challenges for PA advocates actions and mechanisms into play for existing and and a potential area of PA support. potential World Heritage Sites. The listing identifies
160 Making connections: the tactics, art and science of building political support for protected natural areas 12
specific threats, strengthens agency positions to proceeded with the understanding that the benefits to protect an area, protects the area through international the world outweighed political obstacles. attention, encourages bilateral donors and prompts financial assistance from emergency funds or donor An important and often overlooked source of PA organizations. Though the UN can take action to support is the banking community. As any PA or prompt a State to address problems within a World advocate organization will report, the PA network is Heritage Site, and the State can oppose those actions chronically short of finances. Regional banks such as or denounce the process, the goal of the WHC is to the Asian Development Bank (ADB) may have a build support through dialogue, funding and corporate commitment to supporting sustainable constructive measures rather than confrontation and economic growth rather than boom and bust delisting a site. extractive activities. As part of the ADB process to make a loan, they may link PAs to strategic areas or In areas such as Plitvice National Park, that was resources such as watersheds. Reducing poverty degraded by the Serbo-Croat war, the danger listing depends upon clean water resources just as much as has allowed UN presence and an eventual recovery of creating jobs. Tempering idealistic goals to protect the area and infrastructure. Organizing resources and natural areas is the reality that banks have limited administrative services to direct resources to Plitvice ability to influence government actions and/or would have been much more difficult without implement on-the-ground practices. However, if international support and the credibility of the WHC. establishing or supporting a PA is part of the condition Triggering a “danger listing” may be a difficult for a loan, the results of that loan have a much greater process for a small NGO or community organization probability to improve environmental conditions but because World Heritage sites are in the rather than degrade a ecosystem. international system, a significant political process is in place. The task for a small organization is to learn A lending institution that has been under a great how to connect to the WHC resources and the deal of international scrutiny from environmental responsibility of World Heritage Centre, located at NGOs and development organizations is the World UNESCO, is to keep those resources and mechanisms Bank. The Bank’s commitment to environmental accessible. quality merits a close look at its programmatic goals and mission. In recent years the climate has changed A direct, international but non-government within the Bank and some reports suggest that this is response to the threat to World Heritage Sites is in large part due to public pressure. The three pillars funding from the United Nations Foundation. of the World Bank are quality of life, quality of the Utilizing funds from a donation from Ted Turner, the environment, and improving the standard of living for UN Foundation partners with local organizations people. Historically, opponents to the World Bank through UNESCO. Foundation funds will end in 2015 lending policies have complained that the Bank lends so an essential component of any agreement is that without regard for the negative consequences for local organizations are leveraging their own time and humans or the environment. effort with Foundation resources into long-term political and financial support. Foundation funds may The World Bank has dedicated US$3.2 billion to support early efforts to organize, collect data, make environmental issues between 1988 and 2003, with a political connections and get a study under way for third of that coming from the Global Environment potential World Heritage designation. The Foundation Facility (GEF). One strategy to encourage politicians has worked in a variety of situations. Sometimes all to take environmental initiatives more seriously is that parties are in agreement with World Heritage the Bank requires a clear articulation of benefits to designation and the government endorses the process. people that encompasses both economic In other situations, such as Manas NP in India, the considerations as well as ecosystem or environmental government did not support designation and some health. Establishing or supporting a PA is a relatively conflict continues. In each case the UN Foundation concrete step to protect ecosystem values and PAs
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serve as visible evidence of positive steps to conventions. Conventions may offer expert improving quality of life. The World Bank has helped technology, advice, fora for international political establish PAs in Madagascar, Brazil and Argentina as support, international standards to measure success well as strengthened areas in Vietnam, Venezuela and and determine priorities for assistance, and provide Uganda. Improvements in the quality of life translate databases for reference and to identify possible into political support for both politicians and PAs. collaborators or resources. However, conventions may need to be more consistent to be readily accessible to The World Bank has also supported tourism a broad public and work across multiple jurisdictions. projects in southern Africa, coastal fisheries projects A standard set of terms and a consistent message in Indonesia and watershed projects in several would help limit duplication or conflicting messages. countries including Mexico, China, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and in the Andes, all with links to The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) protected areas. The Bank can specifically help with entered into force in 1993 and now has 188 state new management models, new financing models, parties (CBD, 2004). The CBD is one of the most better economic analysis and integrating protected important legally binding instruments addressing area values into mainstream development. In several protected areas in a comprehensive manner. Article 8 new projects the Bank has improved community addresses the role of protected areas and “in situ” input, integrated PAs into the larger planning process, protection of biological diversity. The 7th Conference documented economic benefits from ecosystem of the Parties in 2004 affirmed the role and detailed services and from job production, and played a key tasks for PAs, responsibilities of governments and role in water quality and quantity improvement in projected goals. Traditional ecological knowledge and countries such as Belize and Columbia. Through their the participation of indigenous people and/or influence and expertise, international institutions have neighbours to PAs was specifically addressed. Tasks a tremendous potential to communicate the benefits such as gap identification and coordinating multi- beyond boundaries for PAs to society. international agency cooperation were among the Perhaps the most significant international political many goals within the 2004 Conference of the Parties’ support for protected areas comes from international decisions (CBD, 2004).
Chinese fishermen in Xi Shuanbanna Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China. © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey
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The CBD brings an international impetus and preserves and maintain the traditional value of validity to protected area advocates working for the preserving these areas as ‘etalons,’ that is pristine establishment or expansion of PAs. Within the CBD is natural areas as control areas to compare ecosystems a funding mechanism (the Global Environment that are developed or subjected to economic activities. Facility) and opportunities for international In any nation the forces of international pressure collaboration. For instance, although the USA is one should be voluntarily accepted or rejected while the of the very few countries that has not ratified the valuable lessons are embraced within a cultural and CBD, it has donated nearly 1 billion dollars to the traditional context that best fits the unique socio- GEF which supports activities of the CBD. That political conditions. financial support and mechanism is essential to holding meetings, creating databases, publishing A consistent theme for international institutions is results and, most important, directly supporting that while advocates need to seek the institution’s protected areas. financial or administrative help through appropriate channels and within the institutional mission, the One area that international conventions facilitates is institutions themselves have an obligation to be the process of inter-national learning, how countries accessible. At the most basic level international exchange information to develop protected area institutions ought to be reaching out to individuals in strategies and learn from examples that have the field. Many protected areas are located where succeeded or failed to deliver promised ecological or computer links, telephones and even electricity may economic goals. As nations look abroad for lessons in be scarce. People living in and around PAs are often PA management and ratify international conventions engaged in the day-to-day tasks of living and are or treaties, governments tend to both resist any oblivious to the benefits that international institutions hegemonic practice or philosophy sweeping the have to offer. As impractical as it may be to have each international community, and to embrace that very large institution send representatives to remote areas, ideology to maximize support and financial one obligation of institutions is to make information opportunities. Harmonizing with international easy to translate to unique situations. Advocates who institutions works in two directions. Not only should have access to international information need to be international conventions be consistent in their able to translate that information to on-the-ground message but as each country uses similar strategies action. Visiting the GEF, CBD, IUCN or UNESCO and language, the international dialogue continues web sites should be a consistent experience that offers and creates a synergy that is difficult for governments support. A great deal of useful information is available to ignore. through publications and through the field offices or Inter-national learning is the process of adopting individuals who work with these institutions. But those strategies that build support and adapt to many people new to the protected area community changing political conditions while maintaining a may need straightforward answers to what, at first, sense of cultural integrity. Inter-national learning may appear to be simple questions. How does a small be a process of years or decades as political Bolivian community ensure that its watershed is boundaries ebb and flow. For instance as the USSR protected as the nation seeks to harvest resources or collapsed, the funding for the Russian zapovednik build a hydroelectric power plant? How does a system (strict nature preserve, IUCN Category 1a) Lithuanian village promote itself as a protected area was reduced by 60–80% and crippled management destination and resist the perceived negative forces of and research capabilities. To build political support, development? Who can those communities turn to for since 1991 Russian Federation legislation has international support? The good news is that incorporated the strategies of environmental information and support through international education and the prospect of ecotourism. A new institutions is increasing every year, but the challenge practice on these strict nature preserves throughout is to keep that information and support easy to Russia is to allow travel on limited portions of the understand and readily accessible.
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National support to protect biodiversity in the 1970s and 1980s gained international notoriety, western environmental non- At the national level, support is usually channelled governmental organizations (NGOs) were seen by through the institutions and agencies that have been some to invade ‘nature rich’ less developed nations to established by enabling legislation, regulations or establish PAs. Accused of environmental imperialism, decrees. National laws allow protected areas to ask for the NGOs may have overlooked or ignored the needs finances, determine boundaries, enforce regulations and rights of local people or the political realities of a and meet the goals to fulfil a national mission to national government. On the one hand, ignoring the protect areas of significance. Although the broad, needs of local people is an affront to their sovereignty, ideological goals of protecting cultural or biological while on the other hand public participation in all diversity may be articulated at the international level, decisions is not appropriate in all nations or all advocates are most often working within very specific conditions. When international organizations support socio-political conditions that determine what national efforts, that support ought to be invited, pathway to take toward support. In countries with powerful presidencies and strong leadership, culturally appropriate and developed over long advocates must make their case at the very highest periods of time. level. Nations with strong parliamentary or In contrast to the recommended slow approach for congressional rule may require advocates to convince international advocates, nationally based advocates a regional political leader that PAs offer quality of life may need to move quickly, taking advantage of benefits that will re-elect that official. Advocates opportunities and marshalling international support to living in countries where ministerial or bureaucratic their advantage. In Columbia, President Alvaro Uribe politics dominate the political landscape will spend a Velez had demonstrated a history of environmental great deal of time in administrative offices (assuming awareness. As part of his personal conviction and as that enabling legislation exists). Finally, at times the Minister of Environment, he found areas to participate path to influencing national politics is through local in the Parks for People programme. As Minister Uribe politicians and local politics so this section on national became President, the time to make a case for further politics is closely linked to local politics. PA development surfaced. Although the President has As advocates seek political support, moments of focused on more pressing needs, the opportunity opportunity surface and in some countries those should not be ignored. To illustrate where the moments entail enlisting the aid of a sympathetic presidency and government stand in relation to president or high level politician. The first step is to international standards, three NPs have been recently engage the politician by presenting alternatives that established for different reasons. One focuses on serve his/her constituency (and take credit for that medicinal plants and two are transboundary parks. service) through job creation or the preservation of a Unfortunately, these wild areas are also sites for traditional way of life. Past relationships may play a conflict and often unsafe for international travellers. part in making a connection to politicians through As discussed in Hammill (this volume), insecurity school, work or family. Although this is often limits the opportunities for PA managers to work in accidental it may also arise from years developing an this war torn region. immediate, on-the-ground connection to an One concern in PA advocacy is recruiting and individual. In many countries, national politicians emerge from local politics which requires that PA soliciting the support of national level politicians who advocates think 5–10 years down the road. However, are relatively uninformed about PA issues. The first politicians may only think in terms of the election and best strategy is a personal connection that allows cycle or the very politician that PA advocates courted for time to discuss and describe issues, terminology or for support is replaced in the next election cycle. broad concepts. In other cases the first contact is necessarily through printed material. In this instance National politics highlights a negative image that the promotional material needs to clearly accompanies international PA advocates. As the cause communicate the many values and benefits of PAs
164 Making connections: the tactics, art and science of building political support for protected natural areas 12
and be free of jargon. India has had success through Observers have variously characterized Russian written communication and a great deal of politics as chaotic democracy where rules change information can be digested by civil service, yearly, or a delegative democracy where a single politicians, NGOs and religious leaders. leader has unusual freedom to make decisions. Many nations experience political instability, so what Box 12.1 message should be sent to national politicians? First on the list are the direct economic benefits to Protected areas in a time of political communities (such as selling indigenous crafts or providing tourism) and the broader economic values transition: the case of Russia as outlined by the World Bank or IUCN (1998). In The Russian Federation has a long history of Russia, some national parks are zoned to allow limited protecting natural areas, with some efforts forest management, fishing or hunting. Advocates predating the Soviet era. Since 1991 and the fall create support and awareness of PA goals with school of the USSR, Russia has enacted a series of laws programmes that will hopefully translate into future that are designed to protect the environment. In political support. However even when national parks 1995 the Law on Specially Protected Natural enjoy widespread popular support and notoriety as in Areas set high standards and provided needed the USA, budgets may not be fully funded. At the authority to managers for all protected areas. national level, support often depends upon the goals Currently, however, President Putin is perceived and aspirations of a particular administration. In some by many as apathetic toward the PA system. In cases such as in countries in transition, the economy is 2000 the 100 zapovedniks (strict nature such that no opportunity is available to wait for federal preserves), and 35 national parks were merged support and local managers need to act on their own. from two administrative agencies into one Some PA systems benefit tremendously from a Department of Protected Areas and placed within strong state. Cuba has a very solid system despite the the Ministry of Natural Resources (traditionally a fact that 90% of the land mass has been disturbed. The development-oriented ministry). In Russia, one remaining 10% is unpopulated and the state is strategy is to appeal to national politicians and responsible to protect those areas. Protected areas in their need for publicity. The initial challenges to Cuba do not have high economic value. To earn overcome are that historically zapovedniks have support the ecological values are emphasised to the had little to do with local people and that most general public and then translated to the national level. people in Russia assume protecting nature means a loss of economic resources. Thus, politicians need to promote an environmentally favourable Building political support includes outreach to communities like this owner/operator of a bed and breakfast in the Altai Mountains near image to voters, to communicate the values and Katun Zapovednik (strict nature preserve IUCN category 1a). benefits of protected natural areas. To develop political support in villages the traditionally isolated zapovedniks have initiated education programmes on-site as well as in local schools. Other services include zapovednik research staff monitoring environmental conditions within nearby communities or offering expert opinion on potential development projects. These strategies integrate the PA into the community which builds support and both short and long-term benefits. © D. Ostergren © D.
165 12 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Scotland. © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey
In Mexico a federal PA initiative may originate from throughout Europe which are now integrated into the NGOs, scientists, or a federal agency. However, to system and pay particular attention to marine recruit support at the national level, the process needs conservation. This is an example of international to go through the people. Decisions and actions are pressure having a positive effect on national nature strongly driven by economics and the perception is protection efforts. At first Natura 2000 had a pure that PAs hinder people from meeting basic needs. science base with scientists deciding where and what However, where nations emphasise clean water, wild to protect. As with many top-down decision making spaces or biological diversity in addition to jobs as processes, this approach met some resistance and contributing to the quality of life, PAs emerge as an resentment, so the process has evolved to include essential contribution to society as well as the more community participation. landscape. Currently PAs in Mexico have a small amount of political capital. Although virtually every Local support ecosystem is represented, only eight protected areas are doing “most of the work.” Protected area neighbours, indigenous and mobile peoples, local politicians and communities can be Scotland and the Scottish National Heritage both potential sources of great support and/or sources programme use a combination of strategies where of tremendous conflict for PAs. Often when a PA is private lands are designated and then the government proposed, and most notably when it is a national park, pays for certain conservation behaviour. One designation unique to the United Kingdom including local residents look to the promise of tourism dollars Scotland, that makes a significant contribution to the and improved infrastructure as their PA gets “on the PA system but is not recognised by IUCN, are the map” and government support systems are activated. Sites of Special Scientific Interest. In addition to the As parks expand or local communities strive for Scottish national parks, a recent initiative is the EU economic growth, the strategy for advocates is to Natura 2000 that has identified many natural areas communicate that those natural resources “locked up”
166 Making connections: the tactics, art and science of building political support for protected natural areas 12
in parks can be translated into non-extractive sources clarifying goals of both the local entities and the of income and wealth. Nations have had some great national government. Appropriate capacity building success with this strategy (see e.g. Ceballos- also assumes that development need not be ‘aid’ but Lascurain, 1996; Eagles and McCool, 2002; Machlis projects that fulfil multiple goals. and Field, 2000; IUCN, 2000). Australia is famous for extensive protected areas But in other cases the promise of tourism has failed with a unique system of Aboriginal cooperative to materialize and/or brought on more problems than agreements. Portions of parks or entire parks are anticipated (e.g. Hall and Lew, 1998; Honey, 1999; owned by Aboriginals and leased out to provincial Boyd, 2000). When the people see the PA as an governments. These cooperative agreements hold establishment that does not take into consideration great promise to build and maintain wide support. their needs, wants and perspectives on the area and the However a great deal of biodiversity is on private land resources therein, problems are likely to arise. If the and the PA system has not necessarily captured all community only sees economic values as a raw, biological diversity. One recent initiative has been extractable resource, or the PA staff and legislation directed to working on private lands in South West only recognises one value such as biodiversity/habitat Victoria, known as “Bush Tender”. preservation, public support is difficult to earn. A After contact between the government and the better strategy for PA advocates to build local support private land owner, the government agency identifies is to communicate the full range of values in a PA. The many of the values that can be captured by the land wider range of non-tangible values needs to be (especially water which dilutes the salinity of recognised (Harmon and Putney, 2003) and many aquifers). Then private land owners are contracted to strategies to include those values into the PA protect their land by the government. The prices are philosophy and mission are available (e.g. Stolton and calculated by combining the quality and quantity of Dudley, 1999; Brechin et al., 2003). The rights and the resource and the proposed level of protection. Part values of indigenous and mobile peoples are highlighted by Larsen and Oviedo (this volume). of the agreement is training for land owners in how to care for the land. One of the more rewarding benefits Although official recognition is yet to come, in is a generational effect as land and values are passed Tanzania the situation in the Tangi Region is ripe for down through time. The private landowners support PA development and residents are amenable to protecting areas because they can see multiple establishing a PA. The area can serve as a corridor benefits (e.g. income, nature protection). Some 85% between protected areas such as the Amani Nature of the participants are recent adherents to the Reserve and the Nilo Forest Reserve. In this corridor, programme and there has been an increase by 15% of 1500 people from eight villages use the resources for protected area in South West Victoria. As community farming organic cardamom. The crop is a potential members learn to trust the Bush Tender programme, money earner while the area can remain mostly enthusiasm grows and once the politicians recognise a covered in natural vegetation and support a variety of popular programme they affiliate with it and are more species. The people support the creation and likely to support it with federal funding. maintenance of this protected area because they care about the area and it is historically important to their As an international NGO that has a long history of livelihood and traditions. However, in this case the conservation work throughout the world, The Nature locals had relatively little information about the Conservancy ‘Parks in Peril’ programme has powers of their government. The IUCN developed a slow but steady approach to working in Environmental Law Centre and Ministry of Lands Latin America. They build civil society by working have worked to build capacity not only to deal with the with local NGOs that often have more flexibility and government, but to negotiate any possible influence than PAs. TNC helps organizations work ramifications of policy change. Capacity building effectively with local NGOs by building in plans to may take many forms but sometimes it is as simple as develop personnel recruitment and a familiarity with
167 12 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
national politics. The philosophy is to work well, and Establishing and maintaining PAs in some parts of the work long term. Financial stability and effective world will continue to be surrounded by conflict for funding strategies are essential in training decades to come. Local political strategies are no programmes and resource commitment. Key more a panacea than national or international messages are the multiple PA benefits to society and strategies. Nonetheless, PAs are much more likely to local communities such as water quality or long-term succeed and flourish with a concentrated effort to preservation of biological hotspots. connect local communities to PA goals, connect local communities to national strategies, and connect local In South Africa one successful strategy to problems to international support. connecting politicians with the local and national benefits of PAs is “Putting Politicians in the Wild.” For decades black people (people who are now political Conclusion leaders) were excluded from wild areas – “no go” This is but a sampling of the many strategies to areas. Advocates recruit leaders and politicians to take building political support. The most common theme a four-day wilderness trip into one of the park that has emerged is for advocates to “make a wilderness areas. There is a fairly predictable and connection.” The examples include international fairly significant transition as they personally institutions connecting to national agencies and local experience the wild. The 250 participants, including communities, conventions and agreements clarifying 148 legislators, are in positions to make decisions. their message to connect to NGOs or individuals, With this experience many of their decisions are much nations connecting to other nations, and PA advocates more attuned to the impact on environmental or park taking the time to effectively connect on all levels. resources. The tremendous challenge in South Africa Indigenous people and local communities work to as in many developing nations is to include all of communicate with local or national politicians to society in the benefits and costs of protecting nature. make their own needs clear while private land owners A high, national quality of life is not essential to connected with the goals of national programmes. establishing PAs but managing an area that works with Each PA needs to be placed into the political, locals and provides some economic benefits will economic and social context. Then protected area certainly produce more political support than a advocates can use these strategies to improve strategy of isolation and unilateral actions. connections between multiple stakeholders but more important, make the essential connection between
Sand mining adjacent to St Lucia, South Africa. stakeholders and PAs themselves.
Acknowledgements Pedro Araya, Bob Dobias, Bernd von Droste, Joseph Edmiston, Reinaldo Estrada Estrada, Robert Hoft, Steve Hollenhorst, Ian Jardine, Will Kennedy, Tom Kiernan, Kelly Levin, Kathy MacKinnon, Juan Mayr Maldonado, Nikolai Maleshin, Gavin Mathieson, Steve McCool, Rodrigo Medellin, Gwen Mhlangu, Kathryn Monk, Andrew Muir, Klemani Jo Mulongoy, Seema Paul, Alexander Shestakov, Pavel Sulyandziga, Floro Tunubala, Jorge Viana and Tomme Young contributed significantly to the discussions that resulted in this chapter. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
168 chapter 13 IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim Contribution of the World Heritage Convention to building support for the global protected area system
by Jim Thorsell
Editor’s introduction As the person responsible for managing the how World Heritage can assist in developing new assessment of nominations of natural sites to the thinking and policies for protecting a nation’s natural World Heritage List over the past two decades, Jim heritage, specifying what should be identified and Thorsell is very well placed to offer ideas on how protected, designing new approaches to management, World Heritage designation can lead to broader and dealing with threats from various external support for protected areas more generally. He gives factors. To capture the potential of World Heritage particular attention to World Heritage Sites as sites for building broader support will require more exemplars of effective protective area management, transboundary cooperation, better coordination of covering topics such as the preparation of a activities among the potential external sources of management plan, involvement in bioregional support, partnership between World Heritage and planning, establishment of monitoring and reporting industries based on natural resources, and better use processes, building the capacity of staff, and of the World Heritage idea in building broader managing and marketing tourism. He also discusses support for protected areas.
Photo: China’s Huangshan Mountain World Heritage site with its travertine pools.
169 13 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction (GEF) give priority to funding projects in WH sites. Donors justify funding WH sites more easily as they As of the end of 2003, 172 protected areas have been have been designated under a UN convention, they inscribed on the prestigious World Heritage (WH) List have been screened for their global importance and as being of “outstanding universal value” for their ecological integrity and come with a national natural features (including 23 which also satisfy commitment for their protection (Paul, 2003). This cultural criteria). Together these sites cover an area of donor preference has been recently reinforced through 1.7 million km2, approximately 9% of the global a significant Memorandum of Understanding protected area network and 0.16% of the total number between the World Heritage Centre, the Convention of the world’s protected areas (IUCN Category I–VI on Biological Diversity and the UNDP/GEF. sites). This may appear to be a small proportion of the total network but the WH Convention is only intended With this reinforced financial backing along with to apply to a select number of the world’s most their “branding” and political support, WH sites have outstanding sites. been called “Cadillac parks” and are expected to set the standards and be models of effective management Although relatively few in comparison to the global for other sites in the protected areas system. total of protected areas, WH sites assume a disproportionate prominence in ways that other sites But along with these advantages, WH site status do not. For example, WH sites are part of a rigorously also carries greater responsibility and brings wider screened exclusive global network of “the best of the international exposure, particularly when a site’s best”, the “crème de la crème” or the “crown jewels” integrity is threatened. A reporting and monitoring of this network. They fall under an international system is in place which allows a site to be placed on convention ratified by 176 countries that seeks not the List of WH in Danger and eventually to be de- representativeness (which is the objective of listed if the values for which it was originally inscribed UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere programme) and are lost. Though this latter step has never been taken, recognises that WH sites are at the zenith on our scale the prospect of it has been raised in several cases (e.g. of natural resources. Srebarna in Bulgaria and Ichkeul in Tunisia). This “state of conservation reporting” mechanism serves as Figure 13.1 provides a graphic view of World an important means to ensure accountability of Heritage sites and how they fit in the spectrum of different types of protected areas. The figure member countries and to maintain credibility for the illustrates that WH sites are limited in number and that system. It also helps marshall international support if there is a hierarchy of sites, all of which are important needed (Von Droste and Ishwaran, 2003). The in conserving the earth’s diversity. leverage value in reporting on threats to sites has been applied with great effect in many sites (Thorsell, One consequence of this “hall of fame” approach is 2003) and is another mechanism unique to this that WH sites have attained a high level of public Convention. exposure and political support. For nature conservation they could be referred to as “political Despite these distinguishing features, WH sites hotspots” – areas that have been proposed by should not be viewed as above and apart from the governments and accepted by a committee made up of global protected area network. Indeed, Article 5 of the 21 countries as being of “Nobel prize” quality. Convention text as agreed in 1972 calls for each State Party to undertake a number of measures that apply A second consequence of WH listing is that most generally to protection of the natural and cultural sites (particularly those in non-OECD countries) are heritage. These include adoption of heritage policies in a favoured position when it comes to financial that would be integrated into comprehensive planning support. Not only do tourism levels increase, bringing programmes, establishing government departments to added economic benefits, but donors such as the UN manage heritage sites, undertaking research and Foundation and the Global Environment Facility setting up training centres for staff. All of these
170 Contribution of the World Heritage Convention to building support for the global protected area system 13
Figure 13.1
Schematic representation of the relationship of World Heritage Sites to other types of protected areas
Outstanding Universal Value
World Sites can only cross the Heritage Emphasis on threshold if they meet representativity and Other International WH criteria and stringent ecosystem, landscape, (e.g. Ramsar, MAB, Geoparks) requirements of habitat and species Outstanding Regional Sites and Networks conservation through Universal Value (e.g. Natura 2000, ASEAN and Heritage Parks) effective PA systems and ecological networks Sub-Regional Sites (e.g. transboundary PAs, Peace Parks) National Sites/PA Systems (e.g. national parks, nature reserves, private reserves, monuments, NGO designations such as IBAs, ecological networks) Sub-National Sites (e.g. regional parks, provincial and district reserves)
measures were foreseen by the drafters of the sites are expected to play a leadership role and provide Convention as being essential elements that would models of management that could be promoted and make up a heritage protection framework for all applied to other areas in the protected area system. countries. For example, it is a requirement that all WH sites Case studies presented during the preparatory have a management plan. Much effort by State workshop and at the World Parks Congress Parties, often with support from the WH Fund, has demonstrate that WH serves to contribute to protected gone towards preparing plans to ensure that this area systems generally via two main directions: fundamental requirement of effective management is through raising the standards of management met. Many of these plans have broken new ground in throughout the system; and by helping to develop new terms of their scope and process (e.g. in the Central strategic thinking and policies about protected areas in Eastern Rainforest Reserves of Australia and China’s general. Three Parallel Gorges Protected Areas). Virtually all natural WH sites now have some form of management How World Heritage can assist plan and/or management policy statement. In many in raising standards of cases the management planning exercise for a WH site protected area management was the first attempted in the country and has led to similar initiatives for other areas in the system.
World Heritage standards of At the broader bioregional planning scale some management WH sites have led the way in system-wide planning. By definition, WH sites are those areas of One of the first was the regional conservation plan for “outstanding universal value” and it is expected that Fraser Island and the Great Sandy region of Australia they will be models of “best practice”, demonstrating which was complemented by regional plans for the the highest standards of management. Although there Great Barrier Reef and the Wet Tropics. Similar is no statement to this effect in the Convention text or regional conservation planning has been carried out in in the Operational Guidelines for the Convention, WH the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania, the Ruta Maya
171 13 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Niru village (2700m), Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas, China. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
and Path of the Panther in Central America, the Inca WH sites also perform another exemplary role for Trail in the Andes and the Yellowstone to Yukon in the rest of the system in terms of monitoring and Canada and the USA. WH sites form the core of many reporting on trends and threats. This on-going of these attempts to establish linkages and corridors periodic reporting activity is also required under the between networks of protected areas which are Operational Guidelines and has proved its worth in essential to establishing long-term ecological viability many cases in terms of taking corrective actions to for many species. mitigate or avert management deficiencies (specific examples are contained in Thorsell (2003) and Wilson Several of the above examples involve and Wilson (2004)). It is not known how widely this transboundary agreements and peace parks which “state of the parks” practice has been adopted but it also serve to demonstrate the role of WH in fostering has been applied with useful results in Canada and in international cooperation. Examples in addition to the some States in Australia. above are cooperative agreements signed between Brazil and Argentina on management of the Iguazu One key issue that has been defined as a priority in WH site, and similar transfrontier agreements many protected area fora is capacity building. Here between Zambia and Zimbabwe on Victoria Falls, there have been many spillover effects to other Panama and Columbia on the Darien/Los Katios WH protected areas from using WH sites as focal points for site, Belize and Mexico on the western Caribbean reef training activities. As noted by Phillips (2003): “A case system and the current nomination of the Borneo in point is the series of workshops held in and near WH rainforest reserves of Malaysia and Indonesia. sites as part of the UN Foundation-backed
172 Contribution of the World Heritage Convention to building support for the global protected area system 13
management effectiveness project, Enhancing our protected area system. The challenge here is to ensure Heritage. The World Heritage Foundation also that WH sites do provide this leadership or else suffer provides about US$1.5million per year for natural and a loss in credibility as standard setters. Unfortunately cultural heritage training activities proposed by State this is often the case in many sites. In a review of WH Parties and the Advisory Bodies, as well as a training sites in the ASEAN region, for example, Mackinnon programme for youth in World Heritage (e.g. the (2002) concludes that of the nine WH sites in the upcoming training course in Indonesia on marine region only two (Gunung Mulu and Kinabalu in conservation for young people of the region).” Related Malaysia) are adequately managed. Many other WH to these activities the WH Fund is a significant sites are known to have serious management provider of scholarships to the regional training centres deficiencies, particularly the 17 natural sites that are in Tanzania, Costa Rica and Cameroon which have on the WH in Danger List. WH sites in Africa are supported over 100 students over the past two decades. predominant on this list and case studies detailing the difficulties faced in the five WH sites in danger in Additionally, many regional workshops have been Congo are provided by Debonnet and Hillman-Smith held for WH site managers and others which have (2003) and for Comoe in Cote d’Ivoire by Fischer et focused on key management concerns. One al. (2003). illustrative example of many focused on dealing with local communities was held in Thailand attended by Most protected areas in the world are facing serious representatives from 17 countries in the region. The management challenges and WH status does not grant proceedings of this workshop were published by the immunity from threats. WH sites do, however, have an World Heritage Centre (Thulstrup, 1999) and are now advantage over other types of protected areas in that widely used as a reference in the region. they have an international profile and access to a wider array of funding sources including the WH A final example of where WH sites can act as emergency assistance fund. When funding becomes models for management and where there are many the problem (e.g. as was the case in Ngorongoro in beneficial secondary effects on the rest of the system Tanzania and Sangay in Ecuador) financial and is tourism management and marketing. As WH technical assistance can be provided. However, where designation virtually always attracts increased there are other barriers to management such as civil visitation, bringing with it both positive and negative disturbance, response to climate change or lack of pressures, many efforts to better control tourism in political commitment, WH sites are as vulnerable to WH sites have been undertaken. The WH Fund has, losses in integrity as any other protected area. for example, provided assistance to the Galapagos for tourism planning and guide training which is viewed How World Heritage can assist in as one of the better models of its type. It has also developing new strategic thinking and provided funds to better manage natural WH sites in policies for protecting a nation’s natural China where increases in visitation of 500% have heritage been experienced in some sites. Managing Tourism at WH Sites: A Practical Manual for WH Site Managers The World Heritage Convention (as well as UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme) has is a publication issued by the WH Centre which also acted to stimulate many new approaches and policies attempts to assist in addressing the tourism issue that to strengthen conservation at the global level. As is a major concern in many protected areas (Pedersen, noted above, the WH Convention text calls on 2002 and Pedersen and Arellano, 2003 ). countries to undertake a wide range of measures to Although the above initiatives are not always protect their national heritage as well as supported by hard data (this is currently the subject of internationally significant sites. Beyond these basic a Ph.D. dissertation based on a questionnaire survey), measures as defined in 1972, WH has advanced it can be claimed that many WH sites do set standards thinking on protected areas and conservation in a which provide wider benefits to the rest of the number of ways.
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For instance, WH takes a much wider view of what Angkor Wat National Park, Cambodia. should be identified and protected as part of the heritage of a nation. In addition to the customary emphasis on biological values, WH has expanded the range of interests in two additional directions. One is by bridging the gap between the cultural and natural heritage by introducing the concept of cultural landscapes in 1992. This initiative gives added weight to IUCN’s efforts to promote the use of Category V Protected Landscapes which are inhabited working landscapes where significant conservation values also co-exist. This nexus between nature and culture is a difficult but key policy issue in many places. One of the better instances where it has been examined in some depth has been in the Laponia WH site in Sweden. Here, a decade of work has led to an improved understanding of the balance between nature protection and the role of the indigenous Saami reindeer herders, which has management implications throughout northern Scandinavia (Dahlstrom, 2003).
Another aspect of the cultural landscape approach is based on the premise that “…powerful beliefs, traditions and spiritual relationship of people with nature can contribute to global heritage conservation and add a new dimension in linking culture and nature” (Rössler, 2003). Since this effort to consider the intangible and non-material values of heritage, a number of innovations were introduced. For example, with the acceptance of traditional custodianship and customary land tenure, sites such as East Rennel in the Solomon Islands were entered on the WH List, which led to a surge of interest in alternate means for nature protection among other small island states in the South Pacific.
Growing appreciation (mostly by indigenous people) of the spiritual and cultural values of many WH sites (e.g. Tongariro in New Zealand, Taishan in China, Nanda Devi in India and the Hawaii Volcanoes) also led to a number of initiatives to promote greater recognition of the sacred aspects of heritage. The WH Fund has sponsored several meetings on this topic (for example, WH Centre, 2002) and is a part of the new “International Network on Sacred Sites for Biodiversity Conservation”. This concept is rather poorly reflected in most national protected area systems and its explicit recognition © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey
174 Contribution of the World Heritage Convention to building support for the global protected area system 13
through the WH Convention will hopefully encourage issue. Subsequent workshops led to a set of principles wider application. intended to guide mining activities in and adjacent to protected areas. This eventually led to a position Another uncommon and often overlooked aspect of statement on mining and protected areas endorsed by heritage that has gained acceptance through WH is the IUCN Council in April 1999. In 2003, the the recognition of geo-physical, geomorphological members of the mining industries belonging to the and fossil sites. A total of 46 WH sites have been ICME announced an agreement that they would not inscribed for these values, which has led to greater undertake mining activities in WH sites. By setting prominence of geological features as part of a nation’s standards for mining and energy extraction near WH heritage. It has led to a proposal to establish a sites, and opening a partnership with the mining “Geoparks” initiative which would provide industry, new ground in this contentious area has been international recognition to the large number of sites forged. that deserve protection for “geodiversity” reasons. An even more complex and intractable issue for In addition to expanding the approach to some protected areas has been what actions to take considering what comprises “heritage”, WH has been in times of civil unrest, warfare and political a leader in designing new concepts and approaches turmoil. The situation in the DRC which has seriously to management. For instance, WH has been active in affected five WH sites there (Debonnet and Hillman- fostering the concept of serial sites – the linking of a Smith, 2003) as well as other lesser known conflicts in network of related places within and between India’s Manas WH site (Anon, 2003) and the Comoe countries. This has been a parallel development with WH site in Cote d’Ivoire (Fischer, 2003) were the “cluster sites” as promoted by UNESCO’s MAB subject of case studies at the World Parks Congress in programme. The first of these (1988) was the Central 2003. Although normal management activities cannot Eastern Rainforest Reserves of Australia which set a be conducted under these conditions, some effective benchmark for establishing a management framework use of the WH label has been used to open dialogue over a widely dispersed series of remnant forests. with the military and rebel groups. Equipment and Experience gained here was subsequently used as a funds for training and monitoring have been provided model for protection of other forests along Brazil’s in all cases. Crisis management and conflict resolution Atlantic coast, Madagascar’s wet forests, the boreal skills have been strengthened which will prove forests of Fennoscandia, the sacred forests of Cote important in the recovery phase. Again, experience d’Ivoire and the marine reserve network of the Belize gained on some of the innovative approaches used by Barrier Reef. Perhaps the boldest attempt at a serial WH in crisis situations is of broader use for site is the current project to prepare a nomination of conservation agencies. 20 isolated atolls and islands belonging to six countries in the Central Pacific (WH Centre, 2003). Finally, as suggested by Phillips (2003), the WH All the above efforts complement the linkage and experience can be adapted to apply to other network initiatives proposed by conservation biology international conservation regimes such as Biosphere planners. Reserves, Ramsar and regional agreements such as ASEAN Heritage sites. These lessons would include WH has been particularly active in addressing the the value of having independent advisory bodies, the difficult issue of mining and protected areas. monitoring system that allows a measure of Spurred by threats from mining activities to the WH accountability and the opportunities for peace- sites of Lorentz in Indonesia, Kamchatka Volcanoes in building across international boundaries. With the Russia, Kahuzi-Biega and Okapi Wildlife Reserve in recent Memorandum of Understanding with the the DRC, Huascaran in Peru, Kakadu in Australia and Convention on Biological Diversity referred to above, others, the WH Committee established a working a closer relationship with this powerful conservation group which engaged the International Council on instrument will also lead to stronger “benefits beyond Metals and the Environment (ICME) to study the WH boundaries”.
175 13 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Conclusions/actions A mudhole in the Geyser Valley, Kamchatka, Russian Federation. As evident in Figure 13.1, there is a continuum in the range of the protected area spectrum of which WH is at the pinnacle but where all levels contribute to protecting a nation’s patrimony. The contribution of the WH Convention has clearly made a difference through the many activities discussed above. The corollary of this is that individual WH sites should be seen and managed in the overall context of a country’s protected area system. The potential benefits of WH to the rest of the system, however, will not occur automatically – they must be consciously pursued. The following actions are suggested:
● State Parties, recognising the multilateral approach of the Convention, need to strengthen transboundary cooperation to achieve more effective regional conservation. ● State Parties should complete the exercise of preparing Tentative Lists of potential natural WH sites which are now a requirement of the Operational Guidelines and which greatly assist in providing complete inventories of the nation’s heritage. ● Coordination of activities between the relevant UN Agencies (UNESCO, FAO, UNDP, UNEP) as well as major donors such as the World Bank and GEF, and international organizations such as the ITTO and the World Tourism Organization, need to be further enhanced as do ties between the
international and regional conservation conventions. Shadie IUCN Photo Library © Peter ● Partnerships between WH and the resource industries (building on the model of the mining industry), particularly forestry, water resources and tourism should be pursued by the WH Centre and IUCN. ● Inasmuch as WH sites need to be models of “best practice”, national protected area agencies should ensure that those sites where management deficiencies are apparent are given greater attention. ● Site managers themselves must take greater initiative in working closely with local residents and stakeholders, submitting requests for technical assistance, communicating the message of the role of WH and how it relates to other protected areas and what it means at the local level.
176 chapter 14 IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim Communication as a means of building support for protected areas
by Wendy Goldstein and Elisabeth Auchincloss
Editor’s introduction People will support protected areas only if they tools to package messages that are relevant to the receive information about these sites in a form that is various interest groups affecting protected areas meaningful to them. This requires excellent seems to be an essential part of the protected area communication skills on the part of those who are enterprise. All of the approaches to building broader seeking to expand support for protected areas. This support for protected areas that are described in this paper draws on a series of workshops held under the book depend fundamentally on communication. This auspices of IUCN’s Commission on Education and chapter describes how to use communication as a Communication to provide advice on how to apply strategic tool for achieving the broader support that modern approaches to communication to protected this book is advocating. Rather than relying on areas. It starts by addressing some of the external technical solutions, it argues for treating external threats to protected areas, often in the form of pressures especially as a problem of communication, competition for resources. Drawing on practical requiring skills in relation development, negotiation experience in many parts of the world, Wendy and learning. Such communication skills are the Goldstein and Elisabeth Auchincloss share positive essential foundation upon which building the broader experiences on how to communicate with different constituency for protected areas can be built. This also audiences, with a particular emphasis on the requires building understanding about the reasons for communities in and around protected areas, current behaviours that may be contrary to the considering these stakeholders to have particular protected area management objectives. Case studies legitimacy in being involved in decisions that affect from South Africa, Botswana, the Philippines, them. They discuss instruments for communicating, Senegal, Mexico, Peru, Nepal and Canada including information, publicity, stakeholder demonstrate the wide variety of communication tools dialogue, public relations, social marketing, that are available to protected area managers and education, and capacity development. Using these advocates.
Photo: Jasper National Park in the Canadian Rockies.
177 14 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Introduction Communication is increasingly recognised as an important management and policy tool that must be Whether a protected area is managed by a small used strategically to address objectives at each phase community-based organization, an international of the policy or management process. Strategic NGO, a local government, a national institution or communication is based on research so that the intergovernmental agency, an integral component of communication problem is addressed, as distinct from protected area management is its interaction with the conservation problem. The communication people. For a successful interaction, communication problem relates to how people perceive the issue and must to be used strategically. the actions that they take. Strategic communication Actions conflicting with protected area also plans who is to be addressed, what is to be said or conservation, promoted by other sectors and negotiated and the appropriate means to do so. developers, present a recurrent challenge. Though it is In accordance with trends towards a broader-based recognised that environmental concerns are central to landscape approach to protected area management development, protected area agencies still have (Hesselink, 2003), communication as an instrument in difficulties relating to other sectors. Addressing protected area management needs to transform, as do external pressures requires more than technical protected area managers. After all, their ability to responses, suggesting that many protected area function with the cooperation of society depends on organizations need to change the way they work. an enabling environment for strategic communication Another common issue is the inadequate (Van Boven, 2003). Making communications more participation of stakeholders in the planning and professional will enable communication to be used management of protected areas. Despite the almost strategically to address external challenges. universal recognition of the importance of stakeholder involvement, the inability to handle such processes Communication challenges successfully reflects a lack of capacity and at times facing protected area managers will. Because sustainable development is ultimately about social change, it cannot be achieved without External threats communication, education and learning unless it is Protected areas are threatened by competition for imposed or coerced (Mefalopulos, 2003). natural resources. These threats are varied and may be intentional or inadvertent. The protected areas in Often communication is perceived as being the one- Mexico, for example, face great pressure because they way transmission of information, the “push” approach are not presented in any special way to development to communication, whereby conservation values are planners, so development activities often conflict with promoted as a means of changing behaviour. conservation objectives (Vidal, 2003). Likewise the Generally this is insufficient in bringing about Butrint National Park (World Heritage Site), Albania, changes on its own, unless the required actions do not faced challenges in overcoming resistance from the present much difficulty to people. Ministry of Tourism as well as national and international developers. Weak planning controls, A two-way communication approach involving local greed and political interests related to tourism dialogue is more likely to be successful. Hamú (2003) and construction development permitted small-scale refers to a “pull” strategy based on an understanding constructions in the protected area (Santi, 2003). In of the motivations, perceptions and interests of the the Philippines, local development preferences can stakeholder. In this approach people are “attracted” counteract national biodiversity targets and affect towards conservation action by working from their protected areas. The loss of most of the forest cover perceptions. Based on the premise that “perception is during the 20th century was due to logging and the only reality”, this requires a different approach by conversion of forest to agricultural areas, and conservationists, and one that acknowledges that “developers” – logging companies – continue to conservationists are not “always right” and the rest of construct and use logging roads in protected areas the population is wrong. without approval (Van Weerd, 2003).
178 Communication as a means of building support for protected areas 14
In Peru almost two decades of violence resulting conservation objectives, the absence of sufficient from the drug trade and insurgency resulted in a motivation, or no realistic capacity to act differently. reduction of the state apparatus for protected areas Understanding these reasons for current behaviour is (Fernandez Davila, 2003). Parks Canada in the 1980s essential before planning a communication and 90s faced changes brought about by immigration, intervention for bringing about change. multiculturalism and urbanization and the preoccupation of Canadians with social and economic Much conflict around protected areas has arisen from issues such as the economy, health care and education the failure to adequately involve stakeholders in decisions on protected area management. Indeed, in diminished support for protected areas (Bronson, some cases communication with stakeholders may be 2003). so deficient that local people do not even know the In addition to activities driven by contradictory protected area exists, why its biodiversity is important, development plans, customary and/or traditional or how it benefits the community (Davila, 2003). indigenous practices may also conflict with Similarly, the lack of clear definitions of protected area conservation objectives, as is the case in Mexico where boundaries may result in conflicts and disputes over unsustainable land-use practices, such as the slash-and- matters such as agricultural borders and practices. burn system of maize production, “are based on deep In other cases stakeholders may be well aware of the cultural beliefs and have been transmitted by protected areas, especially when they were established community elders to new generations“ (Vidal, 2003). in top-down approaches, through enforcement and These examples indicate some of the difficulties faced compulsory exclusion. These processes were in creating and managing protected areas. characterized by conflict between the parks and Many protected area managers come from a neighbouring communities, mainly due to disrespect technical background which typically provides little for local indigenous knowledge and traditional training on communication, stakeholder management conservation practices, provoking attitudes against or interactive policy making (Van Boven, 2003). This this model of conservation (Makwaeba, 2004; Viday, results in technical solutions being applied to external 2003). pressures, when in fact the problem is a people problem, requiring skills in relation development, Reserva Nacional de Lachay, Peru. negotiation and learning.
Role of communication in protected area management Communication, as a tool of protected area management, can hardly be expected to bring about great change in the face of the many socio-economic issues confronted by protected area managers, unless combined with other instruments. The complexity of motivations and sources of changes which affect protected areas suggests the need for communication research that can clarify the change agents in the issue, the sources of influence, the appropriate means to work with people, and ways to break down the tasks into manageable steps.
While some actions conflicting with protected area objectives represent explicit opposition, others may be due to a lack of awareness or understanding of the © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey
179 14 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Stakeholders need to be involved in protected area oral tradition to communicate traditional knowledge management and trends are pointing in the direction about the environment and conservation to youth on of broader-based landscape approaches, co- four-day bush camps and trails. Local taxonomy, management and public participation (Van Boven, proverbs, beliefs, taboos, community law, indigenous 2003). In the landscape approach, people are at the games and workshops are used to increase heart of the mission of a protected area. Therefore, environmental awareness and guide participants on managing protected areas is managing people – with future involvement in conservation. A follow-up emphasis on participation and not manipulation – and course (6–9 months) with workbook, workshop, communication becomes increasingly important as a portfolio and a practical group project, further management tool (Van Boven, 2003; Hamú, 2003; empowers participants, building their capacity to Goldstein, 2003). Emphatically, Cavalcanti (2003) address environmental problems and opportunities states that communication is “the strategic tool to and develop and implement action plans. Results of work with people on different levels of the project, this participatory programme include the including them in decision-making processes”. development of positive attitudes towards parks among disadvantaged communities and increased Communication is the means to participation and is participation in conservation efforts (Makwaeba, used to resolve diverse stakeholder expectations. 2004). Protected area managers need to use communication to build support for protected areas, while resolving In Botswana, the Every River Has Its People project and clarifying roles, responsibilities and equity in was implemented by the Kalahari Conservation terms of benefits related to the protected area, Society and its partners to facilitate the participation developing a shared understanding and developing of more than 3000 people living in the 25 capacity to act. communities around the Okavango delta. The Namibian government plans to build a pipeline to Where knowledge of the protected area is lacking, extract water from the river. The project aim was to communication is used to ensure stakeholders give stakeholders a basic understanding of the understand the benefits provided by the protected dynamics of the river and enable communities to play area, in terms of the long-term conservation of a meaningful role in the management and decision- biological diversity, the economic values of protected making processes about the delta, and improve areas (beyond employment), and their potential for communication between government, decision sustainable development. makers, local structures and the community. Using existing institutions and structures in the communities In South Africa, a “social ecology programme” is as the initial means for establishing rapport at the being implemented across the National Parks, village and district level, a communication and focusing on the historically disadvantaged education process included consultation meetings, communities (those that have suffered from loss of socio-ecological surveys, feedback meetings, capacity land, loss of access to natural resources, and reduced building and information-sharing presentations and economic opportunities) living around National training workshops. It strengthened working relations Parks. The programme presents a shift to a more and trust between NGOs, the project and government holistic, integrated conservation management departments, the community and project. approach, bringing vital participation of local people into conservation, better reflecting the new political, The Haribon Foundation in the Philippines has a economic and social realities of South Africa. It aims strategy of building local government and community to acknowledge cultural perspectives in the support and generating public support towards the broadening of environmental interpretation and management of small marine protected areas education, respecting local indigenous knowledge and appropriate for islands with fragmented habitats and conservation practices. Selected and trained retired populous poor communities. This NGO has facilitated indigenous game rangers/wise elders use the African the establishment and maintenance of about 15
180 Communication as a means of building support for protected areas 14
Okavango in Botswana. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
community-based marine protected areas, and the shore fisheries. Haribon conducted a market survey in organization of about 134 community-based marine Manila to gauge the top environmental issues. It was protected areas across the country into a national not surprising to see that air pollution and waste alliance called PAMANA Ka Sa Pilipinas. This makes management were the top two issues identified. This it the country’s premier national fisher folk revealed multiple sources for creating awareness for organization advocating marine conservation and environmental concerns with personal experience sustainability of near-shore fisheries (Lavides, 2003). highest in importance. Television was the most important source of awareness for all issues for all age To achieve the Haribon Foundation’s goals of groups, followed by the newspaper and radio. Haribon protecting the marine environment, the process of embarked on a multi-media campaign in 2002 and building local government and community support for reviewed the impact, achieving an increase in total protected areas and building local and national awareness for biodiversity conservation from 11% in alliances is estimated to consist of 70% 2001 to 22% in 2002. communication and education activities. The remaining efforts consist of research and other At the Tingo Maria National Park, Peru, the benefits functions. High value is put on the communication of the protected area (principally as a water resource) skills of protected area champions such as the project and further potential benefits (in terms of tourism and staff, particularly the community organizers, local education) were emphasised by the Park management, attempting to obtain a favourable change of attitude government liaisons, the biologists and the people’s towards the Park and begin integrating the population organization leaders who are all on the frontline in towards the co-management. Among other efforts, support of protected areas and biodiversity participatory workshops were developed in the conservation in general. surrounding hamlets and the town of Tingo Maria, As well as working at the community level, Haribon building up a vision of the Park, the boundaries and generated support from the public through national the definition of buffer zones. A Management campaigns which advocated policy measures for the Committee was formed for the Park, made up of sustainability of marine conservation efforts and near- representatives of the distinct sectors, and an
181 14 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
innovative pilot project was carried out with the local decision making; these include an inter-village farmers to reduce encroachment on the borders of the conservation committee, a scientific committee and park. The project was based on the installation of an an orientation committee. People from seven agro-forestry system on degraded soils in areas peripheral villages have been trained to form a corps adjacent to the Park, indicating the economic and of “eco-guards” to provide awareness and education social viability of improving living conditions for this activities in the villages and increase appreciation of population while improving the soil. the park’s values and to support the park’s managers. Theatre has proved a useful means to help develop Results include an improved relationship between understanding and stimulate discussion about how the Park administration and surrounding important the park is to the communities. School communities, better attitudes towards the Park, its children in the surrounding villages have met conservation values, and its potential to contribute to scientists to talk about the future of the park and the development of the region. The strategy now being teaching aids on park management have been used in Peru insists that “communication must be provided to secondary schools. Njagabaar magazine oriented towards demonstrating specific points to be for schools, prepared by teachers, is widely read in the affected, giving the population adequate information, villages and has proved an effective strategy. Radio is showing them other similar examples and generating used for the general public through a partnership to a space for dialogue and participation. The outcome is provide a weekly broadcast of thirty minutes. The to generate understanding which values indigenous people have changed from being hostile to environmental quality, promotes a demand for this supportive because of the more participatory and generates abilities to act towards avoiding or approach and the efforts made to explain the park’s correcting environmental damage” (Davila, 2003). values and show that the park does not take away rice fields. An important influence has been the In the Djoudj National Park in Senegal, a Ramsar development of tourism, stimulating more and World Heritage site, Diouf (2003) reported on the involvement in the park’s affairs. To support the changing relations with people over time. In the 1970s tourism industry an infrastructure consisting of an eco a military approach was oriented to keeping people museum, artisanal shop and tent provide contact out of the area when the creation of the park disrupted points for an annual visitation of 14,000. people’s pastoral activities and generated conflicts over water for rice production. Now the approach has In the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve in Mexico, changed to a more participatory one in which several conservation and environmental education are committees have been set up for communication and addressed in association with the development of
Pelicans in Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary, Senegal. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell IUCN Photo Library © Jim
182 Communication as a means of building support for protected areas 14
capacity of the community to develop more income conservation issues among the local communities. and have a healthier lifestyle. In this mostly very poor Various capacity building programmes such as area, conservation has been promoted as a means to training, workshops and study tours, are organized for support people’s lives, now and in the future, while local staff, teachers and local leaders to develop their improving income generation through micro understanding and skills in order to make them more enterprises and diversification of production. The capable of working towards conservation and Sierra Gorda communication and education sustainable development (Gurung, 2003). programme presents a graphic statistic about the level of interventions required to effect social change and to Of particular interest is the approach used to support poor communities while achieving motivate cattle herders towards conservation. As cattle conservation objectives. Over 360 training sessions herders spend most of their time in the forest during for adults about sustainable alternatives have been which time they destroy plants, cutting off the held, over 25,000 environmental awareness sessions branches of the trees, collecting the eggs of birds and held with children, 120 teachers trained and 23 killing birds for meat, education programmes for them children’s forests established. Some 500 organic are carried out in the field. At the Royal Bardia vegetable gardens have been created and 1300 stoves National Park a football was given to the group of have been introduced using trained community cattle herders for every 15–20 catapults received. This promoters. Over 1800 community meetings were held was to counteract the tendency to kill birds to entertain along with 300 consensus building workshops to themselves, as there was no other means of adopt a management plan for the Reserve. Over 1300 entertainment in the villages. After this programme clean up campaigns have been instigated in the was launched, the cattle herders would play football Reserve and 59 recycling centres have been developed rather than kill birds in their spare time. which provide income generation. An important part of the strategy to involve the community has been the Role of communication in the national use of radio and celebrations through “earth festivals” system of protected areas including music and singing. Murals with At the national protected area system level, Bronson environmental messages decorate buildings in the (2003) discusses the difficulties of Parks Canada from Reserve (Ruiz, 2003). the 1980s to the mid-1990s, behind which were Communication and conservation education have internal issues including “shortfalls in professional been integral parts of WWF Nepal Terai Arc – a capacity and fundamental flaws in organizational multiple protected areas programme – activities since structure…unclear accountability for overall its inception in 1993. WWF runs many conservation communication, often no professional awareness programmes for different target groups to communication advice at the management table, no help them understand how conserving the natural and communication unit from which to build and cultural environment will benefit them in the long run. implement comprehensive communication strategies WWF Nepal also uses many communication tools to and the erosion of funding support for communication raise awareness among the people residing in and programmes and products”. around the national park areas. Communication and education have played a significant role in creating a In Mexico national instruments for communicating better understanding among the people living in the the protected area system were needed once a national national parks and buffer zones about the needs to system had been put in place, helping to give the conserve the natural and cultural environment. protected areas a common identity. A logo, norms and Environmental awareness programmes like standards were developed for the corporate identity, community mobile education and extension, and signposting in all protected areas was given a audio/visual programmes, campaigns, boards with consistent look. A media campaign was launched with conservation messages and street theatre, are over 1000 events held to build public consciousness of organized at local levels to create awareness on protected areas (Sanchez, 2003).
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A national communication strategy is being In the Communicating Nature Conservation project prepared, with communication objectives including: of PEBLDS (the Pan European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy) 1998–2003 in ● integrating a biodiversity component into Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia and the Czech development planning and sector policies; Republic, “the team worked with, and at the same ● increasing the status of protected areas within time targeted, conservation managers at Ministries federal and state administration as well as within and Nature Protection Agencies and protected areas, local policies and programmes; and their staff ” (Van Boven, 2003), assisting them to ● increasing the support of institutional interact with other sectors and to communicate stakeholders (directors of NGOs, decision makers internally. The project has undertaken four phases of in local government, researchers and social initial common training, institutional development, grassroots leaders); exchange of experiences among participants at yearly ● increasing the support and participation of local international workshops and learning-on-the-job users and owners of natural resources in experiences in national and local pilot projects. This conservation efforts; communication project has revealed the necessity for ● involving participation in planning, changes in protected area agencies to adapt their management land-use patterns and understanding legal frameworks (Vidal, 2003). styles and increase engagement with stakeholders, leading to an improved reputation of the agency, As motivation, the Mexican communication reduced conflict and improved management strategy aims to communicate national sovereignty effectiveness of protected areas. considerations and demonstrate economic values of protected areas to stakeholders through leaders of opinion, social groups and journalists. Populations The state of strategic will continue to be encouraged to learn that economic communication related to development is not against conservation and that protected areas sustainable resource management can increase the Whoever the stakeholders, communication and quality of life. The intermediate outcomes will be a participation are necessary for a project to be valid shared vision of the role of protected areas in and sustainable. They are not, however, sufficient development, as well as establishment and operation unless they are strategic. A communication needs of an inter-sectoral commission. In the longer term, assessment carried out in 1994/5 in South Africa communities are expected to adopt sustainable (Anyaegbunam et al., 1998) showed that the wide management practices and the practice of adoption of participatory approaches, through being conservation actions facilitated by an increase of based on a horizontal model of communication, budget and support (Vidal, 2003). seldom resulted in a specific systematic communication strategy. An approach that combined Need for capacity development in the people-based approach of participation with a communication systematic communication focus was required for The need for capacity development is being success (Mefalopulos, 2003). Communication needs recognised by national and international bodies, such to be systematic and strategic, directed to achieving as governments, institutions and conventions. Both management objectives. the Ramsar Convention and the Convention on In the management of protected areas, neither in Biological Diversity have adopted decisions and work theory nor in practice is the concept of plans calling for integration of communication and communication univocal. Several terms (such as interactive management approaches in policy education, interpretation, information and development and site management (Van Boven, communication) are often used to make reference to 2003). However much remains to be done to develop the same, or at least overlapping, fields of activities capacity in communication. and even when using the term “communication”, a
184 Communication as a means of building support for protected areas 14
specific kind (or aspect) of communication may be develops public relations. In this form a dialogue and intended and another understood (Mefalopulos, exchange of information is used, trust is developed 2003). and problem solving undertaken jointly.
The role of communication is understood in Table 14.1 presents the range of social instruments different ways and, consequently, variously that are encompassed by communication and incorporated in protected area management. education. In each case the main purpose of the Accordingly, while many “managers still think that instrument is indicated, along with summaries of the communication is just about press releases, brochures, processes that characterize its use, the settings in websites and publications” (Hesselink, 2003), others which it is used and the means used. are turning to more comprehensive and participatory communication, and recognising the need for strategic Strategic communication is gaining recognition and approaches, as a tool contributing to the management application, yet many interpretations of what is objectives and mission of a protected area. entailed are still being used. GreenCOM uses the term strategic participatory communication (SPC) as a In contributing to a protected area’s management process for addressing a problem or dispute, bringing objectives, many agencies emphasise interpretation as people together to: a means to build support from visitors, enhance their visit, gain their co-operation to protect the natural ● Understand how their perspectives on a resource issue differ and appreciate the points on which resources, and ensure their safety. they agree. When used to relate to local communities, local ● Make decisions and solve problems in ways that governments, and other agencies, communication involve and benefit as many people or groups of strengthens the reputation of protected areas and people affected by the issue as possible. Table 14.1
Communication instruments for protected areas
Information Publicity Stakeholder Public Social Education Capacity dialogue relations marketing development
Purpose Service Put on agenda, Consensus Co-operation Change Skills, values, Work with Public duty or position of Acceptable behaviour knowledge and for organisation actions towards conservation or issue conservation
Process One way One way Two way Two way Mostly one way Facilitate Knowledge dissemination dialogue based on learning and skill research into enhancement motivations Institutional frameworks or settings
Setting Informal Informal Informal andNon formal Campaigns Formal and Non formal Visitors Mass media non formal non formal and Formal
Means Website Press releases Interviews Telephone Messages via Interpretation Professional Brochures Launches Round tables Mail mass media Class visits training Handbooks Events Workshops Person to person Press releases Teacher training Community Visitor centres Unpaid Data base Events materials development Person to person promotion Informal events, Theatre Eco clubs Mentoring Interpretation drinks, meals Adult courses Policy review and workshops Network Curriculum management influence
Result Visitor Protected area Relevant policy Trust Creating a Attitude of Competence satisfaction more visible Support to Partnership social concern and to act Agency position co-manage acceptance of ability to act an action Source: Adapted from Fien, J., Scott, W. and Tilbury, D. 1999. Education and Conservation: An evaluation of the contributions of educational programmes to conservation within the WWF network, pages 26-27.
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● Apply systems thinking concepts to generate a behaviour change to be realized. Without sustainable transformation of the way individuals, conservation awareness playing a part in this institutions, and societies view and manage portfolio, however, the stakeholders involved may resources (Hilbrunner, 2003). lack the motivation or information necessary to make For IUCN’s Commission on Education and sound decisions and put conservation into practice Communication (CEC), communication is defined (Castro, 2003). as “a ‘listening and dialogue’ intervention, using a wide range of media to help change an existing Conservation International (CI) defines undesirable situation into a desired situation for conservation awareness as incorporating two distinct biodiversity conservation. In this process the intent is but complementary approaches: communications and to change actions, which may come with a change in environmental education (EE). Communications attitudes, values, and perceptions, of the target often seek to reach a large number of people, quickly, group, with the ultimate effect that biodiversity is on a broad regional scale via television, radio, print conserved or used sustainably” (Hesselink, 2003). publications, and campaigns. Through research into Strategic communication provides appropriate identifying sources of information for key audiences interventions in different phases of the policy, and the use of carefully crafted messages, mass management plan, or project that are oriented to communication can be far-reaching, fast acting, and crafting solutions together and supporting other locally targeted. It is an especially efficient way to instruments. Communication is strategic when it reach large numbers of people when an issue is urgent does not decide on means first, but rather seeks to (Castro, 2003). define the communication problem, the appropriate In order for a conservation message to be heard groups to work with, the messages to attract them to among the information “noise,” a campaign must work together and then the means. Strategic gather momentum and have well-timed “peaks and communication is focused on priority conservation valleys” within its outreach. In the case of smaller or management issues and supports the objectives of communities, organizing events can reach large these. It is targeted and designed to deliver a specific outcome: increase in support or awareness, new percentages of the population and ensure good constituencies and partnerships, participation of key participation among target publics. Campaigns create stakeholders, acceptable policy or management media opportunities, allowing journalists to find more plans, development of local capacity for co- fodder for stories and features and address specific management, and investment in social change challenges or threats. Campaigns can target multiple (Hamú, 2003). audiences, helping to “condition” audiences to receive more specific, tailored messages later. Since For others, “strategic communication is to… campaigns are organized within a time frame they maintain a dialogue among the stakeholders to help concentrate efforts and to rally partners and facilitate a platform of information, motivation and an donors around a specific theme or need. The enabling environment for decision making (choices) launching of documentaries may play an important at the individual and social levels” (Vidal, 2003). role as the centre piece of campaigns, gathering hundreds of key stakeholders together. If a partnership Conservation International’s conservation can be created with a local television station, the awareness efforts aim to inform and inspire key documentary may be broadcast to a larger public, audiences ultimately to change their behaviour in reaching, in large countries, millions of people favor of biodiversity conservation. This behavioural (Castro, 2003). change can take many forms and is specific to the targeted public involved, though it is recognised that Environmental education supplements this process in many cases, awareness alone cannot change by going beyond awareness, knowledge and concern behaviour. Instead, a portfolio of other conservation for the environment and environmental issues, to also tools must come into play – such as economic develop skills for target groups to participate in incentives or effective policy changes – for the final problem solving, decision making, and conservation
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action. Although environmental education yields Sumatran Tiger. results both now and in the future, an investment in EE reflects a long-term goal of developing an educated citizenry with the capacity to think critically about issues facing biodiversity. EE can either be broad- scale (as in formal education reform to integrate biodiversity conservation into the curriculum) or locally targeted (as in training rural educators to teach students and community members about biodiversity) (Castro, 2003).
Importance of research first As a strategic instrument of protected area management, communication functions as an indispensable analytical research tool for identifying, investigating and analysing needs, risks and problems that need to be addressed (Mefalopulos, 2003).
Yet problems of inadequate planning of communication and education strategies continue, perhaps because of inadequate communication research (Encalada, 2003). Communication research
is crucial in: A. McNeely © Jeffrey
● addressing the problems and the need for communication strategies to be designed which are environmental strategic communication in specifically tailored to them (Encalada, 2003). protected area management (Vidal, 2003); ● defining target audiences/stakeholder groups and Encalada (2003) presents a model of actors/publics (Bronson/Castro, 2003); communication research focusing on the basic ● examining the socio-economic and political conceptual knowledge and perceptions of audiences structure, and cultural aspects of the area and regarding: their influence on the protected area; people (Hilbrunner, 2003); potential to contribute to conservation of the protected ● assessing people’s dependence on, and area; potential to benefit from conservation of the relationship with, the area and its natural protected area; the conservation needs of the protected resources (Molefi, 2003); area; and the adoption of practices contributing to ● evaluating awareness levels and attitudes of conservation of the protected area. The audience’s people towards environmental issues (Mahajan, communication structures and skills also need to be 2003); analysed, including: exposure to external information ● analysing what is currently working well and (whether from other people, mass media or electronic where efforts need to be concentrated to achieve information systems); ability to process external results (Bronson, 2003); information; ability to express their views; ability to ● identifying potential partners in the area (Molefi, defend their rights; communication systems within 2003). the community (cultural expressions and Greater research into the people towards whom communication media); opportunities for dialogue protected area communication is to be directed and practical demonstrations at all levels; and enhances the likelihood of successful communication. informal networks of social influence. Understanding the needs of the people, their perceptions regarding the protected area and their own This information can be used to map the role and communication structures and skills, enables influence of different individuals and groups in
187 14 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
relation to the natural resource, classifying people into in a particular geographical area; define the Publics groups with progressive influence – with the most that the message will target; identify the appropriate being substantive, followed by supportive, factorial Products to reach these publics; and design an action and general. Based on this classification, appropriate Plan, including a clear timetable for a two-year period. and effective communication can be designed. It is a participatory exercise with about 30 to 40 people, which goes beyond formulas in order to create The process of communication planning “custom-fit” communications strategies for specific regions, ecosystems or conservation outcomes. The Participatory practices should be maintained while approach was inspired by different methodologies, defining objectives, planning further communication, including innovative advertising and social-marketing implementing communication plans, and evaluating techniques (Castro, 2003). the communication strategy, as well as during constant step-by-step evaluation and revision of intermediate Workshop participants include communicators and outcomes, in order to make any necessary strategic educators from partner organizations, members of the adjustments (Molefi, 2003; Vidal, 2003). national and local media, marketing specialists, government officials, protected area staff, and other Once the audience-specific objectives are defined, appropriate representatives of selected stakeholders objective-specific and appropriate communication who are directly related to the theme of the workshop. actions are designed, with expected results, indicators Workshop organizers then refine the plan into a and criteria for evaluation (Vidal, 2003). communications strategy during an internal session Accountability should also be determined, specifying after the workshop, incorporating any funding, where responsibility for the communication actions staffing, and scheduling realities. A final report is then will rest, recognising geographic and organizational made available to all those who participated so they realities (Bronson, 2003). can see how their contributions were used.
CI uses the 4-P Creative Workshop, with the name When it comes to the delivery, or ‘carrying out’, of derived from the four main sessions of the workshop; the communication actions, different approaches are Problems, Publics, Products and Plan. The process of needed, beginning with positioning the concepts and the workshop is to assess the Problems to be addressed ideas, followed by a reflexive phase and a
Changing the way conservation organizations work Protected area management agencies may need to change their own attitudes to take full advantage of the benefits of communications for building broader support. In Central Europe the changes in attitudes and behaviour of the protected area managers for their new role in building relations and communicating include: Table 14.2 From To
Perceiving farmers as enemies Perceiving farmers as fellow human beings Focusing on science (conservation) as the most Focusing on people (socio-economic) as well asissue important issue science (conservation) Seeing farmers as a problems Realizing everyone is part of the problem Sending messages Listening and having an open mind Trying to press people to believe as they do Changing attitudes from negative to neutral Behaving as experts Behaving as partners Formal and authoritarian behaviour Informal and more egalitarian behaviour Planning communication based on assumptions Planning based on the goals of the stakeholders Push strategy Pull strategy Conservation managers as initiators Conservation managers as stakeholders
188 Communication as a means of building support for protected areas 14
mobilization stage (Vidal, 2003). The communication was to create a communication unit, headed by a messages, means and actions should be pre-tested in communication manager, providing leadership and an experimental phase designed to identify effective coordination of the full range of communications approaches and improve the strategy before larger- activities, including agency communications, scale application (Hilbrunner, 2003; Mahajan, 2003). programme/service communications and education communications (Bronson, 2003). As indicated above, monitoring and evaluation are not left as afterthoughts in strategic communication. Implementation posed some significant challenges, With indicators and criteria for evaluation and such as building buy-in among managers and staff for monitoring defined early on in the process (with the the organizational change (managed within existing definition of objectives and the design of budgets), overcoming fatigue from successive communication actions), these are ongoing processes reorganization, getting the right people in place, facilitating informed and strategic response. recruiting and/or training for the new skill sets of the future, and building the culture among staff that The main challenge still faced is systematically recognises and supports communications as one of mainstreaming communication in conservation and the primary tools for achieving the mandate. development interventions. To promote the value- Nevertheless, these organizations are now getting added of this discipline, communicators need to established with key positions being staffed with provide empirical evidence on the impact of qualified professionals. Next steps in the process communication in development initiatives, include the establishment and strengthening of strengthening the likelihood of communicators being internal and external networks to build synergy and integrated within management (Mefalopulos, 2003). cooperation, filling the skills gap through training and professional development, and ensuring the tools Professionalizing communication and processes are in place to enable communication Besides these organizational change issues, which professionals to succeed (Bronson, 2003). are associated with a suite of other organizational skill capacities, communication often has a low Communication actions included implementing a position within the organization. This limits both the consistent and professional identity for the Agency, resources allocated to communication and the improving and integrating the delivery of information influence of communicators in the work of the services on the web, by telephone and in person, organization and the protected area. When facilitating awareness, trip planning and reservations, communication is not seen as a fundamental part of and presenting Heritage awards of excellence to the organization’s relations, reputation and strategy, recognise and reward excellence and innovation in it is used simply to make publications and brochures programmes, products and people nationwide. attractive. Associated with these management issues is clarity on the responsibilities of the Early results of Engaging Canadians include a communication department/personnel, internal stronger, more cohesive and professional national barriers and resources (Vidal, 2003), and the identity; improved relations with key stakeholder organization’s capacity for enabling decision making groups; better issue management; and recognition of (Molefi, 2003). Professionalizing communication is the importance of education. Parks Canada is now an internal challenge which must be faced by seen as a trusted steward of heritage and a trusted protected area management before communication source of information on the state of Canadian can be used strategically to address external National Parks. The level of awareness and trust challenges effectively. Canadians have for Parks Canada is a good starting point as we move down the continuum from “inform” The Parks Canada national communication strategy, to “influence” and “involve”, but the trust of Engaging Canadians, went hand-in-hand with a new Canadians must continue to be earned through actions organizational model. Each Parks Canada field unit taken every day by Parks Canada.
189 14 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Conclusions and recommendations for Crafting messages to stimulate interest in protected the next decade areas requires connecting biodiversity issues to The added value of communication to protected areas everyday life: for example, to link flooding with is to achieve policy and management objectives and deforestation and biodiversity loss to economic losses. reduce conflict, by involving people in the early Protected area concepts, issues and solutions should phases of policy and management planning. be communicated in a language that the public can Communication plays a role in developing relations in relate to by adapting messages to the information partnerships, developing new constituencies, gleaned from market surveys. Messages that engender changing policy, supporting and facilitating pride in protected areas as national symbols, and their participation, and developing local capacity. It economic values, can also be effective. contributes to the reputation of the organization and Because of the large task to build support for the sustainability of programmes by investing in social protected areas in many countries, forming and change and building social capital. strengthening partnerships is essential for effective A significant percentage of the population does not action. Partnerships are in evidence among know much about protected areas because organizations from government, civil society, the communicating their values has been given a low corporate sector, and academia. Also important is priority. Even in government agencies charged with increasing membership of environmental responsibility for biodiversity conservation, organizations to add weight to their voice, provide biodiversity is regarded as low priority compared to funds and become a more effective constituency for other environmental issues. This is compounded in protected areas. People are influenced by friends and developing countries with the low awareness among relatives, so building a large cadre of people able to funding agencies about the importance of biodiversity express support for protected areas provides an information dissemination. Many of the available important conduit of influential information. funding windows currently in place are for Actions for the next ten years should include: community development, governance and poverty ● Protected areas should include strategic alleviation (Lavides, 2003). Therefore, advocacy for communication as part of training for PA the need for protected areas communication and managers, with a rationale for communication public awareness raising campaigns should be and for involving communication thinking (and directed to the governments and donors, academics professionals) from the beginning of planning. and other influential organizations such as religious ● Conservation organizations should provide a bodies. means to give strong support to the HOW and WHY of communication, so that the value of the The resource management efforts of local instrument might be better appreciated by communities and local government must build protected area managers. support from the general public in urban areas where ● In recognition of the conflicts and problems public opinion has direct impact on policy making. encountered in many development projects, often Policies that shape the nation, public opinion, and due to weak use of communication, therefore public pressure are created in the urban communication capacity should be included as centres (see Tryzna, this volume). The plight of the part of development programmes affecting communities near the protected areas and that of the protected areas. protected areas themselves will not be addressed if ● Prepare guidelines on communication which these matters are not brought to the attention of policy include tools and clarify standards of good makers through public opinion, which is heavily communication (IUCN’s Commission on influenced by the urban public. Education and Communication), and develop a curriculum on protected areas for journalism colleges.
190 chapter 15 © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey Some conclusions and ways ahead
by Jeffrey A. McNeely
This book has contained numerous examples of because of low admission fees. The economic benefits economic sectors and institutions that potentially have from watershed protection often are even greater, an interest in supporting protected areas, ensuring that though means of capturing such benefits by protected they are managed effectively, and enabling them to areas remain elusive. The configuration of the contribute to the full range of ecosystem services. This benefits from ecosystem services will vary with the chapter brings together some of the main lessons distance from the site. For example, products learned from the previous chapters, and thereby harvested directly from the forest are likely to be of contributes to the Programme of Work on Protected greatest interest to communities in or near the buffer Areas agreed under the Convention on Biological zone, while recreational opportunities and water Diversity. supplies may be of greatest interest to nearby towns and cities. The existence value of tropical rainforest Because people have occupied virtually the entire species such as tigers or rhinos is often appreciated land surface of the world for thousands of years, no more in big cities or industrialized countries than in or “unoccupied” land is available, and the biodiversity near the forest itself (van Schaik and Kramer, 1997), that is found today is the result of a long history of so rural communities are unlikely to be as concerned interaction between people and the rest of nature. But about threatened species as scientists or nature modern society has brought expanding populations, advocates living in urban centres might be. global markets, and new pressures on land and resources. Protected areas are an essential element of Inevitably, a protected area will enhance certain the strategies of modern societies to ensure that types of economic opportunities, such as tourism or resources are used sustainably and biodiversity is recreational home building, while hampering others conserved for present and future generations. such as logging and mining. Some rural communities Protected areas provide a wide range of economic, have been devastated by the closing of mining and social, cultural, recreational, scientific and spiritual timber operations and others have had to face social services. These services provide very considerable and infrastructural problems of rapid growth brought economic benefits, ranging from tourism on by increased tourism and associated construction. development to carbon sequestration to watershed Thus New York’s Adirondack Biosphere Reserve, protection. For example, for many protected areas, with several resort towns including Lake Placid, saw a direct revenues from tourism far exceed the dramatic increase in the proportion of service and management budget, though revenue to protected retail trade jobs and a rapid decline in the number of areas themselves tends to be relatively modest manufacturing jobs during the same period.
Photo: Elephants on savannah, Africa.
191 15 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Converting the potential benefits of protected areas (including tourism, health, energy, transport, into real and perceived goods and services for society forestry, agriculture, and even the military). The at large (and especially local people) requires a protected area system needs to include examples systems approach, as supported by the Convention on of the full range of habitats, communities and Biological Diversity (Article 8a). Elements of this other landscape features of the country as well as approach include: areas of particular biological significance, such as the habitat of rare species. A protected area system ● At the national level, each country should have a needs a strong legal component as well. protected area system plan that presents a coordinated strategy clarifying objectives and ● Within each country, the approach to conservation goals for individual protected areas and the should include core areas that include national protected area system, and identifies priorities for parks and other categories of relatively strict investment. A system plan enables protected areas protection located within larger landscapes to be integrated fully within all key planning comprising whole ecosystems that surround the frameworks, including land use and development core areas, where voluntary cooperative plans, national biodiversity strategies and action agreements can be established with stakeholders plans, and strategic plans for all relevant sectors and other interested parties in a decentralized manner, and where various forms of land use Orang utang, Ketambe, Northern Sumatra, Indonesia. (including agriculture, forestry, mining, and energy development) can be managed to support the continuing delivery of ecosystem services.
● At the site level, each protected area should have a management plan which specifies its management objectives, sets up effective mechanisms for reconciling any conflicts with neighbouring lands, and establishes a framework for partnerships with potential interest groups such as those identified in this book. Ideally, each management plan should be very specific about its relationship with any agricultural lands that may be found within the protected area, and forestry, resource extraction, and agricultural lands in the surrounding matrix.
● Effective links need to be established with the social, political, economic and ecological processes which affect the protected areas, helping to put into practice the Millennium Development Goals. Ultimately, solutions for many of the threats facing protected areas belong in the realm of national and international politics. Important influences on the demand for park resources, such as local land ownership patterns, credit and income inequities among agricultural producers, and indigenous peoples’ rights to land and resources, are politically volatile and often beyond the power of park managers and © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey
192 Some conclusions and ways ahead 15
conservationists to control. Often other Chitwan National Park, Nepal. government ministries may be directly at odds with the goals of conservation. Frontier settlement programmes, emergency refugee relief, planned colonization of protected areas for national security reasons, and commercial exploitation of natural resources to service national debts, result from government decisions that may be oblivious of protected area objectives.
● Within the framework of the market-based economic systems that are becoming increasingly widespread, greater participation by the civil society in economic development should extend to the management of protected areas, especially for tourism and the sustainable use of certain natural resources.
The implications of these measures for building broader support for the integrity and objectives of protected areas will require additional efforts to establish standards and enforce them. Thus the appropriate government institutions will need to continue strengthening their role in the creation, planning and management of protected areas, while inviting greater participation of NGOs, private A. McNeely © Jeffrey business, universities and local communities. extract far more resources from a protected area than can be provided on a sustainable basis. Providing One useful mechanism for putting this vision into sustainable services to local communities from practice is through “Integrated Conservation and protected areas may require more effective controls to Development Projects” that seek to reconcile ensure that populations of plants and animals – and conservation and community interests through the services they support – are maintained at promoting social and economic development among productive levels. The general approach to protected communities in and around protected areas. Past area management that is advocated in this book shortcomings have shown that such projects need to involves using a wide range of protected area be carefully designed to ensure that the interests of the categories managed as a system that involves national, various stakeholders are well represented. It is critical provincial and local governments, non-governmental that the effort involves a clear identification of the organizations, local communities and indigenous problems facing the protected area so that the peoples, the private sector, researchers and other proposed measures specifically address the problems stakeholders. This does not remove the need for active identified at the level where the intervention can be protection by government, as some individuals will effective. always be able to benefit from “beating the system” , to earn individual benefits by breaking regulations While early efforts at establishing protected areas that are designed to provide broad social benefits. often excluded people, more recent approaches have sought to involve local communities in ways that are Joint management agreements with new partners appropriate to the agreed objectives for the protected may also be possible. The objective of a joint areas. This can be a considerable challenge, as local management agreement is to arrive at a series of people often feel disenfranchised and would like to accommodations of the goals and needs of both
193 15 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
parties through mutual decision-making, with the protected area services, developing means to convert intent for informal resolution wherever possible services into support for protected areas, and (Planning and Conservation Services, 1990). negotiating ways to ensure that the distribution of Involvement of all groups from the beginning protected area services among the multiple interest promotes ownership in the process, which in turn groups is socially equitable. channels energies towards constructive problem- solving rather than criticism. Joint management It also requires a more complete assessment of the costs of protected areas, including the costs of agreements must be clearly stated with no ambiguity managing the area effectively, renouncing alternative that can lead to divergent interpretations and result in uses of the land, and controlling problem animals that on-going conflict. Under a joint management may move out of the protected area and cause agreement, the management of a protected area must economic damage to local people. And perhaps most be completely cooperative, with no decisions being important is to address the opportunity costs paid by made without consultation among the two groups. the people who live in and around the protected areas Where indigenous peoples are joint managers, their and who are no longer permitted certain forms of land role must be as equal and effective partners on an on- and resource use. In short, the foundation of support going basis, at the upper policy-making management for protected areas is a sound assessment of costs and levels as well as at the field level as rangers. An benefits, and their distribution. advisory committee, composed of native and government representatives. should reach decisions Building broader support for protected areas also by consensus rather than by voting, and allow for faces some obstacles. These may involve conflicts freedom of exchange of experience and knowledge over competing values, for example, choosing to between the groups. The members of the committee harvest logs for construction or to maintain trees for should try to bring together the concepts of scientific providing habitat to wild species. The effects of and indigenous knowledge. globalization may pit local interests against international ones, while the effects of Conclusions decentralization may distort the relative power of some interest groups. In some cases, governments This book has built on the fundamental assumption may be reluctant to enable protected areas to collect that protected areas provide multiple benefits to many payments for the ecosystem services they are groups of people. Different benefits flow differently to providing, preferring that any income generated goes different people, in different ways. Some of these to the central treasury instead. benefits are easy to recognise and capture in an Protected areas are complex systems of land economic sense, such as tourism; others are easy to management, which involve complicated issues and recognise but the economic benefits are more difficult numerous stakeholders who have different to capture by the protected area, such as watershed perspectives on the issues. This book has explored the protection; others may require new regulations to principle that protected areas are more likely to ensure a flow of benefits, such as carbon sequestration prosper when they have a wide range of supporters – or conservation of genetic resources like wild relatives in political terms, "a broad constituency". This means of domestic plants; and still others may require new giving multiple stakeholders a real interest in ways of thinking, such as health, non-material, protected areas. spiritual or cultural benefits. Generating more support from politicians for Continuing to provide a stream of benefits may protected areas requires convincing them of the require some trade-offs, deciding whether to value political importance of protected area issues. This in long-term benefits over immediate ones, or whether to turn requires that the public be provided with fuller provide wide benefits to the general public rather than information about the benefits, both tangible and financial gain to a select few. This requires clearly intangible, that protected areas provide. Politicians identifying and measuring the multiple flows of also need to be provided with evidence to enable them
194 Some conclusions and ways ahead 15
IUCN meeting, Dehra Dun, India. © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey
to state convincingly the case for support of protected A programme for national protected area systems area agencies. This book has provided an indication of needs to include both firm governmental action and the range of public and private sectors which benefit alliances with the other stakeholders. National from protected areas. It has outlined both the nature governments cannot delegate their role of guarantors and extent of benefits to both protected areas and of the conservation of a country’s cultural and natural those sectors, and indicated how such benefits can be heritage, so the appropriate authorities need to build improved or increased. Drawing from this summary, the capacity to fulfil their regulatory and management each sector now needs to be approached in each duties and responsibilities. But civil society can share country, urging their support for the integrity of certain rights and responsibilities regarding the protected areas and providing adequate resources to management of protected areas after careful manage them effectively. preparations and an adequate definition of roles and This book also provides the basis for identifying responsibilities. Given the interests of NGOs, sectors whose activities may impinge adversely on veterinarians, business, indigenous peoples and local protected areas and seeks their cooperation in communities who live within or close to protected maintaining the integrity of protected areas, areas, alliances should be created among stakeholders mitigating against adverse impacts, and finding ways enabling each to play an appropriate role according to of being supportive of protected areas. clear government policies and laws.
195 15 Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas
Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. © Jeffrey A. McNeely © Jeffrey And finally, we need to recognise that new ● support cooperative research programmes, for challenges require new knowledge. A vigorous example between animal and human health and research capacity is an essential element of building protected areas; and support for protected areas. In seeking to encourage ● universities, research institutions and others to carry support broader studies of the operation of out research that is essential and relevant to successful economic systems as they affect protected areas protected areas, the international community should and biodiversity, focusing on macro-economic promote the following kinds of actions: policy and development strategies in attempting to provide more general conclusions about the ● strengthen the institutional capacity of research relationship between development and natural institutions in each region, including universities, resource management. museums and field stations; It is hoped that enlisting new partners will result in ● support long-term ecological research sites broader support for protected areas in all parts of the located in protected areas; world. If civil society can become an active partner in the management of protected areas, then we could see ● mobilize local indigenous and traditional a new era of conservation – an era in which civil knowledge about species, ecosystems, resource societies have the will and the means to assume an management systems, traditional laws and effective stewardship role over their own resources, regulations, and so forth; conserving biological diversity, using biological ● incorporate research components in major resources sustainably, and ensuring that the benefits of development projects that affect protected areas; such use are distributed in a fair and equitable manner.
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Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank NGO Non-governmental organization
BEN Black Environment Network ODA Official Development Assistance
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research PA Protected area
CIDA Canadian International Development SIA Social Impact Assessments Agency SMMC Santa Monica Mountains CITES Convention on International Trade in Conservancy Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora TBPA Transboundary protected area
CNP Council for National Parks UNDP United Nations Development Programme CUBES Cape Town Urban Biosphere Group UNEP United Nations Environment EBI Energy and Biodiversity Initiative Programme
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations WCC World Conservation Congress
GDP Gross Domestic Product WCPA World Commission on Protected Areas GEF Global Environment Facility WHC World Heritage Convention GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit WHO World Health Organization
ICDP Integrated Conservation and WPC World Parks Congress Development Projects WTO World Tourism Organization IDP Internally Displaced People WWF World Wide Fund for Nature IMF International Monetary Fund (World Wildlife Fund in Canada and the USA) IT Informational Technology
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List of contributors
Elisabeth Auchincloss Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka Intern, Environmental Education and Chief Executive Officer Communication Conservation Through Public Health IUCN – The World Conservation Union 898 Wrenn Smith Road Rue Mauverney 28 Siler City, North Carolina 27344, USA CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland E-mail: [email protected], E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]
Robyn Bushell William Karesh Head, School of Environment and Agriculture Department Head, Field Veterinary Program University of Western Sydney The Wildlife Conservation Society Locked Bag 1797 2300 Southern Boulevard Penrith South DC Bronx, New York 10460-1099, USA New South Wales 1797, Australia E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Richard A. Kock Wendy Goldstein TA PACE Epidemiology Wildlife Head, Environmental Education and Monrovia Street Communication 30786 AU IBAR POBOX IUCN – The World Conservation Union Nairobi, Kenya Rue Mauverney 28 E-mail: [email protected] CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland Peter Bille Larsen E-mail: [email protected] Project Coordinator, Capacity Building Richard Grahn & Social Policy Natural Resources and Conflict Adviser IUCN – The World Conservation Union Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources Rue Mauverney 28 (OAU-IBAR) CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland UNEP/EAP E-mail: [email protected] Nairobi, Kenya Tim Leyland E-mail: [email protected] Head, CAPE Unit Anne Hammill AU/IBAR-PACE/CAPE Project Manager P. O. Box 30786 International Institute for Sustainable 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Development E-mail: [email protected] 13 chemin des Anémones Jeffrey A. McNeely CH-1219 Châtelaine, Switzerland E-mail: [email protected] Chief Scientist IUCN – The World Conservation Union Rue Mauverney 28 CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland E-mail: [email protected]
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Thomas O. McShane Kent H. Redford Senior Conservation Advisor Director, Biodiversity Analysis & Coordination WWF International The Wildlife Conservation Society Avenue du Mont Blanc 2300 Southern Boulevard CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland Bronx, New York 10460-1099, USA E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Steven A. Osofsky Lea Scherl Senior Policy Advisor, Wildlife Health 35 Mirimar Crescent Field Veterinary Program Arcadia Wildlife Conservation Society Magnetic Island 4819, Qld, Australia 11697 Fox Glen Drive E-mail: [email protected] Oakton, Virginia 22124, USA Assheton Stewart Carter E-mail: [email protected] Director, Energy and Mining Programme David Ostergren, PhD. Conservation International Assistant Professor 1919 M St. N.W., Suite 600 School of Forestry Washington, DC 20036, USA Center for Environmental Sciences and Education E-mail: [email protected] Northern Arizona University Jim Thorsell Box 5694 Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA Senior Advisor, World Heritage E-mail: [email protected] PO Box 4482 Banff, Alberta T1L 1E8, Canada Gonzalo Oviedo E-mail: [email protected] Senior Adviser – Social Policy Ted Trzyna IUCN – The World Conservation Union Rue Mauverney 28 President, California Institute of Public Affairs CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland PO Box 189040 E-mail: [email protected] Sacramento, California 95818, USA E-mail: [email protected] Allen Putney Leader, Task Force on Non-Material Values IUCN – World Commission on Protected Areas 736 Allison Drive PO Box 4046 Incline Village, Nevada 89450, USA E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
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233 Front Cover Photographs
Olga group of rock domes in Uluru National Park, Australia. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell
The endangered black-and-white ruffed lemur (Va recia variegata) is found in the rainforest of eastern Madagascar, and is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. Recent information indicated that it might be divided into three distinct subspecies. Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands Hotspot. © Russell A. Mittermeier/Conservation International
Men and women in Golden Mountains of Altai, Mongolia. IUCN Photo Library © Jim Thorsell
Aloes are very diverse in the Succulent Karoo, and are often very restricted in range by small differences in altitude and soil condition. South Africa’s Succulent Karoo Hotspot. © Haroldo Castro/Conservation International
Mosaic of natural forest and agricultural land in Ethiopia. The future of this landscape rests with a new generation. © Thomas O. McShane IUCN – The World Conservation Union Founded in 1948, The World Conservation Union brings together States, government agencies and a diverse range of non-governmental organizations in a unique world partnership: over 1000 members in all, spread across some 150 countries. As a Union, IUCN seeks to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. The World Conservation Union builds on the strengths of its members, networks and partners to enhance their capacity and to support global alliances to safeguard natural resources at local, regional and global levels.
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