Urbanisation and Small Marsupials in the Greater Perth Region, Western Australia

Urbanisation and small marsupials in the greater Perth region, Western Australia Alison Elizabeth Hillman BVMS MSc MANZCVS This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Murdoch University 2016 Wee, sleekit, cowrin, tim’rous beastie, O, what a panic’s in thy breastie! Thou need na start awa sae hasty, Wi’ bickering brattle! I wad be laith to rin an’ chase thee, Wi’ murd’ring pattle! I’m truly sorry Man’s dominion Has broken Nature’s social union, An’ justifies that ill opinion, Which makes thee startle, At me, thy poor, earth-born companion, An’ fellow-mortal! I doubt na, whyles, but thou may thieve; What then? poor beastie, thou maun live! A daimen icker in a thrave ‘S a sma’ request. I’ll get a blessin wi’ the lave, An’ never miss’t! Thy wee-bit housie, too, in ruin! Its silly wa’s the win’s are strewin! An’ naething, now, to big a new ane, O’ foggage green! An’ bleak December’s winds ensuin, Baith snell an’ keen! Thou saw the fields laid bare an’ waste, An’ weary Winter comin fast, An’ cozie here, beneath the blast, Thou thought to dwell, Till crash! The cruel coulter past Out thro’ thy cell. That wee-bit heap o’ leaves an’ stibble, Has cost thee monie a weary nibble! Now thou’s turn’d out, for a’ thy trouble, But house or hald, To thole the Winter’s sleety dribble, An’ cranreuch cauld! But, Mousie, thou art no thy lane, In proving foresight may be vain: The best-laid schemes o’ Mice an’ Men Gang aft a-gley, An’ lea’e us nought but grief an’ pain, For promis’d joy! Still thou are blest, compar’d wi’ me! The present only toucheth thee: But, Och! I backward cast my e’e On prospects drear! An’ forward, tho’ I canna see, I guess an’ fear! -Robert Burns Author’s Declaration I declare that this thesis is my own account of my research and contains as its main content work which has not previously been submitted for a degree at any tertiary education institution. Alison Elizabeth Hillman iii Abstract Background Quenda (Isoodon obesulus) and brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) remain in many areas of Perth, Western Australia, despite urbanisation. This thesis investigated the impacts of urbanisation on the parasitic infections, morphometrics and reproductive fitness of these marsupials. Parasite screening particularly investigated the presence of parasites that quenda and possums may be acquiring from humans and pets in urbanised environments. Methods This cross sectional study targeted free-ranging quenda and brushtail possums in Perth. Trapping was undertaken on 29 bushland sites and 35 urbanised sites. Trapped marsupials were sampled for gastrointestinal and macroscopic ecto- parasites and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies, and morphometrics were measured. Statistical analyses included linear and logistic regression, Kulldorff’s spatial scan statistic and analysis of similarities in parasite communities. Results 287 quenda and 33 brushtail possums were sampled across 55 sites. Parasitic infections were common in Perth quenda, and less so in brushtail possums. Twelve parasite taxa were identified infecting these host species for the first time. In quenda, some differences in parasite prevalences, odds of infection, intensities of infection, and parasite communities, were observed in quenda trapped in urbanised environments compared to bushland. In quenda, Giardia spp. infection was common, and typically the non-zoonotic G. peramelis. Analyses suggest that the primary influence on the distribution of Giardia spp. infection in quenda is population density. Quenda trapped in urbanised environments were heavier on average than quenda trapped in bushland, in the absence of convincing evidence of a difference in skeletal morphometrics. iv Bushland adult female quenda had increased odds of having an active pouch than those in urbanised environments. Conclusions Quenda and brushtail possums in Perth are not commonly infected with gastrointestinal and macroscopic ecto- parasites of humans and domestic animal origin. Quenda in urbanised environments have a tendency towards obesity. Urbanised environments may negatively impact fecundity of female quenda. v Acknowledgements This research has only been achieved with the advice and support of a lot of people throughout the wildlife community in Western Australia, to whom I am very grateful. I would like to thank my principal supervisor Prof. Andy Thompson for his guidance, support, enthusiasm (and occasional field assistant duties!) throughout this study; A/Prof Alan Lymbery for reviewing and advising on the statistical analyses and manuscript preparation; and Prof. Ian Robertson his valuable advice and feedback. Many other researchers and technicians offered their knowledge and skills to various aspects of this research, and I am indebted to them for their input - particularly Aileen Elliot and Louise Pallant, and Drs Amanda Ash, Rongchang Yang, Kate Bryant, Judy Dunlop, Mark Bennett, Stephanie Godfrey, Leonie Valentine, Brian Chambers and Kym Ottewell. I am very grateful to the Department of Parks and Wildlife for permitting this project to proceed in bushland under their authority, and to the Department of Parks and Wildlife staff, who were very generous with their time in advising on local conditions at trapping sites and invited collaboration with several of their trapping programs. Similarly, I thank staff at John Forrest National Park, Whiteman Park, Perth Airport, Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority, the University of Western Australia, the Cities of Joondalup, Cockburn and Armadale, and the “Quenda Scientists” network, for supporting this project and providing advice on local conditions. Kath Howard and WWF-Australia provided invaluable assistance in connecting me with private property owners with cohabiting marsupials in Perth, and I thank the participating property owners and residents for allowing a virtual stranger to creep around their property at very antisocial hours to sample their furry neighbours. Many volunteers assisted in the fieldwork - I greatly appreciate their help, which was essential to this project’s success. I would also like to thank Mike Taylor and the Biological Sciences department at Murdoch University for kindly loaning traps to this project for extended periods. vi I gratefully acknowledge Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre and Darling Range Wildlife Shelter for their support and assistance to this project, and the veterinary clinic staff, cat owners and cats who collected or provided samples and data for the cat side of this project. I also wish to thank the Weston Fernie Research Fund and, in particular, The Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Equity Trustees Charitable Foundation, for their generous financial support of this research. Undertaking an epidemiological study of wildlife has been both an immense privilege and a heavy burden of responsibility, in terms of interfering with free-ranging wildlife to collect data. This research is dedicated to my family - particularly my parents Mary and David - and to my colleagues at the Parasitology Group. Without their boundless support it would not have been achieved. Finally, to the beasties themselves - it was an honour! I hope I did you proud. vii List of publications, and works in progress, included in this thesis Chapter 1.4 Hillman, A.E., Lymbery, A.J., Thompson R.C.A., 2016. Is Toxoplasma gondii a threat to the conservation of free-ranging Australian marsupial populations?. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife, 5, 17-27. Chapter 3 Hillman, A., Thompson, R.C.A., 2016. Interactions between humans and urban- adapted marsupials on private properties in the greater Perth region. Australian Mammalogy, 38, 253-255. Chapter 4 Hillman, A.E., Ash, A.L, Kristancic, A.R., Elliot, A.D., Lymbery, A.J., Robertson, I.D., Thompson, R.C.A. Validation of various parasite detection tests for use in the Australian marsupials quenda (Isoodon obesulus) and brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, In press. Chapter 5 Hillman, A.E, Lymbery, A.J, Robertson, I.D, Thompson, R.C.A. Biosecurity and cross- contamination in epidemiological studies involving trapping and sampling wildlife. Short communication, submitted to journal. Chapter 6 Hillman, A.E, Lymbery, A.J, Elliot, A.D, Ash, A.L, Thompson, R.C.A. Parasitic infections of Perth brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). For submission to journal. viii Chapter 7 Hillman, A.E, Lymbery, A.J, Elliot, A.D, Thompson, R.C.A. Urbanisation and the quenda: parasites, proportions and parity. For submission to journal. Chapter 8 Hillman, A.E, Lymbery, A.J, Thompson, R.C.A. Anthropozoonotic significance, risk factors and spatial distribution of Giardia spp. infection in quenda (Isoodon obesulus) in the greater Perth region, Australia. For submission to journal. Chapter 9 Hillman, A., Ash, A., Elliot, A., Lymbery, A., Perez, C., Thompson, R.C.A., 2016. Confirmation of a unique species of Giardia, parasitic in the quenda (Isoodon obesulus). International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife, 5, 110-115. Chapter 10 Hillman, A.E, Yang, R., Lymbery, A.J., Thompson, R.C.A. Eimeria spp. infections quenda (Isoodon obesulus) in the greater Perth region, Western Australia. Submitted to journal. ix Statement of human and animal ethics approval The protocols for data collection from Perth quenda and brushtail possums, and from Perth pet cats, were reviewed and approved by the Murdoch University Animal Ethics Committee (permit number R2530/12). The protocols for surveying cat owners,

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