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Joel Roberts' The Problem of the Road: The Road and the Street in the Twentieth Century American Road Novel Joel David Roberts PHD 2019 ABSTRACT This thesis offers a historiography of the twentieth century American road novel, arguing that it consistently presents the road as a problem of governmental order. Road narrative scholarship to date has read the twentieth century American road novel as an extension of the frontier narrative. In contrast to this, I analyse novels by Dashiell Hammett, Raymond Chandler, Chester Himes, Richard Wright, Ann Petry, Ralph Ellison, Thomas Pynchon, Samuel Delany, Gerald Vizenor, and Leslie Marmon Silko to argue that they both participate in and resist the orderly discourse of the road through three key phases: city planning, urban crisis, and the Oil Crisis. Relatedly, I suggest that these authors also identify that the order of the road is imposed upon black communities in America. In these texts, the road narrative’s assertion of order is made upon the black life of the street – of gathering together and of the riot. I trace the historical destruction of street life by the development of the road in these texts, arguing that the Great Migration formed the life of the streets upon which the order of the automobile and its road was asserted, as the discourse of the road developed in the early twentieth century as a component of city planning. This, I suggest, can be illuminated via a reading of Hammett, Chandler, Himes, Wright, Petry, and Ellison. I then argue that the rebellions of the 1960s occasioned the emergence of a discourse of the road as productive of ‘urban crisis’, as well as representing a return of street life, as charted by Pynchon. Finally, I argue that Delany, Vizenor, and Sliko suggest that the life of the street could return again with the breakdown of the order of the road during the 1973-1974 Oil Crisis. I also argue that the destruction of the street operated at a metaphysical level. Drawing on the work of Denise Ferreira da Silva, I suggest that the order of the road is that of the self-determining subjectivity of the driver – the subject that possesses things and can act upon and navigate the world in a predictable, knowable way. By contrast, the street is a space of what da Silva terms affectability; it is a space where people are acted upon and affect one another, producing a life that is collective, unowned. Accordingly, I also trace the ways that these novels preserve the affectable life of the street via their deployment of sonic metaphors and practices to describe this space. Here, my project contributes to work in Black Studies, such as Alexander Weheliye’s Habeas Viscus: Racialising 2 Assemblages, Biopolitics, and Black Feminist Theories of the Human (2014), which seeks to theorise resistance in ways not dependent on a self-possessive, agentic subject. Keywords: road novels, road narratives, Black Studies, American Studies, Fred Moten, Denise Ferreira da Silva 3 CONTENTS Abstract 2 List of Figures 5 Acknowledgements 7 Author’s Declaration 8 Introduction: The Problem of the Road 9 Chapter 1: ‘If I seem to talk in circles’: Hard-boiled Detective Fiction 57 and City Planning in Dashiell Hammett’s Red Harvest (1929) and The Dain Curse (1929), and Raymond Chandler’s The Big Sleep (1939) Chapter 2: ‘They got everything’: The History of the Street in Chester 88 Himes’s If He Hollers Let Him Go (1945), Richard Wright’s Native Son (1940), and Ann Petry’s The Street (1946) Chapter 3: ‘It's really amazing to have been on that street’: Hollers, 123 Native Son, The Street, and the Affectable life of the Street Chapter 4: ‘Whatever it is that jazz musicians feel on certain nights’: 158 The Street and the Post-War Road in Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man (1952) and Thomas Pynchon’s The Crying of Lot 49 (1966) Chapter 5: ‘Does the City’s topology control us completely?’: Fugitive 205 Transmotion in Samuel Delany’s Dhalgren (1974), Gerald Vizenor’s Darkness in St Louis Bearheart (1978), and Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony (1977) Conclusion: The End of the Automobile Age 242 Bibliography 250 4 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, ‘Automobile accident scenes 66 from Two Tars’, Two Tars, YouTube, 1928 <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NTF1OFykQAg> [accessed March 01, 2019]. Figure 2. Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., Harland Bartholomew, and 70 Charles H. Cheney, ‘Diagram No. 17’, in The Major Traffic Street Plan (Los Angeles: Traffic Commission of the City and County of Los Angeles, 1924), p. 50. Figure 3. Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., Harland Bartholomew, and 72 Charles H. Cheney, ‘Major Traffic Street Plan’, in The Major Traffic Street Plan (Los Angeles: Traffic Commission of the City and County of Los Angeles, 1924), p. 1. Figure 4. Miller McClintock, ‘Vehicular Traffic Upon Principal Radiating 106 Arteries at Boundaries of Central Business District and 5-Mile Zone and at City Limits 7am to 11pm, Typical Week Day, May, 1926’, in ‘Report and Recommendations of the Metropolitan Street Traffic Survey’, The Street Traffic Committee, Hathitrust.org, Chicago, 1926 <https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015021110963;view=1u p;seq=232> [accessed May 23, 2019, p. 11]. Figure 5. Committee on Regional Plan of New York and its Environs, 113 ‘Diagrammatic Scheme for Regional Highway Routes’, in ‘Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs’, Regional Plan Association Library, New York, 1929 <http://library.rpa.org/pdf/RPA-Plan1-v1-Regional- Plan-of-New-York-and-Its-Environs.pdf> [accessed May 23, 2019], p. 218. 5 Figure 6. Robert McNeill, ‘Make a Wish, from the series the Bronx 128 Slave Market, 1937. The Museum of Modern Art, New York’, Jacobin <https://www.jacobinmag.com/2018/12/ella-baker-marvel-cooke- slavery-depression> [accessed May 23, 2019]. Figure 7. ‘The Regional Planning Commission Master Plan of 179 Metropolitan Los Angeles Freeways’, Regional Planning Commission, 1947 <https://www.cahighways.org/maps/1947feplan.jpg> [accessed May 28, 2019]. Figure 8. Scott Harrison, ‘Tracking the slow decline of the Pacific 181 Electric Railway Redcars’, LA Times, 1956 <https://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-california- retrospective-red-car-20160103-story.html> [accessed March 01, 2019]. Figure 9. Harold Filan, ‘The burned-out hulk of an overturned 194 automobile is seen during rioting in the Watts district of Los Angeles on Aug. 13, 1965’, NBC News, 1965 <https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/50-years-after-watts-riots- cops-community-leaders-heal-old-n589131> [accessed April 12, 2018]. Figure 10. ‘The Pershing Map’, US Department of Transportation: 215 Federal Highway Administration, 1922 <https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/candc/timeline.cfm> [accessed April 12, 2018]. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to everyone who has helped me to learn to read, conventionally and otherwise, over the past thirty-one years. If there are any good bits in here, they are yours. 7 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I declare that the research contained in this thesis, unless otherwise formally indicated within the text, is the original work of the author. The thesis has not been previously submitted to this or any other university for a degree, and does not incorporate any material already submitted for a degree, except, to the extent indicated below, material already submitted as part of required coursework for MA Literature and Philosophy which was awarded by University of Sussex, 2014. Joel Roberts 30th May 2019 Parts of pages 189 and 190 are adapted from two paragraphs in the MA dissertation ‘A Tale of Four Cities in The Crying of Lot 49’, submitted 2014. 8 Introduction: The Problem of the Road ‘Historically, it is true both for war and peace that transportation has been formative and controlling in our national life’ – United States Secretary of Commerce William C. Redfield, addressing the 1918 Conference of Regional Chairmen of the Highways Transport Committee The Argument This thesis offers a historiography of the twentieth century American road novel, arguing that it consistently presents the road as a problem of governmental order. This problem is apparent in the road novel’s relationship to three key discursive stages of the road: city planning, urban crisis, and the Oil Crisis. In the early twentieth century in America, there is an absence of order on streets newly populated with cars. During this phase, the protagonists of hard-boiled detective novels by authors such as Raymond Chandler and Dashiell Hammett assert the new order of the road as a space centred on the automobility of the suburban city plan. With the hegemony of the automobile secured, the post-war development of 65,000km of road via the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 sees the road become a vast expanse. The socioeconomic problems wrought by this expansion coalesce into a discourse of the road’s production of ‘urban crisis’, which Thomas Pynchon’s The Crying of Lot 49 (1966) proposes can be remedied via economic redistribution. Finally, with the Oil Crisis of 1973-74 threatening, for a moment, the ordering of American life via the automobile, the novels of Gerald Vizenor, Leslie Marmon Silko, and Samuel R. Delany attempt to reimagine mobility within the possibility of this decline. This historiography also demonstrates that the development of an automobilecentric order in America required the transformation of the street into the road, and that such a transformation is a racialised one. The governmental order of the road is consistently imposed upon areas of America’s cities with predominantly black streets, which are perceived as a disordering threat. In turn, the novels under my consideration register and grapple with this racialised dynamic.
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