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University of Calgary a Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Towards an Understanding of Korean Protestantism: The Formation of Christian-Oriented Sects, Cults, and Anti-Cult Movements in Contemporary Korea by Chang Han Kim A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES CALGARY, ALBERTA DECEMBER, 2007 © Chang Han Kim 2007 ISBN: 978-0-494-38219-6 Abstract By looking at the typology of church, sect, and cult, this research investigates the belief system of Korean Protestantism and its organizational variations. First, Korean Protestantism displays exclusive cultural and social attitudes compared with other Korean religious traditions. A heterodox infusion of religion in the Korean tradition began with the introduction of Roman Catholicism in the 19th century. It was Protestantism, however, which shook the traditional religious culture to its core by creating strong religious boundaries. Second, in spite of its relatively short history, Korean Protestantism took root in a non-Western culture to shape it in ways that are without parallel in Korean history. In the process, it developed a far more uniform conservative religious ethos than is found in the West. Third, Korean Protestantism gave birth to various dissident new religious bodies in the form of Christian-oriented sects and cults. Although most of these new religious groups originated within this conservative religious milieu, they vary considerably. These range from new and innovative movements in high tension with the surrounding society to others with relatively little difference in terms of traditional Christianity. Lastly, the Christian anti-cult movement, as one notable response to these new religions, seeks to amplify the exclusive tendencies of Korean Protestantism. It can be argued, therefore, that Korean "Christian fundamentalism" represents a specific development of Protestantism which must be understood in the context of a complex historical process involving multiple inter- cultural exchanges. It is these exchanges and the resulting culture of Korean Protestantism that this dissertation seeks to explore. iii • For a key to the Romanization of Korean words, see Appendix A. iv Acknowledgements There are a number of people who deserve recognition for their contribution to this dissertation. First and foremost, I deeply appreciate the encouragement and support I received from my supervisor, Dr. Irving Hexham. From the beginning of my Ph.D. program, he was extremely generous with his time, knowledge, and wisdom. Furthermore, his meticulous arrangements for an international student living in a foreign country were unforgettable. My heartfelt appreciation also goes to the members of my examination committee: Dr. Elizabeth Koepping, Dr. Douglas Shantz, Dr. Jeffery Jacob, and Dr. Doyle Hatt. Each of these seasoned scholars offered me insightful comments and suggestions. Further thanks are extended to the staff and faculty in the Department of Religious Studies, including the Department Manager Perlea Ashton, for their help and kindness. My department was very generous, providing me with several Graduate Research Scholarships, awards, and no less than ten terms as a teaching assistant. I would be remiss if I failed to acknowledge the assistance that I received in obtaining countless original sources. My thanks are directed to the libraries that provided me with this invaluable material: Seoul National University, Chongshin University, Kosin University, National Assembly Library of Korea (all located in Korea), and the United Church & Victoria University Archives at Victoria University, University of Toronto. The ongoing support and assistance of the University of Calgary Library and its excellent Interlibrary Loan Department was invaluable as well. Through them I obtained a number of Korean and Japanese primary and secondary sources. Moreover, I ought to v mention the hospitality and support I received from many people in various religious groups during my research trips to Korea. I owe a particular debt of gratitude to Andrew Eason, Hugo Meynell, Donald Bell, and Karla Poewe, each of whom read various chapters at different stages of preparation. I am also grateful to Anthony Barber, Ron Galloway, Mike Jones, and Peter Trieu for discussing my doctoral thesis with me. The members of the Korean United Church of Calgary and the Living Spirit United Church were additional sources of inspiration for my work. Last, but certainly not least, I express my profound thanks to my wife Soonhi and to my son Heewon for putting up with my countless hours of research over the years. This dissertation is especially dedicated to my dear wife. Thank you, Soonhi! vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval page …………………………………………………………………. ….. ii Abstract …………………………………………………………………….……… iii Acknowledgements …………………………………………………….………….. v Table of Contents ……………………………………………………….…………vii Chapter One: Introduction ………………….……………………………………. 1 1. The Objective of This Research 2. Research Methods 3. Use of Sources and Limitations Encountered 4. Overview of Chapters Chapter Two: The Social Construction of Church, Sect, and Cult…………… 16 1. The Construction and Deconstruction of Religious Realities 1.1. The Role of Myth and Doctrine in Religion 1.2. The Construction and Deconstruction of Religious Realities 2. Different Worldviews and Religious Conflict 2.1. The Making of Orthodoxy and Heresy 2.2. The Making of Cults and Anti-Cult Movements 3. The Formulation of Church, Sect, and Cult 4. Conclusion Chapter Three: The Church, Sect, and Cult in Korea..…………….…………. 45 1. The Typology of Church, Sect, and Cult in the Korean Context 2. Church, Sect, and Cult in the Historical and Cultural Setting of Korea 2.1. Confucian Orthodoxy as a Church Type 2.2. Shamanism and Buddhism as Sect Type Religions in Confucian Society 2.2.1. The Shamanistic Sect in Confucian Society 2.2.2. Buddhism: From a Church Type to a Sect Type Religion 2.3. Cult Type Religions in Confucian Society 2.3.1. Roman Catholicism as a Cult Type Religion in Confucian Society 2.3.2. Revitalization Movements as Cults in Confucian Society 3. The Shifting Nature of the Church, Sect and Cult Types 3.1. The Fall of the “Confucian Church” 3.2. Shamanism’s Organizational Development 3.3. Buddhist Rejuvenation: From a Sect to a Church vii 3.4. Becoming a Church-Type Religion: The Catholic Compromise 3.5. New Religions in the Korean Tradition 4. Church, Sect, and Cult in the Protestant Tradition 5. Conclusion Chapter Four: Becoming a Social Force: The Protestant God in Korea.…....... 89 1. Western Civilization and the Message of Progress 2. The Contextualization of Monotheism in a Non-Western Culture 3. Religious Texts and Symbolism: The Establishment of the Christian World 4. Protestantism as an Anti-Syncretistic Religion 5. Conclusion Chapter Five: Christian Orthodoxy and the Formation of Protestant…….... 134 Fundamentalism 1. Piety and Individual Salvation 2. War, Division, and the Formation of a New Christian Ideology 3. The Characteristics of Conservative Korean Protestantism 3.1. Excuses for Orthodoxy: Schism and Unity 3.2. Liberalism versus Fundamentalism in the Korean Context 4. Conclusion Chapter Six: Sects and Cults in the Christian Tradition………………………. 176 1. New Religions in the Korean Cultic Milieu 2. Sects and Cults in the Christian Tradition 3. Sectarian Revival Movements 3.1. The Prayer Mountain Phenomenon and Christian Experiences 3.2. Modernization and Mega-Churches 3.3. Demonology and Healing 4. Becoming God: The Rise of Cultic Movements 4.1. Historical and Cultural Sources of Christian Cults 4.2. The Heavenly Father Religion and the Birth of God 4.3. Mun Seonmyeung as a Bearer of Salvation 4.4. The New Cultic Milieu and Cultic Religions 5. Conclusion Chapter Seven: Anti-Cult Movements: Protestant Responses.............................. 239 to Sects and Cults 1. Anti-Cultism and its Cognitive Boundaries 2. The Korean Anti-Cult Movement and Christian Fundamentalism 3. Images of Religions in Anti-Cult Literature 3.1. The Image of World Religions in Anti-Cultism 3.2. Images of Christian Sects and Cults in Anti-cultism 3.2.1. Images of Christian Sects in Anti-Cultism 3.2.2. Images of Christian Cults in Anti-Cultism viii 4. Boundary Makers for Orthodoxy: Churches and Anti-Cultists 4.1. Korean Protestant Churches as Supporters of Anti-Cultism 4.2. Anti-Cultists as Knowledge Brokers 4.3. Anti-Cultism and the Amplification of Deviancy 5. The Role of Anti-Cultism 5.1. The Cognitive Territory of Cults 5.2. Atrocity Tales as Cognitive Praxis 6. Conclusion Chapter Eight: Conclusion ……………………………………………………........ 298 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………….... 304 Interviews and Participant Observation …………………………………………... 338 Internet Sources …………………………………………………………………….. 338 Appendix A: Explanatory Notes on Romanization ………………………………..340 Appendix B: Glossary …………………………………………………………….....343 ix 1 Chapter One Introduction 1. The Objective of This Research The sociology of knowledge provides an analytic framework for the study of religion which accounts for the social formation of knowledge and its mobilization. The proposition that religion is a social phenomenon, constructing a reality, implies a certain relationship between knowledge and reality. Whether or not a religion is conventional, it moves in a cycle that creates and maintains its worldview through interaction with society. In keeping with the diversity that defines “religious studies,” the sociology of knowledge offers an
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