Stephen Hawking

Stephen William Hawking CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA Oxford to give birth in greater safety.[25] Hawking has ( i/ˈstiːvən ˈhɔːkɪŋ/; born 8 January 1942) is an En- two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted glish theoretical physicist, cosmologist, author and Di- brother, Edward.[26] rector of Research at the Centre for Theoretical Cos- In 1950, when his father became head of the division mology within the University of Cambridge.[16][17] His of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Re- scientific works include a collaboration with Roger Pen- search, Hawking and his family moved to St Albans, on gravitational singularity theorems in the frame- rose Hertfordshire.[27][28] In St Albans, the family were con- work of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction sidered highly intelligent and somewhat eccentric;[27][29] that black holes emit radiation, often called Hawking ra- meals were often spent with each person silently read- diation. Hawking was the first to set forth a theory of ing a book.[27] They lived a frugal existence in a large, cosmology explained by a union of the general theory cluttered, and poorly maintained house, and travelled in of relativity and quantum mechanics. He is a vigorous a converted London taxicab.[30][31] During one of Hawk- supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum [32] [18][19] ing’s father’s frequent absences working in Africa, the mechanics. rest of the family spent four months in Majorca visit- He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a ing his mother’s friend Beryl and her husband, the poet lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Robert Graves.[33] and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the Uni- 1.2 Disability versity of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009 and has achieved commercial success with works of popular sci- Hawking suffers from a rare early-onset slow-progressing ence in which he discusses his own theories and cosmol- form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known ogy in general; his book A Brief History of Time appeared as motor neurone disease or Lou Gehrig’s disease, that on the British Sunday Times best-seller list for a record- has gradually paralysed him over the decades.[20] breaking 237 weeks. Hawking had experienced increasing clumsiness during Hawking suffers from a rare early-onset, slow-progressing his final year at Oxford, including a fall on some stairs and form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known difficulties when rowing.[34][35] The problems worsened, as motor neurone disease or Lou Gehrig's disease, that and his speech became slightly slurred; his family noticed [20] has gradually paralysed him over the decades. He now the changes when he returned home for Christmas and communicates using a single cheek muscle attached to a medical investigations were begun.[36][37] The diagnosis speech-generating device. Hawking married twice and of motor neurone disease came when Hawking was 21, has three children. in 1963. At the time, doctors gave him a life expectancy of two years.[38][39] In the late 1960s, Hawking’s physical abilities de- 1 Personal life clined: he began to use crutches and ceased lecturing regularly.[40] As he slowly lost the ability to write, he 1.1 Parents developed compensatory visual methods, including see- ing equations in terms of geometry.[41][42] The physi- Hawking was born on 8 January 1942[1] in Oxford, Eng- cist Werner Israel later compared the achievements to land, to Frank (1905–1986) and Isobel Hawking (née Mozart composing an entire symphony in his head.[43][44] Walker; 1915–2013).[21][22] His mother was Scottish.[23] Hawking was, however, fiercely independent and unwill- Despite their families’ financial constraints, both parents ing to accept help or make concessions for his disabilities. attended the University of Oxford, where Frank stud- He preferred to be regarded as “a scientist first, popu- ied medicine and Isobel, Philosophy, Politics and Eco- lar science writer second, and, in all the ways that mat- nomics.[22] The two met shortly after the beginning of ter, a normal human being with the same desires, drives, the Second World War at a medical research institute dreams, and ambitions as the next person.”[45] His wife where she was working as a secretary and he as a medical Jane Hawking later noted that “Some people would call it researcher.[22][24] They lived in Highgate, but as Lon- determination, some obstinacy. I've called it both at one don was being bombed in those years, Isobel went to time or another.”[46] He required much persuasion to ac-

1 2 1 PERSONAL LIFE cept the use of a wheelchair at the end of the 1960s,[47] to be delivered.[66] but ultimately became notorious for the wildness of his [48] Hawking gradually lost the use of his hand, and in 2005 wheelchair driving. Hawking was a popular and witty he began to control his communication device with move- colleague, but his illness, as well as his reputation for [70][71][72] [46] ments of his cheek muscles, with a rate of about brashness, distanced him from some. one word per minute.[71] With this decline there is a Hawking’s speech deteriorated, and by the late 1970s risk of him developing locked-in syndrome, so Hawk- he could only be understood by his family and closest ing is collaborating with researchers on systems that friends. To communicate with others, someone who could translate his brain patterns or facial expressions into knew him well would translate his speech into intelligi- switch activations.[72][73][74] By 2009 he could no longer ble speech.[49] Spurred by a dispute with the university drive his wheelchair independently.[75] He has increased over who would pay for the ramp needed for him to en- breathing difficulties, requiring a ventilator at times and ter his workplace, Hawking and his wife campaigned for has been hospitalised several times.[73] improved access and support for those with disabilities in Cambridge,[50][51] including adapted student housing at [52] the university. In general, however, Hawking had am- 1.3 Marriages bivalent feelings about his role as a disability rights cham- pion: while wanting to help others, he sought to detach When Hawking was a graduate student at Cambridge, his himself from his illness and its challenges.[53] His lack of relationship with a friend of his sister, Jane Wilde, whom engagement led to some criticism.[54] he had met shortly before his diagnosis with motor neu- During a visit to the European Organisation for Nuclear rone disease, continued to develop. The couple became Research on the border of France and Switzerland in mid- engaged in October 1964[76][77] — Hawking later said 1985, Hawking contracted pneumonia, which in his con- that the engagement gave him “something to live for”[78] dition was life-threatening; he was so ill that Jane was — and the two were married on 14 July 1965.[79] asked if life support should be terminated. She refused During their first years of marriage, Jane lived in Lon- but the consequence was a tracheotomy, which would re- don during the week as she completed her degree, and quire round-the-clock nursing care, and remove what re- they travelled to the United States several times for con- mained of his speech.[55][56] The National Health Service ferences and physics-related visits. The couple had diffi- would pay for a nursing home, but Jane was determined culty finding housing that was within Hawking’s walking that he would live at home. The cost of the care was distance to the Department of Applied Mathematics and funded by an American foundation.[57][58] Nurses were Theoretical Physics (DAMTP). Jane began a PhD pro- hired for the three shifts required to provide the round- gramme, and a son, Robert, was born in May 1967.[80][81] the-clock support he required. One of those employed A daughter, Lucy, was born in 1970.[82] A third child, was Elaine Mason, who was to become Hawking’s sec- Timothy, was born in April 1979.[83] ond wife.[59] Hawking rarely discussed his illness and physical chal- For his communication, Hawking initially raised his eye- lenges, even—in a precedent set during their courtship— brows to choose letters on a spelling card.[60] But in 1986 with Jane.[84] His disabilities meant that the responsibili- he received a computer program called the “Equalizer” ties of home and family rested firmly on his wife’s increas- from Walter Woltosz, CEO of Words Plus, who had de- ingly overwhelmed shoulders, leaving him more time to veloped an earlier version of the software to help his think about physics.[85] Upon his appointment in 1974 to mother-in-law, who also suffered from ALS and had lost a year-long position at the California Institute of Technol- her ability to speak and write.[61] In a method he uses ogy in Pasadena, California, Jane proposed that a gradu- to this day, Hawking could now simply press a switch ate or post-doctoral student live with them and help with to select phrases, words or letters from a bank of about his care. Hawking accepted, and Bernard Carr travelled 2,500–3,000 that are scanned.[62][63] The program was with them as the first of many students who fulfilled this originally run on a desktop computer. However, Elaine role.[86][87] The family spent a generally happy and stim- Mason’s husband, David, a computer engineer, adapted ulating year in Pasadena.[88] a small computer and attached it to his wheelchair.[64] Released from the need to use somebody to interpret Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a new home, a his speech, Hawking commented that “I can commu- new job—as reader. Don Page, with whom Hawking had nicate better now than before I lost my voice.”[65] The begun a close friendship at Caltech, arrived to work as the voice he uses has an American accent and is no longer live-in graduate student assistant. With Page’s help and produced.[66][67] Despite the availability of other voices, that of a secretary, Jane’s responsibilities were reduced Hawking has retained this original voice, saying that he so she could return to her thesis and her new interest in prefers it and identifies with it.[68] At this point, Hawking singing.[89] activated a switch using his hand and could produce up to By December 1977, Jane had met organist Jonathan [69] 15 words a minute. Lectures were prepared in advance Hellyer Jones when singing in a church choir. Hellyer and were sent to the speech synthesiser in short sections Jones became close to the Hawking family, and by the 2.2 Undergraduate 3

mid-1980s, he and Jane had developed romantic feelings September 1952, St Albans School.[1][113] The family for each other.[90][91][92] According to Jane, her husband placed a high value on education.[27] Hawking’s father was accepting of the situation, stating “he would not ob- wanted his son to attend the well-regarded Westminster ject so long as I continued to love him.”[90][93][94] Jane and School, but the 13-year-old Hawking was ill on the day Hellyer Jones determined not to break up the family and of the scholarship examination. His family could not af- their relationship remained platonic for a long period.[95] ford the school fees without the financial aid of a schol- [114][115] By the 1980s, Hawking’s marriage had been strained for arship, so Hawking remained at St Albans. A many years. Jane felt overwhelmed by the intrusion into positive consequence was that Hawking remained with a close group of friends with whom he enjoyed board their family life of the required nurses and assistants. The impact of his celebrity was challenging for colleagues and games, the manufacture of fireworks, model aeroplanes and boats,[116] and long discussions about Christianity and family members, and in one interview Jane described [117] her role as “simply to tell him that he’s not God”.[96][97] extrasensory perception. From 1958, and with the help of the mathematics teacher Dikran Tahta, they built Hawking’s views of religion also contrasted with her strong Christian faith and resulted in tension.[98][97][99] In a computer from clock parts, an old telephone switch- board and other recycled components.[118][119] Although the late 1980s, Hawking had grown close to one of his at school he was known as “Einstein”, Hawking was not nurses, Elaine Mason, to the dismay of some colleagues, [120] caregivers and family members who were disturbed by initially successful academically. With time, he be- her strength of personality and protectiveness.[100] Hawk- gan to show considerable aptitude for scientific subjects, [101] and inspired by Tahta, decided to study mathematics at ing told Jane that he was leaving her for Mason and [121][122][123] departed the family home in February 1990.[102] After university. Hawking’s father advised him to study medicine, concerned that there were few jobs for his divorce from Jane in 1995, Hawking married Mason [124] in September,[103][102] declaring “It’s wonderful — I have mathematics graduates. He wanted Hawking to at- married the woman I love.”[104] tend University College, Oxford, his own alma mater. As it was not possible to read mathematics there at the time, In 1999 Jane Hawking published a memoir, Music to Hawking decided to study physics and chemistry. De- Move the Stars, describing her marriage to Hawking and spite his headmaster’s advice to wait until the next year, its breakdown. Its revelations caused a sensation in the Hawking was awarded a scholarship after taking the ex- media, but as was his usual practice regarding his per- aminations in March 1959.[125][126] sonal life, Hawking made no public comment except to say that he did not read biographies about himself.[105] After his second marriage, Hawking’s family felt ex- 2.2 Undergraduate cluded and marginalised from his life.[99][106] For a pe- riod of about five years in the early 2000s, his family Hawking began his university education at University and staff became increasingly worried that he was be- College, Oxford[1] in October 1959 at the age of 17.[127] [106][107] ing physically abused. Police investigations took For the first 18 months, he was bored and lonely: he was place, but were closed as Hawking refused to make a younger than many other students, and found the aca- [106][108][109] complaint. demic work “ridiculously easy”.[128][129] His physics tu- In 2006 Hawking and Mason quietly divorced,[110][111] tor, Robert Berman, later said, “It was only necessary and Hawking resumed closer relationships with Jane, for him to know that something could be done, and he his children, and grandchildren.[111][97] Reflecting this could do it without looking to see how other people did happier period, a revised version of Jane’s book called it.”[130] A change occurred during his second and third Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen appeared in year when, according to Berman, Hawking made more 2007,[106] and was made into a film The Theory of Every- effort “to be one of the boys”. He developed into a pop- thing in 2014. ⋅ ular, lively and witty college member, interested in clas- sical music and science fiction.[127] Part of the transfor- mation resulted from his decision to join the college Boat Club, where he coxed a rowing team.[131][132] The rowing 2 Education trainer at the time noted that Hawking cultivated a dare- devil image, steering his crew on risky courses that led to 2.1 Primary and secondary damaged boats.[133][131] Hawking has estimated that he studied about a thousand Hawking began his schooling at the Byron House School; hours during his three years at Oxford. These unimpres- he later blamed its “progressive methods” for his failure [27] sive study habits made sitting his finals a challenge, and to learn to read while at the school. In St Albans, the he decided to answer only theoretical physics questions eight-year-old Hawking attended St Albans High School rather than those requiring factual knowledge. A first- for Girls for a few months; at that time, younger boys [33][112] class honours degree was a condition of acceptance for could attend one of the houses. his planned graduate study in cosmology at the University He attended Radlett School for a year[112] and from of Cambridge.[134][135] Anxious, he slept poorly the night 4 3 CAREER

before the examinations, and the final result was on the 3.1 1966–1975 borderline between first- and second-class honours, mak- [135][136] ing a viva (oral examination) necessary. Hawk- In his work, and in collaboration with Penrose, Hawking ing was concerned that he was viewed as a lazy and dif- extended the singularity theorem concepts first explored ficult student, so when asked at the oral to describe his in his doctoral thesis. This included not only the exis- future plans, he said, “If you award me a First, I will go tence of singularities but also the theory that the universe to Cambridge. If I receive a Second, I shall stay in Ox- might have started as a singularity. Their joint essay was [135][137] ford, so I expect you will give me a First.” He was the runner-up in the 1968 Gravity Research Foundation held in higher regard than he believed: as Berman com- competition.[152][153] In 1970 they published a proof that mented, the examiners “were intelligent enough to realise if the universe obeys the general theory of relativity and they were talking to someone far cleverer than most of fits any of the models of physical cosmology developed by [135] themselves”. After receiving a first-class BA (Hons.) Alexander Friedmann, then it must have begun as a singu- degree, and following a trip to Iran with a friend, he began larity.[154][155][156] In 1969, Hawking accepted a specially his graduate work at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in October created Fellowship for Distinction in Science to remain [1][138][139] 1962. at Caius.[157] In 1970, Hawking postulated what became known as the second law of black hole dynamics, that the event 2.3 Graduate horizon of a black hole can never get smaller.[158] With James M. Bardeen and Brandon Carter, he proposed Hawking’s first year as a doctoral student[2] was difficult. the four laws of black hole mechanics, drawing an anal- He was initially disappointed to find that he had been ogy with thermodynamics.[159] To Hawking’s irritation, assigned Dennis William Sciama, one of the founders Jacob Bekenstein, a graduate student of John Wheeler, of modern cosmology, as a supervisor rather than noted went further—and ultimately correctly—to apply ther- astronomer Fred Hoyle,[140][141] and he found his train- modynamic concepts literally.[160][161] In the early 1970s, ing in mathematics inadequate for work in general rel- Hawking’s work with Carter, Werner Israel and David C. ativity and cosmology.[142] After being diagnosed with Robinson strongly supported Wheeler’s no-hair theorem motor neurone disease, Hawking fell into a depression; that no matter what the original material from which a though his doctors advised that he continue with his stud- black hole is created it can be completely described by the ies, he felt there was little point.[143] However, his disease properties of mass, electrical charge and rotation.[162][163] progressed more slowly than doctors had predicted. Al- His essay titled “Black Holes” won the Gravity Research though Hawking had difficulty walking unsupported and Foundation Award in January 1971.[164] Hawking’s first his speech was almost unintelligible, an initial diagno- book, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, written sis that he had only two years to live proved unfounded. with George Ellis, was published in 1973.[165] With the encouragement of Sciama, he returned to his Beginning in 1973, Hawking moved into the study of [144][145] work. Hawking started developing a reputation quantum gravity and quantum mechanics.[166][165] His for brilliance and brashness when he publicly challenged work in this area was spurred by a visit to Moscow the work of Fred Hoyle and his student Jayant Narlikar at and discussions with Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and [146][147] a lecture in June 1964. Alexei Starobinsky, whose work showed that accord- When Hawking began his graduate studies, there was ing to the uncertainty principle rotating black holes much debate in the physics community about the pre- emit particles.[167] To Hawking’s annoyance, his much- vailing theories of the creation of the universe: the Big checked calculations produced findings that contradicted Bang and the Steady State theories.[148] Inspired by Roger his second law, which claimed black holes could never get Penrose's theorem of a spacetime singularity in the cen- smaller,[168] and supported Bekenstein’s reasoning about tre of black holes, Hawking applied the same thinking to their entropy.[169][167] His results, which Hawking pre- the entire universe, and during 1965 wrote his thesis on sented from 1974, showed that black holes emit radiation, this topic.[149] There were other positive developments: known today as Hawking radiation, which may continue Hawking received a research fellowship at Gonville and until they exhaust their energy and evaporate.[170][171][172] Caius College.[79] He obtained his PhD degree in cosmol- Initially, Hawking radiation was controversial. However, ogy in March 1966,[150] and his essay entitled “Singular- by the late 1970s and following the publication of fur- ities and the Geometry of Space-Time” shared top hon- ther research, the discovery was widely accepted as a sig- ours with one by Penrose to win that year’s prestigious nificant breakthrough in theoretical physics.[173][174][175] Adams Prize.[151][150] Hawking was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1974, a few weeks after the announcement of Hawk- ing radiation. At the time, he was one of the youngest scientists to become a Fellow.[176][177] 3 Career Hawking was appointed to the Sherman Fairchild Dis- tinguished visiting professorship at the California Insti- 3.2 1975–1990 5

tute of Technology (Caltech) in 1970. He worked with a can conference, he presented work suggesting that there friend on the faculty, Kip Thorne,[178] and engaged him in might be no boundary—or beginning or ending—to the a scientific wager about whether the dark star Cygnus X- universe.[196][197] He subsequently developed the research 1 was a black hole. The wager was an “insurance policy” in collaboration with Jim Hartle, and in 1983 they pub- against the proposition that black holes did not exist.[179] lished a model, known as the Hartle–Hawking state. It Hawking acknowledged that he had lost the bet in 1990, proposed that prior to the Planck epoch, the universe had which was the first of several that he was to make with no boundary in space-time; before the Big Bang, time did Thorne and others.[180] Hawking has maintained ties to not exist and the concept of the beginning of the universe Caltech, spending a month there almost every year since is meaningless.[198] The initial singularity of the classical this first visit.[181] Big Bang models was replaced with a region akin to the North Pole. One cannot travel north of the North Pole, but there is no boundary there—it is simply the point 3.2 1975–1990 where all north-running lines meet and end.[199][200] Ini- tially the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed uni- Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a more ad- verse which had implications about the existence of God. vanced academic senior position —as reader. The mid- As Hawking explained “If the universe has no boundaries to late 1970s were a period of growing public interest but is self-contained... then God would not have had any in black holes and of the physicists who were studying freedom to choose how the universe began.”[201] them. Hawking was regularly interviewed for print and television.[182][183] He also received increasing academic Hawking did not rule out the existence of a Creator, ask- recognition of his work.[83] In 1975, he was awarded ing in A Brief History of Time “Is the unified theory so [202] both the Eddington Medal and the Pius XI Gold Medal, compelling that it brings about its own existence?" In and in 1976 the Dannie Heineman Prize, the Maxwell his early work, Hawking spoke of God in a metaphorical Prize and the Hughes Medal.[184][185] Hawking was ap- sense. In A Brief History of Time he wrote: “If we dis- pointed a professor with a chair in gravitational physics in cover a complete theory, it would be the ultimate triumph 1977.[90] The following year he received the Albert Ein- of human reason—for then we should know the mind of [203] stein Medal and an honorary doctorate from the Univer- God.” In the same book he suggested the existence sity of Oxford.[77][83] of God was unnecessary to explain the origin of the uni- verse. Later discussions with Neil Turok led to the reali- In the late 1970s, Hawking was elected Lucasian sation that it is also compatible with an open universe.[204] Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge.[83][186] His inaugural lecture as Lucasian Further work by Hawking in the area of arrows of time Professor of Mathematics was titled: “Is the end in sight led to the 1985 publication of a paper theorising that for Theoretical Physics” and proposed N=8 Supergravity if the no-boundary proposition were correct, then when as the leading theory to solve many of the outstanding the universe stopped expanding and eventually collapsed, [205] problems physicists were studying.[187] Hawking’s time would run backwards. A paper by Don Page promotion coincided with a health crisis which led to and independent calculations by Raymond Laflamme led [206] Hawking accepting, albeit reluctantly, some nursing Hawking to withdraw this concept. Honours contin- services at home.[188] At the same time, he was also ued to be awarded: in 1981 he was awarded the American [207] making a transition in his approach to physics, becoming Franklin Medal, and in 1982 made a Commander of [102][208] more intuitive and speculative rather than insisting on the Order of the British Empire (CBE). Awards mathematical proofs. “I would rather be right than rigor- do not pay the bills, however, and motivated by the need ous”, he told Kip Thorne.[189] In 1981, he proposed that to finance the children’s education and home expenses, information in a black hole is irretrievably lost when a in 1982 Hawking determined to write a popular book black hole evaporates. This information paradox violates about the universe that would be accessible to the general [209][210] the fundamental tenet of quantum mechanics, and led public. Instead of publishing with an academic to years of debate, including "the Black Hole War" with press, he signed a contract with Bantam Books, a mass Leonard Susskind and Gerard 't Hooft.[190][191] market publisher, and received a large advance for his book.[211][212] A first draft of the book, called A Brief His- Cosmological inflation—a theory proposing that follow- tory of Time, was completed in 1984.[213] ing the Big Bang the universe initially expanded incredi- bly rapidly before settling down to a slower expansion— One of the first messages Hawking produced with his was proposed by Alan Guth and also developed by Andrei speech-generating device was a request for his assistant [69] Linde.[192] Following a conference in Moscow in Oc- to help him finish writing A Brief History of Time. tober 1981, Hawking and Gary Gibbons organized a Peter Guzzardi, his editor at Bantam, pushed him to ex- three-week Nuffield Workshop in the summer of 1982 plain his ideas clearly in non-technical language, a pro- on the Very Early Universe at Cambridge University, cess that required multiple revisions from an increasingly [214] which focused mainly on inflation theory.[193][194][195] irritated Hawking. The book was published in April Hawking also began a new line of quantum theory re- 1988 in the US and in June in the UK, and proved to search into the origin of the universe. In 1981 at a Vati- be an extraordinary success, rising quickly to the top of 6 3 CAREER

bestseller lists in both countries and remaining there for Preskill made another bet, this time concerning the black months.[215][216][217] The book was translated into mul- hole information paradox.[231][232] Thorne and Hawking tiple languages,[218] and ultimately sold an estimated 9 argued that since general relativity made it impossible for million copies.[217] Media attention was intense,[218] and black holes to radiate and lose information, the mass- Newsweek magazine cover and a television special both energy and information carried by Hawking radiation described him as “Master of the Universe”.[219] Success must be “new”, and not from inside the black hole event led to significant financial rewards, but also the chal- horizon. Since this contradicted the quantum mechan- lenges of celebrity status.[220] Hawking travelled exten- ics of microcausality, quantum mechanics theory would sively to promote his work, and enjoyed partying and need to be rewritten. Preskill argued the opposite, that dancing into the small hours.[218] He had difficulty re- since quantum mechanics suggests that the information fusing the invitations and visitors which left limited time emitted by a black hole relates to information that fell in for work and his students.[221] Some colleagues were at an earlier time, the concept of black holes given by resentful of the attention Hawking received, feeling it general relativity must be modified in some way.[233] [222][223] was due to his disability. He received further Hawking also maintained his public profile, including academic recognition, including five further honorary bringing science to a wider audience. A film version of A degrees,[219] the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomi- [224] [219] Brief History of Time, directed by Errol Morris and pro- cal Society (1985), the Paul Dirac Medal (1987) duced by Steven Spielberg, premiered in 1992. Hawking and, jointly with Penrose, the prestigious Wolf Prize had wanted the film to be scientific rather than biograph- (1988).[225] In 1989, he was appointed Member of the [221] ical, but he was persuaded otherwise. The film, while Order of the Companions of Honour (CH). He re- [234] [226] a critical success, was however not widely released. portedly declined a knighthood. A popular-level collection of essays, interviews and talk titled Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Es- says was published in 1993[235] and six-part television se- 3.3 1990–2000 ries Stephen Hawking’s Universe and companion book ap- peared in 1997. As Hawking insisted, this time the focus was entirely on science.[236][237]

3.4 2000–present

Hawking continued his writings for a popular audience, publishing The Universe in a Nutshell in 2001,[238] and A Briefer History of Time which he wrote in 2005 with Leonard Mlodinow to update his earlier works to make them accessible to a wider audience, and God Created the Integers, which appeared in 2006.[239] Along with Thomas Hertog at the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) and Jim Hartle, from 2006 on Hawk- ing developed a theory of “top-down cosmology”, which Hawking with string theorists David Gross and Edward Witten at says that the universe had not one unique initial state but the 2001 Strings Conference, TIFR, India many different ones, and therefore that it is inappropriate to formulate a theory that predicts the universe’s current Hawking pursued his work in physics: in 1993 he co- configuration from one particular initial state.[240] Top- edited a book on Euclidean quantum gravity with Gary down cosmology posits that the present “selects” the past Gibbons and published a collected edition of his own from a superposition of many possible histories. In doing articles on black holes and the Big Bang.[227] In 1994 so, the theory suggests a possible resolution of the fine- at Cambridge’s Newton Institute, Hawking and Penrose tuning question.[73][241] delivered a series of six lectures, which were published in 1996 as “The Nature of Space and Time”.[228] In Hawking continued to travel widely, including trips to 1997 he conceded a 1991 public scientific wager made Chile, Easter Island, South Africa, Spain (to receive the Fonseca Prize in 2008),[242][243] Canada,[244] and multi- with Kip Thorne and John Preskill of Caltech. Hawk- [245] ing had bet that Penrose’s proposal of a “cosmic cen- ple trips to the United States. For practical reasons re- sorship conjecture”—that there could be no “naked sin- lated to his disability, Hawking increasingly travelled by [229] private jet, and by 2011 that had become his only mode gularities” unclothed within a horizon—was correct. [246] After discovering his concession might have been pre- of international travel. mature, a new, more refined, wager was made. This By 2003, consensus among physicists was growing that specified that such singularities would occur without ex- Hawking was wrong about the loss of information in tra conditions.[230] The same year, Thorne, Hawking and a black hole.[247] In a 2004 lecture in Dublin, he con- 7

In 2007 Hawking and his daughter Lucy published George’s Secret Key to the Universe, a children’s book de- signed to explain theoretical physics in an accessible fash- ion and featuring characters similar to those in the Hawk- ing family.[256] The book was followed by sequels in 2009 and 2011.[257] In 2002, following a UK-wide vote, the BBC included him in their list of the 100 Greatest Britons. Hawking was awarded the Copley Medal from the Royal Society (2006),[258] the Presidential Medal of Freedom which is America’s highest civilian honour (2009),[259][260] and the Russian Special Fundamental Physics Prize (2013).[261] Several buildings have been named after him, including the Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Sal- vador, El Salvador,[262] the Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge,[263] and the Stephen Hawking Centre at Perimeter Institute in Canada.[264] Appropriately, given Hawking’s association with time, he unveiled the me- chanical “Chronophage” (or time-eating) Corpus Clock at Corpus Christi College Cambridge in September 2008.[265][266] During his career Hawking has supervised 39 successful PhD students.[267] As required by Cambridge University regulations, Hawk- ing retired as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 2009. Despite suggestions that he might leave the United King- dom as a protest against public funding cuts to basic sci- Hawking on 5 May 2006, during the press conference at the entific research,[268] Hawking has continued to work as Bibliothèque nationale de France to inaugurate the Laboratory of Astronomy and Particles in Paris and the French release of director of research at the Cambridge University Depart- his work God Created the Integers ment of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, and indicated in 2012 that he had no plans to retire.[269] On 20 July 2015, Stephen Hawking helped launch ceded his 1997 bet with Preskill, but described his own, Breakthrough Initiatives, an effort to search for somewhat controversial solution, to the information para- extraterrestrial life and attempt to answer the question: dox problem, involving the possibility that black holes Are we alone?[270] have more than one topology.[248][233] In the 2005 pa- per he published on the subject, he argued that the in- formation paradox was explained by examining all the 4 Views alternative histories of universes, with the information loss in those with black holes being cancelled out by those without.[232][249] In January 2014 he called the 4.1 Future of humanity alleged loss of information in black holes his “biggest blunder”.[250] In 2006 Hawking posed an open question on the Internet: As part of another longstanding scientific dispute, Hawk- “In a world that is in chaos politically, socially and envi- ing had emphatically argued, and bet, that the Higgs bo- ronmentally, how can the human race sustain another 100 son would never be found.[251] The particle was proposed years?", later clarifying: “I don’t know the answer. That is why I asked the question, to get people to think about to exist as part of the Higgs field theory by Peter Higgs in [271] 1964. Hawking and Higgs engaged in a heated and public it, and to be aware of the dangers we now face.” debate over the matter in 2002 and again in 2008, with Hawking has expressed concern that life on Earth is Higgs criticising Hawking’s work and complaining that at risk from “a sudden nuclear war, a genetically engi- Hawking’s “celebrity status gives him instant credibility neered virus or other dangers we have not yet thought that others do not have.”[252] The particle was discovered of”.[272] He views spaceflight and the colonisation of in July 2012 at CERN following construction of the Large space as necessary for the future of humanity.[272][273] Hadron Collider. Hawking quickly conceded that he had Hawking has stated that, given the vastness of the uni- lost his bet[253][254] and said that Higgs should win the verse, aliens likely exist, but that contact with them should Nobel Prize for Physics,[255] which he did in 2013. be avoided.[274][275] Hawking has argued superintelligent 8 6 DISABILITY OUTREACH

and it is my view that the simplest explanation is there is no God. No one created the uni- verse and no one directs our fate. This leads me to a profound realization. There is prob- ably no heaven, and no afterlife either. We have this one life to appreciate the grand design of the universe, and for that, I am extremely grateful.”[281][282]

In September 2014 he joined Starmus Festival as keynote speaker and declared himself an atheist.[283]

U.S. President Barack Obama talks with Stephen Hawking in the Blue Room of the White House before a ceremony presenting him 5 Politics and 15 others with the Presidential Medal of Freedom on 12 Au- gust 2009 In March 1968, Hawking marched alongside Tariq Ali and Vanessa Redgrave to protest against the [284] artificial intelligence could be pivotal in steering human- Vietnam War. He is a longstanding Labour Party [285][286] ity’s fate, stating that “the potential benefits are huge... supporter. He recorded a tribute for the 2000 [287] Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in hu- Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore, called [286][288] man history. It might also be the last, unless we learn how the 2003 invasion of Iraq a "war crime", to avoid the risks.”[276][277] boycotted a conference in Israel because of concerns about Israel’s policies towards Palestinians,[289][290][291] Hawking has argued that computer viruses should be con- campaigned for nuclear disarmament,[285][292][286] and sidered a new form of life, and has stated that “maybe it has supported stem cell research,[286][293] universal health says something about human nature, that the only form care,[294] and action to prevent climate change.[292] In Au- of life we have created so far is purely destructive. Talk gust 2014, Hawking was one of 200 signatories to a letter [278] about creating life in our own image.” opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to Septem- ber’s referendum on that issue.[295] 4.2 Science vs. philosophy

At Google’s Zeitgeist Conference in 2011, Hawking said 6 Disability outreach that “philosophy is dead”. He believes that philosophers “have not kept up with modern developments in science” and that scientists “have become the bearers of the torch of discovery in our quest for knowledge”. He said that philosophical problems can be answered by science, par- ticularly new scientific theories which “lead us to a new and very different picture of the universe and our place in it”.[279]

4.3 Religion

Hawking has stated that he is “not religious in the normal sense” and he believes that “the universe is governed by the laws of science. The laws may have been decreed by Hawking taking a zero-gravity flight in a "Vomit Comet" God, but God does not intervene to break the laws”.[280] In an interview published in The Guardian, Hawking re- Since the 1990s, Hawking has accepted the mantle of garded the concept of Heaven as a myth, believing that role model for disabled people, lecturing and participat- there is “no heaven or afterlife” and that such a notion was ing in fundraising activities.[296] At the turn of the cen- [203] a “fairy story for people afraid of the dark”. In 2011, tury, he and eleven other luminaries signed the Charter when narrating the first episode of the American televi- for the Third Millennium on Disability which called on sion series Curiosity on the Discovery Channel, Hawking governments to prevent disability and protect disability declared: rights.[297][298] In 1999 Hawking was awarded the Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Soci- “We are each free to believe what we want ety.[299] Motivated by the desire to increase public inter- 9

est in spaceflight and to show the potential of people with disabilities, in 2007 he participated in zero-gravity flight in a "Vomit Comet", courtesy of Zero Gravity Corpora- tion, during which he experienced weightlessness eight times.[272][300][301][302] In August 2012 Hawking narrated the “Enlightenment” segment of the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening cer- emony.[303] In 2013, the biographical documentary film Hawking, in which Hawking himself is featured, was released.[304] In September 2013, he expressed support for the legalisation of assisted suicide for the terminally ill.[305] In August 2014, Hawking accepted the Ice Bucket Challenge to promote ALS/MND awareness and raise Stephen Hawking being presented by his daughter Lucy Hawking contributions for research. As he had pneumonia in 2013, at the lecture he gave for NASA’s 50th anniversary he was advised not to have ice poured over him, but his children volunteered to accept the challenge on his [306] behalf. physics and astronomy, and especially from a mastery of wholly new mathematical tech- niques. Following the pioneering work of Pen- 7 Appearances in popular media rose he established, partly alone and partly in collaboration with Penrose, a series of succes- Further information: Stephen Hawking in popular culture sively stronger theorems establishing the fun- damental result that all realistic cosmological models must possess singularities. Using simi- At the release party for the home video version of the A lar techniques, Hawking has proved the basic Brief History of Time, Leonard Nimoy, who had played theorems on the laws governing black holes: Spock on Star Trek, learned that Hawking was interested that stationary solutions of Einstein’s equations in appearing on the show. Nimoy made the necessary with smooth event horizons must necessarily be contact, and Hawking played a holographic simulation axisymmetric; and that in the evolution and in- of himself in an episode of Star Trek: The Next Gen- teraction of black holes, the total surface area [307][308][309] eration in 1993. The same year, his synthe- of the event horizons must increase. In collab- siser voice was recorded for the Pink Floyd song "Keep oration with G. Ellis, Hawking is the author of [310][235] Talking", and in 1999 for an appearance on The an impressive and original treatise on “Space- [311] Simpsons. Hawking appeared in documentaries en- time in the Large”. titled The Real Stephen Hawking (2001),[298] Stephen Hawking: Profile (2002) [312] and Hawking (2013), and the documentary series Stephen Hawking, Master of the The citation continues: Universe (2008).[313] Hawking has also guest-starred in Futurama[73] and The Big Bang Theory.[314] Hawking al- “Other important work by Hawking relates lowed the use of his copyrighted voice[315][316] in the bi- to the interpretation of cosmological observa- ographical 2014 film The Theory of Everything.[317] tions and to the design of gravitational wave [15] Hawking has used his fame to advertise products, includ- detectors.” ing a wheelchair,[298] National Savings,[318] British Tele- com, Specsavers, Egg Banking[319] and Go Compare.[320] He has applied to trademark his name.[321] 9 Bibliography

8 Awards and honours 9.1 Selected academic works • Hawking, S. W.; Penrose, R. (1970). “The Singu- Hawking has received numerous awards and honours. Al- larities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology”. ready early in the list, in 1974 he was elected a Fellow of Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, the Royal Society (FRS). At that time, his nomination Physical and Engineering Sciences 314 (1519): read: 529–548. Bibcode:1970RSPSA.314..529H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1970.0021. “Hawking has made major contributions to the field of general relativity. These derive from • Hawking, S. (1971). “Gravitational Ra- a deep understanding of what is relevant to diation from Colliding Black Holes”. 10 11 REFERENCES

Physical Review Letters 26 (21): 1344– 9.4 Films and series 1346. Bibcode:1971PhRvL..26.1344H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.26.1344. • A Brief History of Time (1992)[323]

• Hawking, S.W. (1972). “Black holes in general rel- • Stephen Hawking’s Universe (1997)[324][93] ativity”. Communications in Mathematical Physics • Hawking – BBC television film (2004) starring 25 (2): 152–166. Bibcode:1972CMaPh..25..152H. Benedict Cumberbatch doi:10.1007/BF01877517. • Horizon: The Hawking Paradox (2005)[325] • Hawking, S. W. (1974). “Black hole explosions?". Nature 248 (5443): 30– • Masters of Science Fiction (2007)[326] 31. Bibcode:1974Natur.248...30H. doi:10.1038/248030a0. • Stephen Hawking and the Theory of Everything (2007) • Hawking, S.W. (1982). “The development of irregularities in a single bubble inflation- • Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe (2008)[327] ary universe”. Physics Letters B 115 (4): • Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking (2010)[328] 295–297. Bibcode:1982PhLB..115..295H. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(82)90373-2. • Brave New World with Stephen Hawking (2011)[329]

• Hartle, J.; Hawking, S. (1983). “Wave function • Stephen Hawking’s Grand Design (2012)[330] of the Universe”. Physical Review D 28 (12): 2960–2975. Bibcode:1983PhRvD..28.2960H. • The Big Bang Theory (2012) doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.28.2960. • Stephen Hawking: A Brief History of Mine [331] • Hawking, S. (2005). “Information (2013) loss in black holes”. Physical Re- • The Theory of Everything – Feature film (2014) star- view D 72 (8): 084013. arXiv:hep- ring Eddie Redmayne[332] th/0507171. Bibcode:2005PhRvD..72h4013H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.084013. 10 See also 9.2 Popular publications • Gibbons–Hawking ansatz • A Brief History of Time (1988)[257] • Gibbons–Hawking effect • Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays • (1993)[322] Gibbons–Hawking space • • The Universe in a Nutshell (2001)[257] Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term

• On The Shoulders of Giants (2002)[257] 11 References • A Briefer History of Time (2005)[257]

• God Created the Integers: The Mathematical Break- [1] HAWKING, Prof. Stephen William. Who’s Who 2015 throughs That Changed History (2005)[257] (online Oxford University Press ed.). A & C Black, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc. (subscription re- • The Grand Design (2010)[257] quired)

• My Brief History (2013)[257] [2] Hawking, Stephen (1966). Properties of Expanding Uni- verses (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. OCLC 62793673

9.3 Children’s fiction [3] Stephen Hawking at the Mathematics Genealogy Project

Co-written with his daughter Lucy. [4] Allen, Bruce (1983). Vacuum energy and general relativity (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.

• George’s Secret Key to the Universe (2007)[257] [5] Bousso, Raphael (1997). Pair creation of black holes in cosmology (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. • George’s Cosmic Treasure Hunt (2009)[257] [6] Carr, Bernard John (1976). Primordial black holes (PhD • George and the Big Bang (2011)[257] thesis). University of Cambridge. 11

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[9] Gibbons, Gary William (1973). Some aspects of gravi- [34] Ferguson 2011, p. 32. tational radiation and gravitational collapse (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. [35] Donaldson, Gregg J. (May 1999). “The Man Behind the Scientist”. Tapping Technology. Archived from the orig- [10] Hertog, Thomas (2002). The origin of inflation (PhD the- inal on 11 May 2005. Retrieved 23 December 2012. sis). University of Cambridge. [36] White & Gribbin 2002, p. 59. [11] Laflamme, Raymond (1988). Time and quantum cosmol- ogy (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. [37] Ferguson 2011, pp. 34–35.

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11.1 Sources • Pickover, Clifford A. (2008). Archimedes to Hawk- ing: laws of science and the great minds behind them. • Hawking, Stephen (2013). 0-345-53913-3 My Brief Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533611- History Check |url= scheme (help). Bantam. ISBN 5. Retrieved 4 March 2012. 978-0-345-53528-3. Retrieved 9 September 2013. • White, Michael; Gribbin, John (2002). Stephen • Baird, Eric (2007). Relativity in Curved Space- Hawking: A Life in Science (2nd ed.). National time: Life Without Special Relativity. Chocolate Tree Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-08410-9. Books. ISBN 978-0-9557068-0-6. • Yulsman, Tom (2003). Origins: the quest for our • Boslough, John (1989). Stephen Hawking’s universe: cosmic roots. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-7503-0765- an introduction to the most remarkable scientist of our 9. time. Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-70763-8. Re- trieved 4 March 2012. • Ferguson, Kitty (2011). Stephen Hawking: His Life 12 External links and Work. Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-1047-6. • Official website • Gibbons, Gary W.; Hawking, Stephen W.; Siklos, S.T.C., eds. (1983). The Very early universe: pro- • Stephen Hawking at the Internet Movie Database ceedings of the Nuffield workshop, Cambridge, 21 • Stephen Hawking (character) at the Internet Movie June to 9 July, 1982. Cambridge University Press. Database ISBN 0-521-31677-4. • Stephen Hawking on Facebook • Hawking, Jane (2007). Travelling to Infinity: My Life With Stephen. Alma. ISBN 978-1-84688-115- • Portraits of Stephen William Hawking at the 2. National Portrait Gallery, London • Hawking, Stephen W. (1994). Black holes and baby • Archival material relating to Stephen Hawking listed universes and other essays. Bantam Books. ISBN at the UK National Archives 978-0-553-37411-7. • Stephen Hawking collected news and commentary • Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F.R. (1973). at The New York Times The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. Cam- bridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6. • Stephen Hawking’s publications indexed by the Scopus bibliographic database, a service provided • Hawking, Stephen W. (1992). Stephen Hawking’s A by Elsevier. brief history of time: a reader’s companion. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-07772-8. • Stephen Hawking at Encyclopædia Britannica • Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (1989). Three • Appearances on C-SPAN Hundred Years of Gravitation. Cambridge Univer- • Works by or about Stephen Hawking in libraries sity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2. (WorldCat catalog) • Larsen, Kristine (2005). Stephen Hawking: a biog- • Stephen Hawking collected news and commentary raphy. ISBN 978-0-313-32392-8. at The Guardian • Mialet, Hélène (2003). “Is the end in sight for the • Stephen Hawking at TED Lucasian chair? Stephen Hawking as Millennium Professor”. In Knox, Kevin C. & Noakes, Richard. • “Stephen Hawking at 70: Exclusive interview”. New From Newton to Hawking: A History of Cambridge Scientist. 4 January 2012. University’s Lucasian Professors of Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 425–460. ISBN • Stephen Hawking sings => “Galaxy Song” (02:43) 978-0-521-66310-6. on YouTube - a classic song. • Mialet, Hélène (2012). Hawking Incorporated: Stephen Hawking and the Anthropology of the Know- ing Subject. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978- 0-226-52226-5. • Okuda, Michael; Okuda, Denise (1999). The Star trek encyclopedia: a reference guide to the future. Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0-671-53609-1. 19

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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P. Uzer, Kind Tennis Fan, Mainthinker, ITeachThem, Taylor Trescott, SaucyJimmy, Noteswork, Shannonvaldes, Arun Sunner, Rohith.ravichandran.1, Rcehy, Lincoln18612000, Thomasamuse, Spilia4, JamKaf- tan, Cole Brunner, InsanityDZN, Robin S. Taylor, NaomiNaomiNaomi, Anna Maria Salcedo, Jonarnold1985, Deoxidation, Signedzzz, Frankthetankk, D.S. Cordoba-Bahle, SLBedit, Loraof, Proffesordicksoloman, Gamebuster19901, Jordanjlatimer, GoogleGlassHuman, Tetra quark, Unknown100000000, KasparBot, Caltropdefense, Josephkleen, TheEditor867, Chriseicher, Scubadooba1, PowerUnblocked, Neve-selbert, Sheroddy and Anonymous: 1673

13.2 Images

• File:Barack_Obama_speaks_to_Stephen_Hawking.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Barack_ Obama_speaks_to_Stephen_Hawking.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: White House Photostream Original artist: Pete Souza • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gross_Witten_Hawking_TIFR_2001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Gross_Witten_ Hawking_TIFR_2001.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Finemann • File:Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png License: Public do- main Contributors: http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/121238/ilc_9yr_moll4096.png Original artist: NASA / WMAP Science Team 22 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Physicist_Stephen_Hawking_in_Zero_Gravity_NASA.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/ 08/Physicist_Stephen_Hawking_in_Zero_Gravity_NASA.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/ 39735679@N00/475109138/ / http://mediaarchive.ksc.nasa.gov/detail.cfm?mediaid=31873 Original artist: Jim Campbell/Aero-News Network • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Speakerlink-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg License: CC0 Contribu- tors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong • File:Stephen_Hawking.StarChild.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Stephen_Hawking.StarChild. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original. Source (StarChild Learning Center). Directory listing. Original artist: NASA • File:Stephen_Hawking_050506.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Stephen_Hawking_050506.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Photo created by ²°¹°°, as documented at Wikipedia fr Original artist: ²°¹°° • File:Stephen_hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Stephen_ hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/50th/NASA_lecture_series/ hawking.html Original artist: NASA/Paul Alers • File:Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: based off of Image:Stylised Lithium Atom.png by Halfdan. Original artist: SVG by Indolences. Recoloring and ironing out some glitches done by Rainer Klute. • File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil • File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. • File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC) Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by Simon. • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

13.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0