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The Tolerated, the Indulged and the Contented: Ethnic Alliances and Rivalries in Grenadian Plantation Society 1763-1800 Donald Polson Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) University of Warwick Faculty of Arts / Centre for Caribbean Studies October 2011 [1] Contents List of Tables, Illustrations & Diagrams 3 Acknowledgements 5 Abstract 7 List of Abbreviations & Glossary 8 Chapters: 1 Introduction 10 2 30 3 132 4 243 5 Conclusion 331 6 Appendices 336 7 Works Cited 349 [2] Index to Tables, Maps and Illustrations Table Title Page Fig.1 Map of Grenada 1758 9 Table 1 Scots in Windward Legislature 1766-96 47 Table 2 Ethic ratios in Grenada 1762-96 48 Table 3 Reformed House of Assembly members by 61 parish Table 4 State of Council 7/12/1777 121 Task 5 State of Grenada 31/5/1778 122 Table 6 Grenada 1772 - Ethnic property ratios 145 Table 7 1772 Returns – Island of Carriacou 146 Table 8 Free Coloured Property – Grenada 1772 156 Table 9 Population of Grenada: whites & free coloureds 158 by ethnicity & gender Table 10 Slave, white & freed man population in Danish 160 West Indies Table 11 Population of Grenada – white & free coloured 161 Table 12 Organisation of Black Pioneers & associated 224 units Table 13 Returns of HM Fortifications – black artificers & 228 labourers Richmond Heights Table 14 Waltham Estate slave returns 1789 235 [3] Table 15 African ethnicity by language 1783 246 Table 16 Certified naturalised adopted subjects 248 Table 17 State of Grenada Legislature (Council) 260 Table 18 Ninian Home mortgage 270 Table 19 Slaves taken over by James McBurnie 323 [4] Acknowledgements When work commenced on this thesis years ago I never envisioned the traumatic personal events in my life over the period of research and writing would bear such similarity to the uncertainties and revolutions examined in this thesis. There are many people to thank for their support. First, my deepest gratitude to my long-suffering but understanding family: my wife Leila, who has endured ‗three‘ of us in our relationship; my children, Alexandra and Ciarán, who suffered reduced quality time and had to endure the transformation of the family home into an erstwhile archive strewn with papers and books. I must thank my supervisor Dr. John Gilmore, for his vast knowledge, advice, and support over the years. I would also like to thank the University of Warwick for its facilities, resources, and activities, and most of all the opportunity to research this subject and open new experiences to travel to parts of Britain. My deepest gratitude to the staff at the National Archives, Kew (former Public Record Office); staff at the British Library and Lambeth Palace, London; staff at the Somerset Archives, Taunton, and Bristol Archives. Particular thanks to the staff at the wonderful National Archives of Scotland (NAS) for their advice and assistance. My appreciation to Dr. Curtis Jacobs and Dr. Beverley Steele of the University of West Indies (UWI) for their time and opportunities to discuss the events / history of [5] the period. I extend this to the people of Grenada, Carriacou, and Petit Martinique for their hospitality and their passion for their history. Sincere thanks to Hon. John Home (MSP) for his gracious invitation to Paxton House, Berwickshire and hospitality, for his kind insights into his family history and valuable assistance introducing me to Ms. Sonia Baker, who graciously gave me assistance from her own research. For the medical staff at Raigmore Hospital, Inverness, Scotland, to whom I literally owe my life, and the medical staff at Charing Cross Hospital, London, (particularly Consultant Mr. David Peterson) for providing urgent medical care. Finally, I wish to give dedication to my father Thomas Emericous Polson, from Carriacou, who passed away in April 2006 in Grenada, before the conclusion of this thesis. [6] Abstract This thesis examines how rival national interests and relations between European states, principally France and Britain, affected ethnic relationships on the island of Grenada, West Indies throughout the period of 1763-1800. The arguments postulated are: 1. Imperial ideologies reinforced assumed superiority and right to rule that relegated all other groups to inferior status. 2. An ethnic model rather than a racial model is the best way to study Grenada plantation society. 3. The stigmatised in society fractured into ethnic groups, forming dynamic relationships, not fixed structures, that were flexible to fit their needs, value,s and beliefs. 4. The need to dominate or participate in that society coerced inter-ethnic alliances across boundaries (considered anathema), creating reprisals from the ruling group. 5. British government policies and officers‘ lack of leadership created a vacuum for constitutional conflict and inter-ethnic internal feuding and contributed to Fédon‘s revolt. Chapter One is an introduction to outline the pre-history of the area of study to explain differences between groups. It will outline the topography of the island, explain the system of government, and describe the composition of the initial resident population. Chapter Two establishes the concepts ‗ethnicity‘ and ‗race‘ and its importance. The European ethnic groups and their relationships are examined using this model. The concept of ‗whiteness‘ is addressed and its external and internal effects. An argument postulated is white hegemony existed as a fractious union where coerced whites perceived to be complicit with Catholics, were targeted and socially ostracised. Another important focus is the roles of governors and their relationships and alliances with the planter class within society. The term Creole and their standing vis-á-vis with European whites provides another layer within society in conjunction with the critical delineation of social class across white groups in society. Chapter Three defines the concept of Coloured and the range of perceived physical characteristics and legal differences, i.e., the concepts free and un-free. As the largest social grouping the role of Africans is pivotal, viz. their place in society and relationships with other groups. African differences are assessed, particularly the Grenada Maroons and their position and interaction within society and with another ethnic group, the Caribs. Chapter Four examines the status of governors and employs a case study of the last decade of Ninian Home: an examination of his character, lifestyle, his attempts to became governor, political lobbying, relationship with his family, his administration and how it contributed to the Fédon Rebellion. Chapter Five summarises the thesis and explains how the postulated arguments are met. [7] Abbreviations / Glossary Bit / Joe - Various local regional coin Cy. – (abbr.) Local Money – money minted within region but of less value than official standard value i.e. composed of less precious metals Freebooting – Archaic term for smuggling Hogshead – A traditional large cask (unit of capacity) used to store wine/spirits for shipping. Several measurements employed but modern day capacity equivalents (in Imperial gallons) are beer (54) & wine (52.5). Jack Iron – Very strong local distilled over-proof rum (the most powerful is said to come from the island of Carriacou) Marque – Official stamp of authority / permission Oil Down – Dish of breadfruit, provisions, coconut, mackerel or pork - (National dish of Grenada) Pepper Pot - A Creole adapted traditional African stew of crab meat, callaloo (similar to spinach), coconut milk, onions, garlic, herbs and provisions Provisions – Root starch vegetables high in carbohydrates grown throughout Caribbean, e.g. sweet potatoes, yams, eddoes, plantains (also called bluggoes in Grenada), breadfruit, dasheen, etc. Stg. / L - (abbr.) Pounds Sterling (£) – official currency of Britain; minted to standard value metal content. Subaltern – A junior officer below the rank of captain Tierce – An archaic measurement of unit capacity equivalent to 42 Imperial gallons or one 1/3 pipe of wine. (O.E.D.) Yaws – Highly infectious ulcers caused by bacteria which can cause tissue loss. [8] Fig. 1 Grenada (J. N. BELLIN Carte De L'Isle De La Grenade Pour servir a l'Histoire Genrale des Voyages. Par M.B. Ingr. de la Marine. Paris. 1758) [9] Chapter One The aim of this thesis is to examine society within the Caribbean Island of Grenada in the 18th Century during the period of 1763 – 1800. It will examine relationships between the range of groups that made up Grenadian society and argue that tensions created by suppression, exclusion, and superiority created dynamic inter-ethnic alliances. The reason d’être for the establishment of 18th-Century Grenada society was colonialism, created and maintained by competing European nation states with a common historical rivalry. The first chapter of this thesis will serve as an introduction to the island‘s topography and outline its history before 1763. It will analyse the system of government and discuss the composition of residents after conquest. Chapter Two will examine the definition of the concepts of ‗ethnicity‘ and ‗race,‘ and argue why it provides a clearer model to examine Grenada society. An analysis of the ethnic and gender ratios within Grenada illuminates the composition and implications. Grenada is placed into context through an examination of the historiography of the Caribbean region.. Given the prevalence of primary source material for this thesis, it is essential to give proper evaluation to this and treat all testimony as valid. This provides the pertinent framework to examine the white groups in Grenada, how they perceived themselves, and debate the concept ‗whiteness,‘ viz.