A survey of race relations in : 1953-1954

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Aluka is a not-for-profit initiative dedicated to creating and preserving a digital archive of materials about and from the developing world. For more information about Aluka, please see http://www.aluka.org A survey of race relations in South Africa: 1953-1954

Author/Creator Horrell, Muriel Publisher South African Institute of Race Relations, Date 1954 Resource type Reports Language English Subject Coverage (spatial) South Africa Coverage (temporal) 1953-1954 Source EG Malherbe Library Description Survey of race relations in South Africa in 1953 and 1954 and includes chapters on: Politics and attitudes; The plans and activities of non-European organizations and those working in collaboration with them; General work making for improved race relations; Events ouside the Union with bearing on South African affairs; General South African affairs; Matters affecting specific groups; Urban areas; Rural areas; Education; Employment; Health; Social welfare; Recreation; Justice; Legislative measures dealth with in 1953/1954. Format extent 172 pages (length/size)

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http://www.aluka.org A SURVEY OF RACE RELATIONS: 1953-54

A SURVEY OF RACE RELATIONS: 1953-54 A SURVEY OF RACE RELATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA 1953 - 1954 Compiled by MURIEL HORRELL TECHNICAL OFFICER SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS P.O. BOX 97 1954 JOHANNESBURG

RELATIONS: 1953-54 CONTENTS FOREWORD by Quintin Whyte, the Director of the S.A. Institute of Race R elations ...... I. POLICIES AND ATTITUDES National Party ...... United Party ...... Independent Wing of the United Party ...... S.A. Labour Party ...... Union Federal Party ...... Liberal Party...... State of the Parties in the Assembly and Provincial Cour African National Congress ...... Other Non-European Organizations ...... Christian Council of South Africa ...... Anglican Church ...... M ethodist Church ...... Other Churches O t erCh rc es ...... ,...... International meeting of the World Council of Churches S.A. Institute of Race Relations ...... S.A. Bureau of Racial Affairs ...... ncils II THE PLANS AND ACTIVITIES OF NON-EUROPEAN ORGANIZATIONS AND THOSE WORKING IN COLLABORATION WITH THEM Proposed Congress of the People Conference ... Economic boycott arranged by the Cape Branch of the African National Congress ...... "Resist " Conference ...... Proposed Federation of South African Women ...... Government reactions ...... III GENERAL WORK MAKING FOR IMPROVED RACE RELATIONS Proposed National Conference on Race Relations ... Conferences convened by the Federal Missionary Council of the Dutch Reformed Churches...... Race Relations Sunday in Port Elizabeth ...... Goodwill Sunday ...... -English Relations ...... Joint Councils ...... Study Groups ...... Meetings and exhibitions ... Publications dealing with Race Relations ...... Research and fact-finding ...... IV EVENTS OUTSIDE THE UNION WITH BEARING ON SOUTH AFRICAN AFFAIRS United Nations consideration of South Africa's Apartheid policy ... United Nations consideration of the treatment of Indians in the Union of South Africa United Nations consideration of the status of South-West Africa ... United Nations - International Labour Office Committee on forced Labour ...... Membership of United Nations Organizations ...... Control of the High Commission Territories ...... International Conferences ... Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference ...... 2 3 4 5 6 7 78888999.. ... 10

A SURVEY OF RACE V GENERAL SOUTH AFRICAN AFFAIRS Population figures ...... National registration ...... The cost of living ...... Index of retail prices ...... Legislation passed in 1953 which affected race relations Action under the Riotous Assemblies and Suppression of Acts ... Refusal of passports and visas VI MATTERS AFFECTING SPECIFIC GROUPS Parliamentary representation of Africans ... Native Affairs Commission ...... Taxation of Africans ...... Financial protection of Africans ...... Operation of influx and efflux control and labour Future position of "Non-Union" Africans ... Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill ... Reference books for Africans ...... African Women and passes ...... Control of meetings or gatherings of Africans ... African customary marriages ...... Witchdoctors, medicine men and herbalists ... Research projects concerned with Africans ... The political rights of the Cape Coloured people The municipal franchise for Coloured people ... Indians in Natal ...... Research projects concerned with the Coloured m unities ...... 3 1 ...... 31 ...... 32 ...... 32 33 Communism ...... 34 ...... 37 ureaux .. ... and Indian com- VII URBAN AREAS Transvaal Local Government Commission ...... Urban Bantu Authorities Bill ...... Location Advisory Boards Congress ...... General conditions in urban areas ...... Siting of industry ...... Plans for racial zoning of urban areas ...... Plans for racial zoning of the Southern Transvaal .. ... Western Areas Removal Scheme, Johannesburg .. ... Siting of African housing schemes in the Cape Peninsula ... Siting of African housing schemes in Pretoria ...... Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill ...... Freehold title and "black spots" ...... Buffer zones and access roads ...... Leases of sites in locations to churches ...... Ethnic grouping in urban locations ...... The shortage of housing ...... Financing of housing schemes ...... Rate of building during 1953 ...... The Minister's plans to speed the provision of housing for Africans Site-and-service schemes for Africans ...... Economic housing schemes for Africans ...... Schemes designed for African families with varying incomes ... Conversion of sub-economic to economic schemes ...... Sub-economic schemes for Africans ...... Housing for other racial groups ...... Economic rentals ...... Native Services Levy Fund ...... African building workers ...... Research, investigation, competitions, etc., related to housing urban affairs ...... Urban transport services for Non-Europeans ...... b

RELATIONS: 1953-54 V VHIRURALAREAS... . Native Trust and Land Amendment Act ... Accounts of the S.A. Native Trust Land purchased for or occupied by Africans ... Title to land in African areas ...... Mineral rights in African areas ... Reclamation and development work by the S.A. Livestock owned and crops produced by Africans Conditions in the Ciskei ... African Councils and Bantu Tribal Authorities Ncora experiment African National Soil Conservation Association ...... 84 ...... 84 ...... 87 ...... 87 ...... 88 ...... 89 Native Trust ... 89 ...... 90 ...... 91 ...... 92 ...... 92 ...... 92 IX EDUCATION South Africa's school-going population ...... 93 Implementation of the Bantu Education Act ...... 93 General Principles ...... 93 Financing of Bantu Education ...... 94 General organization of Bantu Education ...... 95 Future of State, Community, Farm and Private Schools ...... 95 Future of primary, post-primary and industrial schools run by M issions ...... 96 Future of teachers' training schools run by Missions ...... 97 Organization of primary schools ...... 98 Organization of secondary, high and industrial schools ...... 98 Employment and salaries of teachers ...... 99 School requisites and care of buildings ...... 99 Establishment of new schools ...... 99 School feeding ...... 100 Reactions to decisions made in regard to Bantu Education ...... 100 S.A. Institute of Race Relations ...... 100 African organizations ...... 100 The Christian Council of South Africa ...... 102 Views of individual churches ...... 102 Other organizations ...... 104 Further Non-European effort to supplement educational facilities ... 104 Ban on extra-union Non-European students ...... 105 Cape Provincial Commission on Coloured education ...... 105 Education of Europeans ...... 106 Commission of Enquiry into Separate University Education ...... 107 Students' Unions ...... 110 Technical, Commercial and Industrial training ...... 110 Adult Education ... ..1.1...... 1. I Library of the S.A. Institute of Race Relations ...... 112 Non-European Library Service, Transvaal ...... 113 Further educational matters ...... 113 Bursaries for Non-Europeans ...... 114 Educational research ...... 114 X EMPLOYMENT ...... The general financial situation in South Africa ... Employment in secondary industry ... .. Employment in commerce ...... Employment in mining ...... Employment on European-owned farms .. Employment in the Public Service ... .. Employment of juveniles ...... Placement of adult Africans through labour bureaux Implementation of the Native Labour (Settlement of Industrial Conciliation Bill ...... Dispute ...... 115 ...... 116 ...... 119 ...... 120 121 ...... 122 ...... 123 .. 124 s) Act ... 124 ...... 12.5 Reactions of Employers' Organizations to the Industrial Conciliation Bill ... Trd Unioist ...... Reactions among Trade Unionists ...... iii i 125

A SURVEY OF RACE The principle of "Equal Pay for Equal Work." ...... 131 Research ...... 132 XI HEALTH Discussion at the Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations 133 V ital statistics ...... 135 Work of the Union Department of Health ...... 135 Provincial and Provincially-Subsidized Hospitals ...... 137 Work of voluntary societies ...... 138 N utrition ...... 139 Feeding schemes for African children ...... 140 R esearch ...... 141 XII SOCIAL WELFARE The financing of voluntary welfare organizations ...... 141 Pensions and grants paid in South Africa ...... 142 Welfare work by the Institute of Race Relations ...... 144 Work of other voluntary organizations ...... 144 XIII RECREATION Literature ...... 147 Music, the theatre, and broadcasting ...... 147 Siting of recreation grounds for Non-Europeans ...... 148Workofthe Institute of Race Relations in the field of recreation ... 148 Other recreational facilities recently provided ...... 149 XIV JUSTICE Number convicted ...... 150 Prisons ...... 151 Treatment of Non-Europeans by the Police ...... 152 Cases involving accused persons of different racial groups ...... 153 Native High Court Abolition Act ...... 154 The Penal Reform League of South Africa ...... 154 Social Services Association of South Africa ...... 155 Legal Aid Bureaux ...... 155 ANNEXURES I Publications dealing with race relations ...... 156 II Population statistics ...... 160 III The Cost of living for African families ...... 161 IV Education of Africans ...... 164 V Pensions and grants paid in South Africa ...... 165 LEGISLATIVE MEASURES DEALT WITH IN 1953/1954 Bantu Education Amendment Act ...... 96 Industrial Conciliation Bill ...... 125 Native High Court Abolition Act ...... 154 Natives Resettlement Act ...... 61 Native Trust and Land Amendment Act ...... 84 Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill ...... 43, ,66, 124 Representation of Natives Amendment Act ...... 38 Riotous Assemblies and Suppression of Communism Amendment Act 36 Separate Representation of Voters Act Validation and Amendment Bill 46 South- West Africa Native Affairs Administration Act ...... 27 Unemployment Insurance Amendment Act ...... 143 Urban Bantu Authorities Bill ...... 52

RELATIONS: 1953-54 FOREWORD rhe very grateful thanks and appreciation of the S.A. Institute of Race Relations are extended to all those who assisted in making this publication possible. Large numbers of State Departments, the Provincial Administrations, municipal officials, scientific, educational and research bodies, churches, educational institutions, voluntary organizations, NonEuropean bodies, political parties, employers' and employees' organizations, Joint Councils, Study Groups and other organizations and individuals have given willing and gracious help by supplying material and answering numerous queries. It would be invidious to single out any of these for particular mention, but their names are given in the text of this Survey. The Institute is glad to be able to give brief descriptions of the valuable work these organizations and individuals are doing. Particular thanks are expressed to Miss Muriel Horrell who compiled the material, and to all those who gave invaluable assistance by reading the manuscript and offering detailed criticisms and constructive suggestions, especially Dr Ellen Hellmann, Dr Sheila van der Horst, Dr A. W. Hoernl6, Mr Leo Marquard, Professor H. M. Robertson, Mrs E de Grooth and Mr E. B. Pagden. QUINTIN WHYTE, Director.

A SURVEY OF RACE RELATIONS: 1953-54 I POLICIES AND ATTITUDES During the period surveyed(') most of the European political organizations have been endeavouring to clarify their policies or striving to re-define their aims, while the major Non-European organizations have been engaged in planning their tactics for the future. National Party* In face of the fear which most have of ultimate "black domination," the National Party's apartheid policy, which led to electoral success in 1948, secured an increased majority in 1953. The broad outlines of this policy had previously been defined, and these were largely translated into law during the first five years of the present Government's regime; but the practical and detailed implications of this policy have in many instances been clarified only in recent months. It was inevitable, as the time came for broad policies to be worked out in practice, that more precise definitions would be called for; but the immediate challenge was a Parliamentary debate, initiated by the Opposition, on the "integration" of Africans into the South African economy. In speeches on this and subsequent occasions, the Minister of Native Affairs averred(2) that in no circumstances could "integration" mean the mere presence of the African in industries and on farms in "European" areas. "One can have these workers present," he said, "without incorporating them in one's society . . . While on the one hand we are taking the present economic set-up into account and making use of the available labour, we are not going to entrench it in our economic, social and political structure . . . Integration is incorporation." There were two main trends of thought on the question of integration, the Minister said. (3) One group accepted it as unavoidable, and the other opposed it and sought a solution, having regard to all the difficulties. This second attitude was that of the Government, which wanted to keep South Africa white and wanted separation in all spheres between Europeans and Non-Europeans to continue to be applied to an increasing extent. "The National Party says," the Minister remarked," 'Our immediate task is to lay the foundations and in regard to segregation to go a certain distance which is within immediate reach' . . . In the course of time there can be fewer and (1) 1 October 1953-30 September 1954. * In The Cape Coloured Franchise Prof. L. M. Thompson writes, "Dr Malan's Party is commonly called the 'Nationalist' Party but Dr Malan has justifiably disputed this rendering, because the correct English translation of the Afrikaans word 'Nasionale' is 'National'. The '(Herenigde) Nasionale Party' is therefore the '(Reunited) National Party'; but a member of it is a 'Nasionalis'-a 'Nationalist'" (2) Assembly Hansard No. 17, 2 June 1954, Cols. 6143, 6145. (3) Assembly Hansard No. 3, 18 February 1954, Cols. 795-797.

2 ASURVEYOFRACE fewer Natives (in 'European' areas) . . . one can make that separation wider and wider... At the end of that long process one can foresee the ideal of total segregation in all respects, and it can even be territorial . . . We can put the country on the road leading in that direction."(4) In these and other speeches the Minister made it clear that while the Government recognized that there would be African labourers in the towns for a considerable period in the future, and while they would be given housing in segregated townships for as long as their labour was required, they would have no property rights to land there, and social separation would continue. Industrial colour bars would be maintained and reinforced, and Africans would be denied access to trade unions or to any political or other institutions by means of which they might eventually come to exercise power over Europeans. The Government would see to it that the farms received enough labour: "these widely separated Natives constitute no danger."(5) The economic, social and political aspirations of Africans must be satisfied in their own areas, where the fullest development would be encouraged. A class of full-time African farmers would gradually be developed in the Reserves, with a superstructure of teachers, ministers, traders, and so on. In order to absorb the remainder, efforts would be made to attract industry to suitable sites on the borders of the Reserves, workers in these factories living in dormitory towns in their own areas, where freehold title would be available to them. It is of interest that at the last census, in 1951, a little over two million Africans were in urban areas, probably one-third or more of these being permanently resident there. About three million were on European farms, and about three-and- a-half million in the Reserves; of the latter, a large proportion will have to move off the land if these areas are ever to be effectively rehabilitated. The Prime Minister is reported to have said recently(6) that the alarming thing about the present situation was that directly or indirectly the Non-European population was beginning to believe more than ever that apartheid means suppression. United Party Completely disconcerted by its defeat in the 1948 and 1953 elections, which were fought largely on racial issues, the United Party found that its traditional Non- European policy required re-thinking. Considerable difference of opinion developed within its ranks and in consequence no clear-cut policy has yet emerged. During a debate on the Part Appropriation Bill in the Assembly on 15 February 1954, Prof. I. S. Fourie, a United Party member and (4) Assembly Hansard No. 17, 2 June 1954, Col. 6143. (5) Assembly Hansard No. 3, 18 February 1954, Col. 799. (6) Press statement issued on the eve of the Provincial elections, published 16 August 1954.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 3 economist, talked(7) of South Africa's unbalanced cost structure and maintained that only if the country had a steadily rising income could the increasing State expenditure be afforded. For this to be posible, realistic use must be made of labour resources. Economic integration, which was a fact and had developed over 300 years, was in the interest of the whole country. Furthermore, one could not support economic integration and for ever-more maintain political apartheid. A lively debate on Non-European policies then took place, during which the Hon. J. G. N. Strauss, leader of the United Party, rose to say(8) that his Party accepted economic integration as a fact, and appreciated its value to the country. Both White and Black had benefited. The Party recognized that the majority of Africans lived outside the Reserves, most of these knowing no environment other than that of the towns or European farms. If returned to power, one of the United Party's first priorities would be to ameliorate the lot of the tens of thousands of people suffering through a lack of sufficient housing, while retaining social and residential segregation. Non-Europeans would be given individual training in the service of their people. On the political issue, the Party would put first things first. It would re-establish the Natives Representative Council and give this body a measure of executive power. So far as representation in central governing bodies was concerned, the Party stood by the 1936 settlement. It did not say that this settlement was the height of wisdom: certain unsatisfactory features had emerged. It would measure and test its policy against the facts of 1954. "History teaches us very simply and plainly," he said, "that economic power is the forerunner of claims for a say in the political set-up of the country." In a subsequent press statement(9) Mr Strauss said that it was fundamental to United Party policy that a growing measure of municipal self-government, under European supervision, should be granted in self-contained Native townships. Portions of such townships would be set aside where security of tenure under appropriate safeguards would be available to Africans who had progressed beyond the need for sub-economic housing. Early in 1954, provincial committees of prominent Party members commenced a detailed study of Non-European problems, and, following discussion with divisional committees, they drew up reports for provincial congresses held during September and October. A Union co-ordinating committee will thereafter draft a revised NonEuropean policy for discussion at the Union congress in November 1954. Independent Wing of the United Party As already stated, following defeat in the 1948 and 1953 elections, considerable difference of opinion developed within the United Party, (7) Assembly Hansard No. 3, 15 February 1954, Cols. 591-598. (8) Assembly Hansard No. 3, 18 February 1954, Cols. 772-787. (9) Published 12 March 1954.

4 ASURVEYOFRACE mainly on Non-European policies. Five "right-wing rebels," led by Mr P. Bailey Bekker, held independent conversations with the Prime Minister on the Coloured vote issue, refused support for the United Party Leader at caucus meetings, and expressed disagreement with the Party line. In October 1953 they were expelled. A sixth "rebel" resigned from the caucus in January to join them, and they formed themselves into an independent wing of the United Party. Recently, in August 1954, their leader announced that they had formed a new political party: its name would be decided at its first congress, but would probably be the National Conservative Party or the S.A. Conservative Party. The clearest exposition of their views was given by Mr Bekker during the Budget debate(10) when he discussed "the essential problem of our continued existence in South Africa, namely racial relations." In an amendment, he moved that every effort should be made to promote the fullest co-operation between English- speaking and Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans; that the essential features of the South Africa Act should remain intact, especially the manner in which the entrenched clauses may be amended and the unassailability of the status of courts of law; and that the Union should remain a member of the Commonwealth. His motion called for the development of a Native policy on the basis of the 1936 Acts. Africans should be incorporated into the labour force and their economic advancement promoted, while colour bars were retained. There should be strict influx control, no ownership of land by Africans in the towns, and separate housing in townships where in the course of time they should obtain more civic responsibilities. Increased political rights in the Reserves under European supervision should gradually be granted. Comprehensive housing, health, transport and educational schemes for Non-Europeans were required. S.A. Labour Party The S.A. Labour Party accepts the fact of economic integration. Foreseeing the challenge to the European worker it has advocated a policy of "equal pay for equal work" and security of employment at standard rates of pay for Europeans. The economic and social aspects of its policy, adopted at the annual conference in January 1953, were outlined in our last Survey("). Its National Executive has since adopted a revised policy of political representation. The Party declares that as a matter of principle it accepts the universal franchise for all adult literate inhabitants, but, realizing the need for the implementation of the franchise for NonEuropeans in stages, it advocates the following reforms: (a) All Coloured adults, men and women, in the Union and SouthWest Africa, to be granted a vote on the common roll if possessing (10) Assembly Hansard No. 10, 6 April 1954, Cols. 3459-3461. (11) A Survey of Race Relations, 1952-53, page 4.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 the qualifications at present required of Coloured male voters in the Cape. This to apply to Provincial as well as Parliamentary elections. (b) Present arrangement in regard to representation in the Assembly of Africans in the Cape to be retained, but African women to be enfranchised. On the basis of a Std. V franchise qualification African men and women in remaining provinces to elect three Members of Parliament for the Transvaal and two each for Natal and the Orange . Similar representation to be granted in each Provincial Council. The same voters to elect two Senators from each province, and the four nominated senatorships to be abolished. (c) Asiatic men and women in the Cape and Transvaal to have the same franchise rights as those recommended for Coloured people (i.e. a vote on the common roll if possessing certain qualifications). Those in Natal to elect three Members of Parliament, three members of the Provincial Council, and two Senators. (d) No disqualification on the grounds of colour should debar a Non-European of any racial group from election to Parliament or Provincial Councils. The municipal franchise for Non-Europeans is recommended too, Coloured people to vote on the common roll, and Africans and Indians to elect their own representatives. Union Federal Party The main concern of the Union Federal Party, formed in May 1953, is that the constitution should be safeguarded. It refuses to accept the theory that a republic can be instituted by a legal process, and advocates a greater decentralization of authority to the provinces and their right in given circumstances (e.g. declaration of a republic or violation of the constitution) to secede from the Union. Its concern over the preservation of the constitution and the entrenched clause dealing with equal language rights for English and Afrikaans led the Party to consider the other entrenched clause dealing with Non-European voting rights, and to formulate a policy designed to promote racial harmony. This policy was outlined in our last Survey. (12) Since then, at its first congress in March, the Party announced its acceptance of economic integration and (subject to the necessity of protecting skilled labour against undercutting of wages) the right of Non-Europeans to enter all fields of employment for which they can fit themselves. Freehold title should be available to Africans in urban areas and agricultural settlements. Limited direct representation of Non-Europeans should be provided for in the Senate and Provincial Councils (present arrangements in the Cape being retained), (12) A Surz,ey of Race Relations, 1952-53, page 6.

A SURVEY OF RACE and representation of Non-Europeans in the Senate should be by Non-Europeans. Senator G. H. Heaton Nicholls, the leader of the Party, moved in Parliament during February that the Representation of Natives Act of 1936 be amended to allow Africans to be represented by Africans in the Senate: his motion was defeated by 22 votes to 15. Following the Natal Provincial elections in June, at which all 17 Party candidates were defeated although 20,500 votes were cast for them, Senator Heaton Nicholls announced his resignation from the Senate. He would, he said, continue to lead the Party, and his action should not affect the position of the Party's remaining member in the Senate. Liberal Party During the past year the Liberal Party has received growing support. Its three candidates in the Natal Provincial elections secured only 385 votes between them, but the whole issue was there confused by federalism. Its candidate at Simon's Town in the Cape Provincial elections obtained 1,109 votes, about one-fifth of the total cast. At the by-election early in 1954 of a Parliamentary representative of Africans in the Cape Western circle, its candidate was defeated by an opponent with extreme views who, under the Suppression of Communism Act, was then deemed incapable of taking her seat in the Assembly, but at the elections held towards the end of the year, two Liberal Party candidates who stood for election as African representatives were returned unopposed: they were Mrs V. M. L. Ballinger, Leader of the Party, in the Cape Eastern circle (Assembly), and Senator L. Rubin as the Cape (excluding Transkei) representative in the Senate. Further Liberal Party candidates are standing for election in the other two Cape circles and in the Transvaal-Orange Free State Senate seal. : results are not known at the time of going to press. While continuing to stipulate that it will employ only democratic and constitutional means to achieve its objects, the Liberal Party has recognized that it must adopt a more radical approach if it is to gain increasing Non-European support. Its Provincial Congress held in Cape Town during May recommended that all steps consistent with the Party's declared policy be taken to co-operate with the African National Congress in its struggle for the removal of all discrimination against the African people. The congress held in Durban in July resolved to work closely with representative Non-European bodies; and a revised franchise policy was adopted. The Party at first recommended a qualified franchise for all adult citizens, irrespective of race (13). It now advocates universal adult suffrage, with common voters' rolls, to be introduced in stages to be determined by interim qualifications applicable to all racial groups and designed to create an informed electorate and to provide opportunity for obtaining political experience. (13) See last Survey, page 5, for details of the policy.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 State of the Parties in the Assembly and Provincial Councils Following the formation of the Independent Wing of the United Party, the state of the parties in the House of Assembly was: National Party ...... 94 U nited Party ...... 50 Independent United Party ...... 7 Labour Party ...... 5 Liberal Party ...... 1 Natives' Representatives ...... 1 (one seat vacant). Provincial elections were held in Natal during June, and in the remaining provinces in August. The representatives of all parties except the N.P. and U.P. were eliminated or lost their seats, and the final result was (figures in brackets show the number of seats previously held): National Party Opposition N atal ...... 4 (3) 21 (22) Transvaal ...... 45 (36) 23 (27) Cape ...... 30 (26) 24 (28) Orange Free State ...... 25 (24) 0 (1) In a political broadcast following the 1953 general election, the Hon. J. G. N. Strauss said that through the anomalous electoral laws the National Party had gained 61 per cent. of the seats though it obtained only 45 per cent. of the votes. In the 1954 provincial elections, however, allowing for unopposed returns, it was estimated that the Nationalists polled more votes than did the combined opposition. African National Congress The basic aims of the African National Congress were re-stated at the 43rd Annual Conference of the Cape Branch held at Uitenhage in June. Mr A. J. Luthuli, the President-General of the A.N.C., and Prof. Z. K. Matthews are both reported to have urged the necessity for racial harmony and co-operation between Black and White. The aim of their organization was by non-violent methods to achieve a united, democratic community, in which all would have equal rights. Dr J. Z. L. Njongwe, President of the Cape Branch, formulated the more detailed aims as: (a) Unity among Africans. (b) Universal suffrage fof all citizens over the age of 18. (c) Redistribution of land, and the right of all to own and buy land anywhere. (d) Equal opportunity of employment for all. (e) Abolition of the colour bar in industry, and freedom of the worker to sell his labour in the highest market, including the right of collective bargaining. (f) Freedom of association, movement and speech.

8 ASURVEYOFRACE (g) Free compulsory education for all up to the age of 18, and State assistance for all who desire to further their education in the universities. Since the abolition of the Natives Representative Council in 1951, and more particularly since the Defiance Campaign of 1952, membership of the African National Congress has grown greatly (from 7,000 in 1951 to well over 100,000 by the end of 1952, it is claimed). A number of delegates to the Uitenhage conference appeared in uniforms consisting of khaki blouses and skirts or khaki shirts and trousers, with brown berets and lapel badges depicting the A.N.C. symbol - a map of Africa and a clenched hand with upraised thumb. Other Non-European Organizations There have been no changes of policy in the main Non-European organizations. Most of these, for example the S.A. Indian Congress, S.A. Coloured People's Organization, Non-European Unity Movement, Anti-C.A.D., etc. stand for full franchise rights for all non-white South Africans. Christian Council of South Africa At its meeting in January 1954, the Christian Council appointed a committee to study the question of religious liberty in present circumstances in South Africa. Anglican Church In October 1953, a statement was issued to clarify the attitude of the Bishops of the Anglican Church to racial policies. They believed, it said, that it was morally wrong to follow a policy which had as its object the keeping of any particular racial group in a permanent position of authority, and they believed that racial discrimination as practised in South Africa was directed to this end. The only morally defensible policy was one giving the fullest opportunity of development to the members of all racial groups. It had been suggested that it would be possible to keep these groups separateand yet to give each equal opportunities of economic and cultural development: the Bishops did not believe that this was practicable. Methodist Church Also in October 1953, a conference of the Methodist Church stated its belief that in the application of the principle of apartheid through successive legislative Acts the potentialities of men and women as individuals had been ignored. Differentiation made had been mass differentiation on the ground of colour alone. In such circumstances, injustice was inevitable. Failure openly to recognize the fact that the Non-European was already an integral part of our general population and essential to our economy had led to a form of apartheid which operated just so far as it suited the needs of the Europeans.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Other Churches The conferences convened by the Federal Missionary Council of the Dutch Reformed Churches are described on page 17, and the attitude of the Churches to proposals under the Bantu Education Act on page 102. International Meeting of the World Council of Churches At a meeting of the World Council of Churches at Evanston, Illinois, in August 1954, which was attended by delegates from South African Churches, the Assembly adopted a resolution that segregation based on race, colour or ethnic origin was contrary to the Gospel and was incompatible with the Christian doctrine of man and with the nature of the Church of Christ. No dissenting voice was raised, although there were some abstentions from voting. The Assembly recognized that many Churches found themselves confronted by historical, political, social and economic circumstances which might make the immediate achievement of non-segregation extremely difficult, but expressed confidence in their strength and courage to overcome such difficulties. Two South Africans were elected to the 90-member Central Committee set up to carry into effect as nearly as possible the decisions made and goals established: they were the Rev. C. B. Brink, Moderator of the Nederduitse Hervormde of Gereformeerde Kerk in the Transvaal, and the Rt. Rev. Ambrose Reeves, Anglican Bishop of Johannesburg. S.A. Institute of Race Relations There has been no change in the Institute's attitude, which was summarized by Mr Quintin Whyte, its Director, in the publication * * . Go Forward in Faith: the Logic of Economic Integration published in 1952. In February 1954, the Prime Minister sent to the Rev. J. H. Piersma, of Grand Rapids, U.S.A., the "frank description" the latter had asked for of the apartheid policy, and this letter was published in the press. The Institute sent a reply to the Prime Minister in April, later releasing copies to the press. Both letters have since been published by the Institute. In its reply, the Institute referred to the Prime Minister's statement that a "fundamental difference" exists between Black and White and that "the difference in colour is merely the physical manifestation of the contrast between two irreconcilable ways of life, between barbarism and civilization and between heathenism and Christianity." The Prime Minister, the Institute said, continued to equate "black" with "barbarism," yet he referred to the great work of missionaries in converting the heathen to Christianity. The Institute submitted that the missionary who sought to convert the heathen denied, in so doing, that differences are fundamental and irreconcilable, for his action rested on the belief that man can be and A SURVEY OF RACE often is fundamentally changed. The whole history of the Western world was one of progress from tribal barbarism to civilization and from heathenism to Christianity. The identification of skin colour with permanent cultural difference was not valid scientifically, and the Institute must, therefore, reject the view that the differences between different ethnic groups are unchangeable. This basic premise of the Prime Minister's seemed to underlie his whole concept of "separate development", and of the consequent duty of the Church to help preserve "intact" the "national identity" of the black group. Such national identity would appear, according to the Prime Minister's theory, to rest on tribal - and therefore primitive - foundations, with social and economic rights pegged permanently at a lower level than those of the Europeans. The theory was already an anchronism: vast numbers of Africans, permanently settled in the towns, were no longer tribal in their habits and outlook; among them a growing proportion had already assimilated - wholly or partially - Western culture. But such persons did not desire to be racially assimilated. The Prime Minister stated that apartheid furthers "basic human rights," and "does not begrudge the non-white the attainment of a social status commensurate with his highest aspirations." The Institute submitted that nowhere in the present political and economic structure of South Africa were possibilities of such attainment to be discovered; and that nowhere in the Government's policies was any relaxation of restrictions envisaged, even in areas where the ferments of civilization were most rapidly at work. No ground for hope was given to the millions of non-whites who were not in a Native Reserve. The Institute was, therefore, driven to the conclusion that the only interpretation possible of the phrase "basic human rights" compatible with the policy of apartheid was one which would assign inferior human rights to the black group because it was black. The Prime Minister wrote back to say that he had carefully studied the Institute's criticisms. To his mind they revealed nothing in regard to its general point of view and attitude which was not already well known to him, and further comment on his part therefore seemed to be unnecessary. S.A. Bureau of Racial Affairs Little has been heard by the general public, during the past year, of the plans and work of S.A.B.R.A. It continues to advocate a policy of gradual, complete territorial separation of Europeans and Africans, with free and separate development.(14) At the S.A.B.R.A. Congress in Bloemfontein during January, it was reported that the Executive Committee had formulated a provisional policy regarding Cape Coloured people, based on the view that, unlike the Africans, (14) The policy is set out in Integration or Separate Development ?, Stellenbosch, 1952.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 11 they should not develop in separate reserves but as an independent unit within South Africa's political and social structure. Prominent members of S.A.B.R.A. attended the Lahore Conference on Race Relations in the Commonwealth, (15) the Honolulu Conference on Race Relations in World Perspective, (16 ) and the International Meeting of the World Council of Churches. II THE PLANS AND ACTIVITIES OF NON-EUROPEAN ORGANIZATIONS AND THOSE WORKING IN CO-OPERATION WITH THEM Proposed Congress of the People Conference In December 1953, the African National Congress, at a meeting in Queenstown, deplored the recent deterioration in race relations and expressed the view that only a national convention representative of all racial groups could improve the situation. Thereafter, during March, executive committee members of the African National Congress, the S.A. Indian Congress, the S.A. Coloured People's Organization and the S.A. Congress of Democrats(') met in Natal, under the chairmanship of Mr A.J. Luthuli, to discuss the organization of a Congress of the People, which would be called to work out a "freedom charter." A National Action Council was appointed. Details of the plan were announced at A.N.C. meetings in March and June, and at large inter-racial meetings of specially-invited persons held in Johannesburg, Durban and other centres during July and August. The aim, it was explained, was to get the people themselves to say how they would like to be governed in a democratic South Africa. The movement would be non-violent, and not "anti" anyone. Hundreds of meetings would be arranged in towns and Non-European townships, factories, mines, shops, farms and the Reserves, and a network of cells and local committees formed through which the people would be asked to send in their demands and their grievances, however small these might be. 50,000 "freedom volunteers" were called for to make themselves available to the organizers for whatever work was necessary. The climax of the campaign would be a Congress of the People, to be held not later than June 1955. It would be a mass assembly of delegates elected by local cells and committees, about one for every twenty persons. Special trains and "freedom marches" would if possible be arranged. At the congress a "Freedom Assembly" would be elected to draft a "freedom charter" based on the demands and grievances sent in by the people. (15) See page 30. (16) See page 30. (1) A European organization, formed late in 1952, which was in sympathy with the motives of the Defiance Campaign and set out to place opposition to laws deemed unjust on a non-racial basis.

12 A SURVEY OF RACE Official observers from the Institute attended meetings in Johannesburg and Durban called to discuss these plans. They considered that the word "freedom" had been given no context, and that the movement needed a different direction if it was to produce constructive results. The impression had been given that the mere declaration of grievances and demands would bring about their satisfaction. No complementary obligations had been mentioned, such as the need for increased work and output if the country was to be able to provide expanded health, social and other services. The organization was clearly designed to make as broad a mass appeal as possible and would probably succeed in carrying the Congress message further afield. Economic boycott arranged by the Cape Branch of the African National Congress At a conference of the African National Congress held in Queenstown in December 1953, it was resolved that, with the approval of headquarters in every case, branches would arrange a boycott of selected shops, business undertakings and government enterprises in which Africans were not paid living wages or given adequate opportunities, or in which African customers did not receive proper treatment. Such boycott have so far been applied only in the Eastern Cape, and there to an extremely limited extent, being localized in the Sunday's River Valley, a concentrated settlement of citrus, lucerne and dairy farmers. There are a number of small storekeepers there who serve all races, but the main portion of their business comes from African farm labourers. The African Na tional Congress, whose members are particularly zealous in the Eastern Cape area, arranged for the labourers to boycott certain of these storekeepers, and it is understood that one or two of them have in consequence been forced to close down and that others have suffered heavy financial loss. It is also understood that the Congress hopes to widen the boycott in the near future and even to extend it in such a way as to restrict the availability of labour during the citrus picking season. For reasons which are not yet clear, attempts at boycotts in Port Elizabeth and Vleeiplaas did not meet with success. "Resist Apartheid" Conference A mass protest conference was held in Johannesburg on 27 June convened by the Transvaal Branch of the African National Congress, the Transvaal Indian Congress, the S.A. Congress of Democrats (Johannesburg), the S.A. Coloured People's Organization (Johannesburg), and the Transvaal Council of Non- European Trade Unions. About 1,200 delegates from Transvaal organizations, including about 30 Europeans, were present, according to estimates in the press. A resolution was passed expressing opposition to the Western Areas removal scheme, the Group Areas Act, the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act, the Bantu Education Act and the Industrial Conciliation Bill.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Proposed Federation of South African Women During April 1954, a conference of about 150 women delegates of all racial groups, and coming from many different parts of the country, was held in Johannesburg. It was claimed that they represented 230,000 women. A Women's Charter was drawn up expressing the aim of striving for the abolition of all laws, regulations, conventions and customs that discriminate against women. Delegates resolved to establish a Federation of South African Women to unite women in common action for the removal of all disabilities. Support was pledged for the Congress of the People; and the meeting expressed its opposition to the Natives Resettlement Bill, the Native Trust and Land Amendment Bill, the Bantu Education Act, the Separate Representation of Voters Act Validation and Amendment Bill, and the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act. Government Reactions As was described in our last Survey, (2) following the intensification of the Defiance Campaign and the tragic rioting that occurred in three centres at the end of 1952, the Government placed restrictions, under the Suppression of Communism and Riotous Assemblies Acts, on many of the African and on several Indian leaders. They were prohibited for stated periods from attending any public gatherings in any place in the Union to which the public had access, their movements were restricted to certain magisterial districts, and they were ordered to resign from various organizations. The African National Congress and S.A. Indian Congress had, however, previously appointed a series of replacements for every leader, their names being kept secret; and as leaders were banned by the Government, their replacements took over. The activities of the organizations were thus not interrupted; but because on each occasion the new office-bearer was less mature and experienced than the man he replaced, and because resentment was increasing, it is probable that the leadership has gradually become more militant and less responsible. In November 1953, the Appeal Court ruled that before the Minister exercised his powers under the Suppression of Communism Act to issue an order of prohibition from the attendance of gatherings, the person concerned should be notified and permitted to show cause why the order should not be issued. (3) The Minister of Justice subsequently strengthened his position through the Riotous Assemblies and Suppression of Communism Amendment Act(4); but in the intervening half- year many of the prohibition orders issued in 1952 and 1953 were rendered invalid. A number of them expired during this period. (2) Survey of Race Relations, 1952-1953, page 34. (3) See page 35 for details of this judgment and subsequent legislative action. (4) See page 36.

A SURVEY OF RACE At the beginning of 1954 it thus became possible for the original leaders to resume their activities, and for some months no action was taken against them; but from July, the Minister again commenced serving prohibition orders on prominent Non-European leaders including Mr A. J. Luthuli, President-General of the African National Congress. A second line of action by the Department of Justice has been to send men from the C.I.D. to attend meetings called by Non-European organizations and those in sympathy with them. In certain areas of the Union, for example the Transkei, Vereeniging and Grahamstown, no meeting at which over ten Africans will be present may be held without permission(5), and in such areas members of the police attend all authorized gatherings to ensure that they are in fact held for the purpose stated in the application. But the C.I.D. has also been visiting and questioning members of certain inter-racial organizations, and has attended most of the inter-racial or Non-European meetings recently held. In March, for example, the police attended a meeting called in to express opposition to the Western Areas removal scheme, took photographs of certain persons present including Europeans who had attended merely as observers, and noted registration numbers of motor cars. The "Resist Apartheid" Conference held in Johannesburg on 27 June was raided by about a hundred armed policemen who allowed the meeting to continue but, after it ended, took down the names and addresses of all those present, including observers. The senior officer stated that they were investigating a case of treason. Names and addresses of delegates and observers were noted by the police, also at meetings in Cape Town and Durban held to discuss the proposed Congress of the People Conference. Another preparatory Congress of the People meeting was called in Johannesburg on 25 July, about 1,000 people being present, all by special invitation. Five detectives from the C.I.D., who were not' in possession of search warrants, insisted on entering the hall and commenced taking notes. They were asked tO leave, as the meeting was a private one, but refused. The delegates then passed a resolution calling for a petition to the Supreme Court, and two members left the meeting and arranged with a judge for an urgent special hearing "in chambers." He ruled that, prima facie, people had the right to assemble to discuss matters of mutual interest, and the police l1ad no right to interfere. Circumstances 'might arise, however, in which they did have this right. The respondents had claimed that they attended the meeting in pursuance of instructions, but had not informed the Court from what legal authority those instructions were derived. An interdict was thus issued against the police for the rest of the day, calling on them to withdraw from the meeting; and they were informed that they would later be given the opportunity (5) See page 36.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 of showing cause why they acted as they admittedly had done, under penalty of being interdicted in the future. On the return day of the rule nisi, another judge examined the documents of the case, and in a written judgment handed in on 17 August, ruled that, in the light of evidence of the documents, the police would have been justified in attending the meeting (which could not be labelled a public one) only if they had reasonable grounds for suspecting that seditious speeches would be made and that their presence would prevent this. The question whether such grounds existed must be decided by oral evidence. The dispute showed, the judge said, how desirable it was that the legislature should define the duties and rights of the police in connection with the combatting of what the State from time to time looked on as dangerous. The police have continued to attend similar meetings, but since the events in Johannesburg have been in possession of appropriate warrants. These police tactics have created a psychological effect of wrongdoing, and have probably deterred some of the more moderate and responsible European sympathisers, who might otherwise have given the Congress of the People movement a more constructive direction, from attending meetings. The Director of the S.A. Institute of Race Relations wrote to the Minister of ,Justice during September, pointing out that if the Institute was to fulfil its function it must be aware of trends of thought, and must, therefore, send official observers to all important meetings at which policies and attitudes would be discussed. The fact of their presence did not mean that they were automatically associating themselves with views which might be expressed. The Minister's private secretary replied that the contents of this letter had been noted and had been brought to the attention of the Commissioner of Police. III GENERAL WORK MAKING FOR IMPROVED RACE RELATIONS Proposed National Conference on Race Relations At the Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations in January 1953, members urged that the Institute should convene a national conference, representative of all the peoples of South Africa, which would review and analyse the position of the Non-European peoples, and would attempt to formulate some via media for the country. Several other organizations and individuals subsequently approached the Institute with similar requests. After much discussion and full consideration, the Institute decided to sound the opinion of all representative organizations. Letters were sent during September 1953, to some 200 organizations - political parties, churches, municipalities, universities, professional bodies and individuals-asking for their views on the desirability of convening a

16 A SURVEY OF RACE preliminary conference representative of all racial groups, which would decide whether a national conference should be held. In the event of an affirmative decision, the preliminary conference would decide on the procedure to be followed and would appoint an independent sponsoring committee for the national conference. By December, 52 organizations or individuals had signified that they approved of the suggestion and would be present at an agenda conference. No Afrikaans organizations had agreed to attend, however, many of them intimating that it would be desirable first to await the outcome of the conference of Protestant Church leaders to be called by the Federal Missionary Council of the Dutch Reformed Churches. Although several Non-European organizations had agreed to send representatives, the African National Congress and the S.A" Indian Congress had refused on the ground that the initiative in calling such a conference should lie with Non-Europeans and, together with other bodies, they were planning a Congress of the People conference. The Institute's Executive Committee thus decided in January to postpone the matter since the conference, if called, would not be a national one. Conferences convened by Federal Missionary Council of the Dutch Reformed Churches The discussions held during 1951 and 1952 between European representatives of the Dutch Reformed Churches and members of their Sotho, Zulu and Xhosa congregations were mentioned in previous Sur~e)s. Early in 1954, the texts of the findings of these conferences were made available in Afrikaans, English, Xhosa, Zulu and Sesotho, the English version being entitled The Racial Issue in South Africa. In November 1953, the Federal Missionary Council of the Dutch Reformed Churches convened a three-day conference of European leaders of South African Protestant Churches to discuss the problems which they as Christians faced in applying Christian principles to our multi-racial country. The Institute of Race Relations organized this conference at the Federal Missionary Council's request. No effort was made to conceal or minimise differences, which divided the conference into three main groups: those who sincerely believed in a righteous racial separation in the Church based on the Scriptures, those who made no such confession, but nevertheless practised some form of separation because circumstances demanded it, although such separation did not correspond with the ideals .of the Christian Church, and those who were convinced that separation in the Church was wrong and stood condemned according to Scripture. According to a statement issued at the close, the talks produced no change of views, but a sentiment that was often expressed was "we cannot share your beliefs and convictions, but we gladly acknowledge your honesty and right to profess those convictions." A strong desire was felt by all present to reach understanding because of a sense of urgency born from a realization of the racial tensions in the

RELATIONS: 1953--54 17 country and of the unhappy effect on Non-Europeans when the European Churches are at variance. A considerable part of the talks was concerned with collaboration regarding the ways and means of more effective evangelism and organization, and it became clear that, in spite of grave differences in missionary policy, the practical missionary work of the various Churches was very much of a pattern. The Federal Missionary Council subsequently published Christian Principles in Multi-Racial South Africa('), containing the papers read at the conference together with a summary of the discussions. A second conference of Protestant Church leaders, this time an inter-racial one, is to be convened by the Dutch Reformed Churches in December 1954, and again the Institute of Race Relations has been asked to organize it. Twenty-five other Protestant Churches, including African Separatist Churches, will be invited to participate, and each will be free to determine the composition of its delegation with the stipulation only that at least one member must be a Non-European. The opening paper will be given by an African. Race Relations Sunday in Port Elizabeth In January 1954, while a number of ministers of religion were visiting Port Elizabeth to attend the meetings of the Christian Council and, thereafter, of the Institute of Race Relations, the Christian Council arranged a Race Relations Sunday there. The visiting ministers preached on topics connected with race relations in most of the Churches in the city and its Non-European townships. A notable sermon was that by the Rev. A. Zulu, an African, in the European Church of St. Stephens. Goodwill Sunday The Institute wrote in April to the Governor-General and to the Prime Minister asking them to appeal to all the Churches of the land to include in their prayers on Goodwill Sunday, 16 May, a special prayer for racial peace. The Governor- General referred the suggestion to his Ministers, and the Prime Minister replied that in his opinion the less talk there was about racial peace, the more racial peace there would be. Regional offices of the Institute then approached local religious leaders in the matter. There was a particularly good response in Durban, especially from Hindu and Moslem leaders who circulated their members asking for special prayers for racial harmony at evening meetings. Afrikaans-English Relations An independent committee set up by the Institute is continuing its investigation into the causes of friction between the two European sections of the population. Large numbers of "personal documents" have been obtained from equal numbers of English and Afrikaans(1) Obtainable from the S.A. Institute of Race Relations.

18 A SURVEY OF RACE speaking people, and after an analysis of these an attitude-scale will be drawn up for use in a larger survey. The analysis of history text-books used in secoAdary schools, mentioned in our last Survey, (2) is also continuing. The Institute will shortly undertake the publication of two special quarterlies, one in English on Afrikaans trends of thought, and the other in Afrikaans on liberal thought. Several leading Afrikaans thinkers and writers have promised assistance. The Institute's Assistant Director continues to give talks to Rotary Clubs, Church organizations and other bodies on Afrikaans-English relations. The Rotary Clubs of Benoni and Standerton have agreed to arrange an exchange of children during school holidays. During the July holidays, children from Benoni visited farms in the Standerton district to stay with Afrikaans-speaking children of equivalent ages, and in turn these platteland children will in December come to Benoni to visit their urban English-speaking friends. Mr J. W. du Preez, a former school teacher, continues to run camps twice a year to promote bilingualism and better understanding between children of the two language groups. Joint Councils Since the Joint Council movement was founded some 27 years ago, Non- European organizations have become more numerous, representative and articulate, and Non-Europeans now often prefer to work through their own bodies. Many of the Joint Councils have in consequence gone into recess. A number remain in existence, however, and continue to do most valuable work. Bloemfontein Joint Council was revived during 1954 by Archdeacon Bailey, who was elected chairman. The Institute's Assistant Director helped him to arrange an inaugural public meeting. Pietermaritzburg Joint Council of Europeans and Africans gave attention during the year to the question of transport between Edendale and Pietermaritzburg by road and rail, the training of Non-European medical practitioners, the effect of the Group Areas Act on local Africans (the Chairman of the Joint Council gave evidence before the Land Tenure Board), and the implementation of the Bantu Education Act. Attempts have been made to improve bus services, and a new recreation ground for Non-Europeans has been secured. Zoutpansberg Joint Council has had lectures and discussions on the latest developments in African affairs in the Union, the Urban Areas Act, and the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Arising from a talk by the Native Commissioner on soil conservation, an outing was arranged to various projects of the Native Trust in the district. Pretoria Joint Council of Europeans and Non-Europeans, which has 111 members, 40 of them Non-Europeans, has kept a close watch (2) Page 10.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 19 on urban African housing, and has pressed for the erection of schools, shops, etc., to accompany the growth of the new township of Vlakfontein. Village regulations and plans for the introduction of economic rentals have been carefully studied and, where necessary, representations made to the appropriate authorities.(3) The Joint Council maintains an African school feeding scheme, providing 2,700 children with three slices of bread per week each. About £100 per month has to be raised to make this possible. The Indo-European Joint Council of Pietermaritzburg, which was founded by the Rt. Hon. V. S. S. Sastri, has now been in operation for 27 years. During the past year it has assisted with the running and financing of the Indian Youth Centre, has been in touch with the Provincial authorities in regard to the treatment of Indian patients and visitors at Edenvale Hospital, and has planned the establishment of a library. Grahamstown joint Council for Europeans and Africans has held four open meetings during the year at which lectures were given on Africans in West Africa by Mr J. Lardner Burke, Professor D. H. Houghton and Professor Daryll Forde, and the Rev. G. B. Molefe spoke on world affairs. The Council has been in touch with the municipality in regard to the organization of the beer hall, and is negotiating for the building of a community centre for Africans, for which students of Rhodes University have subscribed £4,300 from Rag funds. Bremersdorp Joint Council of Europeans and Non-Europeans, which has a steadily increasing membership, has held monthly meetings, lectures and discussions having included such subjects as "This Country of ours," "Tuberculosis in Swaziland," and "Incorporation of the High Commission Territories into the Union." Representations have been made to the Government and the Swazi National Council regarding peri-urban control, African housing, and registration of births and deaths. Study Groups The National Council of Women in Rustenburg runs a most active study group which holds regular weekly meetings, arranged in two sessions per year. During the latter half of 1953, the group concentrated on the Bantu Education Bill, read much literature on the subject, and studied local conditions and likely changes under the Act. The subjects for the two sessions in 1954 were employment opportunities for Non-Europeans and juvenile delinquency and penal reform. The Southern Transvaal Regional Committee of the Institute is planning the establishment of a central study group to meet two evenings a month. The first course of study is planned around "Peoples and Policies in South Africa." It is hoped to build (3) These matters are dealt with in greater detail In Chapter VII of this Survey.

A SURVEY OF RACE up a strong and active group from which leaders for other groups will emerge. Earlier in the year, the Regional Committee drew up full outlines of suggested study for study groups. (RR.174/53). Germiston Study Circle, which has both European and NonEuropean members, has during the year held lectures and discussion on a variety of topics including the High Commission Territories, juvenile delinquency and penal reform, the problem of illegitimate African children, the Alexandra Anti-TB Association, the Transvaal Association of Girls' Clubs and Youth Clubs, and recent projects of the Institute of Race Relations. Fund-raising events were held to enable the group to make donations to deserving organizations, and members visited the Alexandra T.B. Settlement. Meetings and Exhibitions The Institute's President, its Director, other members of the Executive and Regional Committees, the Assistant Director, Technical Officer, Field Officer and Public Relations Officer continue to address very large numbers of meetings of other organizations on subjects connected with race relations, and several broadcast talks have been arranged during the year. The 1954 Hoernle Memorial Lecture was given by Dr Emory Ross, President of the Phelps-Stokes Fund of New York, on "Colour and Christian Community." His lecture was delivered in Johannesburg on 4 August and in Cape Town on 6 August, and the text has been published by the Institute. A number of public meetings, meetings of Institute members, addresses to other organizations, symposia and exhibitions have been arranged by Regional Committees of the Institute. Publications dealing with Race Relations The Institute has during the year produced occasional publications dealing with the political status of Non-Europeans in Africa, the political rights of the Coloured people, the idea of a University, Colour and Christian community, equal pay for equal work, and NonEuropean policies in the Union and the measure of their success. Articles in its Journal have dealt with conditions in the Ciskei, the response of Africans to industrial employment, the occupational distribution of the Coloured people, the health of Africans, impressions of West Africa, and Negro progress in the United States. A detailed list of publications and memoranda issued by the Institute, and of other significant books and articles dealing with race relations, is given in Annexure I page 156. Research and Factfinding In March 1954, an Institute for Advanced Social Research was established at the University of Natal to make a scientific study of the impact on one another of' people of different racial groups and cultures. Mr Kenneth Kirkwood, who is the Institute's Regional

RELATIONS: 1953--54 21 Chairman in Natal, was appointed organizing secretary. Two experts were sent from America by the Carnegie Corporation to assist in the early stages. They were Professor Edmund de S. Brunner, of Columbia. University, and Professor Charles R. Nixon, of the University of California; and a British expert, Dr 1). Reader from Cambridge, was sent out by the Nuflield Foundation. Through the National Council for Social Research, the South African Government granted £3,000 a year for five three-year fellowships for post-graduate students. One of those selected was an African. They are being trained in the inter-disciplinary method of research in the social sciences, and are undertaking an intensive study of the structure of South African society, initially as exemplified in a defined area of Durban. The University of Natal convened a conference from 12 to 16 July on the Social Research Needs and Priorities of South Africa, which was attended by the President and Assistant Director of the Institute of Race Relations. It was one of the most widely representative conferences ever held in the Union, members including people prominent in the academic world, and administrators, Englishspeaking and Afrikaans-speaking, European and Non-European. The conference stressed the need for more extensive and intensive research; it pointed out how handicapped South Africa is by lack of data, research resources and personnel. There was a heightened realization of the inter-relationship of all our basic problems and the necessity for inter-disciplinary studies, also of the fact that the problems of our country cannot be dealt with unless the needs, the abilities and the aspirations of all the peoples within our society are investigated, understood and utilized. Current investigations under the auspices of the Institute of Race Relations include an investigation of existing urban African women's organizations and an evaluation of the extent to which they meet the needs of African women; continued experimentation in the production of literacy material in the vernaculars and English and Afrikaans, a cost-of-living survey of Africans in the Johannesburg area, investigations of conditions in squatter camps in the Cape Peninsula, and an investigation of the nature of political institutions in countries with heterogenous populations. Further details of these and of research projects by other organizations and individuals are given in appropriate chapters of this Survey. IV EVENTS OUTSIDE THE UNION WITH BEARING ON SOUTH AFRICAN AFFAIRS United Nations Consideration of South Africa's Apartheid Policy In December 1952, the United Nations General Assembly set up a three-member commission to study the racial situation in the Union of South Africa in the light of the- purposes and principles of the Charter. The South African Government was, in terms of the resolu-

A SURVEY OF RACE tion, invited to extend its fullest co-operation, but refused to do so on the ground that the commission had been set up unconstitutionally, for in terms of Article 2, paragraph 7, of its Charter, the United Nations was precluded from intervening in matters which were within the domestic jurisdiction of a State. The South African Government also decided not to allow the commission to visit the Union. The members of the commission, appointed in March 1953, are Mr Herman Santa Cruz, of Chile (Chairman), Mr Henri Laugier, of France, and Mr Dante Bellegarde, of Haiti. Being unable to study the situation on the spot, they were forced to rely on a study of South African legislation, pronouncements by Cabinet Ministers, and governmental and other publications. Some fifteen memoranda were submitted to them, and six persons gave evidence. Their report, consisting of 411 pages, was submitted to the President of the General Assembly in October 1953. The Director of the Institute of Race Relations prepared a summary of it (RR.215 /53). The report contained certain minor inaccuracies which were not material to the general argument. It dealt with the competence of United Nations, provided information on the historical background in the Union, analysed attitudes, examined the apartheid doctrine, described Non-European living and working conditions, and compared South African legislation with the provisions of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Summarized very briefly, the commission's conclusions were that as a whole, the system which prevailed in the Union at the time when the Charter came into force involved serious discrimination against Non-Europeans. Member states were aware of this when the Union was accepted as an original member of the United Nations, and could not expect an immediate complete elimination of all discriminatory measures. They did, however, have the right to expect a gradual move in this direction, in view of the obligations assumed by South Africa in accordance with the Charter. But no steps had been taken to remove discrimination, and, what was worse, the policy of apartheid since embarked upon had had the result of increasing the number of discriminatory measures and of aggravating their effects. The apartheid policy, based on the concept of the inequality of human races, was in conflict with the provisions of Articles 1, 2 and 7 of the Universal Declaration, which stated that all human beings were born free and equal in dignity and rights, and that all were entitled to rights and freedoms set out in the Declaration without distinction of any kind. The policy had given rise to serious internal conflicts and maintained a condition of latent and ever-increasing tension in South Africa. The pursuance of the policy could not fail to increase anti-white sentiment in Africa and to impair friendly relations amongst nations. The commission recommended that the United Nations should give all possible moral, intellectual and material help to South Africa

RELATIONS: 1953-54 23 in an endeavour to lessen inter-racial tensions, and suggested that representatives of U.N. might be sent to a conference held in the Union of members of different ethnic groups, to assist with advice and to ensure that the principles of the Charter would guide the discussions. After protesting unsuccessfully against the inclusion of the matter on the United Nations agenda, Mr G. P. Jooste, leader of the South African delegation, arose during the debate to say that although the Union's legal position debarred him from going into the merits of the case, he could not allow the Report to go unchallenged. It was one of the most incredible attacks on the national sovereignty of a State that had ever to his knowledge appeared in a document issued by an international organization. The Report contained a large number of inaccuracies, and it had taken a definite anti-European and pro-Non-European bias, its approach being directed particularly against the Afrikaans-speaking section. It would now be appreciated why his government could not co-operate with the commission. A White Paper published by the Government Printer, Pretoria, in 1954(l) sets out in full the proceedings of the Ad Hoc Political Committee and the General Assembly. Mr Jooste submitted a draft resolution, which was rejected by both bodies, to the effect that the United Nations had no competence to intervene in matters which were essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any State. By 38 votes, with 11 abstentions, the General Assembly adopted a .resolution reaffirming previous resolutions to the effect that a genuine and lasting peace depended not only on collective security arrangements against acts of aggiession, but also upon the observance of the principles and purposes established in the Charter, and that in a multi-racial society respect for human rights and freedoms and the peaceful developnfient of a unified community were best assured when patterns of legislation and practice were directed towards ensuring the equality before the law of all persons regardless of race, creed or colour, and when economic, social, cultural and political participation of all racial groups was on a basis of equality. The resolution expressed appreciation of the work of the commission and requested it to continue its study of the development of the racial situation in the Union, and suggest measures which would help to alleviate the situation and promote a peacefui settlement. The Union Government was invited to extend its fullest co-operation. In March 1954, the commission addressed to the Union Government an appeal for close co-operation, and requested permission to make a factual tour. In its deep desire for objective information and impartiality, it agreed in advance, from its side, to every possible form of co-operation. It invited the Government to suggest in what (1) Discussions and Proceedings in the United Nationis. September to Deceiber 1953. The question of Race Conflict in South Africa resulting from the Policies of Apartheid of the Go~vernwient of the Union of South Africa (1954).

24 A SURVEY OF RACE ways its first report should be corrected. Its requests were evidently not met. The commission arranged for the appointment of an expert and impartial economist to examine whether the policy of segregation had influenced the stability and economic development of South Africa, and requested the International Labour Office for factual material on the effects of segregation on a general employment policy. It has made a close study of methods suggested by groups or individuals in South Africa of lessening inter-racial tensions, and of measures which have been of assistance in other countries. It asked the S.A. Institute of Race Relations and the S.A. Bureau of Racial Affairs to suggest measures which might be adopted and ways in which the United Nations might assist. The Institute replied that in view of the fact that the South African Government did not recognize the competence of the commission, it was impossible for a South African organization like the Institute to do so. The Insitute's published material was, however, available to any person or organization who asked for it, and much of its material was already in the library of the United Nations. Despite renewed protests from South Africa, the matter has been inscribed on the agenda for the 1954 Session of the General Assembly. United Nations Consideration of the Treatment of Indians in the Union of South Africa The question of the treatment of Indians in the Union of South Africa has, since 1946, been debated annually at the proceedings of the United Nations General Assembly. It will be remembered that in 1951, the Assembly called for Ihe establishment of a three-member comission to help to settle the differences that had arisen, one member to be appointed by the Union, a second by India and Pakistan, and a Ihird to be appointed jointly by the three countries concerned, or, failing agreement, by the Secretary-General of United Nations. Nothing came of this proposal, however, because the Union Government refused to recognize the competence of United Nations to deal with the matter which, it considered, was one of domestic jurisdiction. In 1952, the General Assembly itself set up a three-member Good Offices Commission to arrange and assist in negotiations between the three countries concerned, and called upon the Union to suspend implementation of the Group Areas Act pending conclusion of the negotiations. Cuba, Syria and Yugoslavia were appointed members of the commission, with Mr Leo Mates, of Yugoslavia, as chairman. The Union Government refused to recognize its competence, and at the 1953 session it reported on its failure to arrange negotiations. The Government Printer, Pretoria, has published a full account of proceedings at the 1953 session (2). By 42 votes to 1, with 17 (2) Discussiois aid Proceedings at the United Nationis, September to No-'ember 1953, oi the Treatment of bidians ini the Uniion of S.. (1954).

RELATIONS: 1953-54 25 abstentions, the General Assembly passed a resolution expressing regret that the Union Government refused to make use of the commission's good offices, continued to implement the provisions of the Group Areas Act, and was proceeding with further legislation contrary to the Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights(3). The Assembly decided to continue the Good Offices Commission; requested it to report back on progress achieved and to submit suggestions which might lead to a peaceful settlement of the problem; and urged the Union Government to co-operate. The commission submitted its report to the President of the General Assembly in September 1954. It had been unable, it said, either through official approaches or through informal conversations, to arrange for negotiations to take place. South Africa was to blame for the deadlock since it continued to state that the appointment of the commission had been unconstitutional. It was impossible, therefore, for proposals likely to lead to a peaceful settlement to be submitted. A' debate on the Report will take place during the 1954 Session of of the General Assembly. It was reported in January 1954, (4) that the Minister of the Interior had approached the S.A. Indian Organization to give its support for apartheid or to agree to a compromise, and that the executive committee of this organization had considered ways and means of bringing about a round-table conference to resolve the deadlock at United Nations. The S.A. Indian Congress thereupon issued a statement claiming that the S.A. Indian Organization was a small and unrepresentative body, with no right to enter into discussions behind the backs of the majority of the Indian people. The Indian Government announced on 25 June that at the request of the Union Government, and with great regret, it had decided to close its High Commission in South Africa as from 1 July. The last High Commissioner had been recalled in 1946 after the passing of the Asiatic Land Tenure and Indian Representation Act and the Secretary to the High Commissioner had since been in charge, but now he, too, would be recalled. Contact between the two governments would in future be maintained directly by correspondence, or through their respective High Commissioners in London. Pakistan has never sent diplomatic representatives to the Union. United Nations Consideration of the Status of South-West Africa The seven-year-old dispute over the international status of SouthWest Africa was again on the agenda of the United Nations General Assembly in 1953. It will be recalled that in 1951, the Assembly again asked the Union to place the territory under international trusteeship (although it accepted the ruling of the International (,) The Immigration Regulation Amendment Act was cited. See 19521953 Survey, page 43. (4) Sunday Times, 17 January 1954,

A SURVEY OF RACE Court of Justice that there was no legal obligation on the Union to do so), to submit reports on the administration of the territory, and to agree to transmit petitions. The Union continued to maintain that its international function of administration was exercised on behalf of the League of Nations, not of the United Nations. The Government Printer, Pretoria, has issued a White Paper describing negotiations conducted in 1952 and 1953(5). The ad hoc committee on South- West Africa was reconstituted in January 1952, and was asked to confer with the Union concerning means of implementing the advisory opinion of the International Court (i.e. that the Union was not competent to alter the territory's status unless with the consent of United Nations, that the General Assembly was qualified to exercise supervisory functions over the administration, and that the Union Government was under an obligation to render reports and to transmit petitions). Discussions took place between the committee and representatives of the Union Government in 1952 and 1953, but proved inconclusive. The Union Government repeated a suggestion it had made earlier: that a new instrument embodying the spirit of the mandate should be concluded between the Union and the three remaining Principal Allied Powers of the first world war acting as principals and not as agents of the United Nations. Were this done, the Union would make reports on the administration of the territory available to these three Powers. The committee took the view that negotiations for an agreement could be undertaken only by the United Nations acting through an agency appointed by and responsible to it. In November 1953 the General Assembly adopted two resolutions, by 48 votes to 1 with 10 abstentions, and by 46 votes to 1 with 12 abstentions respectively. One resolution reiterated previous resolutions to the effect that the territory be placed under the International Trusteeship System. The other affirmed that supervision of the administration of South-West Africa, though it should not exceed that which applied under the mandates system, should be exercised by the United Nations itself. It appealed to the Union to reconsider its position, to continue negotiations with the committee with a view to the full implementation of the International Court's advisory opinion, to resume submission of reports on the administration of the territory, and to transmit any petitions received from inhabitants. In terms of this resolution, a seven-member committee was established to examine such information on the territory as was available, to examine any reports or petitions received, and to continue negotiating with the Union. Members of the committee, appointed during December, were Brazil, Mexico, Norway, Pakistan, Syria, Thailand and Uraguay, with Mr Thanet Khoman, of Thailand, as chairman. This committee wrote to the Union Government in January 1954, urging it to resume the submission of reports and inviting a (5) South-West Africa. Documents Relating to Discussions at the United Nations January 1952 to December 1953 (1954).

RELATIONS: 1953-54 South African representative to attend its deliberations, with the fullest freedom to take part in discussions and the right to attach his comments to any report issued. The Union Government apparently refused. (6) The committee then announced that it would proceed with its task on the basis of such information and documents as were available. It received several petitions, e.g. from the Rev. Michael Scott, from representatives of the Nama Herero and Berg Damara tribes requesting that a United Nations Commission be sent out to examine laws and conditions in the territory; and from the AntiSlavery and Aborigines Protection Society of Britain suggesting that South-West Africa be partitioned between the Union and the Principal Allied Powers of the first world war. Meanwhile, the Union Government introduced the South-West Africa Native Affairs Administration Bill which subsequently became law as Act No. 56 of 1954. In terms of this legislation, the administration of Native Affairs in the territory will, as from 1 April 1955, be transferred from the Administrator of South-West Africa (who has acted under the direction and control of the Governor-General) to the Union Minister of Native Affairs. The territory will make a financial contribution to the Union for the purpose amounting to one- fortieth of the toal annual expenditure from its Revenue Fund plus £50,000 annually (this figure later to be revised). In explaining his reasons for the introduction of the Bill, the Minister of Native Affairs said that the initiative had come from the (European) representatives of the territory in the Union Parliament. Ever since the mandate, the Union Government had enjoyed full administrative and legislative authority in regard to Native affairs in South-West Africa, and secondments of staff took place to and fro. Annual reports on the administration of Native affairs in the territory would in future be tabled in Parliament. In its report prepared for the 1954 session of United Nations, the seven-member committee has suggested a new formula: that the territory be placed under United Nations guardianship (instead of the International Trusteeship System), annual reports on its administration being submitted to the General Assembly. Unless South Africa's concurrence was forthcoming, it was likely that stalemate had been reached, for the United Nations was not empowered to go beyond the functions of the League of Nations in this matter, and the unanimity principle had applied in the Council of the League. It was thus suggested that if the new formula should be approved by a large majority in the General Assembly, but not by South Africa, the International Court of Justice should be asked whether a two-thirds voting majority in the Assembly would in future suffice. (7) (6) See comment by the Prime Minister in the Assembly, 4 May 1954, Hansard 13, Col. 4486. (7) The President of the General Assembly later ruled that a submission to the International Court was unnecessary. The question was subsequently re- opened, however, and the General Assembly decided to request this Court's advice. A SURVEY OF RACE The South African representative is reported to have said, during a meeting of the Trusteeship Committee, that it was the conviction of his government that the mandate had lapsed, and that no legal international obligation was thus recognized in connection with the administration of the territory. United Nations International Labour Office Committee on Forced Labour The findings of the ad hoc committee on forced labour appointed by the United Nations and the International Labour Office were summarized in our last Survey (8). Briefly, so far as South Africa was concerned, the committee found that, in an indirect sense, a system of forced labour did exist, since Africans were compelled through the pass laws and similar legislation to contribute by their labour to the implementation of the economic policies of the country. Towards the end of 1953, the Union Government sent a communication to the International Labour Office and the Economic and Social Council of U.N. refuting the accusations levelled against South Africa. (9) The pass laws, it was said, had been introduced with the sole aim of controlling the migration of Africans to the towns, where housing and other facilities were totally inadequate because of the vast influx during recent years. Labour bureaux had been provided to guide the movement, but were not used to prohibit work-seekers from accepting any employment that was available; and no compulsion whatever was exercised in persuading any person to go to a particular area or to take up employment in a specified industry. Membership of United Nations Organizations It was announced towards the end of 1953 that the Union Government was seriously considering withdrawing from the World Health Organization, the Food and Agricultural Organization, and U.N.E.S.C.O. The Prime Minister confirmed the report in the Assembly on 4 May 1954,(10) stating that the main reason for the suggestion had been one of economy, but that in addition Cabinet members had considered that the Union had gained very little from membership of these bodies. Furthermore, U.N.E.S.C.O. had exceeded its powers by attacking South Africa's internal policy. After full consideration, however, the Government had decided, for the present at least, not to withdraw from membership. Control of the High Commission Territories In the House of Assembly, on 12 April 1954, the Prime Minister moved :'(11) "That this House resolves that the transfer to the Union of the government of Basutoland and the Bechuanaland and Swazi(8) Survev of Race Relations, 1952-53, page 21. (9) See Hansard No. 2, 9 February 1954, Col. 298, and State Information Office Monthly Digest, April 1954. (10) Hansard No. 13, Col. 4484. (11) Hansard No. 11, Col. 3769.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 land Protectorates, to be administered in accordance with the terms and conditions embodied in the Schedule to the South Africa Act, 1909, or such other terms and conditions as may be agreed upon between the two Governments concerned, should take place as soon as possible. This House consequently urges that, with this end in view, immediate steps should be taken towards the resumption of the negotiations between the said two Governments at the stage reached at the outbreak of war in 1939". The Prime Minister pointed out that he was not at the present stage suggesting a petition of both Houses to the British Government, upon which, in terms of Section 151 of the South Africa Act, the latter might make the transfer. Such petition would be submitted, however, if the resumption of negotiations now visualized led to a satisfactory conclusion. The Leader of the Opposition moved an amendment(12) condemning the attempt to reinforce diplomatic negotiations by Parliamentary pressure. It was, he said, in the interests of South Africa that negotiations should take place, but he urged that the Prime Minister should not proceed in the way now contemplated. A lengthy debate then ensued in the Union Parliament. While the debate was proceeding in South Africa, the British Prime Minister was questioned on the matter in the House of Commons. He replied (13) 1 "We are pledged since the South Africa Act of 1909 not to transfer Bechuanaland, Basutoland and Swaziland until their inhabitants have been consulted, and until the United Kingdom Parliament has had an opportunity of expressing its view. General Hertzog himself in 1925 said that his Party was no longer prepared to incorporate in the Union any territory unless the inhabitants wished it. It is in the interests, as it is also the desire, of this country and of South Africa that the friendship which has developed so strongly between us over the years should remain. Therefore I sincerely hope that Dr Malan and his Government with whom we have hitherto happily co-operated on so many problems we share in common, will not needlessly press an issue on which we could not fall in with their view without failing in our trust." The former Labour Colonial Secretary said that the British Opposition welcomed this statement and joined in the hope that the Government of South Africa would not pursue the matter. Speaking in the House of Lords, the Commonwealth Relations Secretary said that in the conditions which existed at the present time, the Government of the United Kingdom would not be prepared to recommend the transfer. (12) Hansard No. 11, Col. 3803. (13) Union Assembly Hansard No. 11, Col. 3968.

A SURVEY OF RACE Dr Malan commented in the House of Assembly on Sir Winston's reply(14), saying that South Africa and Britain had always co-operated well and must continue to do so in the future. "I should like to retain England's friendship and I should like to co-operate with England. I should like to do so hand in hand . . . but where the interests of South Africa come up against those of England . . . then as a South African I am not prepared to crawl. I want to negotiate on an equal footing." Dr Malan's motion was then passed by 75 votes to 31. During the debate, on 14 April, the Institute released the following press statement : "The South African Institute of Race Relations considers that the time for a decision in respect of any or all of the High Commission Territories will not ai rive until the Union has succeeded in discharging its responsibilities in regard to its own racial problems. Should the time arrive for this issue to be decided, no decision in respect of any of the three territories should be taken without the consent of the people of such territory as regards its own destiny." The Institute is now engaged in the preparation of a booklet on the High Commission Territories, which will contain factual information and arguments for and against transfer of control. International Conferences Early in 1954, Mr Maurice Webb, a member of the Institute's Executive Committee and a past President, attended a conference on Race Relations in the Commonwealth convened by the Royal Institute of International Affairs and held in Lahore. He reported afterwards that all nations of the Commonwealth had been represented, the South African delegation including exponents of all the main trends of thought in the country. The policy of "differential development," put forward by certain of the South Africans, had evoked strong criticism from all the other delegations. Representatives of British African territories looked to the emergence in Africa of "white creative minorities." During July, Mr Quintin Whyte, Director of the Institute, attended a conference in Honolulu on Race Relations in World Perspective. Thirty-six scholars and experts drawn from a variety of disciplines were invited to this conference, which was sponsored by the Universities of Hawaii, California and Chicago, and financed by the Ford and McInerney Foundations. It sought to pool the essential concrete data and analyses of race relations in different areas and to evolve a conceptual framework for subsequent studies appropriate to the world-wide proportions and the critical significance of the problem. At this conference, a new world organization, the International Society for the Scientific Study of Race Relations, was formed, Dr Franklin (14) Hansard No. 11, Col. 3970.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Frazier, of Washington, being elected Chairman, Mr Quintin Whyte Vice- Chairman, and Dr W. 0. Brown, of Boston, Secretary. This society will co- ordinate reports of research into race relations in many parts of the world, and open up contact between students of the subject. On return, Mr Whyte said that his main impression had been the sense of urgency which permeated the conference: the adjustment of race relations was held to be a world priority. Secondly, the feeling that white domination and supremacy were passing was expressed time and time again. Emphasis was placed on the new shift of power, away from Europe and the West, to the East. There had been great restraint in dealing with the Union, but it was felt that South Africa constituted one of the most crucial areas in the world. At the end of the period under review, Dr Ellen Hellman, the Institute's President, left for Abidjan, French Ivory Coast, having been invited by U.N.E.S.C.O.'s Division of Social Sciences to attend a conference of experts on the subject of industrialization and urbanization in Africa South of the Sahara. Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference The 1954 Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference was held in Nairobi during August, Kenya, the Rhodesias and the Union acting as joint hosts. The Union invited the delegations from all self-governing territories to visit South Africa afterwards as guests of the Government, the invitation thus including delegates from Pakistan and Ceylon but excluding those from non-self-governing colonies. India was not represented at the conference. V GENERAL SOUTH AFRICAN AFFAIRS Population Figures Further details have become available of the 1951 census, and some of these are set out in Annexure II on page 160. It is of particular interest that in that year, the proportions of the various groups living in urban areas were 78.4 per cent. of the Whites, 64.4 per cent. of the Coloured people, 77.5 per cent. of the Asiatics and 27.2 per cent. of the Africans. The estimated mid-year population for 1954 is 2,805,000 Whites, 1,209,000 Coloured people, 399,000 Asiatics and 8,980,000 Africans. National Registration The Bureau of Census and Statistics has arranged for professional photographers to take the photographs of the European population which are required for identity cards to be issued under the Population Registration Act of 1950, and this work was commenced in Pretoria during January 1954, and on the Witwatersrand in September. The registration of African men has proceeded independently, the identity cards being combined with reference books. Details are given on page 43.

A SURVEY OF RACE The Cost of Living The Institute of Race Relations has recently revised its cost-ofliving figures, previously calculated in 1944 and 1950, for an "average" African family in Johannesburg, consisting of a worker, his wife and three children aged 14, 10 and 1- years respectively.(') It was found that the minimum monthly expenditure on basic necessities (i.e. food, rent, transport, fuel, cleaning materials, clothing, and tax) amounted to £23 10s. 4d. in 1954, an increase of"32 per cent. over 1950; whereas the average minimum family income, which amounted to £15 18s. 4d. per month, rose by only 24 per cent. in the same period. The deficit in 1954 was thus £7 1us. 5d. a month, and had increased considerably. The diet used in calculating the family expenditure was one prepared some years previously by the Household Organizer of the Johannesburg Non-European Affairs Department which "goes some way towards meeting essential requirements, with due regard to Native custom and taste." The cost of this diet increased from £7 10s. lld. a month in 1944 to £11 4s. 3d. in 1950 and £14 18s. 4d. in 1953, and in the last of these years, if used by an "average "family would have absorbed 94 per cent. of the family income. Because other items such as rent, transport, and tax were essentials, Africans were obviously forced to cut their outlay on food and clothing well below the minimum required for the maintenance of health and efficiency. To bridge this gap between income and necessary expenditure, families also resorted to brewing, taking in unauthorized lodgers, etc. In Annexure III, page 161, further details of the Institute's surveys are given, and results are compared with those obtained by the Johannesburg and Pretoria Municipalities and the National Building Research Institute. Index of Retail Prices The Bureau of Census and Statistics issues figures comparing the weighted average index of retail prices for the nine principal urban areas with a base figure of 100 in 1938. The average figure for 1953 was 192.4 for all items. Individual items were food 225.7, fuel and light 136.8, rent and water 146.3, clothing 288.5, and sundries 162.5.(2) The budget survey on which these index numbers are calculated was conducted in 1936 amongst European families in the £225 to £450 income group. The Institute has on several occasions pointed out that the index is therefore not fully applicable to those families whose income is below £225 per annum, in which group the very large majority of Non-Europeans are included; and furthermore (1) Investigations and calculations by Miss Olive Gibson, assisted by the Institute's President and others. (2) From Bulletins of Statistics for August and March 1954, Tables K8 and K7 respectively.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 33 that patterns of expenditure probably differ as between European and Non- European families in the same income group. This is a matter for some concern, as the index is used as a guide when minimum wages and cost-of living allowances are determined. The Wage Board, in its recently issued report for 1951, gives support to this contention. (3) During 1954, on learning that the statistical section of the Bureau of Census and Statistics was being re-organized, the Institute again wrote to the Director of the Bureau, urging that budget surveys be conducted among families in the lower income groups in order that an index more relevant to them could be issued. He replied that no financial provision for this work had been made. The Institute has now approached the Minister of the Interior requesting that the necessary funds be allocated for the purpose. Legislation Passed in 1953 which Affected Race Relations At the request of the Executive Committee, the Institute's Director addressed the Council meeting in January 1954, on "A Review of Recent Legislation."(4) After full discussion, the findings of Council were as follows: I. The Council has taken note of the review of legislation passed in 1953, and, while confirming the actions and attitudes adopted by the Executive Committee generally, records in particular the following comments upon some of the Acts reviewed:(a) While the more adequate machinery provided under the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act is to be welcomed, it would have been preferable in principle, simpler in practice, and more conducive to good race relations if the definition of "employee" in the Industrial Conciliation Act had been extended to include all Africans. (b) The explicit introduction of the principle of inequality in the provision of facilities in the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act, is to be deplored as retrogressive, unjust, and not in accord with accepted democratic principles. (c) The transfer of African education to the Department of Native Affairs under the Bantu Education Act is unsound in principle and undesirable in practice. (d) The Separate Representation of Voters Act, which it is now proposed to validate, is unjust, retrogressive and, in light of experience of the communal franchise in other countries, likely to increase, rather than diminish, racial friction. (e) The Council recognizes that law and order must be maintained, but considers the Public Safety Act to be objectionable in that it is based on the dangerous principle of (8) U.G. 45/1953, page 34. (4) His paper was issued as R. 5/54

A SURVEY OF RACE substituting for the rule of law the virtually uncontrolled supremacy of the Executive Government. (f) The wide provisions of the Criminal Law Amendment Act and the harsh penalties it imposes curtail democratic rights to full and free criticism of legislation. II. The Council considers that the legislation reviewed is not conducive to better relations nor to the present and future welfare of the Union. III. (a) This Council, holding that it is the essence of democracy that there should be free inter-action of thought and opinion between those who govern and those who are governed, considers that it is a primary duty of the citizens of a country to maintain constant vigilance over the legislation and work of the government of the day. It has noted with great concern a tendency to regard the rights of citizens to full and free discussion and criticism of legislative and administrative proposals put forward by the Government as having lapsed once the Bills have become Acts and the administrative proposals have been approved by the Government. (b) The Institute conceives it as its duty to promote the acceptance of the principles upon which it has, after earnest deliberation, agreed. If legislation is introduced or measures are proposed, which conflict with these principles, the Institute must endeavour to bring to the the public notice the objections to such legislation and measures, paying attention in particular to any derogation from basic human rights. (c) It is, further, the duty of the Institute to observe with the greatest care the administration of legislation, with special reference to the operation of the untrammelled discretionary powers which are increasingly being vested in the government, in individual Ministers, and even, in the case of the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act, in other individuals. (d) Council recommends to the Executive that a sub-committee be set up to watch the administrative application of legislation with particular regard to any conflict with basic human rights. Action under the Riotous Assemblies and Suppression of Communism Acts The Ngwevela case created some confusion at the beginning of the year; and before describing the Appeal Court ruling and the Government's subsequent legislative action, it will clarify matters if the previous position is summarized. In terms of the Riotous Assemblies and Criminal Law Amendment Act, No. 27 of 1914, as amended, if the Minister of justice was of

RELATIONS: 1953--54 opinion that enmity between Europeans and Non-Europeans would be caused, or trouble would ensue, if a particular meeting was held or if a particular person addressed it, he was empowered, in his discretion, to prohibit the meeting or to prohibit the person from addressing it, or to prohibit the person from addressing any meetings in a certain area for a fixed period. He was also empowered to prohibit the person concerned from being within a certain area for a stated period; no hearing was provided for before such action was taken, but, if asked to do so subsequently, the Minister was required to furnish a statement of such of the reasons for his action as could be disclosed without detriment to public policy. In terms of the Suppression of Communism Act of 1950, as amended, a liquidator was appointed to compile a list of names of officials or active supporters of organizations deemed unlawful under the Act, after asking such persons to show cause why their names should not be included. Those whose names are listed may, in terms of a subsequent Supreme Court decision, petition the Courts to investigate the correctness of the facts of their membership or active support of the unlawful organization. The Minister was empowered, in his discretion, to order those listed to resign from any organization and to prohibit them from attending gatherings. He was also empowered to prohibit persons not listed from attending gatherings if he possessed information indicating that they were disseminating communist propaganda. The term "communist," it will be remembered, is defined extremely widely. The only recourse of persons receiving such orders was to petition the courts to set aside the orders on the ground that the government acted in bad faith, or ultra vires the law, or without applying its mind to the issue. Johnson Ngwevela was one of those who received an order prohibiting him for two years from attending gatherings. He was subsequently convicted in the Magistrate's Court, Cape Town, of contravening this order by attending a meeting at which protests were made against certain legislative Acts. His appeal was dismissed by the Supreme Court but upheld by the Appeal Court, which held that before the Minister exercised his powers under the Suppression of Communism Act to issue an order of prohibition from the attendance at gatherings, the person concerned should be notified and permitted to show cause why the order should not be issued. No such opportunity had been afforded to Ngwevela. The Appeal Court added that the principle audi alteram partem should apply unless it is clear that Parliament has expressly or by necessary implication enacted that it should not apply. Five persons who had been prohibited from attending gatherings except of a limited nature and who had subsequently been found guilty of having done so then appealed successfully against their convictions on the ground that the prohibition orders had been null and void. After some confusion it emerged that prohibition orders

A SURVEY OF RACE issued in terms of the Riotous Assemblies Act were not affected, but notices issued under the Suppression of Communism Act prohibiting persons from attending gatherings had become invalid unless the persons concerned had been afforded the opportunity of making representations in their own defence. In the meanwhile, the Government had found that an elaborate procedure was necessary before persons considered to be communists could be prevented from sitting in Parliament or Provincial Councils. There was nothing in law to prevent them from being nominated, and once nominated, they could not withdraw. If they were elected they could be expelled only if a Select Committee thereafter reported that they were communists as defined in the Act. The Government then introduced the Riotous Assemblies and Suppression of Communism Amendment Bill, which became law in April as Act No. 15 of 1954. This provided, firstly, that the Minister was entitled to issue orders prohibiting "named" persons or those convicted under the Suppression of Communism Act from membership of certain organizations or from attending gatherings of any description without giving them the opportunity of making representations in their defence or without furnishing his reasons. No question of discretion was involved; the point at issue was whether or not the person was a named communist. The Minister was also empowered, in his discretion, to prohibit persons not listed from attending gatherings if he possessed information indicating that they were disseminating communist propaganda. No hearing need be granted, but it was provided that if asked to do so, the Minister would furnish the person concerned with a statement setting out such of the reasons for his action as could be disclosed without detriment to public policy. Banning orders previously issued to such persons, unless time expired, were revalidated. Secondly, the Act prohibited "named" persons and those convicted of an offence under the Suppression of Communism Act from offering themselves for election to Parliament or a Provincial Council unless permission had been obtained from the Minister or from Parliament, and provided that, if elected without obtaining such permission, they would be ineligible to sit as members. Under the Riotous Assemblies Act of 1914 the Minister has been empowered to prohibit all public gatherings in places to which the public had access in specified areas for specified periods. In terms of the new Act his powers were widened: he may now prohibit any particular public gathering, or all such gatherings, in any public place for a specified period or on certain days of the week. Further provisions of the Act were that persons wishing to petition the courts against the liquidator's action in listing their names must do so within twelve months of their naming; and that it is an offence in future for recordings of speeches by persons banned from attending meetings to be played at such meetings.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 A number of further banning orders has been issued since the Act became law. In some cases these have prohibited the persons concerned from attending all gatherings without exception unless special permission is obtained; in orders issued previously, gatherings of a bona fide religious, social, or recreational nature were excluded from the prohibition. The Institute of Race Relations once again drew the attention of Members of Parliament to the fact that while it shared their resolute opposition to communism, and while it considered 1hat the Government must have the power to protect our society against threats to its safety, it was anxious that in assuming such power the Government should take no action which would endanger the fundamental principles upon which the whole structure of western civilization rested. (5) Refusal of Passports and Visas The Supreme Court, Pretoria, ruled in December 1953(6) that although a passport could not be called up and cancelled by the Minister of the Interior during its period of validity, the passport regulations contained no guarantee by the Minister that he would renew a passport on application. The Minister had previously said(7) that he adhered to the view'that the possession of a passport was not a right but a privilege and it was in the discretion of the Government to issue it or not. Professor Z. K. Matthews (at present Acting Principal of the University College of Fort Hare) was invited by the sponsors to attend the Conference on Race Relations in World Perspective at Honolulu in July 1954, as was the Institute's Director. Professor Matthews' passport was refused. The Institute's Director took this refusal up with the Minister of and Secretary for the Interior, but was informed that the decision could not be reversed. The Institute then arranged a question to be put in the Assembly. The Minister of the Interior replied(8) that, during 1953, passports had been refused to nine African, two Coloured and 26 Asiatic applicants. It was not in the public interest to furnish reasons for the refusal of passports. He had previously said(9) that 19,144 applications for passports were granted in 1953, and a total of 58 refused. In July 1954, a party of Americans headed by Dr Emory Ross, President of the Phelps-Stokes Fund, was refused a group visa to tour the Union. The purpose of the party (which included two Negroes) was, as stated by their leader, to get glimpses of Africa and (5) RR. 30/51 and RR. 37/51, re-issued. (6) In dismissimpg an appeal by Mrs Johanna Feilner (born Cornelius), acting general secretary of the Garment Workers' Union. (7) Assembly, 8 September 1953. Hansard No. 9 of l1th Parliament, Cols. 3067/3069. (S) Assembly Ilansard of 28 May 1954. No. 13, Col. 5795. (9) Assembly, 9 February 1954. Hansard No. 2, Col. 297.

38 ASURVEYOFRACE either to correct misconceptions in the United States or to provide knowledge where previously there had been none. Dr Emory Ross was, however, granted a personal visa to enable him to visit Johannesburg and Cape Town to deliver the Institute's Hoernle Memorial Lecture. Bishop Frederick X. Jordan, a Negro prelate from the United States of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, was in 1953 refused a visa, but this decision was reversed in 1954. VIMATTERS AFFECTING SPECIFIC GROUPS Parliamentary Representation of Africans It will be recalled that Mr Sam Kahn and Mr Brian Bunting, in turn elected to the Assembly by Africans of the Cape Western circle, were each unseated after Parliament had adopted Select Committee majority reports that they were communists as defined in the Suppression of Communism Act. Miss Ray Alexander, whose name was on the list of officials and active supporters of organizations deemed unlawful, was then nominated for the vacant seat, together with two other candidates. She was elected by a large majority, but in the meanwhile Act No. 15 of 1954(1) had become law, and in terms of this, she was immediately notified by the Minister of Justice that as a "named" person she was not competent to take her seat. The Speaker of the House of Assembly thereupon announced that the seat was again vacant. A few weeks later the Representation of Natives Amendment Bill (which became Act No. 36 of 1954) was introduced. Its main purpose was to allow the Governor- General or the Administrator of the Cape Province to postpone a by-election for a Native Representative in the Senate, House of Assembly, or Cape Provincial Council when the earliest date on which this by-election could be held was within six months of the expiry of the period for which the representative would have been elected. As the next election of Natives Representatives was due in December 1954, no by-election was therefore held in the Cape Western circle to fill the vacancy. At the next election, Mrs V. M. L. Ballinger (Liberal) was returned unopposed to the Cape Eastern seat in the Assembly: results in the other two Cape circles are not known at the time of going to press. One of the candidates in the Cape Western circles, Mr L. B. LeeWarden, was banned from attending gatherings after he had been nominated. As he has not been "named" he is unaffected by Act No. 15 of 1954; but it is so far uncertain whether, if he should be elected, Parliament would be deemed a "gathering" in terms of the Suppression of Communism Act. So far as the four seats for African representatives in the Senate are concerned, two candidates were returned unopposed: Mr W. H. (1) See page 36.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Campbell in the Transkei and Mr L. I. Rubin (Liberal) in the rest of the Cape. Elections will take place for the Natal and TransvaalOrange Free State representatives. Native Affairs Commission Mr J. J. Serfontein, M.P., resignea from the Native Affairs Commission during the year and was replaced by Mr W. A. Maree, M.P. Mr M. D. C. de Wet Nel, M.P., Mr F. E. Mentz, M.P., and Mr A. T. Spies continue to be members, and they will be joined by the Administrator of South-West Africa when the South-West Africa Native Affairs Administration Act is brought into effect. Taxation of Africans The Minister of Finance said recently(2) that during the financial year 1952/53, Africans paid £1,486,485 in general (poll) tax, £274,067 in local tax, £60,078 in quitrent, and in the Orange Free State, £19,177 in hospital tax. The amount they paid in income tax could not be determined because separate records were not kept for the various racial groups (nor, of course, could the amount paid in indirect taxation be assessed.) At the 1954 session of the United Transkeian Territories General Council (Bunga), a motion was put that the Government be asked to tax the African people according to their means and not at the flat rate at present apphied to all those whose incomes are below the level at which income tax becomes payable. A European official replied that the Bunga's Finance Committee recommended that the question of evolving a more equitable system be referred to the InterDepartmental Committee on Native Taxation. The main difficulty was that of finding a way of determining the means of peasant farmers. Financial Protection of Africans A notice has been gazetted(3) providing that any collector or organization asking Africans for money must be properly registered and controlled, in order to prevent abuses which have occurred in the past. Operation of Influx and Efflux Control and Labour Bureaux Mr E. Thacker, in charge of the administration of influx and efflux control in Johannesburg, kindly addressed the Institute's Executive Committee in July 1954, and replied to numerous questions. He has subsequently supplied the information from which the following picture has been constructed. In terms of Section 10 of the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, as amended, no African is entitled to remain in an urban or proclaimed area for more than 72 hours unless: (a) he was born and permanently resides in the area concerned; or (2) Assembly, 23 February 1954. Hansard 4, Col. 1006 (3) Goverment Notice No. 600, gazetted 26 March 1954.

40 A SURVEY OF RACE (b) he has worked continuously there for one employer for at least 10 years, or has lawfully remained continuously in the area for at least 15 years, and during this time has not been sentenced to imprisonment without the option of a fine for a period Qf over seven days or with the option of a fine for a period of more than one month; or (c) the African is the wife, unmarried daughter, or son under taxpaying age (18 years) of an African mentioned in (a) or (b) above and ordinarily resides with him; or (d) he or she has obtained permission from the urban local authority. These provisions apply to all Africans, but until recently have not been introduced generally so far as women and Africans with exemption certificates are concerned. During the year under review, however, the Minister of Native Affairs has directed that they shall be applied to every African in Cape Town and certain other areas. This decision is dealt with below. African men already working in an urban area who do not fall into one of the classes described may remain in their present employment until discharged. Then, if they are Union citizens or have their homes in one of the High Commission Territories, they are re-registered if suitable employment exists, and if not, are referred to the nearest district labour bureau and given the choice of accepting available work outside the proclaimed area or returning home. The position of men from other African territories is dealt with below. Africans wishing to enter an urban or proclaimed area to seek work are now required(4) to register with the labour bureau serving the area they wish to leave. It is only the employment officer of this bureau who may grant them permission to enter a prescribed area, and he has first to obtain authority from his Regional Employment Commissioner. Thus permission to leave an area has to be obtained as well as permission to enter a prescribed area. All male newcomers to urban areas except those on visits of under 72 ,hours are required to report their presence to the Registering Officer appointed by the urban local authority. If they are seeking work and have left a non-prescribed area without obtaining the necessary permission, the Registering Officer is obliged to refer them to the nearest district labour bureau, which operates in respect of employment in non-prescribed areas. If they have obtained such permission and there is work available, they are given authority to remain and work in the town. Africans who are refused permission to remain may appeal to the Chief Native Commissioner against the decision of the Registering Officer. All male work-seekers between 15 and 65 years of age are required to register at the local or district labour bureau, whichever applies. On registering at a local bureau in a prescribed area, men are issued (4) In terms of the Regulations for the Establishment and Control of Labour Bureaux, G.N.2495 of 31 October 1952,

RELATIONS: 1953-54 with work-seekers' permits and may then themselves seek employment or may accept employment offered by the labour bureau. If there are vacancies in the town for certain categories of workers only their permits may be endorsed to indicate that they may seek work exclusively in the categories concerned. The period of validity of the permits must be not less than seven or more than 14 days: in Johannesburg they are valid for 14 days and three extensions of 14 days may be given. If a man is still unemployed after this time and is unwilling to accept such employment as the bureau is able to offer, he is then endorsed out of the area. Employers are required to notify the local labour bureau of all vacancies for African workers, and to advise it within three days of the discharge or engagement of an African. They are permitted to engage registered work-seekers only. Placements that have been effected through labour bureaux are detailed on page 124. In Johannesburg, where the system is further developed than in many other towns, the City Council is arranging for an information office to be established at the station to guide newcomers. All Africans on reporting to the registering office are medically examined, and disabilities are taken into consideration when employment for them is found. Those requiring medical attention are sent to the appropriate clinics or hospitals and covering permits are issued whilst they are receiving treatment. It is understood that because of the tendency in South Africa to regard all Africans as unskilled labourers, difficulty is being experienced by labour bureaux in classifying them. Further, far from all employers and work-seekers yet understand or comply with the regulations, and certain persons are making high profits from forging permits. The system is also giving rise to many cases of individual hardship. It must be acknowledged that only five years have elapsed since the enabling Act was passed,(5) and a completely new network of machinery then had to be set up. The fact remains, however, that any attempt to regiment the movements of hundreds of thousands of African workers and to induce employers to comply with cumbersome regulations must cause difficulty and hardship. Influx control is operated even more strictly in the Western Cape than it is elsewhere in the Union. The Minister of Native Affairs recently said (6) that the flow of Africans to the Western Province must be very carefully controlled, and the arrival of families must be severely discouraged, because this area must be looked upon as the preserve of the Coloured worker, whose future must not be threatened. Position of Africans from Territories other than the Union, South-West Africa and the High Commission Territories Very large numbers of Afiicans from Rhodesia, Nyasaland, Portuguese East Africa and territories to the North come to the (5) Native Laws Amendment Act of 1949. (6) In an address to the Federated Chamber of Industries, published in The Manulacturer, August 1954.

42 A SURVEY OF RACE Union to work. Except for those who have contracted to work on the mines, they are supposed to be in possession of temporary immigration permits, but many undoubtedly cross the borders illegally. An official of the Native Affairs Department said in a press statement issued in February(7) that the total number of "Non-Union" Africans in the Union (apart from nearly 200,000 on the mines) had been variously estimated at between 500,000 and 850,000, and that 80 per cent. of them were working on farms. Presumably, then, between 100,000 and 170,000 are in urban areas. In terms of Section 12 of the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, as amended, "Non-Union" Africans wishing to enter urban areas to work have to obtain the written permission of the Secretary for Native Affairs which is granted only with the concurrence of the local authority concerned. When discharged from the service of their employers they are usually offered the choice of working in the rural areas or returning home. In the past, Africans from Rhodesia or Nyasaland who were of good character, had paid their taxes regularly and had been in the Union for at least 10 years might, on application, be granted exemption from the terms of Section 12 and were then regarded as Union citizens and treated accordingly. This was an administrative relaxation. In February, however, the Minister of Native Affairs announced a change in policy(8). No further "Non-Union" Africans were to be admitted to proclaimed areas. Those already there would have to leave as soon as they left their present employment. Even if they did not leave their employment, they would eventually have to go; when the period of validity of their temporary immigration permits expired, a final extension of six months would be granted. The only exceptions would be in the case of "Non-Union" Africans who at certain "fixed dates" were with their present employers and in possession of valid permits: further extensions would be granted to them as long as they remained with the same employer. (The "fixed date" is apparently the date on which the local authority concerned was instructed by the Native Affairs Department to admit no more "NonUnion" Africans). Those ordered out of proclaimed areas would have the choice of working in rural areas of the Transvaal, Orange Free State, or Northern Cape, or returning to their own territories. In a press statement,(9) the Director of the Institute of Race Relations pointed out that this ruling, if implemented strictly, would probably cause dislocation in certain types of employment, might result in a further postponement of the long- overdue improvement of farm wages and conditions of work, and would certainly mean hardship in individual cases. Many "Non-Union" Africans had married Union women and had established families and homes in urban areas. The Institute of Administrators of Non-European Affairs discussed (7) Rand Daily Mail, 13 February 1954. (8) Assembly, 23 February 1954. Hansard No. 4, Col. 1013. (9) Rand Daily Mail, 12 February 1954.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 43 the matter at their conference in July, and it was pointed out that in many urban areas "Non-Union" Africans represented a not inconsiderable proportion of the labour force, especially in the field of domestic service. It was doubtful whether they could be replaced by urban Africans. Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill The Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill, published in February, proved so controversial that it was postponed until 1955. One of its clauses sought to place Africans from the High Commission Territories in much the same position as are "Non-Union" Africans so far as influx control is concerned. They would no longer be able to enter proclaimed areas for employment unless with the written permission of the Secretary for Native Affairs, given only with the concurrence of the local authority concerned. Those already in urban areas would not be affected until they left their present employment, but when they did so they could not be re-registered, even if work was available, unless they obtained the special permit('0). Another provision of the Bill was that Africans returning to an urban area to their previous employment within 12 months of leaving the area, might do so without first passing through the influx control formalities. A further clause was to the effect that new entrants to proclaimed areas might be employed only in the labour category specified on their work-seeking permits. In a statement on the Bill sent to Members of Parliament and to the press,(11) the Institute of Race Relations welcomed the first of these provisions, but pointed out that the second was an unwarranted interference with the right of workers to seek the best market for their labour. Further clauses of this Bill are dealt with on pages 66 and 124. Reference Books for Africans As is described in previous Surveys, African men are gradually being issued with hard-covered reference books to replace most of the various papers they previously had to carry.(12) Teams from the Native Affairs Department consisting of clerks, photographers, and fingerprint men have, since March 1953, been touring the Transvaal and parts of Natal collecting old documents and in exchange issuing reference books in which the identity cards required under the Population Registration Act are incorporated. Upwards of 800,000 books have so far been issued. A matter that has given rise to some concern amongst the authorities is that numbers of Africans who would prefer their old records to be forgotten have apparently been discarding their reference books, (10) Interpretation of relative clause as given by the State Information Office, Newsletter 735 of 14 February 1954. (11) RR. 27/54. (12) In tW-rms of the Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-Ordination of Documents) Act of 1952.

A SURVEY OF RACE subsequently applying for new ones. The officials hope that later, when all the thumb-prints of the entire African population have been taken and sorted, this may not occur. Holders of exemption certificates will in due course be issued with reference books with distinctively coloured covers. No new exemption certificates are being issued, but certain classes of Africans, for example chiefs, headmen, ministers of religion who are marriage officers, teachers in state and state-aided schools, and lecturers, lawyers, doctors, qualified social workers, court interpreters, and registered voters in the Cape will qualify automatically for the distinctively coloured books. As is explained above, holders of these are exempt from registering Service Contracts, but they are subject to influx control regulations, their documents are producible on demand by authorized officials (including members of the police), and they are subject to the same labour bureau regulations as are other African men. African Women and Passes African women are not yet being issued with identity cards or reference books, and they are not subject to labour bureau regulations. If out after curfew hours in the "European" sections of urban areas, however, they require "special" permits signed by their employers or authorized officials. In terms of Section 23 (d) of the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, the Governor-General may by proclamation require an urban local authority to prohibit African women from entering the area to live or seek work unless they are in possession of certificates of approval from the Native Commissioner or Magistrate in the district from which they come and from the urban local authority concerned. Such certificates are producible on demand by an authorized officer in the proclaimed area. They may be issued for a limited period, may at any time be cancelled on one month's notice, and are issued only to women who produce satisfactory proof that their husbands (or in the case of unmarried women, their fathers) have been resident and continuously employed in the urban area concerned for not less than two years. Women under the age of 21 5years require proof of their guardians' consent. Section 10 of the Act (i3) deals with influx control. Before 1952 it applied to men only; but in terms of an amendment then made(14) its provisions were extended to all Africans. Sub-section (2) now reads that the officer designated for the purpose by an urban local authority "shall issue to any native who has been permitted to remain in any such area a permit indicating the purposes for which and the period during which such native may remain in that area." Several local authorities, including Cape Town and Durban, have during the past year been instructed to apply influx control regulations to African women. Municipal officials in Cape Town are accordingly (18) See page 39. (I') Sectiin 27 of the Native Laws Anendnent Act, No. 54 of 1952

RELATIONS: 1953-54 engaged in registering women at Langa, some 5,000 having already been issued with permits which are producible on demand by authorized officials. If the women are in employment the employer's name and address is stated on the permit, and women are warned to reregister if they lose their employment. The Corporation of the City of Durban has requested the Minister of Native Affairs to reconsider the instruction so far as its area is concerned. Control of Meetings or Gatherings of Africans It will be recalled that, following the riots which took place at Port Elizabeth, East London and Kimberley locations in 1952, measures providing for the "control of meetings, gathering or assemblies and prohibitions of incitement of Natives" were gazetted.(15) The question of incitement was subsequently dealt with through the Criminal Law Amendment Act;(16) but meetings or gatherings may still be subjected to control in terms of Government Notice 2017 of 1953, as amended. This provides that the Governor-General may, by proclamation, impose control in any area. Once control is imposed the permission of the Secretary for Native Affairs or a Chief Native Commissioner, Native Commissioner or Magistrate is required before a meeting, gathering or assembly at which more than 10 Africans are to be present may be held. Certain exceptions are made: Members of Parliament or of Provincial Councils, or those nominated for election as such, for example, may hold meetings of over 10 Africans in the areas concerned without obtaining permission, and bona fide church services, weddings, funerals, and sports gatherings are excluded. These provisions have, during 1954, been brought into effect throughout the Transkei and in the magisterial districts of Mafeking, Vereeniging, and Grahamstown. African Customary Marriages African customary marriages are registered in Natal, and a Departmental Committee is at present investigating the advisability of extending this practice to other provinces. Witchdoctors, Medicine Men and Herbalists Another committee is investigating the advisability of legislation requiring the registration of African witchdoctors, medicine men and herbalists. Research Projects Concerned with Africans Research in progress in 1953 /54 which related to general African affairs included : Mrs Mia Brandel (for the S.A. Institute of Race Relations). An investigation of existing African women's organizations and an evaluation of the extent to which they meet the needs of African women. (15) See page 34 of 1952-53 S'urvey. (16) See pa.ge 36 of 1952-53 Survey.

A SURVEY OF RACE Dr E. H. Brookes with Dr Hurwitz (Natal University). The Natal Reserves. D. Z. de Villiers. (Fort Hare). Social maturity of the African adolescent. Psychological effects of conditioning the African to European problems as his own, with emphasis on anxiety. Institute of Personnel Research Character of the African with particular reference to attitudes to W4estern ethical values. Dr M. D. W. Jeffreys (Witwatersrand University). The origin and distribution of the Negro. Prof. L. Kuper (Natal University). The Passive Resistance Campaign. Dr J. Lewin (Witwatersrand University). The role of law in race relations in South Africa since Union. Miss L. Longmore (Witwatersrand University). African marriage and family systems on the Witwatersrand. M. G. Marwick (Cape Town University). Witch beliefs in their social context. Rev. S. L. Reyneke. Witchcraft among the Tswana. Dr H. J. Simons (Cape Town University). The Status of African women. Migrations of Africans into the Cape. Recognition of Native law in South Africa. M. Tatham (Cape Town University). Leadership in a rural African community with particular reference to local government. The Political Rights of the Cape Coloured People The instalment in our last Survey(-7) of the long-drawn-out story of the Coloured vote ended at the point where the Appellate Division Bill was dropped and the Separate Representation of Voters Act Validation and Amendment Bill was suddenly substituted and referred to a joint session of both Houses of Parliament on 2 October 1953. After the first reading this Bill was referred to a Select Committee which was then converted into a Commission to enable it to sit during the Parliamentary recess. Its terms of reference were to examine the Bill, to call for evidence, and thereafter, if considered necessary, to draft a new Bill. A large number of organizations and individuals, including the Institute, gave evidence during November and December and the early part of 1954. The Institute's memorandum of evidence was issued as RR.186/53, and has since been published under the title The Political Rights of the Coloured People. A delegation led by the Director later gave oral evidence. In its memorandum, the Institute dealt with the meaning of civilization and democracy, the history of the Cape franchise, and (17) Survey of Race Relations, 1952/53, page 27.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 constitutional experience in other multi-racial countries. It stated: "The Institute's conviction is that in any democratic state the conferment of the franchise can be determined only by the capability of the person to exercise that right. Such capability is in no way affected by the colour of his skin. The denial of the right to properly qualified persons (or its curtailment) simply on the ground of their colour is therefore undemocratic and unjustifiable. The Institute believes that this follows logically from the acceptance of the values and principles of Western democracy. The curtailment of rights is particularly unjustified in the case of the Cape Coloured people, who do not differ in tradition, language, culture or interest from Europeans who have full franchise rights. It considers that to place the Cape Coloured people on a separate voters' roll and give them communal representation in the form suggested in the Bill would result in a serious deprivation of political rights based not on incapacity to exercise them but merely on grounds of colour. "The Institute submits that the proper function of a Member of Parliament is to represent, to the best of his ability, national rather than sectional interests and that the consideration of policy should have as its primary objective the interests of the population as a whole. . . . Differences of approach and action on the part of Members of Parliament should be concerned with matters of principle or opinion, cultural, moral, or economic, and the more such concern is submerged by subordination to sectional interests, whether of class or religion, of language or race, the less useful and effective for the common good Parliament will become ... In a multi-racial country, demarcation by racial groups is of all forms of particularism the least desirable, and, indeed, the most dangerous, as likely to foster and intensify antagonisms of a kind which history has shown to be particularly harmful . . . The course of wisdom and statesmanship would be to strive for the subordination of sectional claims to the collective interests of the whole body politic ... "After a hundred years of the exercise of normal democratic rights there can be no doubt that the Cape Coloured people are, and have been, considered to be adequately qualified to exercise the franchise on the common roll. In fact, the Institute goes further and suggests that the maintenance of civilized principles in South Africa demands the extension of the Cape Coloured franchise to the Northern Provinces, on the same basis as in the Cape Province, and the enfranchisement of Cape Coloured women." In reply to questions asked in the Assembly soon after the recess, (18) the Minister of the Interior gave figures which showed that the number of Coloured voters has actually decreased recently in proportion to (18) Hansard No. 6, 12 March 1954, Cols. 1973-1980, and Hansard No. 7, 19 March, Col. 2376.

A SURVEY OF RACE the total vote, although European and Coloured registered voters were fewer in number after the general registration. When the Tenth Delimitation Commission sat in 1952, there were 47,008 Coloured and Asiatic voters in the Cape (7.8 per cent. of the total Cape vote) and 1,190 Coloured voters in Natal (0.7 per cent of the Natal total). As at 28 February 1954, there were 34,444 registered Coloured and Asiatic voters in the Cape, who then formed 6.2 per cent. of the total Cape vote. The Electoral Officer told the Coloured Vote Commission that there would be about 150,000 Coloured voters in the Cape if all those qualified registered their names. Registered Non-White voters remained on the common roll for the provincial elections of 1954. The Joint Select Committee consisted of 11 members of the National Party and seven members of the Parliamentary Opposition. Its report, which was approved by 11 votes to seven, indicated a clear split on Party lines. The evidence it received was published together with its report, and while some Coloured organizations did give evidence in favour of separate voters' rolls, their representativeness was not established, and it was clear that the overwhelming majority of the Coloured people preferred to remain on the common roll. Many pressed for complete political equality. Nevertheless, the majority report recommended separate representation. The Commission submitted a draft Bill which was accepted by the Government and placed before a joint session of both Houses of Parliament on 17 May. The Bill sought to revalidate the Separate Representation of Voters Act, No. 46 of 1951, with one amendment, in regard to the Board for Coloured Affairs. The Commission recommended that this be enlarged and called the Union Council for Coloured Affairs. The proposals before the joint session were that the Coloured and Asiatic voters of the Cape be placed on a separate roll to elect four European representatives to the Assembly and two representatives, who might be Europeans or Coloured people, to the Cape Provincial Council. None of these would have the right to vote for senators. Should the total of European constituencies be legally altered at any time, the number of Coloured constituencies would be altered in such a manner that the originally determined numerical relation would be maintained. Registered Coloured voters in Natal (there are none in the remaining provinces) would remain on the common roll until their death, but, after the Bill became law, no further Coloured persons would be registered as voters there. A European senator would be nominated by the Governor-General on the ground of his thorough acquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of the Coloured people. A Union Council for Coloured Affairs would be set up to advise the Government on the interests of Coloured people and to carry out such powers as might be assigned to it: it would have 12 Coloured members elected by Coloured voters in the Cape, and 15 Coloured members nominated by the Governor- General (four from

RELATIONS : 1953-54 the Transvaal, one from the Free State, two friom Natal, and eight, of whom at least one must be a Cape Malay and one a Griqua, from the Cape). The Labour Party opposed the Prime Minister's motion fbr leave to introduce the Bill, but the motion was adopted by 163 votes to 14. In his speech introducing the second reading, the Prime Minister said that if the Government did not obtain a two-thirds majority in Iavour of the Bill at its third reading, it would ask the people for a new and more definite mandate to continue with the matter at the provincial elections(19). The Hon. J. G. N. Strauss said(2') that the United Party would oppose the Bill at every stage. He moved an an amendment: that the joint sitting was of opinion that it was undesirable that there should be legislation to give effect to the principle of the separate representation of White and Coloured voters. Mr P. Bailey Bekker, leader of the Independent Wing of the United Party, proposed a compromise amendment: that registered Coloured voters should remain on the common roll if they wished to do so, but that new registrations should be on a separate roll; that cognizance should be taken of Coloured men in Natal who would in future have become eligible for registration as voters; and that the status and responsibilities of the proposed Union Council should be enhanced. (21) In his reply to the lengthy second reading debate, the Prime Minister announced a new development(22). He and the Leader of Golding, President of the Coloured People's National Union, also by the Executive Chairman and General Secretary of that body, in which they said that while there had been no change in their convictions so far as the Bill was concerned, they did not want to remain a football between the political parties. A number of their members considered that if a national conterence of Coloured organizations were convened under the auspices of the C.P.N.U. "there is every prospect ofa large majority decision being given in flavour of negotiating with the Government and with the Opposition a compromise on an honourable and just basis . . . We have in mind that such basis will give effect to the establishment of a new roll on the lines envisaged by the Government, but at the same time will protect the present generation so that no one will be fbrcibly deprived of any franchise right. The Prime Minister's motion was then put, and the Bill was passed a second time by 118 votes to 74, the Bekker group voting with the Opposition. During the adjournment, leading members of the C.P.N.U. said in press statements that the Executive Committee of this organization (1)) 1tlansard No. I of Joint Sitting4, 19 May 1954, Col 24. (20) fIansard No. 1, Cols. 26 and 46. (21) 11anard No.1,Col.73. (22) tRaiiard No. 1, Cols. 374 -7.

A SURVEY OF RACE had given Mr. Golding no authority whatsoever to suggest a compromise, but had instructed him to write urging that a conference of Coloured people be held. The C.P.N.U. then issued an official statement reiterating its opposition to the Bill, and suggesting that a national convention representative of all shades of' opinion of the Coloured people would afford them their first opportunity of discussing their "unfortunate position" freely and untrammelled by party political influences. The C.P.N.U., in association if possible with the S.A. Coloured People's Organization, would convene such a convention if the Government would agree to postpone further Parliamentary debate on the Bill. Leaders of the S.A. Coloured People's Organization, of the AntiColoured Affairs Department Movement and of nine Coloured organizations in Port Elizabeth and one in Johannesburg, issued statements repudiating any suggestion of compromise. The joint sitting was reconvened on 9 June fbr the Committee stage of the Bill. The Minister of the Interior announced that in a sincere attempt to obtain the necessary majority the Government was prepared to move certain amendments to the Bill, but if a twothirds majority for the amended measure was not forthcoming, the Government would in no way be bound to any concession now made. It was now proposed that separate European and Coloured voters' lists be compiled. Coloured voters registered as at 30 June 1954, would be permitted to choose whether they wished to remain on the European roll or to be transferred to the Coloured roll, but all new registrations of Coloured voters would be on the Coloured roll. The number of representatives to be elected by Coloured voters would be in relation to the rate at which the number of Coloured voters on the European roll had decreased from time to time and would eventually reach a total of fbur. Only voters on the Coloured roll would be capable of being elected as or to vote for members of the Union Council for Coloured Affairs. At the third reading on 14 June, the amended Bill was approved by 129 votes to 42. The Speaker than announced that as 138 votes were required for a two-thirds majority, the Bill had failed to pass. It has been reported(23) that an intensive lobbying of United Party Members of Parliament has since been conducted, also that the Prime Minister stated in Pretoria on 1.5 September that he wanted to know by the end of September or the beginning of October whether a two-thirds majority would be forthcoming if the Bill were re-introduced next Session. The reason for this became apparent later, when Dr Malan announced his resignation as from the end of November 1954. The Municipal Franchise for Coloured People In the Cape Province, all Non-Europeans in urban areas are eligible for the municipal franchise on the same terms as those appli(23) e.g. Sunday Times, 26 September 1954.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 51 cable to Europeans; and they are also entitled to sit as full members of local government bodies. Those who qualify for the franchise are persons over the age of 21 (men and women) who own immovable property to the value of £200, or who occupy immovable property to the value of £400. In the Cape Provincial Council on 26 August, however, where the National Party now for the first time has a majority, a motion was passed that the municipal voters' rolls be replaced by the parliamentary rolls. The effect would be to disfranchise Coloured women. Indians in Natal Volume 9 of the Natal Regional Survey, entitled The Indian Community of Natal, their Economic Position, by C. A. Woods, has recently been published. It points, as previous surveys by the Department of Economics at Natal University have done, to the extreme poverty of the vast majority of Indians and to the overcrowded housing conditions caused by this poverty and by pegging legislation. It shows, despite all this, "the marked advance towards Western standards which has been achieved by a considerable part of the Indian population." The debates at United Nations on the position of Indians in South Africa, and the Indian Government's decision to close its High Commission in South Africa, are dealt with on page 24 of this Survey. Research Projects Concerned with the Coloured and Indian Communities. Research in progress in 1953 /54 included: G. R. Feldmann (University of Cape Town). The Coloured Population of Johannesburg. Hilda Kuper (Natal). An anthropological study of an Indian community in Durban. P. V. Reddy (University of Natal). Value attitudes among a group of Indian urban adolescents. VII URBAN AREAS Transvaal Local Government Commission Early in 1954, the Southern Transvaal Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations submitted memoranda of evidence(') to the Transvaal Local Government Commission and gave oral evidence. Dealing with the question of whether more extensive central control of local authorities is required, the Regional Committee submitted that the function of the Province should be to stimulate local authorities so as to ensure at least a common minimum level of (1) R.R. 176/53 and RR. 62/54.

52 A SURVEY OF RACE essential services, providing technical and financial assistance where where necessary. But its control and guidance should be limited to this, and it should concern itself less than it does at present with matters of procedure. The autonomous powers of larger cities, with their own technical and financial resources, should be extended. The Committee recommended that executive power should remain in the hands of an elected council. It opposed any suggestion that the present system should be replaced by one of officially appointed commissioners. So fir from a limitation, it was an extension of the elective principle that was required: measures should be introduced to enable Non-Europeans to be directly represented on local government bodies. The mayor should be elected by councillors - a system of appointed mayors or burgomasters was considered to be completely undesirable. The Regional Committee urged that adequate provision for the housing of African employees be made whenever a new European township is established. At the time of writing, evidence is still being heard by the Commission. Urban Bantu Authorities Bill The Urban Bantu Authorities Bill, first introduced in 1952, was not proceeded with during the 1953 or 1954 sessions of Parliament; but it is understood that the measure has been discussed in detail with municipal authorities and will be re- introduced, possibly in an amended form, in 1955. It provides for the creation in all urban areas of Urban Bantu Authorities with executive and financial powers, and of Urban Bantu Courts. The Institute prepared duplicated copies of the first draft of the Bill,(2) and issued two commentaries on it.(3) The main point it made was that, while the proposed extension of' executive and administrative responsibility was welcomed, the Institute considered that no practical and just solution of the problem which the Bill sought to solve could be fbund without at the same time providing for direct representation of Non-Europeans on municipal councils. Location Advisory Boards Congress A four-day conftrence of the Location Advisory Boards Congress was held in Orlando, Johannesburg, during January, and was attended by some 250 delegates, including a number of town councillors, managers of Non-European affairs, and location superintendents. The President of Congress reported that he and several members of the Executive Committee had, a few weeks previously, discussed with the Minister of Native Affairs a difference that had arisen regarding the competence of the Congress to include in its programme matters which he considered political and outside its function. The (") 1I . (/52. (:R) RI1. 36/52 and 78/52.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Minister had not defined "politics", but warned that any political discussion might lead the Congress to the ftate of the Natives Representative Council. The resolutions adopted were as follows: "That this conference of Location Advisory Boards urges the Government to repeal the Bantu Education Act and place the education of the Africans under the Provincial Councils as heretofore or under the Union Education Department. "That more avenues of employment should be created for Africans and that in all transport services in African areas Africans be employed as bus drivers and conductors. "That the principle of equal pay for equal work be enforced. "That in the application of schemes for the removal of Africans from one area to another, no person should be removed unless alternative accommodation has been provided for him. "That the Congress opposes the removal of the Africans from the areas of Sophiatown, Newclare and Martindale. "That the Government be requested to employ more Africans in the Native Affairs Department. "That the Government be requested to give Africans preference in the allocation of trading facilities in their own areas. "That the Government be requested to decrease the number of police raids in the African townships and control them in such a way as to make them the exception and not the rule." General Conditidns in Urban Areas Alarmed at the depopulation of country areas, the Dutch Reformed Churches have instigated an enquiry into the effects of the concentration of ownership of large tracts of land, and the problems of adjustment to city life. The Johannesburg Co-Ordinating Council of Welfare Agencies, in conjunction with the Municipality, the University, and the Institute of Race Relations, is planning a conference on the problems of NonEuropean urban family life. A major problem, as members of the Institute of Administrators of Non-European Affairs pointed out at their meeting in July, is that because of overcrowding, lack of privacy, migrancy, the large preponderance of men, maladjustment to urban life, and other factors, a large proportion of African children born in urban areas are born out of wedlock and have no stable homes or families. The average illegitimacy rate in five cities in South Africa(4) in 1952 /53 was 1.74 for Europeans, 2.44 for Asiatics, 24.37 for Coloured and 42.01 for Africans. The Administrators of Non-European Affairs (4) i.e. Percentage of total births. The average rate is calculated by the writer from rates for Benoni, Pretoria, Durban, Pietermaritzburg and Port Elizabeth as contained in the latest Annual Reports of Medical Officcrs of Health. These cities were selected merely because the reports happened to be available

54 A SURVEY OF RACE urged that all Bantu unions be registered, including marriages by Christian or civil rites and by African custom and also unions by co-habitation. In reply, the Secretary for Native Affairs said that a Departmental Committee was already investigating whether the Natal practice of registering customary unions should be extended to other provinces. Siting of Industry The Government's broad plan for the future distribution of the African people is outlined on page 1. In essence, this is that the minimum number required to maintain industries and services in the towns will be permitted to remain there, the labour requirements of European farmers will be met, and the development of the reserves will be encouraged and facilitated so that the maximum possible number of Africans may find their livelihood there. There will still be very large numbers not provided for in these ways, however, and to absorb them efforts will be made to attract industry to suitable sites on the borders of the reserves, workers in these factories living in dormitory towns in their own areas. During the year under review, the Minister of Native Affairs has made several statements clarifying his policy. In December he said, (5) "A long-term policy must exist for the development of completely suitable industrial areas, situated in such a way that Native labourers in the towns can live in their own areas .... There must be a transition period to meet the development until such properly situated industrial areas are available. In this transition period there may, however, not be such unwise and excessive establishment of industrial areas that one will be bound by them for longer in the future than is necessary." He went on to say that existing but undeveloped industrial areas spread over the whole Witwatersrand offered the widest opportunity for all the industrial development that might be expected there during the transition years. He was, therefore, opposed to the establishment of new industrial areas on the Witwatersrand, for these would attract further large numbers of Africans. He was particularly opposed to the creation of new industrial areas within the boundaries of a municipality like Johannesburg, which could not solve its existing African housing problem. In a speech given during July to the Executive Council of the Federated Chamber of Industries,(6) the Minister said that industry must be attracted to suitable areas in the proximity of the reserves, but not forced there without regard to economic consequences. Industrial development would be encouraged in towns like Durban and East London, where there were reserves close enough to fall in with proper planning on the lines of his suggestion. Newcastle would be a very suitable area for future development, as there was a Native area only ten miles from the town, and transport, water and coal (5) Statement published in State Information Office Newsletter No. 729 of 18 December 1953. (0) This speech was published in The Manufacturer, July 1954.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 were available. There were other places where industries were already developing close to Native areas, for example the Good Hope Textile Factory near King William's Town, the Foskor Works in the Leydsdorp district, the sugar mill at Pongola, the pulp and paper industry in the Tugela district, and the lime works in the Taungs district. Later, in a press statement,(7) the Minister said that every morgen of industrial land, if fully developed, required between 14 and 28 married African workers and between six and 12 single ones. In addition, every two Africans in industry drew one into commerce and other services. Every morgen of industrial land could thus attract up to 60 Africans to the neighbourhood concerned. The Native Affairs Department then ruled that in industrial layouts three morgen of location land must be made available for each morgen of industrial land. The Federated Chamber of Industires stated (8) that industry could not complain about the Government co-ordinating industrial development with the housing of employees, provided it was done within the Minister's undertaking that it was not the Government's policy to halt the economic development of South Africa. Reef Municipalities, however, have been very much concerned over the Minister's statement that in special cases only would the establishment of new industrial townships on the Witwatersrand be approved. An application of this nature by Boksburg Municipality during September 1954, was refused on the ground that the existing industrial area there was only half-developed and that, in spite of this, there was serious overcrowding in the African township. The Chairman of the Council's Non-European Affairs Committee replied(9) that for the past two-and-a- half years the Council's endeavours to solve its African housing problem had met with no response from the Minister, who instructed that the report of the Regional Planning Commission should first be awaited. A special meeting of the Council of Reef Municipalities resolved to send a delegation to the Minister to seek clarification of the whole matter. They consider that it is essential to plan well ahead, since it frequently takes up to two years from the time of application before a township is proclaimed. Plans for Racial Zoning of Urban Areas There has been much planning during the year in terms of the Group Areas Act, but few decisions have been made public. Ad hoc Government-appointed planning and reference committees and local authorities have continued to draw up schemes for racial zoning, and the Land Tenure Advisory Board and committees thereof have continued to tour the country, hearing representations from these bodies and other interested organizations and individuals. The Board's recommendations are submitted to the Minister; but so far (7) Star, 29 September 1954. (8) Statement published in the Star, 30 September 1954. (9) Statement published in the Star, 1 October 1954.

A SURVEY OF RACE he has proclaimed one group area only -- for Coloured people in Broadly, the position is that the whole Union is a controlled area, in which inter- racial transfers of ownership and occupation of property are subject to permit. The basis for control of occupation is the racial group of the owner of a property. Urban areas in the Cape, Transvaal and Natal are specified areas, in which the basis for control of occupation is the racial group of the lawful occupant of a property at a specified date (30 March 1951 in the Transvaal and Natal). In terms of proclamations issued during the year under Section 13 (3a) of the Act, portions of certain specified areas have been made defined areas, within which, whenever a building is erected or extended, the Minister of the Interior will determine by which racial group it may be occupied. It was reported in the press in July 1953(10) that the Government intended amending the Group Areas Act to make provision for a system of public acquisition of property to protect owners affected by the proclamation of group areas. The idea was that a public utility company would be formed to buy properties which their owners were fbrced to vacate and for which there was no ready buyer prepared to pay the full market price. On the other hand, owners who received a price above the "market value" would pay their excess profits to the company. The proposed legislation has been discussed with representatives of state departments, provincial administrations and municipalities, but was not introduced during the 1954 session of Parliament. In terms of a Government Notice issued in May(") it was laid down that, for purposes of the Group Areas Act, a white man married to an Indian, Chinese, or Malay women would be regarded as being of the racial group of his wife. It is obvious that there are going to be many difficulties in classifying people into group areas. In November, for example,(12) a charge was laid against a man that, being a member of the Malay group, he occupied a house in Wynberg, Cape, which is a specified area, without a permit, the house having been occupied formerly by an Indian. Under cross-examination the land tenure inspector admitted that he did not really know to which racial group the man belonged. The magistrate, in acquitting him, said, "From the nature of this case it is difficult if not impossible to prove that a person belongs to a certain group." There will be cases of hardship, too, like the one in Durban(13) when a man and his wife were convicted under the Act, each sentenced to a fine of £10 (or 10 days) suspended for three years, and ordered to vacate their home, which belonged to the man's father. The house was classified as being for white occupation, and the magistrate said that though (1o) Star, 20 July 1953. (11) Government Notice No. 87 of 28 May 1954. (12) Case as reported in the Star, 17 November 1953. (1:1) Case as reported in the Star, 2 April 1954.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 57 the couple did associate with some white people, they had produced insufficient evidence to establish, on the balance of probabilities, that they were generally accepted as members of the white group. Counsel for the defence pointed out that the couple would be unable to purchase any other property in Durban, because there was no place there where Coloured people were allowed to buy. With the object of ensuring that housing schemes conform with group areas planning, it has been decided that the Housing Comission will not consider applications for funds unless the approval of the Land Tenure Advisory Board has first been obtained. The Chairman of the Board has clarified the position of mission churches under the Act.(14) They will be regarded as companies. European-controlled churches doing mission work in Non-European areas will thus not be affected for 10 years after the proclamation of group areas, but after 10 years will have to apply for permits to continue in operation. (A later ruling by the Minister of Native Affairs, relating to mission churches in African areas, is quoted on page 69). Mining companies are finding themselves in a difficult position. At a sitting of the Board in Johannesburg, counsel for several such companies said(15) that in terms of the Act mining companies were prohibited from using land for any other purose that that for which it had been proclaimed, and that permits would thus have to be obtained for every building, however humble. There was no provision in the Act for a blanket permit covering the multifarious activities of a mining company. Africans have probably been less inconvenienced under the Act than have other Non-European groups, since local authorities have for many years been required, in terms of the Natives (Urban Areas) Act, to set aside locations for their residence. Coloured people have suffered in that housing schemes for them which might otherwise have been erected, have been delayed pending completion of plans for racial zoning. But it is the Indians who are likely to be the chief sufferers. In larger towns, such as Durban, the whites have for many years been concerned about the fact that Indians were purchasing properties in "white" suburbs, and since 1943 there has been legislation prohibiting such purchases. The authorities are hoping to settle this question finally under the Group Areas Act. In smaller towns, another aspect has been raised. Because so many other doors of opportunity are closed to them, the more ambitious of the Indians have tended to concentrate on commerce. It is estimated by Mr C. W. M. Gell(16) that while throughout the Union the proportion of shop licences (excluding peddlers, hawkers, etc.) held by Europeans and Indians is almost exactly in ratio to their numbers in the population, (14) Statement as reporited in the Ranid Daily Mail, 20 February 1954. (15) As reported in the Star, 17 August 1954. (16) Article entitled "The Folly of Racial Stereotypes" in The Forum7 Febrtary 1954

A SURVEY OF RACE about fifty per cent. of the tiny provincial communities of Indians are shop- owning families. (17) In plans for racial zoning submitted to the Land Tenure Advisory Board during the year, five of the smaller local authorities, namely Lydenburg, Dundee, Glencoe, Brits, and Bloemhof, have proposed that their Indian communities should be moved out of town, in many cases to undeveloped stretches of land. The Indians have been represented by counsel at hearings of the Board in all these areas, and no final decisions have yet been made public. It seems unlikely, however, if they are moved out of the towns, that permits will be freely granted to them for trading in the "white" areas, and most of the Indian traders will thus undoubtedly suffer severe financial loss if the plans are implemented. It is noteworthy that in none of the applications has the evidence of the local authority shown any friction between Europeans and Indians: on the contrary, it has been evident that in all the towns concerned a substantial section of the white community trades with the Indians. Lydenburg Municipality was one of the first to apply for the implementation of the Act, and its plan involved moving the 18 Indian families in the town, who owned seven trading licences, to a site over two miles away. At a hearing in 1952, the Chairman of the Land Tenure Advisory Board announced that he could not endorse the suggestions, and called for new proposals. Another hearing was convened in March 1954. Meanwhile, however, the Minister of Health, at the request of the local Member of Parliament,(18) dissolved the Lydenburg Rent Board on the ground that there was no justification for its existence as it had held only 13 meetings in eight years. In consequence, four of the seven Indian traders, who rented their premises from Europeans, were no longer protected under the Rents Act, and were given 30 days' notice under the common law. (It is understood that an extension was subsequently granted in at least one case). As Lydenburg is a controlled area, they were unable, unless permits were granted, to purchase or rent other premises from Europeans. Indian traders have been hard hit in East London, too, where the Land Tenure Advisory Board has ruled that they may not lease shops in the new Market Building. Attempts have been made under the Act, by local organizations and individuals, to have ejected a Catholic boarding school for Africans at Skeerpoort, near Magaliesberg, and a Catholic church, attended by Coloured as well as European worshippers, in the centre of Upington. On four occasions during the year, at Lydenburg, Pietermaritzburg, Brits, and Johannesburg, the Chairman of the Land Tenure Advisory Board ruled that the Indian Congress should not be permitted to give evidence at public hearings, since it had no direct financial interest in the proceedings and its main object had been an attack (17) Further details are given on page 51. (18) See Assembly Hansard No. 5 of 5 March 1954, Col. 1632.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 on principle against the Act itself. This ruling was set aside in the Supreme Court, Pretoria, on 15 October 1954, after the Indian Congress had made an urgent application to interdict the Board from continuing its public enquiry in Johannesburg until the Congress was allowed to take part. The judge said it seemed clear to him that the word "interest" could not be limited in accordance with the Chairman's interpretation. It seemed that the Board was compelled to hear any interested person unless there was good reason for not doing so. It was no more entitled to advance as such a reason the fact that objections were irrelevant than a judge would be entitled to refuse to hear counsel on the grounds that on past occasions counsel concerned had advanced irrelevant arguments to the court. The Board is noting an appeal against this judgment. Plans for Racial Zoning of the Southern Transvaal A large number of authorities have been engaged in drawing up plans for racial zoning of the Southern Transvaal. A Governmentappointed sub-committee of the National Resources Development Council is working out a development plan for the Reef-PretoriaVereeniging area. An inter-departmental Native Areas Zoning Committee, headed by Mr F. E. Mentz, M.P., has been engaged in devising a plan, to fit in with the first, for siting areas for African residential purposes to serve urban areas of the Witwatersrand, the Far West Rand, Heidelberg, and Vereeniging. Government-appointed planning and reference committees have drawn up plans for the racial zoning of urban areas within the region, and so have the local authorities concerned and other organizations in the areas. The Land Tenure Advisory Board has commenced public hearings of proposals and counter- proposals for the Johannesburg municipal area. Part IV of the Mentz Committee's report, dealing with the Johannesburg area, was released first and evoked very considerable criticism from the public. The Committee proposes that there should be three African settlements round Johannesburg: Alexandra Township, Eastern Native Township, and the large Meadowlands - Orlando - Moroka area south-west of the city, which will adjoin locations serving towns on the West Rand. The population of Alexandra Township is, in terms of the proposals, to be limited to the carrying capacity of the stands, and only those working in the northern will live there. Eastern Native Township (which contains only 602 houses) is to serve the eastern industrial area of the city. All other Africans, including those at present living in a number of squatter camps, are to move to the south-west. The plans would involve the clearance of large settled African townships such as Pimville and Western Native Township, and also the removal of thousands of Coloured and Indian families. A total of nearly 170,000 Non-Europeans might have to be moved (over one-third of the Non-Europeans living in Johannesburg townships--i.e. all those other than mine labourers and domestic servants).

A SURVEY OF RACE The Southern Transvaal Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations duplicated copies of the proposals(19) and studied them carefully. It pointed out that whereas Africans have freehold rights in some of the areas where they now live, no compensatory title will be available to them in the new townships south- west of the city. These new townships are inconveniently situated for many of the Johannesburg industries; large numbers of African workers will in consequence have to travel many miles to and from work. Rehousing schemes to clear slum areas in the south-west, such as Moroka, will have to be postponed almost indefinitely if the Mentz Report is accepted. The Land Tenure Advisory Board commenced its public sittings in Johannesburg in August 1954. Plans submitted had been drawn up on a more or less arbitrary basis, since no racial survey had been made and insufficient factual knowledge was available. The Institute's Regional Committee prepared a summary of the proposals of the ad hoc reference and planning committee, the Municipality, and others, ( 20) and is watching the proceedings closely. Western Areas Removal Scheme, Johannesburg It was reported in our last Survey(21) that an ad hoc advisory committee, consisting of representatives of the Government and Johannesburg City Council, had drawn up broad outlines of a plan for the removal of about 57,000 Africans from Sophiatown, Martindale, Newclare, and Pageview to new townships to be called Meadowlands and , which were to be established about 101 miles southwest of the city, adjacent to existing large African townships. This plan was in due course adopted by the City Council subject to certain safeguards. Before the Council had been notified whether its safeguards were acceptable to the Minister, however, it sold Meadowlands to the Government. In November 1953, the City Council asked the Minister to initiate a judical enquiry to investigate ownership in the Western Areas, and requested that the Council be permitted itself to carry out the removal scheme in terms of the conditions it had previously laid down for co-operation, which were that removal and rehousing should be on a priority basis determined by the Council; that removal, except by consent, should be the last alternative after all other means had failed; that freehold title be available at Meadowlands for those who possessed it in the Western Areas; that full compensation be paid; and that adequate transport, religious, health, school and recreational facilities be provided in the new area. These conditions were not acceptable to the Government. Public opposition to the removal scheme wa% meanwhile becoming more vociferous. An African Anti-Expropriation and Proper Housing (19) R.R. 6/54. (20) RR. 111/54 and RR. 156/54. (21) 1952/53 Surzvey, page 57.

RELN-FIONS: 195-3- 54 Moveirient \N,ýýs lormed, and a iitiiiil)(-t, oi lit Soplilýttowii and .ý,laitindýile slIgned not- lo scil lýlleiipropertics. A public inecting of' propcllv o\N,11(,rs ;111(1 held tri dtiriii,ý, March rcsolvcd to slrc11110111,1Y øt. opposc tlie seltenie. Representatives ()l' tli(ý AI'1-1(ýýiiis ]li tbe Western Areas petitioned til(- Hoti.sc of' Ass(-iiii)iý, to tli(-111 to put. t.])(-11, before Parliallielil. A deputation from Citlizens, Nýitive Housinptitttl(,)ii from tlic Counell wellt lý() CýIpc Town agýtiii to urge tlýie Mitilster to ýtilo-ýv tIte Council lIsell, l() lillpletllent tIle reilloval. selleiric ln ýiccordaiic(-ý tlic (:()tiditi()ii% 1(. had lat(] doý,ý,i-t 1')r co-ol)erýtiloii. Bittý tit(, Minister had incanwliilc decided t,ø procced witli or wittiout tite Counc11's co-operatioll. The Nýitivev Bill introduced lit ýtiid lýtw in junc as Act No. 19 øl' 1954. It applics to tlle føtir to,,ý,risllips ot'tllc Western Arcas and to stick areýis ln and ýid.joiiiiiigjohaii.as niýty I.)(ý dcterniMed by dic Governor-General. It provides tliýtt a'Rescttlcmcnt lýoýti-d sliall be esLil)lisli(-d, ývitli (]te status øl' a corporate body, to uudertake. tlle reinoval scherne. 11 (.,orisl,ýt of' not less thart inne and tiot morc titan 10 næinb(,.rs, all ýtpl)oiiit.(-d, oI N,ý,lioiii not less than I'our or ýlll' 10 inembers are appolntcd') five will bc cliosen oil tI-ic ground iiiýtiiilý, of' tli(ýii- knowledge of' the ýifl'lirs øl' tlle City Couticil. I ts staff kvill consist, of' ofli(ýei-s secollded fron] tli(ý public service, and, by froiii tlic service of'thc (ýoliii(,11, arid such other i)(-i-soiýs wlio may be lts [Unds consist iiiýtiiil,,7 of' loýitis granted by Parliarnent, ýitid stinis derived from tit(-, sale or leýlse of 11 will. bc respollsible directiv to til(ý, mlnlsl("]<)l' Nativ(ý Affairs. 13oýti-d is cii:ipoývered 1.o ýiC([(lil-(" cleveløp, ýill(i cllsposc to klild llouscs, and to grant leases and bullding It riit\, expropriatc land, inclucling propertics ill til(- ý/\'cst(,i-li Arcýls. 11,1t is to øil rc før expropriated propertu~s 11()t excecd 1,11(ý ](,sscr of, cidlcl- til(, Municipal plus, 20 1)(,1, ør til(' prlc(' slx per cent. per ýii)tiuiii, and til(, ýisscsscd ' goodwill výdLic oi' protoSSIOHS or businesses ýN-111 be ýicid(,d. Airwans, from til(, Western Ai-(-,iýs who required to lIlove 11111.ýt bc provIded \\ýitli ørý 11, ;,1 plot oýl \\ 111c11 «) bllild ],()l, ýlt lcast olle ordcl selves. U. rccelvillg lo \ac;tt('

A SURVEY OF RACE premises, an African fails to do so, a magistrate may give him three days' notice of orders for his summary removal and the demolition of his immovable property; he may appear before the magistrate during this period to plead his cause. No action shall lie against the Board or any official acting under its orders for loss or damage sustained. The Board is given extensive powers over the Johannesburg City Council. It may require the Council to supply essential services to the areas it acquires. Subject to three months' notice it may transfer to the Council any land and improvements in its possession, the Council will be bound to accepts transfer and to pay for the properties and also for any expenses incurred by the Board directly or indirectly in connection with the removal of Africans. If the Board considers that the Council has failed to carry out adequately any work it has been ordered to do, the Minister may direct the Board to undertake this work, recovering the costs from the Council by action in court, or by levying a special rate on property in Johannesburg, or by deduction from any moneys due to the Council from the Treasury or Administration. The Board may be designated an urban local authority for the purposes of the administration of Native affairs in its areas, to the exclusion of the Johannesburg City Council. Annual reports of the Board will be tabled in Parliament. Immediately the Bill was published, the Institute of Race Relations duplicated a summary of it(22) and prepared a considered statement(23) which was sent to Members of Parliament of all parties and to the press. Attention was drawn to the extraordinarily wide powers to be given the Board, and the drastic interference with the traditional relationship between local and central government. Nowhere in the Bill was there any reference to consultation with the people most concerned - the Africans from the Western Areas. In terms of the legislation, the freehold rights of these Africans would be destroyed. The Institute again submitted that the need was for slum clearance and not for the compulsory removal of an entire community. The measure was strenuously opposed in Parliament by all opposition parties except the Independent United Party. Dr the Hon. H. Gluckman, on behalf of the United Party, moved(24) that the second reading of the Bill not be passed because, inter alia "(a) it usurps the statutory powers and rights of local authorities and is undemocratic and dictatorial; (b) it deprives persons to be removed of their existing right to freehold title without providing any opportunity of gaining new freehold title in areas to which they are removed; (c) it compels the removal of persons legally residing in an area without any attempt to gain their. co-operation; (22) RR. 25/54. (23) RR. 24/54. (24) Hansard No. 8 of 23 March 1954, Col. 2541.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 (d) it emrpowers the Minister to renmove persons without placing any corresponding obligation on hui to provide proper alternative accommodation for all those who may be removed; and (e) the plani of removal envisaged in this neasure will prove subversive of security and stability which are basic to harmonious inter-race relations and to the welcHre of" South Africa." A long debate on the question of freehold titles for Africans took place; this is further dealt xith on, page 67. 1)uring the Committee stage of the Bill the Minister of Native Affairs moved the insertion of a new clause, which was subseq uently adopted, providing that within three months of the acquisition iby the Board of land registered in the name of an Afiican, he may apply to the S.A. Native Trust, who will then make available for purchase by him such land as it may determine in a '[rust area, or will assist himn to purchase land in a released area. Either an economic agricultnral unit or land in a Trust village will )i made available. Opposition members pointed out that this concession will be of little assistance to permanently urbanized Africans who do not wvisli to settle in the Reserves. The appointment oitle Natives Resettlenent Board was announced in July, and it became operative from I August. All United Party City Councillors invited to serve on it refused to do so. It consists of Mr W. H. L. Heckroodt, a fbrmer General Manager of Railways, as chairman, and eight niemlbers who include a member of' the Native Affiirs Commission, the Under-Secretary for Native Affairs for Urban Areas, the Chairman of the National Housing and Planning Commission, and two City Councillors (one being a member of the Independent United Party), appointed in their individual capacities. During Septem)er, a deputation from the Board met the City Council, requested the Council's co- operation in setting aside Meadowlands as a location, and asked that the services of the Municipal Non-European Affairs Department be made available for the removal of Africans. The Council, by majority vote, decided to refuse these requests. The Minister then approved a resolution of' the Board that it be designated an urban local authority. It, will now be necessary tor the Board to appoint its staff, and, in view of the City Council's refusal to second personnel, a large number of persons will have to be appointed unless the Government forces the Municipality to give assistance. In the estimates of expenditure tabled in Parliament during April, £850,000 was allocated fOr 1954/55 foi the removal scheme : J:20,000 for administrative costs, £180,00 for the purchase of' properties, and £650,000 lo' their developnment. It is estimated that the entire scheme may take 10 ears to efl'ct. About 15,000 serviced stands will eventually be available in the Meadowlands area. The erection of houses there is now in full swing: the first 300 were built by the Municipality, and then, 1ollowing the Council's decision to co-operate no further, the ad t1oc committee (xwhose f'unctions have now been

A SURVEY OF RACE taken over by the Board) engaged its own building workers. 'reams of African builders, working on mass-production methods, are now erecting eight houses a day. 8,500 houses are to built, of varying sizes, 20 per cent. detached, 50 per cent. semi-detached and the remainder in rows, the numbers of each having been determined in accordance with the Municipal survey of incomes in the Western Areas. These will be grouped in village units of about 1,500 houses, each unit eventually to have its own churches, schools, communal hall, shops, creches, parks and open spaces. Africans will be distributed between the village units according to their ethnic groupings. A number of serviced sites will also be provided where Africans can build their own houses; for a start, if they wish, being permitted to erect temporary dwellings with materials provided on the hire- purchase system. There will be 30 years' leasehold of plots. All church groups and African traders at present operating in the Western Areas have been invited to apply for sites at Meadowlands. The Minister has given the assurance that no-one will be moved until a home is available for him and until the first thousand houses and a school have been completed. It is hoped that the railway line may be extended by then: at present the branch line ends half-amile from the area being developed. Those on the outskirts of the Western Areas will move first, the Native Affairs Department supplying transport. As they move out, their houses will be demolished and the Board will sell the land to members of other racial groups, as may be determined or for industrial purposes. The Senior Urban Areas Commissioner of the Native Affairs Department states (25) that the Board has now acquired 144 properties in the Western Areas and is negotiating for a further 44 properties there. It appears that few Africans have so far sold voluntarily. Purchases have been in the main from European or Asiatic owners or as result of sales in execution: rates had been allowed to accumulate and the Municipality has recently been pressing for payment, which has been impossible for some African owners. Until the removal begins, residents are staying on as tenants of the Government (now the. Board). Siting of African Housing Schemes in the Cape Peninsula Cape Town Municipality, like Johannesburg, has been advised by the Minister of Native Affairs that it is Government policy to concentrate African workers in one or two large areas which must not converge on areas occupied or main roads used by other groups. An inter-departmental committee has been appointed to enquire into the siting of locations to serve the city. The Institute's Cape Western Regional Committee has submitted evidence to this inter-departmental committee(26). It pointed out that the provision of housing at Langa never caught up with the (25) Article iii Baittu, November 1954. (26) See RR. 158/54. RELATIONS: 1953---54 increasing Aftican population, and, in consequence, Africans coimenced settling in unauthorized areas, mainly as squatters. in such places as Windermere, Cook's Bush and the outskirts of Coodwood, Parow and Bellville. Following detailed investigations in 1941 and 1943, Urban Areas Inspectors of the Native Aflairs Department recommended that Langa should be considerably extended and that other townships be established in the proximity of developing industrial areas. The Cape Divisional Council accordingly established and built Nyanga Township, and the City Council acquired the necessary land and powers for the extension of Langa and for the establishment of a township at Retreat. The need tor housing grew ever more acute: at present 12,273 AiHcans are housed at Langa, 4,516 at Nyanga, 1,240 in Simon's Town location, approximately 17,300 by employers on their premises or in compounds, etc., and over 50,006 live in squatter settlements. Early in 1954, the Minister of Native Allhirs ruled that the planned extensions to Langa, east of Vanguard Drive., shoUld not be made, since this road led to Cape Town's new airport(27) and the extensions planned would conflict with his buffer zone policy. As the Western Province must be looked upon as the preserve of Coloured labour, the migration there of further African families must be severely discouraged. No more fIumily houses must therefbre be built at Langa : ffture buildings there must be restricted to hostels for single men. Africans from all the scattered squatter settlements must as soon as possible be moved to one central place where all future housing would be concentrated ------the area south of Nyanga location was recommended, but the City Council was free to suggest another area it it so desired(s8). The squatters were to be rehoused on the basis of site-and-service schemes. These requiremnents, which were originally not all made cleaI,(29) created some dismay, and the Institute's Regional Committee therefore convened a conlkrence on 2 April 1954, to discuss the whole situation. The Minister was invited to attend or to send a representative, but did not do so. Eighty persons were present, representing 23 bodies including the Cape Town City Council, the Divisional Council, other local authorities in the Peninsula, the Nyanga Advisory Board, and the S.A. Trades and Labour Council. It was pointed out, at the conference, that the Minister's decision meant that the whole area would have to be re-planned in regard to the siting of industry and the layout of' roads and railways. All this would seriously delay the provision of long-overdue housing. Industrial sites at Epping and Ndabeni had been sold on the understanding that a plentiful (.7) See Assembly tHansard of 2 june, No. 17, Col. 6146, for a full explanation of the A inister's policy. (2S) It is notewvortiy, however, that (liscussion ofl te inter-departimiental committee we re limited to sites at Nyanga South and Eerste kiver. (-:') In particular, the Ministcr's decision i! regard to the future o1 Langa wa' not knoaml, It was thought by may' that lie inteided this township to be evacuiated by Africans

A SURVEY OF RACE supply of labour would be available near at hand at Langa. Nyanga South was dune and bush country, where drift-sand control would be expensive. There was little hope of a train service there for some years to come. Nyanga was ill-served with transport, and workers in the city who were moved there would have to spend much time in travelling, and would need to devote about one-fifth of their incomes to transport costs. Already 44 per cent. of African families in the municipal area lived below the poverty datum line and another 24 per cent. below the effective minimum level; these percentages would increase considerably if the majority were forced to live at Nyanga. The conference resolved that the provision of additional housing facilities was a matter of urgency; that it was undesirable to concentrate the whole African labour force in one locality; and that the Minister be urged to withdraw his veto on the extension of Langa. The City Council has since submitted revised plans for extending this township in the direction of Nyanga. In a statement made to the Cape Times during April, Dr Sheila van der Horst, the Institute's Regional Chairman in the Western Cape, deeply regretted the reversion to the policy of using migrant African labourers so far as possible. She drew attention to the serious social and economic consequences of the system, and pointed out that if industry in the Western Cape had not been able to attract African labour, its expansion would have been retarded and there would have been less employment fbr the Coloured people, particularly in the skilled and semi-skilled occupations. Siting of African Housing Schemes in Pretoria An ad hoc planning committee, appointed by the Government, completed plans during 1953 fbr African township development in the Pretoria area. These plans, which were accepted by the Municipality, envisage three large African areas, at Vlakfontein in the northeast, Atteridgeville and Saulsville in the south-west, and Klipfontein in the north. About 2,500 African families now living in Lady Selborne (where many have freehold title), Bantule, and Hove's Ground, and large numbers in scattered squatter camps, will gradually be moved to one or other of these main areas. Housing schemes in progress are described on pages 75, 76, and 77. Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill Provisions of the Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill concerning influx control are dealt with on page 66. Further clauses of the Bill, if it becomes law, will enable the Minister to compel other local authorities besides Johannesburg to eliminate "black spots" in their areas. The Bill provides that after a public enquiry presided over by a nominee of the Minister has been held, the Minister may require a local authority to take steps for the removal, curtailment or abolition

RELATIONS: 1953-54 of any location, Native village or hostel, on terms to be specified by himself (including terms for the payment of compensation to Africans affected). To the definition of "accommodate" in the principal Act, which reads "to house or provide with lodging" are added the words "or to make available for occupation any land or premises." The Government is seeking power further to limit the number of Africans living in "European" areas. In terms of the Bill, domestic servants are in future to be exempt from living in locations or hostels only if accommodated on the premises where they are employed, and no children under 12 years of age may be so accommodated unless with special permission from local authority. Furthermore, accommodation for Africans in "European" areas, whether for domestic servants or industrial workers, must in future be of a class to be specified by the Minister, or approved by the Minister as well as the local authority. No employer will be permitted to house more than five Africans on his premises unless he has received special permission: this clause is intended to deal with "locations in the sky," i.e. the housing of Africans in rooms on top of flats or hotel buildings. The Institute of Race Relations issued a statement on the Bill(30) which was sent to Members of Parliament of all parties and to the press. The institute pointed out that while the object of the new definition of "to accommodate" was presumably to cover site-andservice schemes, there was no mention of services, and in theory it would be possible for the Minister to order that Africans should be moved from their homes to bare veld. It was unlikely that this would be his intention, but no Minister should have this power. It should be imperative that alternative housing be provided before persons were removed from existing accommodation; and power to remove people from their homes should in any case be exercised only for the most compelling reasons of public good and with proper judicial safeguards. If it was considered desirable that the number of servants in residence in flats should be limited, an essential preliminary was that alternative housing and adequate transport facilities should first be provided. The Southern Transvaal Regional Committee of the Institute held a public meeting during March to discuss "Johannesburg's future: What the Government's proposals mean." The Natives Resettlement Bill and the Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill were considered. During the same month, the United Municipal Executive discussed the Bill and, by a small majority vote, decided to ask the Minister to defer the measure until it had been considered by a liaison committee of this body and the Native Affairs Department. The Bill was held over for the 1955 session of Parliament. Freehold Title and "Black Spots" The Minister's conception of a "blackspot" has been clarified to (8") R.R. 27/54.

66 ASURVEYOFRACE the public during the year. He has said,(31) "A black spot is an area in which Natives own property in a European area, and a white spot is an area in which Europeans own property in a Native area." He has also explained(32) that, in his view, a location is not a Native area. It is European-owned property which belongs to a European city council, "and the Natives who reside there reside there just as Native farm labourers live on the farm of a European owner . .. The only Native areas in South Africa ... are the scheduled areas and the released areas." The aim of"black-spot" removal, then, is to deprive Africans of freehold title outside the Reserves. Yet the Mayor's Joint Committee which has been sitting in East London writes, "It is certainly a serious inJustice that thrift by Africans taking advantage of the building society movement is at present directly assisting in the housing of Europeans and does not in any way help the Aftican people who stand in ftar greater need of assistance in the way of housing. . . . Although the many societies . . . collect deposits amounting to thousands of pounds every year from Aftican depositors throughout the Union, there are no related facilities for the loan of these moneys to Africans . . . We understand that they are unwilling to do so on, account of the lack of security of title or tenure." Africans who are removed from townships like Sophiatown and Lady Selborne to proclaimed locations will suffer from other disadvantages besides the loss of freehold rights. They are at present subject only to municipal by-laws which apply also to Europeans, their friends from other townships can visit them freely without special permits, and tenants, if behind with their rent, are liable only to civil action. But in proclaimed locations, owners of houses (built on leasehold stands) may not sell or bond their property except with official permission, and if they no longer qualify to remain in the urban area or infringe location regulations they may be evicted. Tenants may be evicted for similar reasons; and those who are even one month in arrear with rent are liable to imprisonment or eviction. Visitors from other townships require permits from the Location Superintendent. Buffer Zones and Access Roads The Minister has also ruled that locations should have their own townships should be away from developed European areas, or, should this be impossible, should be separated from main roads or areas occupied by other groups by industrial areas or other buffer strips 200 to 500 yards wide, depending on circumstances. This requirement is causing concern in may areas, particularly Durban, where the topography limits areas where housing schemes are possible. The 170 acres set aside as an emergency camp for Africans at Umlazi Glebe may be reduced to something in the vicinity of 50 acres if full buffer requirements are met; but the City Council has placed alternative suggestions befbre the Government. (31) Assembly, 2 June 1954. hansard No. 17, Col. 6150. ( '2) Assenbly, 1 April 1954. Ilansard No. 9, Col. 3204

REILATIONS : 1953-54. ihe iMinister has also ruled hat locaotis h1ould have their own access roads. The use of main, a iid more particularly national, roads as local tra usport roads for locations is sternly discouraged by him. Lease of Sites in Locations to Churches A cirulr dated 3 Septemer 1954. signed by the Secretary for Native Aflairs, was sent to all urban local authorities. It emphasized that. acquisition of sites in locations by churches must be approved by the Minister of' Nativ Aflhirs as well as lby local authorities, and continues "It has been decided that, as regards the maximull duration of occupation. no agreement or permission to occupy shall be fbr longer than on a vearly basis. "Owing to th( intervetion by representatives of' certain church arid other bodies in inatters outside the scope of' the work they should undertake among Natives, it has been decided that provision should be made for the cancellation of leases if the activities of any such representative, outside the normal scope of his work,. are of'a subversive nature, or might tend to lead to or encourage deterioration in the relationships between the Natives and Governmental persons or bodies, if not to out-and-oul defiance or breaches of' the law. "When, in the opinion of' the Minister of' Native Aflairs, the occupier uses the site or allows or suflcrs it to be used fbr purposes other than those fbr which it was granted, or the activities of the said occupier. or any of his representatives whether on the site or elsewhere, are such as to encourage or tend to encourage deterioration in the relationships between Natives and the Government or governmental persons or bodies, the grantor or lessor can give three months' notice in writing of the cancellation of' the permission to occupy." Ethnic Grouping in Urban Locations Early in 1954, the Department of' Native Allairs asked certain url)an local authorities who were plaining new African locations to apply the principle of ethni(c grouping. Benomi Municipality agreed to do so in the new township of' )aveyton. ''he local Advisory Boards were opposed to the pirciple but agreed to give the scheme a trial. Other local authorities, however, were in some doubt as to exactly what was required, and were opposed to the idea. The principle was not enshrined in any legislation. Clause 2 (4) of' the Bantu Authorities Bill provided that so lar as possible the African inhabitants of' each ward should be ulembl)ers of the same ethnic group or tribe; but representatives of the United Municipal Executive, at a meeting with officials of' the Native Afi'airs Department held in January 1954, had agreced to ask the Minister to consider deleting this cla use. 'he Transvaal MunicipalI Association, in ai memorano1d un

70 A SURVEY OF RACE on the Bill, said that in its experience housing without regard to divisions of this nature lessened inter-tribal friction. At a meeting held in June, the Transvaal District Committee of the Institute of Administrators of Non-European Affairs discussed the matter. A representative of the Native Affairs Department suggested that they might put it to the Africans whether they would like to live in selected areas without making them feel that it was compulsory for them to do so. The meeting resolved to ask the Native Affairs Department to state what it considered the advantages of ethnic grouping to be. Johannesburg Municipality discussed the principle with Advisory Boards in its area, all of whom expressed their opposition. There was still no indication that it was irrevocable Government policy, and no debate on the subject has been held in Parliament. Meanwhile, the ad hoc Advisory Committee on the Western Areas Removal Scheme notified Johannesburg City Council that it was the Minister's wish that the settlement of the MeadowlandsDiepkloof area should take place in accordance with ethnic groupings, and requested co-operation. The Council replied that it could not support the proposal. There was much public discussion: the Institute of Race Relations issued a press statement(33) saying that from its experience of the urban situation, any attempt to divide urban Africans into ethnic and language groups and to settle them on a tribal basis would be in direct conflict with the unmistakable course of development of the urban African community. The Department of Native Affairs then clarified exactly what was required. It transpires that the Minister desires local authorities to set aside separate residential areas in new townships for Africans of the main language groups (Nguni, Sotho, and "others" on the Reef), with further sub-divisions where practicable. Ethnic grouping is to be applied gradually in existing locations too. In cases of intermarriage, families may choose the area in which they wish to live. This scheme, the Minister considers, will simplify control, and will facilitate mother-tongue education in primary schools and also the creation of Bantu authorities and Bantu courts. It will in his opinion be possible through this scheme to harness the principle of tribal seniority in the maintenance of order. (34) It is reported by the Johannesburg City Council(35) that the Minister in effect then stated that unless the Council agreed to adopt ethnic grouping in future site- and-service and housing schemes, no further housing funds would be made available. Continuing to maintain that the principle was not enshrined in any legislation, the City Council requested an interview with the Prime Minister (33) RR. 149/54. (34) Reports of statements by the Minister in the tar, 9 September 1954, and by the Secretary for Native Affairs, Star, 2 September. (35) Memorandum to Prime Minister published in full in the Star, 24 August 1954.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 to discuss this matter and other difficulties that had arisen in connection with site- and-service schemes, but the request was refused. The Council's Manager of Non- European Affairs later intimated that as ethnic grouping is to be based on a linguistic and not a tribal basis, he was prepared to recommend to his Council that ethnic grouping be accepted, with the proviso that if it resulted in any trouble the full responsibility would be that of the Government. The Shortage of Housing The report of the Inter-Departmental Committee appointed in 1953 to enquire into the housing shortage has not yet been made public. No later over-all figure is available than that given for Africans by the Native Affairs Department in 1952, when it estimated that the shortage in urban areas then was of 167,328 dwellings and that a further 185,813 dwellings would be needed during the next 10 years: a total of 353,141 for Africans only. At a meeting of the Natal Provincial Council on 16 August 1954, the Administrator said that the shortfall in the urban areas of Natal was 4,300 houses for Europeans, 500 for Coloured families, 12,000 for Asiatics, and 21,000 for Africans. From information kindly supplied to the Institute by local authorities, it appears that so f'ar as Africans are concerned, if accepted removal schemes (excluding the Mentz scheme for the Southern Transvaal) are to be implemented, if those in unsatisfactory dwellings and slum areas, those living as sub-tenants and those in squatter camps are to be rehoused, 46,149 more houses are needed in Johannesburg. In the Cape Divisional Council and Cape Town Municipal areas, 47,000 dwellings are required; in Pretoria, 21,722; in Durban, 14,000; in Germiston, 12,000; in Port Elizabeth, 12,000; in Benoni, 8,000; in East London, 3,500; in Vereeniging, 2,100; in Vanderbijlpark, 2,000; in Brakpan, Boksburg, Bloemfontein and Springs each about 1,500; and in Kimberley, 1,000. In these 15 larger urban areas alone, then, the shortage of housing for Africans is 175,471; and (partly as result of removal schemes accepted for Pretoria and Johannesburg) the position has obviously deteriorated since 1952. It is not only Africans who are living in overcrowded, slum conditions. Full statistics for other groups are not available, but in Johannesburg, for example, 5,662 houses for Coloured families and 2,187 for Asiatics are needed. Port Elizabeth needs at least 2,000 more houses for Coloured people, and Pietermaritzburg needs 920 for Asiatics. Pretoria requires 710 for Coloured families and 824 for Asiatics. Financing of Housing Schemes In the estimates for 1954/55, a sum of £8,500,000 was allocated for National Housing. This is the same amount as was voted the

A SURVEY OF RACE previous year, but during that year a further £1,750,000 was later provided, giving a total of £10,250,000.(36) This system of annual Parliamentary votes, and the requirement that amounts from their allocations not spent by local authorities during the year must be returned to the Treasury, have discouraged long-term planning. It has frequently been advocated that a National Housing Fund be created. Private organizations including the National Federation of Building Trade Employers and the Standard Oil Refining Company have during the year suggested that private enterprise should assist with the erection of houses for Africans; but this would require an amendment to the Natives (Urban Areas) Act, which it is understood the Minister is unwilling to make(31), to allow European-controlled companies to acquire an interest in a Native location. Durban Corporation has recently been authorized to float a loan of £10 million for Non-European housing. At its meeting during September 1954, the Institute of Administrators of Non- European Affairs resolved to urge that the Native Affairs Department should take over the housing of Africans from the National Housing and Planning Commission. It was considered that delays would be minimized if one body alone was responsible. Rate of Building during 1953 The National Housing Office advises(38) that during the year ended 31 March 1953 with the £101 million then available, 2,983 economic and 393 sub-economic houses were built for Europeans, and 1,031 economic and 6,560 sub-economic houses for Non-Europeans. The National Housing Office's system of classification is probably not the same as that used by the Bureau of Census and Statistics, (39) which has issued totals for 1953 of dwelling-houses and flats built in the 18 principal urban areas and 44 smaller towns. The period covered overlaps by three months only; but the very large difference, particularly in the case of houses for Europeans, makes it apparent that the system of classifying privately built houses probably differs. The Bureau states that in the towns concerned, 8,136 dwelling houses were completed for Europeans during 1953, 781 for Coloured and Asiatic people, and 5,019 for Africans. Of these, the numbers privately built were 7,249, 243, and 692 respectively. In addition, 5,176 flats, 1,025 flats incorporating other premises, and 2,772 other residential buildings were completed in the towns concerned. In any case, looking at the two sets of figures in conjunction, it is clear that not more than about 8,500 houses for Non-Europeans could have been built from National Housing funds and privately (36) Minister of Health, Senate, 11 March 1954. Hansard No. 2, Col. 183. (",-) See report in the Star, 19 June 1954. (3,s) Letter H.8/1 of 22 October 1953. (,19) Bulletins of Statistics, August 1954, Table F.3, and June 19.54, Table F6.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 during '1953. 11his rate was far too slow: 35,000 houses a vear for ten y(ears are required for Africans alone.(40) The Minister's Plans to Speed the Provision of Housing for Africans The Minister ol Native Affaii's has realized that a new approach to the problem is needed if all Africans required as employees in the towns are ever to be housed adequately. Under previous methods the backlog in housing was increasing from year to year. The steps he has taken, which will in turn be described in greater detail below, have been to insist on the introduction of site-andservice schemes for the rehousing of Africans now in squatter settlements; the encouragement of economic building schemes and those providing different types of houses for the different income groups; the discouragement of purely sub-economic building schemes; the introduction of economic rentals for those considered able to afford these; the establishment of the Services Levy Fund; the introduction of the Native Building Workers Act; and the encouragement of experiments to reduce building costs. Site-and-Service Schemes for Africans (41) Bloenlontein. was the first town in the Union to adopt the assisted home- ownership policy for Africans which, in a modified form, forms the basis for the Minister's new site-and-service schemes. Africans who have worked for at least a year in Bloemfontein may apply for a building plot, at the same time submitting their building plans, simply drawn, or borrowing plans from the Municipality. Successful applicants are granted a plot, receive advice about their plans, and may, if they wish, purchase building materials from the Council to a maximum of , 75 worth at any one time. One-tenth of the sum owing is payable in cash, and the remainder must be repaid over 10 years at current rates of interest. Building operations are supervised, and the Municipality provides roads, street-lighting, water taps at vantage points in the township, and night-soil and rubbish removal services. At the commencement of the scheme the Africans were permitted to live in pondokkies on the site during building operations; but unsatisfactory living conditions resulted, and a proper dwelling must now be completed within nine months of the allocation of the plot. During 1952/53, 235 more of these owner- built houses were completed except fbr permanent roofing, for which materials were not available. About 1,400 further houses are required, but the scheme has been held up owing to a shortage of stands while the plan for the new lay-out is awaiting approval. It is possible that the ( ) Minister of Native Affairs, Assembly, 15 September 1953. Hansard No. 10, Col. 3527. (, 1) Information in the p)ages that follow has very kindly been supplied by the local authorities concerned, 11 sonie cases having been suppleriented from other sources Unless otherwise stated "the past year" refers to the period from I ()cto)er 1953 to 30 Septemberl 1954.

74 A SURVEY OF RACE Municipality may adopt economic letting rather than further assisted ownership schemes. Durban has a site-and-service scheme at the Umlazi Glebe Emergency Camp. Serviced stands are leased to Africans, who make their own building arrangements, often employing European contractors. Loans to a maximum of £250 are available, repayable over 15 years at current rates of interest. Over the last year, 232 houses have been completed, all but one with the aid of loans. Unfortunately, the Government's buffer zone policy will very considerably reduce the area available for housing at Umlazi Glebe. Similar schemes are in progress in other towns, for example King William's Town, and were planned in other areas, for example, Germiston, Kimberley, and Johannesburg. It appears, however, that particularly in towns where the housing shortage is acute, the Minister requires schemes to be of a simpler nature than was originally envisaged. Early in 1954, Johannesburg Municipality discussed a siteand-service scheme in terms of which 10,000 stands would be serviced per year for three years, each stand having a piped water supply and waterborne sewerage. The Municipality would erect houses on 2,500 stands per year, while the balance of 7,500 would be made available to Africans willing to build their own homes. The Secretary for Native Affairs, however, indicated that the scheme should be developed without waiting for the sewering of the area, temporary bucket sanitation being provided. This the Municipality was unwilling to do, on the ground that it would be wasteful. to make so large an increase in its pail service as a temporary measure only. Stalemate was, therefore, reached. The Minister's intention apparently is (42) that, particularly in overcrowded areas, housing funds should be devoted mainly to the development of sites provided with basic services, on which Africans will be permitted to build temporary shacks, to be replaced within five years if possible by permanent housing. Sites for future churches, schools, shops, recreation, etc. will be left vacant, these amenities to be provided when feasible. Some local authorities fear that permanent slums will result. Others are giving the scheme a trial. As part of its plan to rehouse squatters, Pretoria has set aside 2,400 stands at Vlakfontein East and 5,000 at Saulsville, divided into areas for the Nguni, Sotho, ShangaanThonga and Venda groups. Each site will have bucket sanitation, and water is provided, for the time being, in tanks at vantage points. Applicants are lent materials with which to construct one room for a start, and are expected to complete a proper dwelling within five years. Durban has a temporary scheme at the Cato Manor Emergency Camp, (an area zoned for eventual European occupation) where Africans requiring assistance with the erection of temporary homes, mainly of wattle-and-daub with iron roofs, are assisted with loans of (42) See Assembly Hansard No. 17 of 2 June 1954, Cols. 6148-9.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 75 building materials to the value of £20. So far, 1,680 sites have been allocated. A more permanent scheme may be established at Duff's Road if a rail-link can be provided. Port Elizabeth is contemplating a siteand-service scheme as an extension of New Brighton to the north, Kimberley is planning one at Galeshewe, and the Cape Divisional Council has introduced such a scheme at Nyanga. Economic Housing Schemes for Africans Several local authorities have during the past year proceeded with economic housing schemes for Africans; but in a few cases, at least, it appears that further funds may not be forthcoming until site-and-service schemes are also implemented. At Wattville, Benoni, a 2,500-house scheme is being continued, 446 dwellings having been built during the past year. The houses are of concrete blocks, contain four rooms, and have individual water, electricity, and earth closets. They are rented on an economic basis or sold over a 30-year perod. A new scheme has been started at Daveyton, where 70,000 Africans will eventually be housed. Municipal teams of African building workers are erecting two-roomed brick houses, capable of extension, each with a kitchen and bathroom. It is planned to erect at least 1,000 a year. Other serviced sites are provided where Africans may build their own houses, obtaining materials on loan and employing private African contractors if they wish. Germiston has just completed a large home-ownership scheme at Natalspruit, 1,750 brick houses having been erected during the past year by private African contractors. Each house has piped water and water-borne sewerage. Successful applicants pay one-tenth of the cost in advance and the balance in instalments. Pretoria has set aside 10,000 stands at Vlakfontein West and 3,000 at Atteridgeville where teams of African building workers are completing eight houses a day, having, since January 1953, completed 2,000 in the former and 200 in the latter area. The houses are four-roomed, and are sold by instalments to people moving in from squatter camps. About 12 houses a day are being built by African building workers in Johannesburg. The scheme is a very recent one, but already 400 houses have been built at Dube, and the teams are now continuing at Mofolo. In addition, 500 houses have been built during the year at Dube by contract and 200 by the B.E.S.L. All these are for sale by hire-purchase. Fifteen Africans have built their own homes at Dube. In Cape Town's African township at Langa, 148 modified N.E.51 /7 dwellings with three living rooms, a kitchen and internal water-borne sewerage were built in 1953, the economic rental being £4 a month. In 1954 an additional 24 dwellings of this type were erected, and also 48 dual occupancy houses of two or four rooms. In terms of the Minister's decision to permit the housing of single men only at Langa in future, 148 cottage hostels which will accommodate 2,368 men are being built. About 40 will be ready by the end of 1954. The single

A SURVEY OF RACE hostel of three rooms accommodates eight men, the number per room being 2, 3, 3. Some of the hostels are erected in double units. An economic rent of £1 per month is to be charged. Rapid housing development was necessary at Sasolburg, and teams of African builders were formed there, too. By December 1953, they had erected 80 three- roomed houses, each with bathroom, kitchen, hot water supply, electricity, and water-borne sewerage. After completing the housing scheme they will build schools, shops, quarters for single men, and a communal hall. Vanderbvlpark is another place where rapid development has recently taken place. Semi-detached houses, each with water, electricity, waterborne sewerage, a stove and a sink are being built at Bophelong, 1,319 having been completed by December. They are for renting at economic rates, or sale by hire-purchase. Other towns where economic schemes are in progress include East London where African builders have during the year built 210 houses of varying sizes at Duncan Village for sale by hire-purchase; .Nigel, where a similar small scheme, built by African contractors, is in progress; Rand/ontein, where economic four-roomed houses, for sale or letting, are being built in a new township by private contract; Boksburg, where brick houses are being built by Africans for sale by hire- purchase; Bloemfontein, where Africans are building under contract with site permit holders and an economic letting scheme is under consideration; and the Umlazi Mission Reserve, where during the year the S.A. Native Trust has had 487 houses built for sale or letting on an economic basis. Schemes designed for African Families with varying incomes The socio-economic survey conducted at Springs by the National Buildirig Research Institute is described in earlier Surve)s.(43) It showed that in Payneville, where conditions are especially favourable because the market and milk depot are subsidized, 40 per cent. of the African families could in 1952 afford to pay economic rentals or to build for themselves; 13 per cent. could afford some rent but would have to be subsidized; and 47 per cent. could really afford no rent whatsoever if they were to cover other essential expenses. A housing scheme for the new township at Kwa Thema was designed in accordance with these results, houses of different types being built in the correct proportions for the various income groups. During the past year, 624 houses of three or four rooms with kitchen and bathroom have been completed by teams of African builders, for rental or sale by hire-purchase. In Vereeniging, too, there are teams of Africans implementing a scheme to cater for different income groups. Since 1943 they have built 3,383 houses at Sharpe Township, and during the past year have built 100 at Phomolong. These houses, which are mostly threeroomed with bathroom, kitchen, sink, and stove, may be sold by (43) See 1951/52 Sturvey, page 39.

RELATIONS: 1953---54 hire-purchase or rented on an economnic basis. At Sharpe Iownship 36 bunkhouses have been built during the year, each accommodating 20 Afticans on an economic rental basis. Semii-detached and row houses will be provided tbr poorer families in an extension to Sharpc Township. Houses of' varying types, as planned by the National Building Research Institute, are also being erected in flfilbanik. Conversion of Sub-Economic to Economic Schemes In Brakpaii, 105 houses have been built with sub-economic funds during the past year, and work is proceeding on another 269. They are each of four rooms with bathroom, and are being built by Municipal European labour. The original intention was to let them, but it has now been decided to sell them by hire- purchase. A similar decision has been reached in regard to 500 two or threeroomed houses at Galeshewe Village, and 100 more at Greenpoint, built during the year by African builders in Kimberley'. Sub-Economic Schemes for Africans As has been shown by the numerous cost-of-living studies,(44) sub-economic housing schemes are obviously necessary for a very large percentage of the urban Non-European population. There is no doubt, however, that comparatively large numbers can afford to pay economic rentals or to build their own houses. The question is how to distinguish between the various income groups. In the past, the majority of local authorities have concentrated on building subeconomic houses; but it has been increasingly realized that not only can the country not afford to house the entire urban African population in this way, but such schemes do not cater fbr the more well-to-do families. The Institute of Race Relations has long urged that areas be set aside where such families can own land in freehold and thus be given some inducement to invest money in building decent houses. But the present Government is entirely opposed to this. The National Building Research Institute and the Institute of Race Relations have suggested another way of helping to meet the situation : that is, designing townships and houses so as to provide a gradation of house standard and amenity to cater for the different income groups. The Minister of Native Affairs is apparently not opposed to this and has approved various housing schemes incorporating the idea. But both he and the Minister of Health(4') have said that the Government's policy is gradually to get rid of sub-economic schemes. In pursuance of this policy, particularly in areas where an acute shortage of housing exists, certain local authorities have been refused further sub-economic loans and have been asked to concentrate, ( 44) See Ainexure 11I. (4,5) See Assembly flansard of 24 May 1954. 1lansard No. 16, Col. 5518.

78 A SURVEY OF RACE on the one hand, on building economic houses for those who can afford to live in them, and on the other, on providing site-and-service schemes for the large numbers now quite inadequately housed. Port Elizabeth and Grahamstown were two towns whose plans had in consequence to be altered during the year. Mainly with the aid of sub-economic loans, Port Elizabeth has built 2,336 houses for Coloured people at Schauder and Stuart Townships, and about 7,500 for Africans at New Brighton, "White" Location, McNamee Village, and Elundini, also a number of amenities such as creches, old-age homes, clinics, community centres and so on. Port Elizabeth was one of the first towns to train and employ municipal teams of African building workers, and, as result of much experimentation, building costs have been kept to a minimum. But in spite of an intensification of work, it proved impossible to catch up with the demand. The Minister has now refused further sub-economic funds, and has insisted that the Municipality should instead plan a site-and-service scheme. Part of the ground necessary for this, the Minister has said, is available to the north of New Brighton, and the City Council is negotiating with the Divisional Council to acquire a further site at Bethelsdorp. All building schemes for Non- Europeans are, however, held up in the latter area pending the recommendations of the Land Tenure Advisory Board on its racial zoning. In other areas, sub-economic building has continued while economic or site-and- service schemes were also in progress or being planned. In Pietermaritzburg, for example, the erection of sub-economic houses by African building workers has continued; but an economic scheme is also under consideration. So far as Africans are concerned, the shortage of housing is not acute here. As well as erecting an economic scheme and planning a site-and-service scheme, Johannesburg has continued building sub-economic semi-detached houses at Orlando West: 1,260 have been built under private contract during the past year. Besides erecting dwellings for home-ownership, East London has during the year built 66 more sub-economic houses at Duncan Village. Simon's Town has no schemes in progress now, but previously has provided flats and semi-detached houses for Non-Europeans. The Divisional Council of the Cape is planning a site-and-service scheme, and at the same time is continuing to erect two-roomed dual-occupancy dwellings and hostels at Nyanga: during the year 300 dwellings and accommodation for 448 single men have been built by private contractors as well as departmentally. Besides the site-and-service schemes in Durban, during the past year 102 more flatted houses for Africans were built at Lamont under private contract. Welkom Village Management Board has this year built 444 three or fourroomed houses of mazistalite blocks, has another 156 under construction, and is planning economic and site-and-service schemes. As well as proceeding with its economic scheme, Boksburg Municipality 'has during the year completed 572 sub-economic dwelling units under private contract, and has another 108 under construction.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Housing for other Racial Groups It is impossible in a publication such as this to deal in any detail with housing schemes for all the other racial groups, and only a few brief indications of the position can be given. Particularly on the Reef and in Cape Town, the housing needs of Coloured people are critical. In Johannesburg this group is being squeezed out by industrial development, no new areas can be set aside for Coloured people until racial zoning plans are finalized, and two-thirds of them are consequently living in slum conditions. The Municipality has recently started building another 150 economic houses at Noordgesig, but at least another 5,500 dwellings are required. In the Cape, very large numbers of Coloured families live in conditions of the utmost misery on the Cape Flats, many being flooded out every winter and having to rely on the Cape Flats Distress Association for emergency help. Again, rehousing schemes have been complicated under the Group Areas Act. Sub-economic schemes for them are being erected by the Cape Town City Council, the Citizens' Housing League Utility Company, and by the Councils of Bellville and Durbanville; and economic schemes are also being provided. A housing utility company associated with Servitas is building houses arranged in garden villages at Grassy Park, and is planning further schemes there and in the Somerset West area, for Coloured families who can pay for their homes over a period of years but are unable to deposit more than about 10 per cent. of the capital costs. Servitas makes up the difference between this sum and the normal deposit required, and arranges a building society loan for the balance. Negotiations are still in progress in regard to the rehabilitation housing scheme planned by the Cape Flats Distress Association. The City Council has during the last year built 152 sub-economic houses; has undertaken a large project for economic housing, the first 300 houses having been completed; and is also constructing a home-ownership scheme. Kimberley Municipality proposes building further sub-economic houses at Floors Township Extension. Coloured people's need are acute in Port Elizabeth, too, but the City Council's housing plans have had to be revised in view of the decision about sub-economic funds. Bloemfontein is using Coloured artisans in assisted home-ownership and letting schemes at Heatherdale. Asiatics have been particularly handicapped under the Group Areas Act: the areas where they are allowed to live have been "pegged" and are in consequence becoming more and more overcrowded. No local authority (so far as the writer is aware) is erecting a housing scheme catering for Asiatics. Overcrowding at Cato Manor, Durban, and uncertainty created by the Group Areas Act, have caused grave tension in the area. Indians apparently fear that Africans wish to oust them; and under race zoning plans it has been suggested that all Non-Europeans should move out. The mounting unrest led to anti-Indian rioting by Africans

80 A SURVEY OF RACE during September 1953, which was fbrtunately quickly suppressed by the police. The Natal Regional Committee of the Institute is giving much attention to conditions at Cato Manor. While Europeans are better off than are other groups, assisted housing is necessary for many of them, too. Port Elizabeth Municipality has provided a number of home-ownership or letting schemes for them, as have also Bloemfontein, Springs, the Cape Divisional Council and other local authorities. Further assisted housing is being built by the National Housing and Planning Commission, and, in Cape Town, by the Citizens' Housing League Utility Company. Economic Rentals Besides insisting on economic and site-and-service schemes for Africans, the Government has decided to enforce the payment of economic rentals by all those deemed able to afford to do so. In the past, assisted housing was theoretically reserved for those whose incomes were below a certain level, but in most cases it proved impossible to eject people when their incomes rose above this level because there was nowhere else for them to go. The authorities had considered allowing them to remain in assisted housing projects but asking them to pay rent at economic rates, but there was the difficulty that the transition would have been abrupt and severe. If the income level for economic rentals were £15 a month, an African family in one of the oldest-type sub-economic houses in Johannesburg, for example, would have paid 17s. 4d. per month in rent while its income was £15 or below; but as soon as the income rose to .15 Os. 1d. per month the rental payable would have jumped to £2 or over. To meet this difficulty while at the same time reducing losses on sub-economic schemes, the Government has decided that a sliding scale shall be applied. An income-limit has been fixed for each racial group, and families who are accommodated in assisted housing projects will have to pay 3/- more in rent per month for each 10 /- by which their monthly income rises above the limit, until the full economic rental is payable. This applies to all racial groups. The incomelimit varies according to whether the housing project is or is riot in an area where an industrial conciliation agreement or wage determination has been made in respect of the building industry. Within such areas (which include all the larger towns) the income-limits are £30 for Europeans, £20 for Coloured families and £15 for Africans. Outside such areas they are £25, £16 10s. 0d. and £12 10s. 0d. respectively. The calculation of the family income fbr the purposes of fixing rents is a complicated process. The entire average monthly earnings and allowances of the tenant are included, together with half' the income of each of his children residing with him and the full amount paid by each lodger in respect of board and lodgings up to a maximum of £4 per child or lodger per month. Certain local authorities, including Johannesburg, have taken the opportunity to revise the rentals of all municipal houses. Due

RELATIONS: 1953 54 to a rise in building costs, the rentals payable for older houses are far lower than those in the newer schemes, which is riot always justifiable. In effect, all housing loans are being consolidated. A "rent factor" has been worked out for each municipal house (there are over 18,000 of these for Africans alone in Johannesburg) which takes into account the condition of the house, the accommodation it provides, and its situation in relation to transport and other facilities. Rentals are then re-calculated. A small minority of householders will in consequence have their rents reduced. The Institute of Race Relations and several local authorities have urged that the income-limits should be raised. Before sliding scales were decided upon. Johannesburg City Council discussed the possiblity of subsidizing ftom municipal revenue the rents of Aftican fimilies with incomes of between £15 and £20 a month. Cape Town Municipality has decided upon an income-limit of £20 a month for Af'rican families living in houses built f'om Council loan funds. Even with the sliding scales, it is felt by many that rents should not be increased until an Atijcan flimily has at least £20 a month. : according to surveys by the Institute,(46) 23 10s. 4d. was until recently a more realistic measure of "economic" earnings in johannesburg, and this figure will have risen since the increase in rail tares was imposed. 'he increased rents were originally to applyl from I July , but the matter was postponed for three months following representations by the United Municipal Executive; and by 1 October no decision had yet been promulgated in the Government Gazette. Protest meetings have been convened by Non-Europeans in several townships, and associations formed to challenge the increases. Native Services Levy Fund In a previous Surey( 7) a sunmary was given of the Native Services Levy Act, the purpose of which was to provide lbr the collection f'rom employers of Afiican men (other than domestic servants anid those provided with accommodation) of contributions towards the cost of link-up water, light, sewerage, and road services to African townships. The lack of funds for these services had previously created a bottle-neck in housing. According to a statement by the Native Afihirs Department on 1 August 1954, £3,116,013 had so far been collected in the 21 urban areas to which the Act has been applied. Local authorities, who administer the money, are allowed to spend a certain proportion on administrative costs ---- 7, per cent. on the first £25,000 collected, 4- per cent. on the next £75,000, 21 per, cent. on the next ;100,000, 2 per cent. on the next £200,000, and 1 per cent. on any amount collected over £400,000. Approximately one-fifth of the total (and more during recent months) nmay be used for the subsidization of transport services to and from Afican townships. and the balance ( lh) See Annexure 1l1. (7) 1951/52 Surzvey, page 38. A SURVEY OF RACE may be spent in one of two ways: it may be used to pay for approved schemes for bringing essential services to the borders of location sites from exit points in existing serviced areas, or, with ministerial approval, it may be paid as a grant to the Native Revenue Account and used for providing internal essential services in new locations and in siteand-service schemes. Some local authorities have been able to make good use of the money. According to the Native Affairs Department, Johannesburg has collected £975,283, has already used £41,500, and has secured approval for the expenditure of £447,900 on sewers or water-mains to Moroka, Jabavu, Dube, Mofolo, Meadowlands, and Diepkloof. Pretoria has collected £264,315, has used £17,400, and has approval for the expenditure of £248,274 on water supplies to and within Vlakfontein and Saulsville. Benoni is spending large amounts on services to and within Daveyton; and Springs, too, is making good use of the fund. In other towns, the money is accumulating, either because there is no new African housing scheme on the servicing of which it can be spent, or because ministerial approval of suggested schemes has not been forthcoming. As in most towns there will soon be more than enough money in the fund to provide the basic services necessary to meet the needs of Africans not yet properly housed, several authoritative persons have suggested that the opportunity should be taken to raise large housing loans, using the levy fund for interest and redemption payments. African Building Workers During May, a draft proclamation was gazetted(48) under the Native Building Workers Act of 1951 prohibiting private individuals (other than householders) in the main urban areas from employing Africans on skilled work in connection with the erection, renovation, repair, or maintenance of buildings. The Minister of Labour explained(49) that the object was to prevent owners of flats, hotels, and factories from using "cheap" labour on such work. Objections to the draft proclamation had to reach the Secretary for Labour within 30 days. So far, the outcome is unknown: the measure has not been confirmed. In the same speech, the Minister said that only 2,500 Africans had so far replied to advertisements inviting them to register as Native building workers, 481 had applied to take trade tests, 219 had been tested, 113 had passed, and 81 results were outstanding. There must obviously be very many more Africans than the 481 who applied who are capable of passing the tests. Although a few local authorities, including Porth Elizabeth and Germiston, for various reasons no longer use them, African building workers are employed on large housing projects in many centres, for example Pretoria, (48) Government Notice 1039 of 28 May 1954. (49) Assembly, 4 June 1954. Hansard No. 17, Col. 6331.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Johannesburg, Cape Town, Springs, Benoni, East London, Kimberley, Vereeniging, Pietermaritzburg, Sasolburg, Boksburg, and Bloemfontein. Research, Investigation, Competitions, etc. Related to Housing and Urban Affairs The National Building Research Institute has during the year studied ways of improving the ventilation of urban African houses and has continued cost- reduction studies. After experimentation at Vereeniging it proved that, if work is done on a production-line basis, about 75 per cent. of the bricklaying work on African housing schemes can be done by unskilled workers. It conducted time studies in Vereeniging and Springs, and found that the efficiency of output of the average African building worker was 77 per cent. of that of European artisans in brickwork operations. The standard of workmanship was slightly lower but was considered adequate for the purpose. In houses constructed of orthodox brick and built in the traditional manner (i.e. not by mass production) the use of African building workers could with efficient organization bring about a 13 per cent. saving in costs. The Institute of S.A.Architects conducted a national competition inviting designs for low priced homes for Non-Europeans, with the object of producing a number of plans which could be lent to people wishing to build their own homes. The entries were exhibited in Johannesburg during February: many showed a revolutionary departure from the monotonous pattern of African housing to be seen in most townships. Research and fact-finding in progress during 1953/54 included: Prof. E. Batson (Director) Social Surveys of Cape Town. J. P. Dundon (University of the Orange Free State). Native life in a South African urban location. Institute of Race Relations (Cape Western Region). Conditions in squatter camps in the Cape Peninsula. W. Lutz and Miss H. Navid (Witwatersrand University). Sampling techniques required for a survey of Alexandra Township. Prof. A. van Schalkwyk (University of the Orange Free State). Die stedelike Naturelle-lokasiestelsel. Urban Transport Services for Non-Europeans During the debate on the Natives Resettlement Bill, the Minister of Native Affairs said(50) that the Government was alive to the transport aspect, and realized fully the need for railway development in the Meadowlands area. The Minister of Railways and he had decided on the appointment of an inter-departmental committee to consider this question, not only in relation to Johannesburg, but also in the cases of Cape Town and Durban. The Minister of Transport added(51) that exhaustive discussions were to take place between his (50) Assembly Hansard No. 9, 31 March 1954, Col. 3137. (51) Hansard No. 9. Cols. 3256 and 3257.

A SURVEY OF RACE Department, the Railways, the Department of Native Affairs, and the Treasury on the determination of routes, frequencies and the financing of services. The enormous overcrowding on suburban train services, and the amount of time that they waste in queueing, made Non-Europeans all the more resentful of the increases in rail fares that were imposed during September 1954. Cost-of'living figures quoted in this Survey prove how ill the people can afford these increases. The Southern Transvaal and Cape Western Regional Committees of the Institute of Race Relations concerned themselves actively with the matter, and, after it became clear that the decision would not be reversed, the latter committee drew the attention of the local Chambers of Commerce and Industries to the hardship involved. In the speech quoted above, the Minister of Transport said that in future, ten per cent. of the services levy fund would be devoted to the subsidization of transport services for Africans. Certain public utility companies have recently been granted increased subsidies to meet rising costs, thus making it unnecessary fbr them to increase the fares on their buses. There has. for" some time been talk of introducing apartheid on buses and trams in Cape Town; and on 27 August a motion was adopted by a majority of three in the Cape Provincial Council which, if translated into law, will compel all local authorities in the Cape to provide separate facilities for Europeans and Non- Europeans ii buses and trams, on beaches and in public places. During July, a mass meeting in Cape Town convened by the Afican National Congress, S.A. Coloured People's Organization and Congress of Democrats resolved to boycott trams and buses if and when apartheid was introduced. The Cape Western Regional Committee of the Institute is watching this situation. It has made representation to the City Tramways Company in regard to the Claremont-Nyanga bus route, and this service has since been extended. VIII RURAL AREAS Native Trust and Land Amendment Act The use of convict labour by farmers(1) and influx control measures have to a small extent increased the supply of African labour to European farms. Of assistance, too, has been a rise in average wages paid, but cash wages obtainable in towns remain far larger, and a shortage of farm labour has persisted. Early in 1954, therefore, the Government decided to re-introduce the Native Trust and Land Amendment Bill, drafted three years earlier. This amended Chapter IV of one of the Acts comprising the Hertzog settlement-the Native Trust and Land Act of 1936. (1) See page 151.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 There are four classes of Africans on Eluropean ftarins :(2) ulltime labourers, who may receive part of their wages in the use of land, "squatter" labour tenants who work for a fixed number of weeks a year for the farmer in return for the right to grow crops and run stock on a portion of the farm, squatters maintained by certain fhrmers on parts of their estates as labour pools, and squatters renting land from a ihrmer but employed elsewhere, generally in urban areas nearby. Chapter IV of the 1936 Act provided that ftll-time labour would be encouraged, that the squatter-tenant system would be controlled, and that squatting must cease. If a Native Commissioner was requested by the Minister so to do, or received such a request in writing signed by six or more land-owners in the district, he would determine the number of squatter tenants each farmer might employ, and those surplus to estimated requirements would have to go. Right of appeal lay to the Minister. Genuine squatting would gradually be brought to an end by requiring farmers to register annually all squatters on their properties who rendered no service, the registration fee being progressively increased until it reached a level at which the farmer paid as much to the State as he received in rentals, when it would no longer be worth his while to allow the squatters to remain. The Government was obliged to find alternative land fbr displaced squatter tenants and squatters who desired this. Chapter IV of the 1936 Act had to be applied by proclamation to specific areas. An attempt was made in 1938 to apply it to the Lydenburg district, but this proved disastrous. The Act provided that remaining squatter tenants had to render at least four months' service a year, but it happened that in the Northern Transvaal it was customary to demand three months' service only. Consequently when Chapter IV was applied in Lydenburg, the squatter tenants moved away to neighbouring districts where they could serve for shorter periods. The Government attempted to find alternative land for those displaced, but found this to be impossible. The proclamation was, therefore, repealed. The amending Act, No. 18 of 1954, provides that the number of squatter tenants an individual farmer may employ will be determined not by Native Commissioners, but by Labour Tenant Control Boards, composed of local Jhrmers. These boards, to be set up in the various farming areas, may in their own discretion instigate enquiries. In introducing the second reading debate, the Minister of' Native Affairs said(') it would be assumed that five squLatter tenants were the normal number required per farm. Squatters who render no services to the farmer will in future be registered only if they have been continuously resident on the land concerned since 31 August 1936, and if on the date when the Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-Ordination of Documents) Act was (2) The terminology llsed by the Minister has been followed. (: ) Assembly, 22 February 1954. Hansard No. 4, Col. 911.

86 A SURVEY OF RACE applied to the area, their permits and papers were in order. The registration fees payable by farmers have been considerably increased. The amending Act removes the obligation on the government to find alternative land for Africans who are displaced, substituting a far less binding provision. It states that if a displaced African desires to remain, and in the opinion of the Minister could reasonably have expected to have remained, in continued occupation of land, the government may make such provision as the Minister may consider necessary and adequate for his settlement in a Native area. In the cases of other displaced Africans, the government is to endeavour to make or assist in making other arrangements for placing them in employment or settling them on the land. There are further clauses relating to the uneconomic sub-division and the alienation or lease of land to Africans, the government's powers of expropriation of land, and the protection of mineral rights, in scheduled or released areas. Their effect is to apply to land held in trust for Africans provisions which formerly applied to land owned by the Trust or by individual Africans. The Institute of Race Relations issued commentaries on the Bill(4) which were sent to Members of Parliament of all parties and to the press. It stated that, while the disadvantages of the squatter tenant and squatting systems were appreciated, it considered that constructive measures in the form of improved opportunities and conditions of work would be more effective than any restrictions could be in encouraging both European farmers and Africans to develop less wasteful means of using land and labour. As more intensive farming extended, the "squatter" labour tenant system became unprofitable, and it had died out in the more developed areas. Where squatting and squatter labour tenancy continued, they met a need, and to attempt to uproot the custom by edict was likely to have very serious repercussions. No accurate information was available of the number of Africans who would be displaced in terms of the legislation. Removal of the government's obligation to provide alternative land for them could mean that large numbers of families would be uprooted. In spite of restrictions many would inevitably drift townwards to augment the illegal urban and peri-urban population. The measure was likely to have an extremely unsettling effect on the rural African population, to increase insecurity, fear and unrest, and to lead to great hardship for many people. During the Parliamentary debates on the Bill, members of the Opposition said they feared that great numbers of Africans would be displaced: there were at least one million "squatter" labour tenants or squatters, it was said. A large proportion of them were aged or infirm people whom it would be impossible to place in employ(4) RR. 66/51, RR. 18/52, and RR. 28/54.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 ment. Where were these people to find a home? And what was to happen to the stock owned by them? The Government has not yet announced how soon and to which areas the Act will be applied. Accounts of the South African Native Trust The revenue and expenditure accounts of the S.A. Native Trust for the year ended 31 March 1954, have recently been published.(5) To summarize these accounts, during the year concerned the Trust spent £381,407 on purchase of land for Native settlement, £178,039 on developing the Umlazi Mission Reserve, and £1,670,627 on development and reclamation work in scheduled and released areas. It received £2,035,638 in State grants and appropriations, £848,155 from taxes paid by Africans, and £553,296 from miscellaneous sources, including grazing fees, rents, and sale of produce, etc. Land Purchased for or Occupied by Africans It will be remembered that, in terms of the Natives Trust and Land Act of 1936,some approximately 10,546,320 morgen of land occupied mainly by Africans (the scheduled areas) were then handed over to the Native Trust to administer, and it was decided that over a tenyear period a further 7,250,000 morgen (in the "released" areas) would be purchased or otherwise acquired and added to the Reserves. Small additions were subsequently made by proclamation to the scheduled areas, which by 31 December 1949 amounted to 10,818,115 morgen(6). By 30 June 1954, the Trust had purchased 2,382,481 morgen and a further 2,144,149 morgen had been purchased by tribes or individual Africans, or had been handed over to the Trust by the Crown because, although previously unallocated, it was occupied by Africans. Of the land it had been planned to add to the Reserves 2,723,370 morgen were still to be acquired. The Reserves then formed about eleven per cent. of the total area of the Union. However, at the same time as this land was being added to the Reserves, Africans were being deprived of land in other areas, although not nearly to the same extent. Statistics are, unfortunately, not available. In certain parts of the country there still is unallocated Crown land which is occupied entirely or mainly by Africans: they are officially considered to be squatters. From time to time, for various reasons, farms in such areas are handed over to the Department of Lands for European settlement. The squatters' leases are then terminated, and they are permitted to demolish their homes and remove the materials, but no compensation is paid to them. There is no legal obligation on the Native Trust to find alternative land for the dispossessed Africans, although in practice this is usually done. In December 1953, fbr example, a tribe numbering about 5,000 was (3) "Government Gazette," 8 October 1954, page 38. (6) According to the Report of the Comnission on Native Education.

A SURVEY OF RACE required to move from the Tenbosch area, Pietersburg district, to make way for European settlers. The Africans were offered free transport up to a specified date, and were told that in the new area allocated to them, water supplies were adequate, each family would have six morgen of arable land, and the community would be provided with schools and a clinic. Representations by the Institute of Race Relations that the Makatini Flats in Tongaland should be developed as a re-settlement area. for Africans have been described in earlier Surveys. (7) There have been no new developments during the year, but, at the opening of a sugar mill at the Pongola settlement for Europeans, the Minister of Lands is reported to have said that when the huge dam at Pongola Poort was built, between 70,000 and 80,000 acres of good land would become available for sugar-production on the Makatini Flats . . . "I hope you and I will see the realization of those dreams," he continued. (8) This strongly suggests that the development of this area will be for purposes of European rather than African settlement. Title to Land in African Areas The question of title to land in African areas has on several occasions been raised during the year. From information available(9) it appears that freehold title is to be made available to Africans in all proclaimed rural villages on land owned by the Trust. The question of individual freehold title to agricultural plots will, however, not be decided finally until the report of the (Tomlinson) Commission on the Socio-Economic Development of Native Areas has been studied. At present, fhrther individual' title is not being granted in scheduled areas. So far as released areas are concerned, the Trust is not selling any of its farms, for its policy is to cater for groups, not individuals. An African may purchase from another African who had previously been granted title, or may, with the Minister's permission, purchase plots within released areas from members of other racial groups. Permission will probably not be granted, however, if the farm concerned is entirely surrounded by European farms, is adjacent to land which is being developed by 1 he Trust or to an over-populated tribal area, or if the would-be purchasers are of a completely different tribe from those in the locality or are members of a group trying to break away from tribal authority. In the last two cases the authorities fear that inter-tribal friction might result. As is noted on page 63, Africans removed from the Western Areas of Johannesburg who owned property in freehold there, will (7) e.g. 1952/53 Surey, page 61. (s) Report in the Star, 9 September 1954. (9) Speech by Minister of Native A[fairs, Senate, 8 April 1954. (Hansard No. 6, Col. 1420.) Also letter dated 17 July 1954 (893/307) from the Secretary for Native Affairs to the Institute, and draft Proclamation No. 1264 of 25 June,

RELATIONS: 1953-54 89 be treated as special cases and permitted to purchase such residential or arable plots in scheduled or released areas as the Trust may make available. Mineral Rights in African Areas Under the Native Trust and Land Act, as amended, the protection of mineral rights in African Areas is a function of the Minister of Native AfIhirs. There was an interesting occurrence in the Ventersdorp area of the Transvaal early in 1954. Some years previously, a European had obtained permission to prospect for diamonds on land owned by members of the Bakwena tribe. He made valuable finds, and the area was later proclaimed a public digging. In terms of the regulations, the tribe, as registered owners, were entitled to work 235 of the claims. Uncertain of their rights, however, they agreed to lease 135 of them to an enterprising bidder, together with the water rights, for £400 a year. The Minister put a stop to this, however. The tribe is at present unable to afford the capital equipmrent necessary for mining operations, but has put a pump in order and is selling water to the diggers. Reclamation and Development Work by the S.A. Native Trust According to the latest available information(') 10,051 morgen of land in African areas are now under irrigation. Forests covering about 150,000 morgen have been declared "reserved" areas within which vegetation may not be destroyed; and small plantations of fast-growing trees covering 15,000 morgen have been planted to provide Africans with firewood. 2,838 dams holding five feet of water or more and a very large number of smaller dams have been built; and 3,100 boreholes have been sunk. Two further tribes, the Mopeli tribe in the Witzieshoek area, and the Shangana tribe in the Pilgrim's Rest district, have during the year made voluntary application for the levy of a special rate on tax-payers to provide funds fbr soil reclamation and development work. (11) It has frequently been pointed out that there is too long a delay after a tribe decides to accept the betterment scheme before officials of the Native Affairs Department are able to commence reclamation work. A departmental official recently acknowledged this.(12) In the past, he said, the agricultural staff had completed work in one area before moving on to another; but had now realized that quicker methods were required. The new policy, details of which had still to be worked out, was that the staff' would visit each area in turn, (1)) State Information Office Newsletter 726 of 27 November 1953, which quoted from the Sixth Annual Report of the S.A. Soil Conservation Board. (11) "Govermnent Gazette," 21 May and 20 August 1954. (12) Speech at conference of the A fricai National Soil Coiservation Assocation, 2-t September 1054

A SURVEY OF RACE taking emergency measures to halt erosion. The full work, including dams, fences, soil erosion furrows, etc., would be completed afterwards, and increased co-operation from the African people would be a condition of such further assistance. At present, work tended to cease as soon as the officials left the area. The Fort Cox College of Agriculture now provides the following courses for Africans (13) (a) Two-year Diploma in Agriculture, with Junior Certificate as the minimum entrance qualification. 81 students are at present enrolled. (b) Veterinary Assistant's or Stock Inspector's course of one year's duration, for students in possession of the Agricultural Diploma. Eight students are taking this course. (c) Engineering Assistant's course of two years' duration, with Junior Certificate as the minimum entrance qualification. 18 students are enrolled. A limited number of bursaries, covering board, lodging, and tuition, is provided by the State. A one-year's diploma course in agriculture for qualified teachers is provided at the Frank de Villiers School, Flagstaff. Livestock Owned and Crops Produced by Africans An analysis by the writer of this Survey of agricultural census figures(14) reveals that Africans in the Reserves and those who are squatter tenants on European farms between them own 57 per cent. of the horses in the Union, 5 per cent. of the mules, 53 per cent. of the donkeys, 41 per cent. of the cattle, 48 per cent. of the pigs, 32 per cent. of the poultry, 11 per cent. of the sheep, and 67 per cent. of the goats. Of the "livestock units,"(15) 64.8 per cent. are owned by Whites, Coloured people and Asiatics, 10.1 per cent. by African tenants on European farms, and 25.1 per cent. by Africans in the Reserves. Calculating for the whole population, the Whites, Coloured people and Asiatics own an average of 3.0 livestock units per person, while Africans each own 0.8. If the rural population only is taken into account, Europeans, Coloured people and Asiatics in country areas own an average of 11.9 livestock units per person, Africans on European farms each own 0.6, and Africans in the Reserves at the time the census was taken have about 1.5 each. These figures are particularly interesting when compared with the population density(16) :there is an average of 2.2 white, Coloured and Asiatic persons per square mile in rural areas, and an average of 13.4 Africans. (13) Information kindly supplied by Acting Principal, 22 September 1954. (14) 1951 Agricultural Census figures, published in the Bulletin of Statistics, January 1954. (15) One livestock unit equals one horse, mule, donkey, or head of cattle, 5 pigs, 7 sheep, or 100 poultry. (16) See Annexure II.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Africans in the Reserves and on European farms grow 16 per cent. of the country's maize, 44 per cent. of the kaffir-corn, and 2 per cent. of the wheat. Conditions in the Ciskei Professor Monica Wilson, one of the participants in the Keiskammahoek Rural Survey, gave a paper at the 1954 Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations on conditions in the Ciskei. (17) The characteristic of the Ciskeian Reserves, she said, is poverty. There are too many people on the land for them to make a living off it, a third of the families domiciled in the district have no land of their own, and a large part of the income of all the families, whether landless or not (save the few whose fathers have paid jobs in the district), comes from earnings in town. The income earned in town is spent primarily on food, so that there is the anomaly of a country district dependent very largely on the earnings of its members in town to supply itself with food. There has been appreciable permanent emigration from the district, and also a continuous circulation of both men and women moving from country to town and back again. Of the men, 45 per cent. are always away, of the women, 15 per cent. Marriage in the Keiskammahoek district is still stable, but there is a very high illegitimacy rate, of approximately 25 per cent. Polygyny has disappeared, having been partly replaced by concubinage. There is a high proportion of widows. New bases of association other than kinship are developing, the main centres being churches and schools. After discussion of Professor Wilson's paper, the Institute's Council adopted the following findings: "The Institute has long urged the necessity for the gradual abandonment of the system of migratory labour and the development of a group of full-time African farmers and one of industrial workers. The Keiskammahoek investigations underline the urgency of this for social as well as for economic reasons. There is no doubt that the low productivity in the Reserves, the ineffectiveness of local government, the very high illegitimacy rate, and the lack of dicipline in the younger generation are directly linked to the migratory system. "Rural and urban problems hang together, for the land cannot be restored without the movement of a large section of the population into industry. One of the conditions of stabilization is alternative security: the possibility of investing savings in homes on freehold tenure in urban areas, and freedom for the efficient farmer to acquire more land. The Government is urged to make more land available to Africans on individual tenure. "A further condition of the development of the Reserves is increased provision for loans to African farmers for improvements such as fencing, the purchase of implements and so forth." (17) This paper was published in Race Relations Journal No. 1 of 1954.

92 A SURVEY OF RACE African Councils and Bantu Tribal Authorities No new general, district or local councils are being created. The position remains that there are two general councils, that in the Transkeian Territories with 26 district councils subsidiary to it forming its executive organs, and that in the Ciskei which was created on a federal basis and has delegates from the Glen Grey District Council and the eight local councils in the area. Besides these, there are three further local councils in the Cape, three in Natal and thirteen in the Transvaal. Fifteen of the new Bantu tribal authorities have been created, in the Rustenburg, Sibasa, and Marico Districts of the Transvaal, and in Witzieshoek and Thaba 'Nchu in the Orange Free State where they have replaced the Reserve Boards which existed formerly. Two Reserve Boards have been retained in this province. Following the Government's decision towards the end of 1953 that four district councils in the Transkei (those at Butterworth, Mount Ayliff, Port St. Johns, and Xalanga) were ready to handle their own affairs, elected Africans have taken over the chairmanship from the Native Commissioners who previously acted in an ex- officio capacity. The intention is that when all 26 district councils are presided over by Africans, the Chief Magistrate will retire from chairmanship of the General Council (Bunga). At the session of this Council in May 1954, it was decided that a general levy of ten shillings a year would be imposed on all taxpayers and owners of farms, to provide funds for the additional staff needed to enable Africans gradually to take over administrative and executive duties from Europeans, to make possible the employment of more agricultural officers and demonstrators, and to facilitate the payment of increased cost-of-living allowances. Powers of civil jurisdiction have recently been conferred on five headmen of the Transkei. Ncora Experiment The Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work, Johannesburg, has instituted a rural welfare experiment at Ncora, a highly populated area in the St. Mark's district of the Transkei. The Native Affairs Department made two morgen of ground available on which a hut has been built, and financial assistance was granted by the Native Recruiting Corporation and the American Board Mission. A trained African social worker is stimulating the community to help itself. The programme includes a farmers' co-operative, a dairy scheme, a women's home improvement club, a health society, Sunday schools, children's clubs (including one for herdboys), athletics, and a literary society. African National Soil Conservation Association The African National Soil Conservation Association (A.N.S.C.A.), of which the Field Officer of the Institute of Race Relations is President, held its second annual conference during September 1954, at Askeaton,

RELATIONS: 1953-54 a thickly populated basin in the Xalanga district of the Trankei. Delegates from the Cape, Transvaal, and Natal attended, including several Bunga Councillors and two tribal chiefs. Rumours had been circulated in the district beforehand that A.N.S.C.A. was merely an agent of the Government, and an attempt was made to organize a boycott. In spite of this the conference was very successful. The Chief Magistrate of the Transkeian Territories opened the proceedings, and a number of officials of the Native Affairs Department gave lectures and practical demonstrations of soil conservation work on the farm of Miss M. Soga. They used a traditional African plough, drawn by oxen, in order that delegates could copy their methods on their own lands. It became very clear how much help is available to African farmers from the Native Affairs Department if only the barrier of inertia, distrust, and resentment could be broken down. IX EDUCATION South Africa's School-Going Population No later figures showing the number of children of all racial groups in school, their distribution in the various classes, and the number of teachers, are available than those for 1951 quoted in our last Survey(i), in which it was estimated that the percentages of the 6 - 16 age group in school that year were 97.6 for Europeans, 67.0 for Coloured children, 60.8 for Asiatics, and 34.7 for Africans. The cost per pupil was £43.88 a year for Europeans, £18.84 for Coloured and Asiatic children, and £7.58 for Africans. Later information is available, however, in respect of Africans, and, as African education is so burning a topic at present, this information is set out in full in Annexure IV, page 164. It shows that in 1953, the percentage of African children of school-going age who were attending school had risen to 41, and, in 1954, the cost per pupil had increased to about £9 a year. In 1953, there were 5,819 schools for Africans with 883,896 pupils and 21,477 African teachers. Implementation of the Bantu Education Act (a) General Principles In the Senate on 7 June 1954, the Minister of Native Affirs gave a full exposition(2) of the policy he intends pursuing in terms of powers granted him under the Bantu Education Act. (3) The previous system of education, he said, blindly produced pupils trained on a European model, thus creating the vain hope among the Bantu that (1) Survey of Race Relations, 1952/53, page 64. (2) His address was subsequently published by the Department of Native Affairs under the title Bantu Education : Policy for the Immediate Future. Unless otherwise stated, it is this address that is quoted in the pages that follow. (3) The Act is sunnnarized in our last S'urvey, page 66.

94 A SURVEY OF RACE they could occupy posts within the European community despite the country's policy of apartheid. In terms of this policy, there was no place for them in the European community above the level of certain forms of labour. Within their own areas, however, all doors were open. Education should thus stand with both feet in the Reserves and have its roots in the spirit and being of Bantu society. Development services should form an organic whole. A community would in future not be able to claim the advantages of education while at the same time ignoring or even opposing guidance in regard to care of the soil. Under the new system, education would be co-ordinated with the broad national policy, which was impossible while the majority of schools were controlled by missions of many different denominations; parents and the general community would participate actively in the administration and control of educational institutions; the Bantu people themselves would be required to contribute in an increasing measure towards the cost of expanding their educational services; and better use would be made of existing facilities to make possible the extension of education to larger numbers. The Secretary for Native Affairs said later (4) that Bantu schools would be reorientated on a basis of language groups instead of religious denominations, as in the past. The Minister has issued instructions that the two official languages are to receive equal recognition forthwith in teacher training institutions and schools. (b) Financing of Bantu Education In his budget speech on 24 March, the Minister of Finance pointed out(5) that expenditure on Bantu education, which at present was financed from general revenue, had increased three-fold during the last 10 years, and would amount to £8,500,000 in 1954/55. It was felt that the Bantu should make a bigger contribution. The collection of Native taxes was estimated at £21 million, of which onefifth was diverted to the Native Trust Fund. The remaining £2 million could be regarded as the Bantu's contribution to his own education. It was proposed that the general taxpayer should continue to contribute at the present rate, i.e. £6 million, and that any excess over this amount should be met by the Bantu taxpayers themselves. A special Bantu Education Account would be created as from 1 April 1955, into which a fixed annual contribution of £61 million would be paid from general revenue together with four-fifths of whatever sum was raised through Native taxation, provision being made for recoverable advances. In reply to criticism(6) that the large amounts paid by Africans (4) In a speech at the meeting in September 1954, of the Institute of Administrators of Non-European Affairs. (6) Criticisms of the Government's plans are dealt with on page 100. (5) Assembly Hansard No. 8, Col. 2629.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 in the form of indirect taxation had not been taken into account, the Minister of Native Affairs said later(') that these amounts had been variously estimated at between £20 million and £27 million. The State and Provinces, however, spent close on £30 million on services for the Bantu excluding education, or £38 million if education was included. (c) General Organization of Bantu Education The Bantu Education Act was brought into force on 1 January 1954. Mr F. J. de Villiers, previously Chief Inspector of Native Education in the Cape, was appointed an Under-Secretary for Native Affairs, in charge of the new Division of Bantu Education, with Mr J. H. van Dyk as his assistant and Dr P. A. Cook as Professional Adviser. Regional Directors were appointed in the Transkei, Ciskei, and Western Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State. On 1 April the new Division assumed control of Bantu educatiQn in the three northern provinces, taking over from the provincial administrations the professional and administrative staff engaged in the work. The transfer was more difficult to effect in the Cape, where the administration of Bantu education had been closely interwoven with that of the education of other groups, and the provincial education authorities are there temporarily acting as agents of the Division. (d) Future of State, Community, Farm, and Private Schools In his speech in the Senate, the Minister. of Native Affairs announced that the control of State schools would for the present be unchanged. Aided community schools (mainly in the Transvaal) and farm schools would continue to receive full subsidies, but a change would be made in their management. Community schools had previously been controlled by elected committees and boards consisting mainly of parents and working under the direct supervision of the Department of Education. Future committees, constituted in consultation with the Inspector of Schools and the Native Commissioner, would consist of representatives of the parents, local Bantu ministers, and Bantu Authorities or Local Councils, and would carry out their duties in collaboration with the Bantu Authorities or Councils. The Bantu Education Amendment Act, No. 44 of 1954, was introduced to make this possible. It provides that the Minister of Native Affairs may establish regional, local or domestic councils, boards or other bodies to which he may entrust the control and management of one or more State or community schools. Alternatively, he may entrust the control to a Bantu Authority or Native Council. Farm schools will be managed by the farm owner or his representative, who may be a missionary. All existing private schools (i.e. those not in receipt of subsidies) must apply for registration which, the Minister said, would not be (7) Assembly, 8 April 1954. Hansard No. 10, Col. 3706.

96 A SURVEY OF RACE refused unless there were substantial reasons against this. No new private schools may be established without the prior approval of the Division of Bantu Education. Organizers of registered private schools (including schools which missions may decide to retain without further State aid) will be permitted to compile their own syllabuses as long as these conform to basic requirements, to train and appoint their own teachers, and to appoint their own school committees. (e) Future of Primary, Post-Primary, and Industrial Schools run by Missions On 2 August 1954, a letter was sent by the Secretary for Native Affairs to all grantees, superintendents or managers of State-aided Bantu schools in connection with the transfer of primary, post-primary, and industrial schools (excluding teacher training schools) to Bantu community organizations. The purpose of the transfer, it was stated, was part of a wider scheme of social development. Addressees were requested to infbrm the Secretary as soon as possible, but not later that 31 December 1954, whether they wished: (i) to retain control of the schools or hostels under their care as private unaided institutions; or (ii) to retain control of them as aided institutions, with the subsidy reduced to 75 per cent. of salaries and cost-of-living allowances of approved teachers; or (iii) to relinquish control of them to Bantu community organizations. Should the church or mission wish to retain control on the basis of a reduced subsidy and if this request was approved, the new subsidy would be paid as from 1 April 1955. The Minister might later, in his discretion, decide that the school should be transferred to a Bantu community organization, and if he did so, would give at least two terms' notice. Any arrangements made in regard to schools in European areas would be subject to the provisions of the Group Areas Act. It was decided that transfer of control should be effected, present subsidies would be continued until arrangements for the transfer were finalized, or until negotiations broke down, but in any case until 1 April 1955. The Department would offer reasonable compensation for any buildings taken over, but in most cases would hire rather than purchase them. When constituting the new school committee, the Department would appoint at least one Bantu member to represent church interests, and certain members able and willing to represent church interests would be included in the membership of school boards and Bantu Authorities. The Department was willing that hostels should remain under mission control on a subsidized basis as at present, but any arrangements made would be subject to revision especially if the system was found to cause difficulties of control. All churches recognized by the Department would be allowed to provide special religious instruction for the children of their adherents at set times, on condition that this instruction was given in

RELATIONS: 1953-54 97 the mother tongue. Where churches did not do so, the Departmental syllabus would be taught by class teachers. (f) Future of Teachers' Training Schools run by Missions On the same day, a letter was sent to all those conducting Stateaided teachers' training schools, saying it had been decided that the training of all teachers for State and State-aided schools should be conducted in Departmental training institutions only. Those now running such schools might choose one of the following courses of action : (i) to rent or sell their schools and hostels to the Department; or (ii) to rent or sell their schools, while retaining the hostels on a subsidized basis; or (iii) to close the teacher training school and conduct ingtead a primary or secondary school, either 1irivately, or applying for a subsidy of 75 per cent. of the salaries and allowa-nces of teachers employed with departmental approval. In general, land and buildings outside scheduled Native areas would not be purchased. If buildings in European areas were considered essential fbr teacher training the Department might decide to hire them(8). Churches and missions were asked to retain control of hostels wherever possible, and to conduct pastoral work among their adherents during the week as well as on Sundays. Curricula would include non-sectarian biblical instruction and religious exercises. Present rates of subsidies of schools would continue in force until at least two full school quarters after the conclusion of arrangements, but in no case longer than until 1 January 1956. European teachers in employment in such schools would be eligible to become Departmental teachers with similar conditions of service to those in schools under the Department of Education, Arts and Science. Teachers knowing only one of the official languages would be given a reasonable time to become proficient in the second official language. Bantu teachers would be eligible to become Departmental teachers under conditions of service to be decided. Advisory committees were to be established at each school under the chairmanship of the local Inspector of Bantu Schools. The Native Commissioner would be an ex-ofticio member, and other members might include representatives of the Bantu Authority, parents, religious interests, and the Department, also the head of the hostel if this was conducted by the religious body formerly in charge of the school. The Minister of Native Affairs has said,(9) "If there is a church (8) In the Assembly on 3 June, the Minister of Native Affairs said that the actual place for the training of Bantu teachers was among their own people, preferably in the Native territories, not in European cities or areas. (Hansard No. 17, Cot. 6222.) (9) Assembly, 3 June 1954. Hansard No. 17, Col. 6222.

A SURVEY OF RACE which is prepared to maintain schools entirely at its expense then that is their affair. They have to be registered. For that purpose a church can train its own teachers but also entirely at its own expense. Or if it wants to use some of the teachers trained in our normal colleges it can do so. We on the other hand shall not necessarily employ persons who have been trained at such private schools." (g) Organization of Primary Schools According to the Minister's speech in the Senate, primary schools are to be divided into two "self-sufficient" parts, sub-standard A to standard II, and standards III to VI. Every Bantu taxpayer must as soon as possible have equal access for his children to the lower primary schools, the syllabus of which will include reading, writing, arithmetic, handicrafts, and the cardinal principles of the Christian religion, all taught through the medium of the mother tongue, singing, and a knowledge of English and Afrikaans. After standard II the gradual introduction of the official languages as media of instruction will continue for the present. In the lower primary schools, children who fail to attend regularly, unless with good reason, will be removed from the register. The pupils will be promoted automatically each year, except in unusual circumstances, and at the end of the course will be carefully selected for promotion to higher primary schools. In order to increase the number of children who can be admitted, two sessions, each of three hours, instead of one of four and a half hours, will be introduced in the sub-standards. The teachers' classrooms, books and other school materials will then be able to serve two sets of pupils every day. In order to save money in teacher training and salaries, and also because women are generally better than men in handling small children, the posts of assistants in lower and to a certain extent in higher primary schools will be declared women's posts, and those that fall vacant will not again be filled by men. Control of primary schools will as soon as possible be entrusted to local Bantu communities. (h) Organization of Secondary, High, and Industrial Schools Deliberate steps are to be taken, the Minister said,(10) to keep institutions for higher education to an increasing extent away from urban areas. New secondary schools are still being built, he announced on another occasion. (11) "The accommodation to be provided for these purposes will of course be based on the amount of money available after the fundamental education has been provided and on the extent to which this group of better educated can be absorbed in (10) In his Senate speech, op cit. (11) Assembly, 3 June. Hansard No. 17, Col. 6252.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 99 occupations, particularly in the service of their own people and in their own areas." Secondary, high, and industrial schools will come directly under Departmental control until regional and territorial Bantu authorities are prepared to take this task upon themselves under the necessary supervision. Syllabuses for these schools are under consideration. (i) Employment and Salaries of Teachers Dealing in the Senate with the position of teachers, the Minister said that it was the policy of the Department to do away entirely with European teachers in primary schools. For the time being, however, considerable numbers of Europeans will be required in the high schools and training colleges. The Bantu teacher, he continued, must learn not to feel above his community, with a consequent desire to become integrated into the life of the European community. Present salary scales are quite adequate, and there can be no question of an increase. Further increments will be granted to existing teachers in accordance with the scale and conditions of service under which they were appointed, but salary-scales for newly-appointed teachers will possibly be less favourable. Teachers of long standing will be able to climb higher in their profession, for example to sub-inspectorships. All teachers must within five years become proficient in English and Afrikaans. While primary school students continue to form so high a proportion of the total number, the Department intends concentrating mainly on training women teachers. (j) School Requisites and Care of Buildings State, community, and farm schools, the Minister said, will be provided with school furniture to be made in Bantu industrial schools and Departmental workshops, and aided schools will be permitted to purchase such furniture. Aided schools will have to make their own arrangements for obtaining readers, stationery, etc., and for care and maintenance of buildings. State, community, and farm schools will be supplied with readers in the vernacular and official languages for use in primary classes, but pupils in post-primary classes will have to buy their own books. Pens, stationery and other requisites must be provided by the children or the Bantu authority or the parents' association. Children not in possession of the necessary items will not be enrolled. The pupils themselves will have to undertake daily cleaning of the buildings and grounds and as much of the care and maintenance of buildings as is within their capabilities. (k) Establishment of New Schools The Department's aim, the Minister explained, is to establish at least one school for every 400 families in urban locations. The

A SURVEY OF RACE erection of the buildings will have to be undertaken as part of housing or site-and- service schemes, the capital costs being recovered gradually by means of a small amount added to the rentals. Applications fbr schools in the Reserves will stand the best chance of success if they are accompanied by an undertaking by the Bantu community themselves to provide the necessary classrooms and to assist with the work of the school. Once the denominational schools have been converted into community schools the five- mile radius rule will no longer apply. The establishment of farm schools will be encouraged, but expensive buildings are not required. Where farmers are willing, the mothers can erect the walls in accordance with local methods, and the Department will then supply windows, doors, and roof. Women teachers will as far as possible be recruited locally "to combat the danger of unsuitable teaching in these schools." The curricula will include "the basic idea of teaching the child in order to fit him for farm work." (1) School Feeding The amount provided for school feeding for 1954/55 is £628,000. The Minister said,(12) "In future we will still make provision for money for feeding schemes, but we are going to leave it to the Bantu authorities and the parent bodies in each area to decide whether they prefer to use that money for feeding those already in schools or to add the amount to the money available for the admission of children to the schools . . . I will however certainly advise them to use the money for providing schooling for more children." Reactions to Decisions Made in Regard to Bantu Education (a) S.A. Institute of Race Relations Considering that the time is not yet ripe, the Institute of Race Relations has taken no further direct action during the year in regard to proposals under the Bantu Education Act. Its attitude to the report of the Native Education Commission, on which these proposals are based, was expressed in the findings of a national conference it convened to study the report(13), which findings were, in January 1953, affirmed as a general resolution of the Institute's Council. In January 1954, the Council reiterated its view, passing a motion that "the transfer of African education to the Department of Native Affairs under the Bantu Education Act is unsound in principle and undesirable in practice." On learning of the new basis for financing African education, the Institute's Director sent a memorandum to Members of Parliament and to the press(14) in which he pointed out that it has been an accepted (12) Assembly, 3 June. Hansard No. 17, Col. 6251. (13) These findings were stummarized in our Surzvey for 1951/52, page 49. (14) RR. 46/54. 100

RELATIONS: 1953-54 101 practice that in a modern state the national government provides elementary education fbr all its children. The principle of modern public finance in the twentieth century is that the richer section of the community, in its own interest and in the interest of the country as a whole, pays directly for facilities to promote the welfare and advancement of the less fortunate. The Minister of Finance, in his proposals, had ignored amounts paid by Africans in income tax, their very large contributions through indirect taxation, the part they played in national productivity, and the valiant efforts many of them were making to help themselves, particularly in education. The Institute has set up a Standing Committee to study the administration of the Act, is obtaining copies of all regulations and circulars issued, and is keeping in touch with the churches and missions. A matter receiving the Standing Committee's .particular attention is the double-session system in the sub- standards. Double sessions have previously been the practice in some schools, but with two sets of teachers. It is felt that under the new system the teachers may be too tired to handle the second set of children adequately. A further point is that large numbers of the children attending the second session may have to go without food for many hours. The Committee will also examine closely the training to be given to women recruited to teach the younger children, for kindergarten work is one of the most difficult types of teaching. (b) African Organizations The Cape African Teachers' Association announced early in December 1953 that it intended calling a Union-wide meeting of African teachers to protest against the Bantu Education Act and to draw up a plan of action against its implementation. All African teachers were thereupon warned by the Secretary for Native Affairs that it would be regarded as a very serious matter if employees of the State took any action against the law of the land. The Location Advisory Boards Congress passed the following resolution at its conference held during January: "This conference urges the Government to repeal the Bantu Education Act and place the education of the Africans under the Provincial Councils as heretofore or under the Union Education Department." There was a long debate on the Act at the session of the Transkeian General Council held during April, fears being expressed that deterioration in the standard and type of education provided for Africans was likely under the new system. A motion was passed that "This Council deplores and notes with dismay the provisions of Act 47 of 1953 which provides for an education for the Africans which is inferior to that of the White and Coloured sections." The Minister of or Secretary for Native Affairs was requested to receive a deputation of Council members. The Bantu Education Act was condemned, too, at the "Resist Apartheid" conference held in June, at the women's inter-racial

A SURVEY OF RACE meeting in April, and at other meetings convened by the National Action Council appointed by the African National Congress, the S.A. Indian Congress, and the Congress of Democrats. (c) The Christian Council of South Africa A meeting of the Christian Council was held during May, attended by delegates from all the larger churches and missionary societies in South Africa except the Dutch Reformed Churches and the Catholic Church. These bodies sent observers, however. An address by Dr. A. Kerr was endorsed as expressing the views of the Council at that time. Some of the main points made in this address(15) were that while it was conceded that the provision of education was the prime duty of the State and that it was beyond the resources of the churches to educate all African children, in view of the fact that 60 per cent. of these children were still not in school it was difficult to understand why, apart from a bureaucratic passion for uniformity, successful schools under church auspices should not be welcomed and allowed to continue. Dealing with the control of schools, misgivings were expressed as to whether at present or in the near future, in all areas, there would be a sufficient number of knowledgeable and publicspirited people to maintain membership of efficient local school committees. The Christian Council is continuing to study the implementation of the Act. (d) Views of Individual Churches Bishops of the Catholic Church in Southern Africa, in a memorandum concerning the implementation of the Bantu Education Act, expressed grave misgivings at the serious weakening of Christian influence that was likely. Religion cannot be taught in general, they said, as a purely theoretical matter, but must be imparted as a way of life. Priests visiting the schools one or twice a week would not be able to achieve this. There was as yet no established Christian tradition among the Bantu, and if the direct influence of the Church, which was the one element working for moderation, was removed, the schools would become secularized and the field left free for the growth of national extremism. If in the past the Bantu school syllabus had not been related in a practical and realistic way to the social conditions and surroundings of the child, it was hardly fair to impute the blame to the mission schools, since the syllabuses at all aided schools had been prescribed by public authorities. At a conference held at the end of September, the Bishops resolved to retain the Catholic school buildings for their own purposes. Exceptional sacrifices would be called for from Church members to allow as many of the schools as possible to be kept open, subsidies being (15) The address was published in full in the South African Outlook, 1 June 1954.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 requested. Teachers' training colleges would be leased to the Department provided that the Church was permitted to retain a satisfactory measure of control in the academic department as well as over the hostels. The Synod of the Anglican Church has not yet met to decide upon its attitude. (16) It has, however, been announced that two institutions conducted under the auspices of the Community of the Resurrection and the Society of the Sacred Mission, respectively, are to be closed. The authorities controlling St. Peter's School, , Johannesburg, have announced that they cannot in principle accept Government control, they cannot maintain the school on the basis of a reduced subsidy, and, as the premises are in a European area, they assume that the Department would be unwilling to allow 'them to continue even if they were able to do so. No new pupils will be admitted. Those now in standards VI or VII will continue to Junior Certificate, and those in standards VIII or IX to Matriculation, if the Department is agreeable. The head of the Society of the Sacred Mission announced that because his society was convinced that the true welfare of the African people was being denied by virtue of a political theory and educational principles which the society affirmed to be contrary to the will of God, it could not agree to entrust its land or buildings to the Department for educational purposes. The society's African teachers' training college and high school at Modderpoort in the Orange Free State would, therefore, be closed in December 1955. At the annual conference held in October 1954, the Methodist Church of South Africa declared its emphatic opposition to the Bantu Education Act and stated, "A policy which, in effect, aims at conditioning the African people to a predetermined position of subordination in the State is incompatible with the Christian principles for which the Church stands." Nevertheless, in view of the difficulty of financing its schools with reduced or no subsidies, and in order to provide for the immediate educational needs of the African people, the Church decided, for an experimental period, to relinquish control of them to the State and to continue to exercise a Christian influence upon education wherever possible. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of South Africa resolved at a meeting held in September that, while it was not opposed to the principle of State education, it was unable to support the Government in the theory underlying the Bantu Education Act, for it considered this to be contrary to the will of God. It gave authority, (16) In a statement issued by the Episcopal Synod of the Church of the Province of South Africa on 10 November, it was said that while the Bishops deplored the Act and considered that the Church should not take part in the proposed educational system, a majority of them considered that it would be wrong to refuse to lease certain of their buildings to the State since the result of such refusal would be to leave many children without opportunity of any kind of instruction. 103

A SURVEY OF RACE however, to each Presbytery, in consultation with the Assembly's African Missions Committee, to let - but not sell- to the Government such school buildings as it deemed advisable. The annual assembly of the Congregational Union of South Africa resolved during October that, in view of the heavy cost of retaining control of its schools, it would rent the buildings to the Government, but would not sell them. (e) Other Organizations The Education League recently organized a public meeting to protest against the taking over by the State of mission schools for Africans. It published a booklet entitled The Background to the Bantu Education Bill and The Future of Bantu Education, which was circulated to parliamentary and provincial legislators and to its membership. Further Non-European Effort to Supplement Educational Facilities It is impossible, in a publication such as this, to survey in detail the efforts that are being made by the Non-European people themselves to supplement educational facilities and to assist one another through school and college. A few brief indications only can be given. Three further African tribes, in the Soutpansberg, Sibasa, and Pilgrim's Rest areas, have during the year voluntarily made application for the imposition of special levies on taxpayers to raise funds for the erection of schools and for other tribal purposes. African pupils in the Gamtoos Valley area are raising funds for a bursary to enable one of their number to attend a secondary school in Uitenhage or Port Elizabeth. The Eureka Public Primary School, in a squatters' camp at Elsie's River, originally started in a shack by an African women who taught for years without any proper salary, is now housed in a prefabricated building with eight classrooms and other amenities, has a roll of about 600 children, and is staffed by 10 teachers. Its quick expansion proves how great the need was. The Cape Western Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations managed the school for some years. In order to obtain Departmental aid it was necessary for the school to be housed in proper buildings, and the parents set about fund raising by giving concerts to make this possible. As result of representations by the Regional Committee, temporary accommodation has been made available for the Nyanga Primary School whose wooden hutment was destroyed by fire. Self-help Service Committees of African women in Johannesburg, sponsored by the Association of European and African Women, continue to raise funds for setting up day nurseries and providing other forms of social service to their own communities. The Orlando Mothers' Welfare Association has undertaken the task of providing a new school in its area. A site has been provided by Johannesburg City Council, and the walls and labour for erection

RELATIONS: 1953-54 of the roof have been donated. By means of public subscriptions and by organizing bazaars and concerts the Association is raising funds to provide all the other requirements. Indian teachers in Natal are continuing to make an outstanding contribution to the extension of education among their people. By levying a tax upon themselves of up to six per cent. of their salaries over two years, mostly collected by stop- orders, they have laid a solid foundation to their Natal Indian Teachers' School Building Trust Fund, to be used for extending school accommodation in the most densely populated areas. They aim to contribute £25,000, to raise another £125,000 from the community, and to obtain £ for £ from the Provincial Administration. Indian businessmen have contributed extremely generously to this fund and to other educational institutions. Ban on Extra-Union Non-European Students It was reported in our last Survey(17) that in July 1953 the Secretary for Education, Arts and Science notified heads of educational institutions that as from the beginning of 1954 no further Non-European students from territories beyond the borders of the Union were to be admitted, but that those who had commenced courses in 1953 or earlier would be permitted to continue their studies. The Institute of Race Relations, the National Union of S.A. Students (N.U.S.A.S.) and other bodies made representations that the status quo be maintained, but without avail. It appears that the official policy has since then been partially modified: limited numbers of African students from outside the Union have been permitted to enrol at the University College of Fort Hare and the Natal Medical School. Cape Provincial Commission on Coloured Education It has been rumoured during the year("') that the authorities would prefer Coloured as well as Bantu education to be controlled directly by the Central Government. The S.A. Bureau of Racial Affairs advocates this, having told a Commission on Coloured Education set up in the Cape in 1953 that while the education of Coloured people remained an appendage of European education it could not come to its full rights. (19) One of the terms of reference of this Commission certainly lends support to the rumours. It asks "whether the nature and direction of the present educational system fulfil the needs of the Coloured population or whether the system, with its emphasis on the academic side, does not lead to a feeling of frustration." The Cape Western Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations presented evidence to the Commission in December 1953. (2o) (17) Page 69. (18) e.g. report of proceedings of Cape Provincial Congress of the National Party in the Star, 19 November 1953. (19) Evidence published in Journal of Racial Affairs, April 1954, page 42. (20) RR. 193/1953. 105

A SURVEY OF RACE It maintained that the aims of education are universal, and that the Coloured child, as any child, must be given the opportunity of developing his capacities to the fullest. The Coloured people were essentially part and parcel of South Africa's economic life, and it was to the country's advantage to use their potential abilities to the full. The feeling of frustration amongst them was caused, not by their education, but by the hindrances placed in the way of their full development. The enforcement of a special variety of educational system for Coloured children only would thus not eradicate but would increase the feeling of frustration. The Commission's recommendations have not yet been made public. Education of Europeans Much concern has been expressed during the year at meetings of educational authorities that, because of the comparatively high salaries offered to juniors by both commerce and industry, children are leaving school as soon as they qualify to do so on the basis of age or standard passed. The Orange Free State has fallen into line with the Transvaal by extending compulsory mother-tongue education up to and including standard VIII. In the Cape, an ordinance providing for such tuition up to standard VI has been passed but not promulgated. It states that when a pupil passes from standard Vto VIand thus into a high school and knows the other language sufficiently well to benefit from instruction in that tongue, and if the parents so wish, he may then change his medium. His proficiency will be adjudged by his school principal and an inspector. The policy of Natal is that whenever the parents of 15 or more children in a school would like them to be educated in one of the official languages not so far used there, special provision will be made for them. Such schools will then develop into parrallel-medium institutions, where the two groups each receive instruction through the medium of their own language, but are members of the same school community. The English-speaking community has expressed grave concern over the shortage of English-speaking teachers in South Africa. Special efforts are being made to provide bursaries for teacher-training and to import teachers from England: these immigrants are expected to become proficient in Afrikaans if they wish to qualify for promotion to posts of Vice-Principal or above. Afrikaans teachers' associations have decided to break away from the Federal Council of South African Teachers and to form a central body of their own, one of the principles of which will be the adoption of Christian and national education. The Secretary of the O.F.S. Onderwsers-unie is reported(21) to have said that this step had become (21) Press Digest No. 41, 14 October 1954. 106

RELATIONS: 1953-54 necessary because the two sections differed completely in their outlook on life. At a meeting of the Transvaal Onderwysersvereniging held in April, the Secretary for Native Affairs said (22) that a study of the NonEuropean peoples, to be known as "Population Study," should in his opinion be a compulsory subject in European schools, and the vernacular African languages should be optional subjects. The Institute of Race Relations wrote to him welcoming these proposals, and suggesting that films depicting all aspects of African life be shown in schools. He promised to discuss the matter with educational officials. Filmstrips dealing with the various races in South Africa,. accompanied by notes for teachers, are available from African Consolidated Films Ltd. as well as the Education Departments. Commission of Enquiry into Separate University Education It was reported in our last Survey that when the Education Votes were under discussion in the Assembly on 31 August 1953, the Minister of Education, Arts and Science, replying to requests from several members that apartheid be introduced at universities, said (23) that these institutions were expected to take note of the traditional viewpoint of Europeans in South Africa. The Prime Minister is reported (24) further to have clarified the Government's intentions at a graduation ceremony at Stellenbosch University on 11 December 1953, by saying that the mingling of Europeans and Non-Europeans at two of the largest universities in South Africa would have to be eliminated as speedily as possible since it was directly opposed to the policy ot apartheid. Provided proper provision was made for the needs of both sections, this would not be unjust. Immediately thereafter(2) the appointment of a Commission was gazetted "to investigate and report on the practicability and financial implications of providing separate training facilities for Non-Europeans at universities." The desirability of such separate facilities was not included in the terms of reference. The position is that four different systems at present operate in South Africa. Firstly, there are the Universities of Potchefstroom, Stellenbosch, Pretoria, and the Orange Free State, which do not admit Non-Europeans, although only the first- mentioned is precluded by its charter from so doing. Secondly, there are Rhodes University and, affiliated to it, the University College of Fort Hare. These cater in the main for Europeans and Non-Europeans respectively, but Rhodes does admit Non-European post-graduate students when the courses they wish to take are not provided at Fort Hare. Thirdly, Natal University provides separate classes for Europeans and NonEuropeans, in separate buildings. And fourthly, there are the open (22) State Information Office Monthly Digest, May 1954. (23) Hansard No. 8 of l1th Parliament, Cols. 2592/4, 2611. (24) Star, 11 December 1953. (25) Government Notice No. 2789, 18 December 1953.

A SURVEY OF RACE Universities of Cape Town and the Witwatersrand which, with a limited number of exceptions due to special circumstances, admit Non-Europeans to all faculties on the same basis as Europeans, applying a policy of "academic non-segregation." In 1953, there were 240 Non-European students at the University of Cape Town and 220 at Witwatersrand University, forming six and five per cent. respectively of the general student body. They were mainly in the faculties of medicine, arts, and science, but very small numbers were studying law, engineering, architecture, commerce, or education. Natal University had 288 Non-European students in separate classes, and 384 were enrolled at the University College of Fort Hare. The Institute of Race Relations gave evidence before the Commission during March.(26) It submitted that consideration of what it would cost to give Non- Europeans a segregated university training and whether it was physically possible to make the necessary arrangements to this end could on no account be divorced from the basic consideration as to whether this end was in itself desirable. The function of a university was not only to impart knowledge and teach skills, but to train students to think for themselves, to engage upon the fearless pursuit of truth, and to choose and adhere to permanent values. One of the most important benefits deriving from the open system was that the inter-mingling of the different racial groups promoted understanding and tolerance among people who were likely to become leaders in their respective communities. In segregated Non- European institutions, where there was no opportunity for normal contacts with Europeans, it would be difficult for a sound humanistic education to be given, for Africans, in particular, had no equivalent in their traditions to Western forms of scholarship. The tendency at such segregated institutions would thus be to provide little more than technical training: this system would not only fail to counteract group prejudice, but, on the contrary, was likely to engender an extreme nationalism. The system at Natal University, the Institute considered, was unsatisfactory because it provided no opportunity of contacts between students of different environments and cultures, and, furthermore, it imposed great strain on the teaching staff in the duplication of lectures. The Institute thus concluded that of all South African universities, the two open ones approached closest to meeting the needs of a multi-racial society. Recognizing, however, the existence of differing racial attitudes and prejudices in the Union, it did not oppose the present differentiated system which permitted universities and students, within certain limits, to make their own choice. Academic freedom should include not only freedom to offer courses and to determine the manner of study and research, but also the right of the university to lay down the qualifications required for admission. (26) RR. 45/1954. 108

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Lack of finance and a shortage of highly-qualified teaching staff were already seriously hampering universities. The saving at open universities if Non- Europeans were excluded should be very small, equal only to their marginal cost - that is, the extra expenditure directly incurred as result of their presence. The special costs which would have to be incurred in providing separate facilities, however, would amount to the total costs, including all overheads. Segregated institutions were thus bound to be inferior, as the short experience of South Afica and the much longer experience of the U.S.A. had shown. The Institute concluded that the provision of separate facilities was not only undesirable, but, for financial reasons alone, would be impracticable and in fact irresponsible. A conference was convened by the Institute on 1 May, in Johannesburg, to consider the concept of a university and its function in a multi-racial society. It was atiended by representatives of university convocations, staff and students' representative councils, churches, N.U.S.A.S. and others directly concerned with the subject. Discussions were introduced by Prof. E. E. Harris, Head of the Department of Philosophy, University of the Witwatersrand, who delivered an address on "The Idea of a University," and by Dr T. B. Davie, Principal of the University of Cape Town, whose address was on "The Function of the University in a Multi-Racial Society."(27) The rectors of the Universities of Stellenbosch and Pretoria had also been invited to read papers, but were unable to accept. The views expressed by the majority of speakers could perhaps be summarized as being that the function of a university in a multiracial society was to serve the community in a true sense of a university, i.e., as a centre for the preservation and advancement of learning for its own sake and its dissemination to all who are academicacally qualified for admission, irrespective of race, colour, or creed; to aid the State by providing training for and maintaining standards in the learned professions and public services; by virtue of the multiracial character of the country to give a lead to the cultural and spiritual development of the different race groups as part of the development of the community as a whole; and essentially to reflect in the composition of its student body the multi-racial picture of the society it served. Differences of opinion were expressed, notably by the representatives of S.A.B.R.A., Potchefstroom University, and the Dutch Refbrmed Church, who contended that, in some respects, this concept of the university could not be accepted, particularly as it was felt that more attention should be paid to the attitudes and traditions of the country in which the university functioned. No findings or resolutions were drafted, but those who attended the conference, irrespective of their points of view, were unaminous in their appreciation of the opportunity of hearing other opinions. (27) The texts of these addresses, together with an account of the discussions at the conference and the Institute's evidence to the Commission, have been published by the Institute in a booklet entitled The Idea of the Upiversity. 109

All the universities and many other bodies have submitted evidence to the Commission. As is to be expected, the several universities have favoured the continuance of their individual systems. At the University of the Witwatersrand, the senate, convocation, and students all have by very large majorities expressed themselves in favour of academic non-segregation. Proposals for segregated universities were made by the Universities of Pretoria, of South Africa, and others. The National Union of S.A. Students has very forcefully defended academic non-segregation. There were similar expressions of opinion at Cape Town University. Proposals for segregated universities were made by the Universities of Pretoria, of South Africa, and others. The National Union of S.A. Students has very forcefully defended academic non-segregation and university freedom, and is publishing a second edition of The African in the Universities which sets out its policy in the matter. The Education League has circulated the address given by Dr T. B. Davie at the conference convened by the Institute, and has published its own pamphlet, Defend the Universities, condemning the threatened introduction of segregation. Twentyone prominent citizens of Johannesburg and Pretoria issued a press statement expressing alarm at the exclusion from the Commission's terms of reference of what they regarded as fundamental underlying questions, viz. whether separate training facilities were in fact necessary, and whether there was any need to interfere with the existing rights and freedoms of universities. The Commission's findings have not yet been made public. Students' Unions The student body, like so many other groups in South Africa, has split on the question of colour discrimination. Some years ago, students of the Afrikaans- speaking organizations formed their own union, Die Afrikaanse Studentebond, which does not permit participation by Non-Europeans in its work. The National Union of S.A. Students continues to welcome all students to membership, regardless of race; but the Hewat Training College (for Coloured students), the University College of Fort Hare, and, during the past year, the Non-European section of the University of Natal have all disaffiliated from N.U.S.A.S. This appears to be evidence of the nationalism which the Institute, in its evidence to the Commission of Enquiry into separate University Education, said was a tendency at segregated institutions; for NonEuropean students at the open universities continue to co-operate actively in the work of N.U.S.A.S. Technical, Commercial and Industrial Training From information kindly made available by the National Bureau of Educational and Social Research, it appears that, in 1951, about 50,000 European students and 8,000 Non-Europeans were studying at various technical, commercial and industrial training institutions in South Africa. Later figures are not available. 110 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1953-S4 Included in these figures are students studying at technical colleges, generally in part-time classes, for standard VII, Junior Certificate, Senior Certificate and Matriculation exemption courses as well as those taking commercial, technical and vocational training as such. The Cape Technical College makes especial provision for Cape Coloured students, having over 1,000 on the rolls of classes held at four main centres. The M. L. Sultan Technical College in Durban continues to provide a large variety of courses primarily for Indians, although African and Coloured students are also admitted. It has about 3,000 students enrolled in classes held at a number of centres. Large numbers of Africans, probably close on 3,000, attend evening classes conducted by technical colleges in most of the larger towns: the future of these classes, under the Bantu Education Act, has not yet been decided. Developments at the Witwatersrand Technical College are also held up pending decision by the new Division of Bantu Education. At present no vocational training is provided for Non-Europeans as no accommodation is available. Plans have been drawn up for a building for which a site and funds are available, but further progress depends on approval by the Department. Adult Education A spokesman of the Native Affairs Department has announced(28) that his Department intends launching a campaign to wipe out illiteracy among the Africans of the Union within 15 to 20 years. It had been estimated, he said, that only about 1,870,000 of the 8,537,375 Africans (1951 figure) were at present literate, and that 70 per cent. of these lived in the towns. Many others classified as illiterate, probably did, however, know the rudiments of reading and writing. The Adult Education Section of the Institute of Race Relations continues its experimental work in the production of literacy material. It has evolved a system compounded of new elements and elements of many established systems by which it is possible to teach adult, illiterate Africans to read and write in only 30 to 50 one-hour classes. The aim throughout is to make the learner relate what he is learning to his everyday living. Literacy primers have now been produced in seven African languages; also special functional language courses for certain industrial units; courses in English and Afrikaans, special courses for Indian women, and, for Europeans, courses in the elements of Zulu and Sotho. Follow-up reading material is also produced, including a Guide to Health for African adults, which is being adapted by the S.A.B.C. for serial broadcasts for Africans. In all these books, the services of African and, where appropriate, other Non-European writers and artists have been extensively used. Whenever there is an opportunity African trainers on the Institute's staff visit the large number of night schools and the classes in mine compounds where the (28) Statement published in Press on 23 June 1954.

A SURVEY OF RACE material is used to ensure that correct methods are employed. At a very conservative estimate, over 10,000 Africans a year are becoming literate through use of the Institute's material. Numerous night-schools and continuation classes are conducted by a variety of organizations, many being in receipt of State subsidies. Some 12,000 Africans and many Coloured and Asiatic adults are attending the literacy courses and .primary and secondary classes that are provided. The Johannesburg Central Committee for NonEuropean Continuation Classes conducts 24 night-schools, attended by well over 3,000 African adults. There are 96 African teachers and some voluntary teachers including a number of University students. Some of the students are interested only in learning to read and write, but many persevere with courses in Bantu languages, English, Afrikaans, Arithmetic, and Health, and with classes leading to the national standard VI examination. Teaching methods suitable fbr adults are being developed, and special material prepared and published. The Cape Non-European Night Schools Association conducts 11 schools which have an enrolment of about 1,100 Africans and 100 Coloured people. Besides this, about 10 churches and organizations run small evening classes in various suburbs, and, under the auspices of the Education Department, 15 Coloured schools with an enrolment of 858, and five African schools with an enrolment of 303, run evening continuation classes up to standard VI. The Durban Group of Schools fbr Bantu Adults has 20 active schools at which 2,673 Africans were enrolled at the end of 1953. Literacy courses and classes up to standard V are available. Literary classes are conducted, too, by the Indian Women's Literacy Group in Durban. It is impossible in a general survey such as this to give details of all the night- schools conducted by voluntary organizations in the Union. There are active groups in many other centres, Pretoria, Port Elizabeth, East London, Pietersburg, and Cradock, for example. The recognition and financial assistance to be granted them under the new arrangements for Bantu education have yet to be determined. Corresponce colleges have very large numbers of African students from the Union and other territories: two colleges alone, in Johannesburg, are reported(29) between them to have an enrolment of over 6,000 Africans, the majority preparing for their standard VI, Junior Certificate or Senior Certificate examinations. Many Non-Europeans are studying for university degrees by means of correspondence courses provided by the University of South Africa. Library of the S.A. Institute of Race Relations The Institute's Reference Library, available to the public without charge, continues to supply information and literature on a very wide variety of subjects to students, research workers, professional persons, universities, manufacturing concerns, and other libraries in South (2J) Star, 17 March 1954. 112

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Africa and overseas, as well as to members of the Institute and its staff. Accessions during the year included 1,137 periodicals, pamphlets, reports, and manuscripts, and 23 books. Loans totalled 1,600. A press cutting collection is maintained, and a record kept of Parliamentary debates on Bills affecting race relations. Compilation of bibliographies for people both in the Union and overseas who wish to study specific aspects of South African affairs continues to be a marked aspect of the work, and much information is supplied by telephone. Lists of selected accessions are no longer printed in Race Relations News, but are now issued to Institute members who request them. Similar but smaller reference libraries are maintained in the Regional Offices of the Institute. Non-European Library Service, Transvaal The Non-European Library Service, which operates from Pretoria, has three main functions: the supply of books for study purposes to about 1,400 members throughout Southern Africa, the supply of boxes of books to between 40 and 50 library depots in the Transvaal, and the provision of advice and information in response to requests. All these services are free of charge. A special feature is made of encouraging reading for its own sake as distinct from reading for examination purposes. Issues in the students' section have practically doubled during the past year. A grant received from the Carnegie Corporation has made it possible for correspondence courses for the preliminary certificate in librarianship of the S.A. Library Association to be started, and a steadily-increasing body of at least partly qualified African librarians is thus being recruited. The Service works in close co-operation with the Departmental African Teachers' Library. Further Educational Matters In co-operation with the World University Service, N.U.S.A.S. hopes shortly to call a Pan-African Educational Conference, for which plans are already under way. The Co-ordinating Secretariat of National Student Unions at Leiden has decided to set up a commission to investigate patterns of racial discrimination in education, and N.U.S.A.S. is negotiating for a delegation from this commission to visit South Africa. The Education League is compiling a statement, shortly to be published, of its views on education policy for South Africa. It is also collecting material for an investigation into the objectivity of history text-books used in South African schools. Further activities of these bodies are described in appropriate sections of this Survey. 114 A SURVEY OF RACE Bursaries for Non-Europeans A sum of £50,000 was bequeathed in 1953 by the late Mr M. I. Isaacson to help the needy, and with this money the Morris Isaacson Educational Foundation has been established. It is building a school at Moroka, and has made available £2,000 a year for at least three years to provide bursaries for Africans. The Isaacson Foundation Bursary Fund has in consequence been set up, and is being administered by the Institute of Race Relations. The prime object of the bursaries is to enable deserving Africans who are residents of the Witwatersrand to take post-matriculation courses providing the training necessary for useful service to the community. The first bursaries will be awarded at the end of 1954. The Institute continues to administer the Robert Shapiro Trust, which was founded by the late Mr Robert Shapiro, of Pretoria. It offers bursaries to deserving African girls at selected schools in the Transvaal and Natal to enable them to continue their general education to the Junior Certificate or the Matriculation stage before commencing nursing training. Successful applicants are required to sign an undertaking to work in rural areas. Eight such bursaries were awarded in 1954. In addition, an African man was awarded a bursary for the medical course at Natal University. Students from South African universities continue to subscribe to the African Medical Scholarships Trust Fund, which enables Africans to study medicine at Witwatersrand University, and N.U.S.A.S. assists by collecting donations from overseas student unions. Johannesburg Municipality has, during the year, provided further bursaries for Africans for the medical course at this university. Bursaries provided by the Government for Africans wishing to take the medical course at Natal University were described in an earlier Survey. (30) The N. U.S.A.S. Loan Fund has, during the past year, assisted students, mainly Non-Europeans, to the extent of £1,700. The Non-European Students' Fund in Cape Town assists Coloured students who are in financial difficulties, having made interest-free loans of over £1,500 in the last three years. It is impossible, in this Survey, to list all bursaries available to Non-Europeans, but most of those provided for Africans were described in the Report of the Commission on Native Education (1949-51),(31) and the Commissioner for Coloured Affairs has recently compiled a list of those available to Coloured students.(32) Educational Research Apart from the research work being continuously carried out by the National Bureau of Educational and Social Research in Pretoria, (30) Survey of Race Relations, 1950/51, page 57. (31) U.G. 53/1951. (32) This list was published in Foundation, January 1954 (National War Memorial Health Foundation).

RELATIONS: 1953-54 the following were the main projects undertaken during 1953/54 in the field of education. Institute for Personnel Research: Perceptual ability of Africans. Psychomotor learning ability of African juveniles. Scholastic and intelligence tests for African, Asiatic and Coloured pupils. Prof. W. A. Lloyd (Natal University): Educational provision in Natal in relation to needs. S.A. Institute of Race Relations. See page 111. S.A. Psychological Association in collaboration with Union and Provincial Education Departments and Bureau of Educational and Social Research. Union-wide survey of the L Q. of groups of students to determine whether there are environmental factors which have to be considered when interpreting L Q. results. X EMPLOYMENT The General Financial Situation in South Africa In his Budget speech in March, (1) the Minister of Finance reminded the House that the war had left South Africa with a legacy of shortages, not only of consumer goods, but also of almost all services which were basic to the welfare of a modern community, such as transport, power, water, housing, schools, and hospitals. The elimination of these shortages would, under normal circumstances, have imposed a strain on South Africa's human, capital, and natural resources, but this strain had been immensly increased by the unprecedented development in the fields of both mining and secondary industry, which multiplied the demand for labour, goods, and services without making any immediate contribution to the volume of goods available for consumption., This difficult period was, however, rapidly coming to an end. As the gold mines of the Orange Free State came into full production, and as the uranium plants attained their maximum output, South Africa should experience a most substantial addition to her current foreign-exchange receipts. Capital expenditure on imports of railway and electric power equipment had passed its peak, and a number of industries, such as SASOL, which had spent very large sums on imported plant and equipment, would soon commence to produce. A period of steady improvement in South Africa's balance of payments was, therefore, probable. Internally, inflationary forces had been checked, and there was no sign of any break in the general prosperity of the country. During the year 1953/54 Government borrowing overseas totalled £,23 million. This sum did not include £13 million borrowed by ESCOM nor the millions of pounds raised in Britain and America by the gold-mining industry for the establishment of uranium plants. (1) Assembly, 24 March 1954. Hansard No. 8, Cols. 2614-2640.

A SURVEY OF RACE Mr T. W. de Jongh, statistician of the S.A. Reserve Bank, has pointed out(') that the total net inflow of capital from all sources amounted to about £27 million in 1953, compared with about £53 million in 1952 and about £64 million in 1951. There is no doubt, however, that figures fbr 1954 will show an increase over those for the previous year. Some interesting information about the likely course of gold and uranium production in South Africa was given by Mr Harry Oppenheimer in the Assembly on 17 February.(3) Present gold production, he said, was worth about £145 million a year. To the best of his belief; in four years' time the figure would be £60 million higher. He was not permitted to furnish detailed information about uranium production, but could at least recall that, when opening the first plant, the Prime Minister had said that the production would be at least £30 million a year, and that was probably a very conservative estimate. "But," Mr Oppenheimer concluded, "the estimates I have given are based on one important assumption, namely, that the gold-mining industry will within reason be able to meet requirements of Native labour." The net national income in 1953 was £1,247,300,000, of which £808,600,000 was in the form of salaries and wages.(4) The total was 8.6 per cent. above the revised figure of £1,148,000,000 for the previous year. The greater part of this increase was the result of higher prices, the real income index having risen by some 2 per cent. from 117 to 119.4 (Base 1947/48 equals 100).(5) The Minister of Economic Affairs has announced(6) that import restrictions will gradually be relaxed and that, when control is eventually abolished, tariff protection will not be granted to uneconomic industries established as a result of import control. South Aftican industries may thus be faced with much keener competition than in recent years, and increased efficiency is essential if more of them are to become competitive in the world's export markets. As the Institute of Race Relations has frequently pointed out, among. the major difficulties in the way of increased efficiency are the restrictions preventing industrialists from making the fullest use of the NonEuropean labour fbrce. Employment in Secondary Industry Figures relating to the industrial census taken in 1950/51 were published during the year.(7) Later information is, unfortunately, not available. Four years ago, then, there were 15,301 private (2) Review of economic conditions in the Union, published in the Quarterly Bulletin of the S.A. Reserve Bank, March 1954. (3) 1lansard No. 3, Cols, 672, 673. (4) From Additional Table 1, Bulletin of Statistics, April 1954. (5) Bureau of Census and Statistics, National Accounts, lemorandum No. 13, Net National Income, 1952/53, page 4. (6) See Assembly Ilansard No. 8, Col. 2619. (7) Bulletin of Statistics, March 1954. 116

RELATIONS: 1953-54 industries may thus be faced with much keener competition than in employed 206,062 Europeans and 473,564 Non-Europeans, average salaries and wages being(") £C598 for European men, £289 for European women, £,134 'for Non- European men, and £160 for NonEuropean women. The fact that, on average, Non-European women receive more than do their men-folk is interesting: it is because only about one-tenth as many are employed, and these very often in semiskilled capacities, and because the ratio of women to men in employment is much higher in the Coloured community than it is in the African. Very large numbers of African men are employed as unskilled labourers at low wages, and in consequence the average figure for men is reduced. From information available to the Institute of Race Relations,(9) an accurate breakdown of these figures between the various NonEuropean groups is impossible. In 1949 /50, however, the organizers and workers in private industry were 31 per cent. Europeans, 13 per cent. Coloured, 3 per cent. Asiatic and 53 per cent. African. In the public sector of industry, comprising government, government-sponsored, and local government undertakings and railway workshops, 507 establishments were listed, with a net output of £43 million. They employed 46,204 Europeans and 53,173 Non-Europeans, average salaries and wages being £553 for European men, £290 for European women, £128 for Non-European men and £61 for the 33 Non-European women employed. A breakdown of employees of the S.A. Railways and Harbours Administration is available(10) and shows that in 1953, an average of 105,925 Europeans, 11,151 Coloured, 633 Asiatics, and 86,647 Africans was employed. The extent of the protection given to Europeans in government and local government undertakings becomes clear if the racial structure of the labour force in the public sector of industry is compared with that in private industries. As Mr Graham Barclay, Labour Adviser to the Transvaal Chamber of Mines, has pointed out("), the numerical predominance of Non-Europeans in secondary industry is by no means an indication that they have an unduly large share of industrial employment. According to the latest figures available, the relative proportions of Europeans and Non-Europeans in the total population (1951) and in industrial employment (1949/50) were: African European Coloured Asiatic Total Population (per cent.) 67 21 9 3 Industrial. employment (percent.) 52 33 12 3 (8) Calculations by the writer. (9) As varying systems of classification of industries are employed in the tables issued by the Bureau of Census and Statistics, total figures given in the various tables do not agree with one another. (10) Bulletin of Statistics, August 1954, Table B7. (11) Article in The Industrial Reziew of Africa, August 1954. 117

118 A SURVEY OF RACE The proportion of Africans in industrial employment which increased during the war years from 45 per cent. in 1937-38 to 50 per cent. in 1943-44 has since increased to 52 per cent. Another proportion that is steadily increasing is that of the skilled and semi- skilled to unskilled Non-European employees in secondary industry. The only statistics available are those compiled by the Wage Board, which relate to 100,110 Europeans and 269,294 NonEuropeans employed in industries, trades, or undertakings regulated by wage determinations made from 1937 to 1951. Determinations for unskilled labour only are excluded. The figures show that 15.3 per cent. of the skilled, 67.1 per cent. of the semi-skilled, and 98.5 per cent. of the unskilled workers were Non-Europeans. The semi-skilled workers classified were 32.9 per cent. European, 20.6 per cent. Coloured, 10.9 per cent. Asiatic, and 35.6 per cent. African. Africans are increasingly employed, especially in the Transvaal and Natal, as machine minders, spinners, weavers and carders in the textile industries, drivers of motor vehicles, chemical general workers, operators of bulldozers, mechanical shovels, scoops and tractors, and so on. Coloured people, especially in the Cape, are employed in semi-skilled and skilled jobs in the textile and clothing, food, tobacco, building, leather, printing, and furniture industries. In Natal, Indians have been absorbed into industry in capacities similar to those of the Coloured people at the Cape. Non-Europeans, then, predominate numerically over Europeans in the operative type of work. Europeans form the vast majority in the managerial and skilled classes, but an increasing shortage of skilled technical workers is being experienced. At the Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations held during January 1954, Mr Selby Ngcobo, Head of the Department of Economics at Fort Hare, read a paper on "The Response of Africans to Industrial Employment."(12) He pointed out how unscientific it was to generalize about African efficiency, since the opportunities granted them varied so widely. In other African territories, such as the Belgian Congo, they were performing efficiently those very skilled jobs which were positively stated in the Union to be beyond their capabilities. Africans were becoming increasingly responsive to monetary incentives, and progressive employers had come to realize that to attract and keep their workers they must provide wage-incentive schemes. Research conducted over three years in Durban had showed that there was a much lower labour turnover and absentee rate among stabilized urban employees than among migrant workers housed in compounds or hostels, away from their families. Not only would it be to the economic advantage of the whole South African community if Africans were allowed to progress in industry according to their capabilities, but the development of a group of skilled Africans would exercise a stabilizing influence within African society. (12) This paper was published in Race Relations Journal No. 1 of 1954.

After discussion of the paper, the Council adopted the following findings : I The Council of the Institute welcomes the increased opportunities for Africans in semi-skilled work in industry, but considers that more opportunities to do skilled and supervisory work should be made available. II It is grateful for such research as has been made into the structure of the labour force and the ability, response, training and turnover of African labour in manufacturing industry. It considers that further research should be undertaken, preferably by teams of specialists, into such subjects as (a) the response of Africans to industrial conditions; (b) the efficiency of African workers; (c) personnel problems, incentives and training schemes; (d) the turnover and mobility of African labour; (e) the creation of opportunities for the absorption of juveniles into industry; (f) the opportunities for employment of African women; (g) the relation of earnings of unskilled workers to the cost of living." Employment in Commerce The Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce estimates(13) that in 1952, there were 127,467 Europeans and 158,215 Non-Europeans employed in wholesale and retail establishments in the distributive trade throughout the Union. Average earnings per employee (all races) were £477 in wholesale and £266 in retail establishments. In his recently-published book, The Indian Community of Natal(14), Mr C. A. Woods estimates that 21 per cent. of the working population of Indians in Natal are engaged in commerce. The total of 15,000 so engaged could probably be divided into 4,500 in the shop-owning class, 2,400 hawkers and peddlers, and 8,100 assistants in commercial firms. Only 6 per cent. of the Indians in employment in Natal, then, are in the shop-owning class. Mr C. W. M. Gell estimates(15) that in the Union as a whole about 15 per cent. of Indians come from shop-owning families, but that in very small provincial communities of Indians in the Transvaal and Cape the proportion may be as high as 50 per cent. Mr Woods shows yet again, if further proof is needed, how great a fallacy it is to think, as many white South Africans still do, that the majority of Indians come from wealthy merchant families. The earnings of 55,727 Indians in all types of employment in Natal were investigated, and it was found that only about 27 per cent. earned over £20 a month, which, according to the Durban Housing (13) Statistical Survey, July 1954. (14) Volume 9 of Natal Regional Survey. (15) In an article entitled "The Folly of Racial Stereotypes" in The Forum, February 1954. RELATIONS : 1953-54 119

Survey, (16) is the minimum needed by a family to cover bare essentials only. About another 27 per cent. earned under £5 6s. 8d. a month. The Durban Regional Office of the S.A. Institute of Race Relations has started an experimental Commercial Aid Bureau to assist African traders with methods of book-keeping, display, purchasing, and so on. Employment in Mining The average annual numbers employed in mining in 1953(17) were 59,360 Whites, 431,940 Africans, 521 Asiatics and 2,628 Coloured people. On the Transvaal gold mines only, the 1952 averages were 42,326 Europeans and 292,780 Non-Europeans. Both figures were lower than the averages for 1951. The total number of Africans employed by members and contractors of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association(18) was 298,633 on 31 December 1953. Of these, 37 per cent. came from the Union, 16 per cent. from the High Commission Territories, 32 per cent. from the East Coast, and 15 per cent. from territories north of the Union. The total number had increased by about 6,000 since the previous year, but a smaller proportion of them were recruited from within the Union and a larger proportion from Tropical Africa. According to an article by the General Manager of the Native Recruiting Corporation, (19) each African worker employed on the gold mines throughout 1953 cost the industry an average of £58.5 in wages, £18.3 in food supplied, and £3.3 in medical services provided. The Chairman of the West Witwatersrand Areas Company has said(20) that as result of increased mechanization and the improved efficiency of the African labour force, the gold-mining industry was in effect operating in 1953 with about 50,000 fewer African workers than would have been required to do the same amount of work in 1946. In spite of this improved efficiency, the gold mines are short of labour, especially since the new mines in the Orange Free State have been developed. Mr Harry Oppenheimer said in the Assembly during February(21) that 50,000 or more additional African labourers were required immediately if the gold mines were to be enabled to work at full capacity, and by 1958 a further 30,000 would be needed. Every effort was being made to obtain additional labour from tropical areas, but, on the whole, the problem had to be solved within the Union and the High Commission Territories. The industry was trying (16) Conducted by the University of Natal. (17) Bulletin of Statistics, Auguist 1954, Tables B.1 and B2. (18) W.N.L.A. Report for 1953. (19) Article by Mr J. A. Gemmill in Industrial Reziew of Africa, August 1954. (20) Chairman's report by Mr S. R. Fleischer as quoted in State Information Office Newsletter 727 of 4 December 1953. (21) 17 February 1954. Hansard No. 3, Cols. 676/7. A SURVEY OF RACE 120

RELATIONS: 1953-54 121 to induce migrant workers to come to the mines more frequently and to stay longer than they had been doing, and had realized that it must make some effort, by modifications in its organization and conditions, to compete with other employers for some share in the supply of urbanized, permanently settled African labour. If permitted to do so by the Minister of Native Affairs, the industry would "to a moderate extent" build quarters for married men, thus attracting some of the Africans to stay on the mines indefinitely and enabling them to acquire greater skill. The Minister of Native Affairs replied later in the debate.(22) The mining industry as a whole, he said, agreed with the Government that it must make use of migrant labour. He was planning to assist the industry by establising villages in Native areas where the labourers could live between their tours of duty. Unemployed men whose families were in the towns could be engaged for work on mines, but must live in the locations. It was realized that provision must be made for a certain group of more stable, experienced labour to be housed on the mines. This proportion had been fixed at roughly two per cent. on the Rand, and in the Orange Free State provision could reasonably be made for a similar proportion. But the hon. member would not be able to fulfil his plans of establishing large villages there. Employment on European-Owned Farms A census was taken of the permanently-employed labourers employed on farms during August 1952. (23) Owners or occupiers of the farms and their wives and families were excluded, as also were occasional and seasonal labourers. Domestic servants, however, were included. Total cash wages were noted, and estimates made of the total value of all payment made in kind, e.g. tots of wine, clothing, meat, tobacco, meal, etc. The rental value of housing, land and grazing available to the labourers was not taken into account. Results showed that 10,549 European men were then employed, earning £22 15s. lid. per month in cash and £4 12s. 3d. in kind. The 539 European women earned £13 4s. lid. in cash and £2 5s. 1d. in kind. There were 91,146 Coloured and Asiatic male employees, with an average wage of £4 4s. 5d. in cash and £1 16s. 4d. in kind; and 25,830 women with £1 15s. lid. in cash and £1 10s. 4d. in kind. So far as African employees were concerned, the 592,488 men earned £,2 4s. 3d. and received 19s. Od. in kind, while the 208,723 women received £1 Os. id. in cash and 9s. lid. in kind. (22) Hansard No. 3, Cols. 789-791. (23) State Information Office Weekly Country News Service, 18 February 1954.

122 A SURVEY OF RACE Employment in the Public Service In reply to a question, the Minister of the Interior said in the Assembly during May(24) that as at 31 December 1953, 119,353 posts were provided for on the establishment of the Public Service. The Report for 1953 of the Public Service Commission(25) shows that in that year there were 17,886 vacant posts for Europeans on the fixed establishment, and 1,045 for Non-Europeans. Large numbers of temporary employees were being held against these vacant posts: 15,540 Europeans and 4,113 Non-Europeans. It appears, then, that 3,068 Non-Europeans were "temporarily" occupying European posts. As is stated on page 117, there was in 1953 an average of 105,925 Europeans, 11,151 Coloured, 633 Asiatics, and 86,647 Africans employed by the S.A. Railways and Harbours Administration. In the Assembly on 26 March,(26) very full information was given on behalf of the Minister of Transport about wages, allowances, and conditions of work of Africans employed in the Cape Railway Systems. Wages were lower in rural areas, but in Cape Town a labourer (who had to provide his own food) earned from 6s. Od. to 7s. 9d. per day, increments being granted at set intervals. Workers employed on "better class" work received from 3d. to 2s. 6d. per day more. There was a large number of these "better class" posts, for example hostel cook, stoker, pumper, engine attendant, commissionaire, deckhand, ferryman, saloon or boiler attendant, and many more. Cost-of-living allowances from £2 2s. 6d. to £14 13s. 4d. a month for married men, and from £2 2s. 6d. to £7 6s. 8d. for single men, were paid, and, among other benefits described, rent subsidies were available in urban areas and certain items of clothing were supplied. The Railways, like many private industries, are seriously handicapped by a shortage of artisans. A number have been recruited overseas, but, according to press reports(27) of a statement by the Chairman of the Federal Consultative Council of the S.A.R. and H. Staff Associations, they had not proved a success. There were thus two alternatives: to allow African labour to be used in certain "European" positions such as shunters, firemen, and operatives, or to try to carry out the work with existing staff. As the first alternative, the Chairman is reported to have said, would be seriously resented by the staff, "every effort should be made to retain these positions for the European for as long as possible." The Non-European establishment within the Police Force has again been increased. The Minister of Justice said in the Assembly in May(28) that since he had taken over the portfolio, in 1948, 3,402 more African policemen had been engaged. A new rank of senior (24) 25 May 1954. Hansard No. 16, Col. 5596. (25) U.G. 28/1954, page 18. (26) Hansard No. 8, Cols. 2833-2838. (27) Star, 13 October 1954. (2s) Hansard No. 13, Col. 4746. sergeant, which was equal to head constable in the European section, had been created. The authorities were very satisfied with the work the African police were doing. Employment of Juveniles The visit of the Director and Field Officer of the Institute of Race Relations to East London following the riots that occurred there in 1952, the latter's investigation of the case histories of African juveniles involved in the riots, the conference of prominent European citizens called by the Mayor and, at his request, attended by the Director of the Institute, and the further conference of African residents presided over, at the Mayor's request, by the Institute's Field Officer, were described in our last Survey(29) At the beginning of the period now surveyed, an inter-racial Mayor's Committee was formed to investigate the problem of African juvenile unemployment in East London. It prepared a considered report for submission to the Mayor and City Council in which it was recommended that African Juvenile Affairs Boards be set up, that industrial and technical training facilities for Africans in the city be expanded, and that legislation be introduced to enable African parents to insist on a certain portion of the wages of juveniles being allocated to the family and to provided for a system of deferred pay. In the meanwhile, the Government had arranged that special sections of labour bureaux be established to cater for African juveniles. According to a press statement by a senior official of the Native Affairs Department(30), from September 1953, until May 1954, in the major urban areas of the Union, 30,306 juveniles had registered for employment, and of these 23,631 had been placed in jobs. The Native Affairs Department has informed the Institute(31) that juveniles are being placed in domestic service, factories, flats, garages, and in messengers' or clerical posts. The reaction of employers has been very satisfactory indeed, and the so-called "tsotsi" element has proved to be excellent human material. The placement of juveniles has been facilitated by the introduction of a sliding scale of wages based on age and experience.(32) The first youth service camp for African juveniles is to be established at Groblersdal in the Eastern Transvaal, probably towards the end of 1954. Up to 100 lads will be accommodated in buildings formerly used for an industrial school, and will be taught some trade. There will also be tuition in reading and writing for the illiterates, and the boys will grow their own food. Mobile units may be formed to travel to African areas to assist with development projects. When the lads are thought to be sufficiently rehabilitated to hold down steady (29) Survey of Race Relations, 1952/53, page 32. (30) Rand Daily Mail, 16 October 1954. (31) Letter 19/280 dated 7 July 1954. (32) Details are given in our last Survey, page 84, RELATIONS : 1953;-54 123

124 A SURVEY OF RACE jobs, they will be returned to their home areas and placed in employment through labour bureaux. Boys will be sent to the camps from urban areas if their parents request the magistrate to arrange this. In terms of the Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill the Government is also seeking to enable a Magistrate or Native Commissioner to commit a lad of between 15 and 19 years of age to one of the camps if an enquiry has established that he is an "idle or undesirable" person. The Government has allocated £20,000 for the establishment of a somewhat similar training scheme for Coloured youths, which may be established at Klaasjagersberg near Simon's Town during 1955. Placements of Adult Africans through Labour Bureaux The Department of Native Affairs informed the Institute, on 7 July 1954, that 335 District Labour Bureaux were then operating, and 160 local authorities had established Local Bureaux. Since the introduction of this system, which commenced towards the end of 1952, the bureaux records show that the number of registrations of service contracts of adult Africans (including placements by the bureaux) were: Secondary industry ...... 277,404 Mines and quarries ...... 193,393 Building construction ...... 160,313 Commerce ...... 154,234 Domestic service ...... 98,811 Agriculture ...... 86,423 Municipal service ...... 55,739 Hotels, flats, and boarding houses ...... 31,250 Railways ...... 27,108 Public Service ...... 19,390 Provincial Administrations ...... 12,702 Implementation of Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act A summary of the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act, No. 48 of 1953, was given in our last Survey(33). The main principles of this measure were that the term "employee" in the Industrial Conciliation Act was re-defined to exclude all Africans, for whom separate industrial machinery was to be provided. Strikes by African employees were prohibited. The position of African trade unions was unchanged: they were not prohibited but were denied recognition. The Minister of Labour was empowered to extend to other racial groups the provisions of orders regulating wages and conditions of employment of Africans. Regional Native Labour Committees, as provided for in the Act, were set up in the larger towns early in 1954. They consist of African members appointed by the Minister sitting under a European (3) Page 79.

RELATIONS: 1953'54 chairman -- the Native Labour Officer for the region. Names and addresses of these officers were gazetted during April, (34) as were the first regulations issued under the Act, which dealt with appointment of inspectors, statements to be furnished by employers, records to be kept and notices to be published. After consultation with the Regional Committees, the Minister appointed members of the Central Native Board which came into being as from 1 June. Mr Mentz, a former Under-Secretary for Labour, is Chairman; the ViceChairman is the Industrial Registrar; and there are two other members, also Europeans. In a number of establishments employing 20 Africans or more, African Works Committees have been elected, one member to be responsible for maintaining contact with the local Regional Committee. As soon as the Act was brought into force, African women were no longer "employees" in terms of the Industrial Conciliation Act and were in consequence no longer covered by wage agreements. Several employers in the clothing industry immediately took advantage of this to reduce the wages of their African women employees, and others commenced training African women to replace European women at lower wages. The Minister of Labour later reported in the Assembly(35) that his Department had brought pressure to bear on these employers, no Europeans had been displaced, and the wages of the African women had been restored to the agreement rate. In reply to a report that a clothing factory in Johannesburg had discharged its European women, moved to an area where there was no wage-regulating machinery, and there taken on African women at lower rates of pay, the Minister said that he was unable in terms of existing legislation to extend an industrial council agreement to Africans unless requested to do so by the council concerned (which, of course, included employers' representatives who might be unwilling). In terms of a provision of the new Industrial Conciliation Bill, he would be able to take such action on his own initiative and to apply the agreement to areas other than that in respect of which the industrial council was registered. The Industrial Council for the Clothing Industry in the Transvaal has since decided to ask for an extension of its former agreement to cover all workers in the industry, irrespective of race, thereby falling into line with the other industrial councils in this Industry. Industrial Conciliation Bill A Bill to re-enact the Industrial Conciliiation Act of 1937 in amended form was finally introduced in the Assembly in May after it had been redrafted several times. This Bill caused a very great deal of controversy, and has led to a complete re-organization of the coordinating trade union bodies. In view of the previous legislation, ('4) Government Notices No. 818, 819, and 820, published in the Gozuerunielt Gazette, 30 April 1954. (35) Hansard No. 17, Cols. 6351/2.

126 A SURVEY OF RACE described above, relating to African workers, the new Bill applied mainly to Europeans, Coloured, and Asiatics. When the report of the Industrial Legislation Commission became available, (36) the Minister of Labour appointed certain representatives of employers' and employees' organizations to a Ministerial Committee to consider the revision of the country's industrial legislation in the light of the report. This committee's recommendations were taken into account when the Bill was drafted. In the form in which it was finally presented to Parliament, the Bill amends the administration of employers' and employees' organizations and introduces some very significant new features. It provides that no further "mixed" trade unions shall be registered, and that existing "mixed unions" (there are 60 of these with about 140,000 members) must form separate branches for European and Coloured (including Asiatic) members. Should a section representing over half the workers of one particular race in a specified industry and area wish to break away from a "mixed " union, it will be separately registered, and, if a closed-shop clause has applied in the original union, the new union may claim part of the assets. There is no prQvision making it obligatory for the Coloured branches of trade unions, or the separate Coloured unions, to be represented on industrial councils. The 1937 Act empowered the Minister to exempt certain persons from the provisions of agreements or awards. The new Bill seeks to enable him also to exempt "classes of persons" if special circumstances exist which he considers justify this. As is described in the previous section of this Chapter, it also provides that the Minister shall be enabled, after consultation with the industrial council concerned (instead of only at its request), to declare an industrial council agreement binding on Africans too, in the occupation concerned, and in any areas of the Union. A further innovation is that when the Minister considers that measures should be taken to safeguard the economic welfare of employees of any race in any industry or occupation, he may direct the Industrial Tribunal to be set up in terms of the Bill to conduct an investigation and to recommend whether it is of opinion that employment in that industry or occupation, in a stated area, should be reserved for members of a specified race (Africans are here included). In terms of the Bill, the Industrial Tribunal will hear appeals from the Industrial Registrar's decisions on matters affecting division of assets of trade unions, will undertake voluntary or compulsory arbitrations, will determine demarcations between different undertakings and occupations, and, if so directed by the Minister, will recommend whether employment in certain occupations and areas should be reserved for members of a specified racial group. Other appeals from decisions of the Industrial Registrar may be made to (36) See 1951/52 Survey, page 59.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 the Minister, and appeals from the Minister's ruling may be made to the Supreme Court. (This last safeguard was introduced only in later drafts of the Bill.) The Institute of Race Relations published a commentary on the Bill in so far as this affected Non-Europeans(37), and a summary of the Hansard Report of the Minister's opening address at the Second Reading Debate (38). It also sent to Members of Parliament of all parties and to the press a critical analysis(39), the concluding summary of which read: "The Institute is of the opinion that if the provisions of this Bill are passed by Parliament, racial friction will be increased and industrial unrest will have added to it racial animosities. The artificial fostering of sectional and racial approaches to employment and conditions of work will not only seriously hamper the full economic development of the country, but will also lead to greater racial unrest. In the Institute's opinion, the present labour and wage structure of the country already impedes its healthy economic development and the present Bill, in its efforts to impose an ideological pattern divorced from economie reality, is undesirable in the interests of Europeans and Non-Europeans alike. The rigid pattern which the Bill seeks to impose will render more difficult of achievement those adjustments which South Africa's continued industrial development will demand. Despite the passage of the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act, the Institute reiterates its belief that the interest of the country as a whole would best be served by bringing all workers, including all African workers, under the definition of the term "employee" as used in the Industrial Conciliation Act (1937)." It was made clear that the Inditute did not suggest that all trade unions would be compelled to be "mixed"; the matter should, as in the past, be left to individual unions to decide for themselves. Participation of all unions or branches, whether "mixed," European or Coloured, in the industrial councils should, however, be safeguarded. The Institute's conclusion was that any arbitrary division of labour resources based on racial distinction was incompatible with a developing economy. The reactions of employers' organizations and trade unions to the Bill are dealt with in the next sections of this chapter. On 12 May 1954, the Minister of Labour moved in the Assembly that leave be granted him to introduce the Bill. Both the United Party and Labour Party moved amendments that the Bill be not introduced unless certain safeguards were provided: the Independent United Party suggested that it be referred to a Select Committee before the second reading and not after, and the Liberal Party representative opposed the introduction of the measure. All these amend(37) RR. 90/54. (3S) RR. 115/54. (39) RR. 97/54.

128 A SURVEY OF RACE ments were, however, rejected, and after being read a first and second time the Bill was referred to a Select Committee. Reactions of Employers' Organizations to the Industrial Conciliation Bill A group of leading employers' organizations which claimed to represent collectively more than 90 per cent. of the capital investment in the manufacturing industry and industrial services, and which employed a like percentage of workers, both European and NonEuropean, issued a statement(40) to Members of Parliament and to the press commenting on the Bill. They pointed out that if racially exclusive trade unions and "mixed" unions were allowed to exist in the same industry, they would tend to compete with one another by making extravagant demands. Under such conditions employers might refuse to negotiate with conflicting bodies, leaving it to the government to control wages. This would mean the end of the collective bargaining system. Commenting on the provision which seeks to empower the Minister to reserve occupations for particular racial groups, they declared that if optimum productivity could riot be obtained from labour because the right of management to select its labour had been interfered with, increased costs of production would follow which would place South African industrialists at a competitive disadvantage vis-a-vis countries exporting to South Africa. Members of one or other racial group, according to circumstances, were likely to be resentful of displacements caused by reservation of occupations, racial friction would result, and industrial progress would be disturbed. The mere existence of machinery which could be applied to interfere with the employment of labour must of necessity give rise to a feeling of insecurity or instability, and was likely to result in capital being diverted away from South Africa. Reactions among Trade Unionists Before considering the reactions of trade unionists to the Industrial Conciliation Bill, it is useful to recall the recent history of co-ordinating bodies. Until 1950 the S.A. Trades and Labour Council was the only national co-ordinating body, although a number of unions had not affiliated to it and the Western Province had a Federation of Labour Unions in addition to a branch of the Trades and Labour Council. In 1948, however, with the spread of the apartheid ideology, a number of unions commenced an agitation against the affiliation of African unions, and against the communists who, they said, dominated the Council. Finally a number of organizations broke away and established a rival body, the S.A. Federation of Trade Unions. The Suppression of Communism Act was then passed: as is mentioned before in this Survey, the term "communist" is defined extremely widely. By February 1954, the names of 42 leading trade(40,) Afterwards summarized in The Mumfacturer, July 1954. union officials had been placed on the liquidator's list, and 27 of these officials had been ordered to resign fiom their unions.(41) At the beginning of 1954, there were fbur main co-ordinating bodies.(42) The S.A. Federation of Trade Unions had 23 unions affiliated to it, representing more than 100,000 workers, mostly in the artisan and higher wage categories. The Federation accepted affiliation from "mixed", but not from African unions. The S.A. Trades and Labour Council had 45 unions affiliated, representing a little over 80,000 workers, the majority, probably, in the operative classes. Five of these unions were African ones, with 3,750 members, and others were "mixed". The Council stood for freedom of association for all workers. Thirdly, there was the Western Province Federation of Labour Unions, with six affiliated unions (some of them "mixed" but none African), representing 17,000 workers in the Western Cape. Fourthly, the Co-ordinating Council of S.A. Trade Unions, with seven affiliated unions having 13,000 members, represented, in the main, the iron and steel industry in Pretoria. This Council did not recognize African unions, and if there were Coloured or Asiatic members of affiliated unions, they were given no vote. Besides these, there were the Federated Consultative Council of the S.A. Railways and Harbours with 70,000 members (15,000 of them also being members of the S.A. Federation of Trade Unions), and the Transvaal Council of Non-European Trade Unions representing about 10,000 African workers. Neither of these was directly affected by the Industrial Conciliation Bill. And lastly, there were several unions not affiliated to any of these co-ordinating bodies, for example the Amalgamated Engineering Union (about 21,000 members) and the S.A. Society of Bank Officials, with some 9,000 members. Approximately 305,000 workers were members of one or other of these bodies. Towards the end of 1953, when the Minister's proposals became known, trade unionists became very much concerned about the possible threat to the collective bargaining system. It was realized that while the unions were divided, they could achieve little. It was, therefore, suggested that a S.A. Council of Trade Union Federations should be formed, the various co-ordinating bodies co-operating on a voluntary basis on those issues upon which agreement could be reached. A constitution was drafted and discussions were held, but difficulties in regard to the recognition of African trade unions and their right to participate in proceedings were immediately encountered. It was realized that these could not be solved immediately,and a new course was decided upon to enable effective combined action to be taken in regard to the Industrial Conciliation Bill. (41) Information given in Assembly by Minister of Justice, 2 February 1954. Hansard No. 1. Col. 20. (42) Information from an article by Mr J. C. Rutherford, of the S.A. Typographical Union, published in the Star, 28 April 1954. 129 RELATIONS : 1.953'-54

A SURVEY OF RACE A Trade Union Unity Committee was set up, composed of leading members of the Federation of Trade Unions, Trades and Labour Council, Western Province Federation and Amalgamated Engineering Union, all serving in their individual capacities under an independent chairman. The Co-ordinating Council was unwilling to participate because of the attitude of the rest to "mixed unions." The Consultative Council of the Railways and the Transvaal Council of Non-European Trade Unions, not being directly affected by the Bill, were not drawn in. During April, a deputation from the Unity Committee asked the Minister of Labour to postpone the first reading of the Bill to the 1955 session of Parliament, in order that trade unionists could make adequate study of it. He refused this request, but did agree to make copies of the draft Bill available to the Unity Committee before it was released generally, and to consider their comments on it. Another deputation met him the following month to ask for certain amendments. He agreed to some of these, but refused to make any concessions whatever on the main principles of the Bill. The Unity Committee called a conference of trade unionists in Cape Town from 3 May to 7 May, which, it was reported, (43) was attended by representatives of 68 unions with a total membership of 221,526. A deputation from the conference waited on the Minister to express emphatic opposition to principles of the Bill dealing with "mixed" unions and reservation of occupations for particular racial groups. As the Minister again refused to alter these, an interview with the Prime Minister was sought but was refused. A this stage, the Bill was referrred to a Select Committee, but, as it had been read a second time, the main principles had been accepted by Parliament. Trade unionists then decided that greater solidarity was required. A meeting was held in Durban at the beginning of October of representatives of some 61 trade unions to discuss the formation of a central co-ordinating body to be known as the S.A. Trade Union Council. Again, difficulty was encountered in regard to the recognition of African unions. A motion was passed by a majority, voting the new body into existence and deciding that African unions should be excluded. The resolution stated that while the true principle of trade unionism required unity of all workers, in order to obtain the broadest unity possible in existing circumstances in South Africa it was necessary to confine membership of the S.A. Trade Union Council to registered unions. It was suggested that the national executive of the new body should maintain liaison with parallel co-ordinating bodies of African unions. At a meeting held shortly thereafter, the S.A.Trades and Labour Council voted itself out of existence. African unions who were members of this Council, and unions which for one reason or another opposed the resolution passed at the (43) Star, 3 May 1954. 130

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Durban meeting, have not yet announced their intentions. It is likely that three main groups. will emerge, - the new Trade Union Council and bodies to the right and left of this. The Principle of "Equal Pay for Equal Work" At the Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations held in January 1954, Dr Sheila T. van der Horst read a paper on "Equal Pay for Equal Work." (44) After pointing to the difficulties of defining "pay" and the still greater difficulties of measuring "equal work," she said that the latter was not merely "rate for the job," but should be interpreted more widely as meaning work requiring equal ability, education, training, and experience. The structure of wage rates in South Africa was a heritage of the past, and labour markets were notable for their slow response to the pressures of changing circumstances. Wage rates were not only a question of supply and demand, for wage differentials also involved questions of status, making the problem of adjustment particularly complicated in a country such as South Africa. As result, the present wage and employment structure in the country imposed crippling restrictions both on the use of labour and on the freedom of individuals to sell their labour in the best market. The results of a colour-blind inter-industry job evaluation in South Africa would be interesting: they might disconcert many Europeans, and also might have an educative effect on many African employees. Dr van der Horst went on to suggest steps towards the goal of equal pay for equal work. Her suggestions formed the basis for the findings of Council, which were as follows: "The Council of the Institute considers: I. that the aim of wage and employment policy should be directed towards bringing about equal pay for equal work, in the sense of work demanding the same degree of innate ability, education, training, experience, and responsibility, and of equal value to the employer; II. that even within the existing statutory framework employers and organized labour could do much to bring about a closer approach to this objective: employers by paying attention to the more efficient use of their labour force, and particularly to the organization, needs and aspirations of their NonEuropean employees; organized labour by permitting and assisting the reclassification of jobs to bring classifications more into line with technical developments and changing labour supplies. This would enable the lower paid to earn higher wages; III. that legislation and statutory regulations should assist rather than impede the most productive use of labour thus easing adjustment to underlying changes; (44) This was published in The South African Journal of Economics, June 1954. Reprints are available from the Institute.

A SURVEY OF RACE IV. that such adjustment would be in the interest of all sections because it is only by increased productivity that the national income can be increased to keep pace with the growth of population; V. that "the rate fbr the job" is permissible provided this slogan is not used as a device fbr restricting opportunities to do equal work and obtain equal pay. VI. Arising out of the findings, the Council of the Institute considers it essential to establish a fiar closer liaison with industrialists and organized labour in order to enlist their co-operation and assistance to achieve: (a) a more efficient, stable and contented labour force, with increased purchasing power and a higher standard of living; (b) an increased national income which would make it possible for all sections to make a larger contribution to the state revenue. This would be of immense value in enabling the country to meet its vital needs in respect of housing, education, health services and soil and water conservation." Research The National Institute for Personnel Research(45) has commenced a survey of South African manpower. By means of a fact-finding questionnaire, information on education, training, occupation or proposed occupation, will be obtained from youths of 17 years of age who register in terms of the Defence Act. At a later stage a general ability test will be administered to a sample of this group, The intention is initially to confine the investigation to Europeans, though it may be extended to other groups later on. The difficulty of obtaining the sociological data for a representative group of Non-Europeans, as well as technical difficulties connected with the measurement of ability, make this project rather more complicated than that which is intended for the Europeans. The African Studies and Mining Departments of the National Institute for Personnel Research are carrying out the following work in connection with Non- European labour: (a) Selection and classification procedures which were originally developed for the mining industry are being modified to meet the requirements of secondary industries. A number of applied studies are in progress. (b) The initial work was concerned primarily with illiterate people. The development of tests for educated and semi-educated employees will be undertaken shortly. (c) Various studies are also being carried out on the effects of education, tribal origin, and occupational experience on the aptitude-test performances of Non-Europeans. (45) information kindly supplied by the Director. 132

RELATIONS: 195.3-54 (d) A number of attitude surveys is being made amongst NonEuropeans. Relationships between working groups, reactions to supervisors, both European and Non-European, preferences for one type of work as compared to another, and concepts of right and wrong are of the subjects which are being covered. Some of this work is being carried out in collaboration with the National Council for Social Research (which has made a grant of money), the National Bureau of Educational and Social Research, the Native Affairs Department, the Florence Nightingale Committee, and the mining industry. Further research in progress in 1953 /54 included J. P. Grant (Cape Town University). Personnel management in the Cape. W. P. Kirsten (University of South Africa). African labour and wage policies of the gold mines. Dr S. T. van der Horst (Cape Town University). Turnover of African Labour in industry in greater Cape Town. Job opportunities and efficiency of labour bureaux in matching supply and demand. N. van der Walt (Pretoria University). Influence of incentives on performance of African mine-workers. XI HEALTH Discussion at the Council Meeting of the Institute of Race Relations A large part of the Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations in 1954.was devoted to health problems. Dr the Hon. E. H. Brookes, who delivered the opening address(i), examined South Africa's social structure from the viewpoint of the health of the African people. He quoted from the Keiskammahoek Rural Survey a number of case-histories to show how the migrant labour system affected the health, morals, and general well-being of the African people and, as result, the entire social and economic structure of the country. "We have no right," he said, "to build up industries and rejoice uncritically at increased prosperity if all is built on social ruin and moral anarchy." There was no longer a problem to face in inducing Africans to go to hospital. The task now was to provide sufficient beds for those wanting to use them. The commission that recently investigated hospital policy in Natal had recommended that the size of hospitals should normally not exceed 750 beds, and that these be supplemented by intercepting hospitals fbr less serious cases and devolutionary hospitals for convalescents. Many more health centres were required, particularly in rural areas. An authoritative statement was required on the future of African medical practitioners being trained at Natal (1) This was published under the title "The Health of the Bantu" in Race Relations Journal No. 2 of 1954.

A SURVEY OF RACE University. It was particularly in the Reserves that their services were needed, but they would not be able to earn adequate cash incomes in private practice there. It was to be hoped that provincial and mission hospitals would employ them and that posts of assistant district surgeons would be created, but they could be absorbed to best advantage in an expanded health centre service. Dr D. L. Ferguson, Medical Officer of Health of Port Elizabeth, outlined the tremendous expansion in health services provided for Non-Europeans in his city. Medical science had made an outstanding contribution, he said, to the promotion of health, but for optimum results the intelligent co-operation of the people was essential. The responsibility for the maintenance of health had, to a great extent, shifted from the shoulders of the local authority, assisted by the Goverment, to those of the people themselves. Dr W. H. Craib pointed out that it would be folly to try to separate the health problems of the component races of a community into watertight compartments. The control of communicable disease in any one group was of vital concern to all races. It was one of the paradoxes of our time, he continued, that we were so preoccupied with disease that we neglected to think of health. A man could be free from disease and still not be healthy. Dr Craib's definitions of health and the factors underlying and promoting this were subsequently incorporated in the findings of Council, which were as follows: "I. Health may be defined as that state of being which we all strive to attain, towards which private and public efforts are directed, and any departure from which is a matter for concern. II. The healthy person is a physically, chemically, psychologically complete, balanced, calm, unfrustrated individual with normal reactions and reserves of energy, in social harmony with his fellows, able to stand up to his environment with poise and dignity, able to do the work for which he is trained, not unduly over or under weight, and in whom clinical and instrumental examination reveals no abnormality or objective evidence of disease. III. The promotion of health is fundamentally a matter of economics and wide education. IV. Health services must be taken to all sections of the people according to their needs, because the health problems of all sections of the community are inter-dependent. Every effort should be made to reach the masses with health propaganda. V. The Council regards health centres and poly-clinics as being of particular value in the spread of health education in primitive and rural areas, and considers that their development should be supported. VI. Health propaganda should be directed towards inculcating a personal sense of responsibility in the individual towards himself and his children. 134

RELATIONS: 1953-54 135 VII. An increase in recreational facilities is urgently necessary, particularly in densely populated areas. In this connection the needs of domestic servants should receive special consideration. VIII. The Council wishes to express to the Government and to the Provincial Administrations its appreciation for their large appropriations for health services, and in particular for generous assistance to Mission Hospitals." Vital Statistics The Bureau of Census and Statistics provides vital statistics in regard to the European, Coloured and Asiatic sections of the population(2). The latest available figure showing the crude birthrate for Europeans per one thousand of the estimated mid-year population is 25.7; the death-rate is 8.9, and the natural increase rate 16.8. The birthrate amongst Coloured people is far higher, but so is the death-rate: figures are 48.8 fbr births, 18.9 for deaths, and 29.9 for natural increase rate. The rates for Asiatics, contrary to what many people believe, are lower than for Coloured people: they are 35.2 for births, 10.1 for deaths, and 25.1 for natural increase. Infant death-rates, per 1,000 live births, are 33.5 for Europeans, 133.9 for the Coloured section, and 66.1 for Asiatics. There are no comparable figures for Africans because it has so far proved impossible to institute a reliable system of registration, and because, for various reasons, many parents prefer not to register births. It is, however, interesting to examine average figures for 12 of the largest cities.(3) The incomplete registration of births, the fact that the size of the urban African population was in many cases probably not accurately known, and the disproportionate number of men in urban areas, are factors rendering the figures inaccurate. However, they are as follows: average birthrate 33.5, death-rate 16.2, natural increase rate 17.3, and infantile mortality rate 209.9. A very large proportion of the infant deaths resulted from either broncho-pneumonia or summer diarrhoea. Work of the Union Department of Health In the Assembly on 18 May, Dr H. Gluckman, Minister of Health under the previous Government, said(4) that 10 or 12 years ago, the total expenditure from all sources on health services was about £15 million, whereas the figure was now probably nearer £50 million. Dr Gluckman included in his estimates the amount spent by the State directly or in subsidies, and also amounts spent by provincial administrations, local authorities, accident funds, benefit societies, and individuals. (2) Figures extracted from Tables A4 and AS of Bulletin of Statistics, August 1954. (3) Averages calculated by writer from figures given in annual reports of Medical Officers of Health. (4) Hansard No. 15, Cols. 5403 -4.

A SURVEY OF RACE Yet, he continued, only about £200,000 was being spent on promotive and preventive services. Expansion of the health centre scheme, as the previous Government had planned, would save many millions now spent on hospitals and other curative services. Dr Brookes spoke, at the Institute's Council meeting in January, of the highly successful work of these health centres, particularly the Polela Health Unit. It combined extensive work for the rural district with intensive work on a smaller number of families who could be followed up regularly and effectively. In reply to Dr Gluckman's speech, the Minister of Health said(5) that in his opinion health centres could do a lot of good, but their services must be more extensive. Over the past year, seven more of these centres have closed; 27 are operating at present.(6) There are at present 58 full-time and 383 part-time district surgeons (one of them a Non-European), and the Department of Health subsidizes 237 European and 561 Non-European district nurses. The State, provinces, local authorities, missions, and private bodies between them have provided 1,174 beds for Europeans and 4,791 for Non-Europeans in tuberculosis hospitals and settlements. These figures do not include the accommodation in S.A.N.T.A. settlements. The Government's T.B. control work, and the activ;ties of S.A.N.T.A., are described on page 138. Beds available for patients with other infectious diseases in State hospitals and in subsidized hospitals run by local authorities and missions number 1,690 for Europeans and 2,045 for Non-Europeans. Venereal disease clinics conducted by local authorities, district surgeons, health centres, departmental and mission hospitals total 882. Of the expenditure incurred by local authorities on tuberculosis, other infectious diseases and venereal disease patients, seven-eighths is refunded by the State, while mission hospitals caring for such patients are subsidized according to the cost per patient day. Beds in leper asylums total 119 for Europeans and 2,923 for NonEuropeans. It has, in recent years, been possible to reduce the number of these beds because of the very rapid advance made recently in methods of treatment. The Minister of Health has said(') that the incidence in the Union had been reduced to 0.77 cases per 1,000 of the population, whereas in some adjoining territories it was sometimes as high as 5.5. Outstanding work has been done by State medical services, too, in combating malaria. Beds for mental and feeble-minded patients total 7,405 for Europeans and 10,725 for Non-Europeans. This accommodation remains (5) Assembly, 18 May. Hansard No. 16, Col. 5445. (6) Statistics quoted in this section, unless otherwise stated, were kindly supplied by the Secretary for Health in letters dated 22 December 1953 and 22 October 1954. (7) Senate, 11 March 1954. Hansard No. 2, Col. 170. 136

RELATIONS: 1953-54' very inadequate :(8) most of the institutions are overcrowded and many people in need of treatment are unable to gain admission. Extensions are being made to 10 mental hospitals; but the main difficulty in the way of expansion is the shortage of nursing staff. Provincial and Provincially-Subsidized Hospitals(9) Provincial Hospitals now provide 10,299 beds for Europeans and 12,742 for Non- Europeans. At mission and other hospitals (excluding mine hospitals) subsidized by the Provincial Administrations, there are a further 1,752 beds for Europeans and 5,803 for Non-Europeans, giving combined totals of 12,051 and 18,545 respectively. Work continues to be hampered by a shortage of nurses, although the position is gradually being eased by the training and employment of Non-European girls. It is interesting to recall that World Health Day, held on 7 April to mark the centenary of Florence Nightingale's arrival in the Crimea, happened to fall just after the fiftieth anniversary of the inauguration of nursing training for Africans in South Africa. The first two African nurse probationers began their training in 1903 at Victoria Hospital, Lovedale, under Dr. Neil Macvicar, the medical superintendent, and Miss Mary Balmer, the matron. Four years later the first African women, Miss Cecilia Makiwane, sat and passed the full nursing examination of the Cape Colony Medical Council. At present, 3,363 trained European women nurses and 803 trained Non-Europeans are employed in Provincial Hospitals. (10) Male nurses and midwives are not included in these figures. A further 4,847 Europeans and 2,124 Non-Europeans are training for the full certificate. In the Cape, Natal, and Orange Free State 803 Europeans and 454 Non-Europeans are employed as nursing aides. A Bill providing for their registration under the Nursing Council has been drafted and referred to a Select Committee. Statistics in respect of mission hospitals are not immediately available in respect of the Transvaal and Natal. In the other two provinces 174 trained European nurses and 49 trained Non-Europeans are employed, and 30 European girls and 277 Non-Europeans are in training. The Minister of Health is reported to have said in March (11) that South Africa is short of 3,700 nurses and 1,400 student nurses. Facilities are now available in the Transvaal to enable trained Non-European nurses to qualify in radiography and in ophthalmic nursing. (8) Information from Annual Report for 1953 of the Commissioner for Mental Hygiene. U.G. 23/54. (9) Information in this section has been kindly provided by the provincial authorities in letters sent during October 1954. (10) The figure included in respect of the Transvaal refers to posts, not incumbents. (11) Speech at meeting of S.A. Nursing Council as reported in the Star, 15 March 1954.

A SURVEY OF RACE Work of Voluntary Societies, often Assisted by the State The book for newly-literate Africans entitled "Guide to Health for Adults," published recently by the S.A. Institute of Race Relations, is described on page 111. The Cape Western Regional Committee of the Institute has during the year been very much concerned about the inadequacy of medical facilities for 4,500 Africans living at Nyanga. Assisted by a grant from the Divisional Council and the voluntary services of several doctors, nurses, pharmacists and other assistants, the Committee has now been able to establish a general clinic there which has commenced with weekly sessions. The Southern Transvaal and other Regional Committees have been investigating maternity services available for Non- Europeans and the training and employment of African nurses. The National War Memorial Health Foundation, established in 1945 as a living memorial to the 12,000 South Africans who gave their lives in the Second World War, bases its work on the philosophy that prevention is better than cure, and promotion is better than both. It seeks by the provision of a variety of services to help underprivileged families of all racial groups to happiness and healthy living. The Foundation has now provided nutrition schemes in 16 areas, nine community centres, seven cr&hes, five work-clubs, eight vegetable or food clubs, four soup kitchens, and four milk and vitamin schemes. It has taken over Hobbiton, a children's holiday centre at the Hog's Back, and is establishing another at St. Michael's-on-Sea. A bursary award scheme helps to increase the number of trained social workers of all races available in South Africa. State subsidies are paid for many of these projects. Tours by mobile X-ray units of the Department of Health revealed an alarmingly high proportion of tuberculosis among Non-Europeansan incidence as high as one per cent., the Minister of Health has said. (12) Additional State hospitals have been provided during the year, but it is obviously impossible to deal with the situation adequately by conventional methods. Toward the end of 1952, various Durban industries agreed to collaborate with the Department in a revolutionary experiment in the control of tuberculosis. African workers found to be suffering from the disease in an acute but non- infectious form are being kept in employment and given daily tests and treatment in factory clinics. So far, patients treated in this way have responded very satisfactorily. Infectious cases have to be hospitalized or sent to settlements, but with modern antibiotic drug treatment they are generally rendered non-infectious within a few months and can normally return to their former employment, receiving domiciliary follow-up treatment. Disability grants are paid to the patients while they are unable to work. As is stated above, the State, provinces, local authorities, missions and private bodies have now provided 1,174 beds for European (12) Senate, 11 March 1954. Hansard No. 2, Col. 171.

RELATIONS: 1953-54' tuberculosis patients and 4,971 for Non-Europeans. Their work has during recent years been most valuably supplemented by the S.A. National Tuberculosis Association, which has now 10 settlements, with 26 beds for Europeans, 63 for Coloured people, 119 for Indians and 923 for Africans. Three further settlements, two for Africans and one for Coloured patients, are in course of construction, and others have been planned. Grants-in-aid of seven-eighths of the capital expenditure to a maximum of £150, and per patient per day subsidies, are provided by the State. (13) In the older settlements, accommodation was provided for contact families, but with new methods of treatment this has become unnecessary. Patients in the settlements are generally no longer required to lie in bed, and can be employed on gardening, building, road maintenance, etc., receiving a small remuneration for their work. The 100 branches of the Association do care work among the dependents of patients, providing food supplies, blankets, clothing and in necessary cases rent grants. They also undertake general propaganda work, persuading employers to take back employees who have been cured. The National Council for the Blind includes the Bureau for the Prevention of Blindness, the Civilian Blind Institute, the Transvaal Society for the Care of Non- European Blind, and the Coloured and Indian Blind Welfare Association. The extremely high incidence of unnecessary blindness among Africans, generally as a result of trachoma, has frequently been pointed out. In the Lydenburg district of the Transvaal, for example, which is one of the worst areas, approximately half of those examined in an investigation conducted in 1951 required ophthalmic treatment. A mobile clinic operated by the National Council with the assistance of honorary ophthalmic surgeons continues to make periodic tours of the Northern Transvaal, undertaking curative and preventive work. In a Survey such as this, it is impossible to do more than outline outstanding recent developments, but it must be borne in mind that a large number of other voluntary societies continue to do selfless and most valuable work in the field of health. The co-ordinating bodies of some of these are the National Council for Care of Cripples in S.A., the S.A. National Council for Mental Hygiene, the S.A. National Council for the Deaf, St. John Ambulance Association, the S.A. Red Cross Society, the Noodhulpliga, the S.A. National Council for Maternal and Family Welfare, the Rand Epileptic Employment Association, and others. Organizations which are concerned with general family welfare are mentioned in the next chapter. Nutrition The Treasury continues to subsidize butter, maize, wheat and bread, in order that the prices may be kept down. So far as bread is concerned, the largest subsidy (41d. per two-pound loaf) is paid on the enriched loaf, and the smallest (13 /5d. per loaf) on white (13) In some cases the local authority pays a proportion of the subsidy.

A SURVEY OF RACE bread.(14) Unfortunately the prejudice against brown bread, which is too often regarded as an inferior product, still results in the exercise of a widespread preference for the dearer white loaf over the Bremer (enriched wholemeal) loaf. This is specially marked amongst the urban poor, who would gain most from the use of Bremer bread. It is to be regretted that the price difference in its favour does not exercise its full effects in transferring demand to the fortified bread, since it tends to be regarded as evidence of inferiority. Sales of Bremer bread are increasing, however, and reached 7,700,000 loaves a month in March.(15) Fertilizers, bags, oil-cake and other items are also subsidized; people in the lower-income groups can obtain butter and margarine at reduced prices; and arrrangements can be made for European, Indian and Coloured pre-school children to obtain free milk. The feeding of African employees in the Witwatersrand mining industry was praised at the Congress of the S.A. Medical Association held during June, and it was suggested that if urban employers gave their Non-European workers a nutritious, cooked, mid-day meal, their health and efficiency would improve very greatly. When certain municipalities and other employers have in the past supplied such meals, however, African workers have objected, stating that they preferred full cash wages. There are probably two main reasons for this: firstly, that a very great deal of education in nutritional values is required; and secondly, as is shown on page 32 of this Survey, that wages in a majority of cases are still too low to make healthy family life possible for urbanized Non-Europeans. As was pointed out by African speakels at the Institute's Council meeting in 1954, under the cash-and-kind system of payment, the bread-winner is well fed while his family is not. It is usually necessary for the whole family to economize on food in order to meet essentials such as rent and transport and, perhaps, to have a few shillings over to spend on non-essentials which make life less drab. Feeding Schemes for African Children The new decision in regard to the African school feeding scheme is reported on page 100. A number of voluntary organizations and individuals provide feeding schemes for African or Coloured children. The work of the Pretoria Joint Council in this respect is mentioned on page 18. An outstanding contribution is made by the African Children's Feeding Scheme in Johannesburg, run by voluntary workers including many African women who are members of Service Committees. Africans contribute very considerably, too, to the cost of the food, donating over £,2,000 a year, which is one-sixth of the total cost. About 5,000 children a day are fed at nine centres in the various (14) Information from Secretary for Agriculture in letter dated 19 December 1953. (15) Minister of Health, Senate, 11 March 1954. Hansard No. 2, Col. 183. RELATIONS: 1953-54 townships, ten African schools that receive no school-feeding grant are provided with food, and arrangements are made that undernourished children visiting clinics are sent on to a feeding centre. Much educational work is done among mothers and children to improve their knowledge of health, hygiene, and nutrition; this is carried out largely by means of film-shows. Research A National Nutrition Research Institute has been established during the year by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in collaboration with the Department of Nutrition. As a first task, it is continuing experiments initiated previously by the Department in methods of enriching wheat and maize products. The Clinical Nutrition Research Unit at the Medical School in Cape Town is undertaking an inter-racial comparison of morbidity and mortality. It is believed that differences in nutrition are of very great importance, although these are being held in perspective against environmental and genetic factors. The Family Health Research Unit in Durban is undertaking a socio-anthropological study of an Indian community and is continuing studies of maternal nutrition in relation to the growth and development of the infant: mothers of all racial groups are included in this project. The Nutrition Research Unit at the Medical School in Johannesburg is working on a longterm project to examine the r6le of diet in modifying the pattern of disease. In Johannesburg also is the Human Bio-Chemistry Research Unit at the S.A. Institute for Medical Research, which is undertaking metabolism studies among Africans. (16) A Dental Research Unit was established in 1953 at the University of the Witwatersrand. Other research in progress during the past year included a study by Mr D. G. Bettison, of Rhodes University, of the effect of African customs on public health, and one by Mr W. Cohen, of Witwatersrand University, of the integration of Non- European blind. XII SOCIAL WELFARE The Financing of Voluntary Welfare Organizations The recommendations of the (du Plessis) Committee appointed in 1951 to inquire into the Financing of Voluntary Welfare Organizations were made public early in 1954. The Institute of Race Relations duplicated extracts of particular interest to those concerned with welfare work amongst Non-Europeans. (1) At its Executive Committee meeting in July, Dr A. W. Hoernl commented on the report. One recommendation that had caused disquiet, she said, was that welfare work should normally be carried out by "family welfare organizations," (16) Information in this paragraph from annual report for 1952/3 of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. (1) RR. 100/54. and that specialist organizations such as those dealing with the blind, cripples, mental defectives, etc., should be called in only when required to deal with individual members of a family. Modern experience had proved that when, for example, one member of a family was deaf, the whole family needed specialist advice on how to assist him. The Committee had recommended that the social welfare care of families and persons be given within their national, cultural, and religious groups, and that this be taken into account in the subsidization of voluntary welfare organizations. The present position was that while certain religious groups had set up organizations to deal with welfare work amongst their members, other groups and individuals preferred the system whereby trained social workers employed by the local authority dealt with social welfare aspects of the work while the churches concentrated on the spiritual aspects. This system had worked very well in practice. The Committee considered that local authorities should not undertake ordinary welfare work, should not conduct research or investigations, and should not themselves endeavour to fill gaps in social welfare services. It was, Dr Hoernl6 considered, difficult to imagine why it was necessary for an excellent service such as that provided by Johannesburg Municipality to be handed over to the State Department or to voluntary family welfare organizations. There were so many gaps in social welfare services in South Africa that no wellconstituted body should be prevented from doing work for the good of the community. Further recommendations were that preference be given to separate voluntary welfare organizations for the different Non-European groups, that Non-Europeans be encouraged to accept increasing responsibility for undertaking social welfare work among their own people, and that in cases where Europeans were doing such work, this be considered as a temporary transitional phase. It would, however, be very unwise to hand over too precipitately to NonEuropeans, particularly Africans, for social welfare work in the Western environment was completely new to most of them. Further criticisms of the report were that the recommended basis for subsidization of welfare services was inadequate, and the recommended salary scales for social workers were too low, so far as Non- Europeans were concerned comparing most unfavourably with salaries of teachers. Major welfare organizations, Dr Hoernl6 said, were preparing memoranda on the recommendations and were seeking interviews with the Minister of Social Welfare. It therefore appeared unnecessary for the Institute of Race Relations to take any action. Pensions and Grants Paid in South Africa A list of pensions and grants paid in South Africa is given in Annexure V, page 165. This is based on available information and is not complete; however, all major items are included. Estimating A SURVEY OF RACE 142

RELATIONS: 1953-54 143 roughly from this,(2) it appears that Europeans receive about £20,679,922 a year in pensions or grants, Coloured people about £3,033,051, Asiatics about £572,700 and Africans about £4,054,884, giving a combined total of £28,340,557.(3) Many of the pensions and grants payable were increased in terms of the Budget for 1954/55. Bonuses granted in the past to old-age pensioners, war veterans, blind and physically unfit persons and persons receiving maintenance grants and family allowances were incorporated as part of the pension, and the consolidated pension was then increased. So far as old-age pensions were concerned, for example, the effect is as follows: Free income permitted if Previous Bonus Further New maximum maximum paid in increase maximum pension is pension 1953 made in pension payable 1954 Europeans ...... £90 £72 £36 £6 £114 Coloured persons ... £45 £36 £12 £1 10 0 £49 10 0 Asiatics ...... £36 £30 £12 £1 10 0 £43 10 0 Africans in the 9 principal cities ... £24 £12 £6 15s.Gd.£18150 Africans in smaller towns ...... £18 £9 £6 15s. 0d. £15 15 0 Africans in rural areas ...... £12 £6 £6 15s. Gd. £12 15 0 Because the sum standing to the credit of the Unemployment Insurance Fund had risen to £57,500,000 as at 31 December 1953,(4) which was a far higher reserve than is required, the Unemplqyment Insurance Amendment Act, No. 10 of 1954, was passed, in terms of which contributions required from the State, employers, and employees are reduced, and benefits payable to contributors who are not working because of certain specified illnesses or pregnancy are increased. The Institute of' Race Relations has on several occasions urged that pensions, instead of block grants, be paid to Africans from the Union who contract silicosis on the mines: it is realized that pensions for extra-Union Africans are impracticable. The official reply has been that insufficient statistical knowledge is available to make possible the compilation of the necessary life-tables. The Minister (2) Estimate by writer. (3) The total Pensions Vote for 1954/55 is £22,063,000, an increase of £2,670,000 over the previous year. On the other hand, certain items included above are not financed from the Pensions Vote-Unemployment Insurance, Workmen's Compensation and Silicosis Benefits, for example. (4) Information given in Assembly, 5 February 1954. Hansard No. 1, Col. 179.

A SURVEY OF RACE of Native Affairs said recently, however,(5) that the practice is to pay the benefits in monthly instalments. In the course of time, a beneficiary's award may become exhausted, but so far it has always proved possible to continue payments by drawing from a special fund which receives all unpaid balances of awards when a beneficiary dies and has no dependants. Welfare Work by the Institute of Race Relations Members of the Executive Committee and staff of the Institute of' Race Relations, in their individual capacities or as official representatives of the Institute, serve on the committees of numbers of welfare organizations. The Institute administers the Auden Race Relations Trust, the Bantu Welfare Trust, the Robert Shapiro Trust, and Isaacson Foundation Bursary Fund, and acts as secretariat for the Indian Social Welfare Association and the Council of Education. In addition, large numbers of individuals of all racial groups, but particularly Africans, visit its offices to seek advice and assistance. Case-work is a function of all its offices, but a particularly large volume is handled by the Field Officer at Head Office and by the Cape Western Regional Office. The Field Officer finds it necessary to devote much time to assisting Africans who are in difficulties as result of influx control or pass regulations or in regard to wages: they are frequently bewildered, unsure of their rights, and uncertain which official to approach. Because restrictions on the entry of Africans into the proclaimed area of the Cape Peninsula have in recent years been applied with increasing severity, and as result of the recent decision to register African women, (6) the Cape Western Regional Office has an average of four African visitors a day seeking advice. So far they have been mainly men wanting permits to seek work, in search of work, or wanting advice on wages or on compensation questions and numerous other difficulties arising from the stringency and complexity of statutory enactments. Some success has been experienced in obtaining jobs for more educated Non- Europeans and for aged or disabled men. All staff members of the Institute engaged in case-work report on the co-operation received from State and municipal officials. Work of Other Voluntary Organizations The Jan H. Hofme)r School of Social Work, in Johannesburg, continues to provide a diploma course for Non-Europeans who are subsequently employed by municipalities, child welfare and other voluntary societies, community centres, and so on. The student body in 1954 is composed of 43 men and 24 women, four of them Coloured, one Indian, and the rest African. The rural welfare experiment conducted by the School is described on page 92. (5) Assembly, 2 June 1954. Hansard No. 17, Col. 6151. (6) See page 44. 144

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Alarmed at the high divorce rate in Johannesburg (one for every 34- marriages contracted, it was said, as against one per seven in the country generally) and the aftermath of broken homes and maladjusted personalities, the arranged a Family Life Week during May, which culminated in a National Family Welfare Conference. An interim committee was formed to draft a constitution for a National Marriage Guidance Council. The Mayor said he hoped that some means would be found to spread the work among Non-Europeans. Dr David Mace, an American expert on marriage guidance, was able to attend the conference and assist with advice. Much comment was made, during the Family Life Week, on the Minister of Social Welfare's statement(7) that of approximately 20,000 children in institutions in South Africa, the parents of 14,000 were both living. The S.A. National Council for Child Welfare is a federal body composed of autonomous affiliated Child Welfare Societies and other bodies and government departments. The 121 European societies have direct representation on the Council, while 33 NonEuropean societies are represented on a Standing Committee on Non-European Child Welfare Work. Social workers and nurses, employed by the Council, visit and assist local societies. The work of these local bodies varies greatly according to needs, but almost all of them undertake work for the protection of children in co-operation with magistrates, Commissioners of Child Welfare and /or Native Commissioners. Various types of social work connected with family difficulties, adoption work, provision and supervision of foster homes, provision of clubs, holiday facilities, clinics and creches, are also undertaken. Many of the societies employ social workers or district nurses, and a Mothercraft Training Centre is conducted in Cape Town. The Standing Committee for Non-European Child Welfare met during February 1954 to discuss the training of Indian nurses, health services on mission stations and in Reserves, rates of maintenance grants for different racial groups, the need for institutions for deviate children, strikes at African educational institutions, subsidies for creches and pre-school feeding. Branches of the Union of Jewish Women continue to interest themselves deeply in the welfare of Non-Europeans. They raise funds for charitable organizations, bursaries, etc., and most of them run projects such as creches, nursery schools, feeding depots, a mothercraft welfare centre, and sewing classes. Among local organizations doing particularly good work, mention should be made of the Pietermaritzburg African Welfare Society. It has formed two evening clubs for Africans, a Social Club which meets six times a month for indoor games, singing, fi!m-shows, and refreshments, and a Recreation Club with sections for ballroom dancing, choir singing, games, drama, and so on. One or other of the sections meets almost every night. Weekly dressmaking classes are held in (7) Senate, 5 April 1954. Hansard No. 6, Col. 1325.

A SURVEY OF RACE the gaol for long-sentence African women prisoners, the garments made being handed. to the women on their release. Gifts of clotning, blankets, and firewood are made to the inhabitants of Ekupulwneni, the Sobantu Village Home for the Aged. Other work includes grants-in-aid, clothing for babies of indigent mothers, and so on. All the officials and helpers of the Society work in a voluntary capacity. The Cape Flats Distress Association has now gone into partnership with the National Council for the Care of Cripples in the organization af a fraihihg centre ror fiandfcapped Coloured men. This centre is equipped with basic woodworking and metal work machinery, and undertakes mainly sub-contracting work for industrialists. The trainees, who were nearly all previously in receipt of maintenance and disability grants, are now on a weekly wage subsidized by the Department of Labour. They are being trained in co-ordination of hand and eye, punctuality, factory discipline, and so on, and thus are prepared for and eventually placed in the open labour market. At present 45 men are in training. It is hoped to increase the number to 100 during the course of the next twelve months. The Association of European and African Women sponsors a rapidlygrowing self- help movement called Service Committees among African women in Reef townships. Fifteen of these committees now exisC, with a membership of 400. Activities undertaken have included the provision of two schools, six day nurseries, one soup kitchen which provides a daily meal for 35 blind and old-age pensioners, and a youth centre for adolescent boys. The various institutions established for children now cater for 1,600. Funds necessary to maintain these activities are raised by sewing circles attached to each Service Committee, and by holding jumble sales, concerts, and other functions. The Association assists by acting as the Public Relations Department, by collecting and distributing gifts of sewing materials and jumble, and by giving guidance and advice. It helps tne Committees to establish special projects by making the necessary official applications and by canvassing for donations of equipment. An all.-African organization in Johannesburg is the Orlando Mothers' Welfare Associat2on. In spite of difficulties caused by the facts that social service in the Western form is a new concept to Africans and that most of the members are able to do charitable work during the week-ends only, the membership is steadily growing. The school planned by the Association is described on page 104. Other activities have included provision of warm clothing to children from poor homes and the investigation of reports about destitute and neglected children. The Pietersburg NAon-European Welfare Society runs a women's work class to which a thrift club is attached. About 40 women attended and made 163 garments during the last year. The night-school run by the Society is mentioned on page 112. With the assistance of the Rotary Club, the Molepo Centre is being built which will serve a great many purposes. Blankets and food are distributed to the needy,

RELATIONS: 1953-54 garments are made for children at the Khaiso Cr&he, and suitable action is taken when matters requiring attention arise, for example, during the past year, hospital dismissals without notification of relatives, notice given by the municipality to shanty dwellers, irregularity of buses for Non-Europeans, and general welfare cases. Shortage of space again makes it impossible to describe the activities of many other national and local welfare bodies, which include Toc H, the Salvation Army, the Suzd-Afrikaanse Federale froueraad, the National Council of Women and National Council of African Women, the S.A. Women's Agricultural Union, Algemene Armesorg Kommissies of the Dutch Reformed Church, Jewish Benevolent Societies, the Catholic Women s League, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, Mothers' Unions of the various churches, and many more. XIII RECREATION Literature The popularity of the four monthly magazines for Africans, entitled "Zonk," "African Drum," "Highnote," and "Africa," continues to increase, their combined circulation now lbaving reached about 182,000 a month. The circulation of African newspapers is likewise expanding: the combined figure for the 11 leading weeklies published in the Union and the High Commission Territories is now about 117,000, in addition to which there is a monthly paper with a circulation of 5,000 and a. quarterly with a circulation of 3,000. Other papers are produced paticularly fur the Indian, Chinese, and Coloured people, and rapidly increasing numbers of Non-Europeans are subscribing to leading South African dailies. Groups of employers, such as the S.A. Railways and Harbours Administration and further municipalities bave during the past year commenced issuing magazines or news-sheets catering for their Non-European employees. There is a growing number of African authors producing works of merit in the vernaculars or English. Mr A. N. Fula recently published the first outstanding book by an African in Afrikaans, entitled 7ohannie Giet die Bteld. Mr C. L. S. Nyembezi has this year published a valuable book of Zulu proverbs. Music, the Theatre, and Broadcasting Professor P. R. Kirby has recently published a revised edition of his book The Musical Iusirnients of the Native Races of South Africa, dealing with every kind of instrument from Busbman rattles and clappers, to drums and reed flutes, and thence to stringed instruments. Mr Hugh Tracey, of the African Music Society, some years ago produced African Dances of the Witwalersrand Gold Mines, and continues to build up his library of recorded African music. International support for this work has recently been provided. The eighth annual Bantu Music Festival, held in Johannesburg during September 1954, was followed by a prize presentation concert

A SURVEY OF RACE which included church choirs, vocal solos, duets, glee singers, children's choirs, jubilee singers, and brass bands. Another event of interest in the musical world took place in Cape Town during the same month when Mr Dan Ulster, a Coloured musician, conducted the Cape Town Municipal Orchestra at the opening concert of the University Arts Festival. The Bantu Theatre Company of Cape Town has played with such great success to European as well as African audiences there that it this year undertook a Union- wide toar sponsored by the S.A. Institute of Race Relations. A National Bantu Artists' Union has recently been established to negotiate on behalf of African artists for copyrights, royalties, etc., and to arrange film contracts and recordings. An organization called the Syndicate of African Artists was formed in Johannesburg in 1952, with the objects of fostering better artistry, undertaking publication of works of art, and sponsoring exhibitions, concerts, and dramatic productions. Eight prominent artists from South Africa and overseas (including Yehudi Menuhin) are patrons, there is an all-African board of control, and membership is open to persons of all racial groups. Under the auspices of this organization the Syndicate Players have produced Shakespearian plays, dramatized versions of Jane Eyre, A Tale of Two Cities and various African folk tales. Several multi-racial concerts of high standard have been held, and exhibitions of work by Non-European students at the municipal art centre have been arranged. The radio rediffusion service of the S.A.B.C., now connected to some 10,000 receiving sets in Orlando, Jabavu, and Noordgesig, Johannesburg, provides a new opportunity for Non-European artists to show their talent. The Guide to Health for Adults, recently produced by the S.A. Institute of Race Relations, is being adapted for serial broadcasts over this transmission. Siting of Recreation Grounds for Non-Europeans Early in 1954, the Durban City Council planned to establish a recreation ground at Virginia Estate, Durban North, for African domestic servants who are accommodated on their employers' premises in the Northern suburbs. The scheme was vetoed by the Minister of Native Affairs, in terms of Section 9 (7) of the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, on the ground that any amenities for urban Africans must be provided witbin locations or Native villages, which must be visualized as the ultimate residential areas for all Africans employed in towns, including domestic -servants and employees in flats and hotels who, according to the Minister, are to be drawn increasingly from such areas. Work of the Institute of Race Relations in the Field of Recreation While visiting East London during April, the Director of the Institute of Race Relations had discussions with the mayor, municipal

RELATIONS: 1953-54 officials, local sporting bodies, and leading Africans in connection with the proposal that a sports ground be established for Africans in the "Duncan Bowl." He was able to promise that a contribution of £2,500 from a Trust Fund would be forthcoming provided that the project was completed. As result of the discussions, it was agreed that a Duncan Bowl Committee be formed, representative of European and African sporting organizations, the City Council and other interested persons, that the Council would give financial assistance, that European sporting bodies would help, and that the African people would be asked to contribute too, especially through doing practical work in establishing the project. The Natal Regional Committee of the Institute has been studying closely proposals by local authorities for racial re-zoning of the beaches. Both the Cape Western and Cape Eastern Regional Committees have been assisting with the establishment or expansion of libraries for Africans. The Cape Western Regional Secretary acts as secretary to the Focus Fellowship which arranges monthly inter- racial functions that have been attended by several members of the Institute. Among the entertainments arranged was a performance at Langa at which visiting Austrian students and Africans contributed folk-songs and dances. The Cape Eastern Committee held an inter-racial concert at which African, Coloured, and European choirs sang and a group of Indians contributed dances. The Regional Secretary runs a dancing class at the South End Girls' Club. Other Recreational Facilities Recently Provided Although recreational facilities for urban Non-Europeans are still grossly inadequate, some progress has been made during the year. The Huddleston swimming bath at Orlando, built by means of funds donated by the public, was opened early in 1954 and has since been taken over by Johannesburg Municipality which will provide staff and carry out maintenance work. Coloured families at Coronationville are subscribing towards a fund for a swimming bath in their township. The Bantu Sports Club Trust is hoping, in collaboration with the Municipality, shortly to provide a number of playgrounds and club houses in the African townships of Johannesburg. The Playing Fields Association and Port Elizabeth Municipality have collaborated to provide a sports stadium in New Brighton. To mention but one more example, in Uitenhage the Muncipality has recently built a hall for Africans and is now building one for the Coloured community, and the Rotary Club and other interested people are supplying a sports stadium. 149

XIV JUSTICE Numbers Convicted The Bureau of Census and Statistics provides statistical information on crime and offences. During 1953,(1) the total number of prosecutions was some 1,411,032, and of convictions some 1,258,320, the latter figure including 165,972 Europeans, 125,964 Coloured people, 26,580 Asiatics, and 939,804 Africans. These figures do not indicate the number of persons convicted, of course, since many individuals were convicted on more than one charge. The percentages of the total convictions for each group in respect of serious crime were 6.5 for Europeans, 9.1 for Coloured people, 4.4 for Asiatics, and 5.1 for Africans. An analysis of figures to indicate the type of crime is not available for years later than 1951. Statistics for that year indicate clearly, however, how large a pioportion of the total number of convictions was for offences against liquor laws or regulations for supervision and control of Africans. (2) To take matters relating to liquor first, 8 per cent. of all convictions of Europeans were for drunkenness, the relevant figures for other groups being 27 for Coloured people, 5 for Asiatics, and 4 for Africans. Other liquor and dagga offences (including illegal possession of liquor and selling liquor to NonWhites) formed these percentages of the total convictions of each roup: Europeans 2, Coloured 12, Asiatics 5, Africans 22. Turning now to offences against regulations for supervision and :ontrol of Africans, the percentages were: Europeans 3, Coloured 1, Xsiatics 3, Africans 28. The actual number of convictions of Africans br such offences was 232,420, this figure including 110,427 convictions br offences against curfew regulations or regulations for registration md production of documents, and 43,951 for offences against the pass aws. In his annual report for 1952,(3) the Director of Prisons states hat the daily average number of persons detained in prison instituions, excluding reformatories and police lock-ups, was 1,544 Europeans nd 30,359 Non-Europeans. The total number of sentenced prisoners idmitted to gaols (again, this does not represent the number of persons) vas 201,003: of these 5,442 were Europeans, 965 Asiatics, and the est Coloured or Africans. 122,884, or 61.1 per cent., of them were irst offenders, and 118,989 (or 59.2 per cent. of the total) had sentences )f one month or under, in many cases imposed as alternative to a fine. ['his last figure was an increase of 12,152 over the previous year. ['he Director pointed out how difficult it was to employ these shorterm prisoners constructively. 1) Monthly average figures as given in issue of the Bulletin of Statistics for August 1954, Table L.1, are here multiplied by 12 to give approximate figures. Percentages are calculated by the writer. 2) Calculations by the writer from statistics given in Table L.3, Bulletin of Statistics, January 1954. 3) U.G. 37/1953. A SURVEY OF RACE 150

RELATIONS: 1953-54 Information was given on behalf of the Minister of Justice in the Assembly during February about the number of sentences to whipping(4). In the case of Europeans, these rose from 38 in 1949 to 284 in 1953, and for Non-Europeans, from 4,054 to 12,592. The average number of strokes given in 1953 was just under five per person for Europeans and a little under six for Non-Europeans. In spite of the increasing severity of punishment meted out and the augmentation of the police force, the authorities have yet not been able to put an end to the robbery and violence which occur particularly in African townships and suburban trains carrying NonEuropeans to and from their work. Furthermore, as in other countries, there has in South Africa been a steady rise in the crimes committed by young people - of all racial groups. The National Council of Women has decided to conduct an inquiry through all its branches into the causes of juvenile delinquency among Europeans and NonEuropeans. A further aspect which is causing much concern is the growing disrespect among Non-Europeans for the "white man's laws" which they have had no share in making and do not willingly accept. Particularly in such matters as the pass laws and the liquor laws, which closely affect people's everday lives, the stricter the control imposed, the more ingenuity is used by some people to circumvent the regulations. The vast majority of Non-Europeans, of course, remain lawabiding people, but, although obeying the laws and regulations for their control, resentment of these is undoubtedly increasing. Prisons The report of the Director of Prisons, mentioned above, tells of the progress made in recent years in the organization of prisons. All European men sentenced to long terms of imprisonment are now sent first to the Central Prison, Pretoria. First offenders who prove amenable to discipline are then transferred to Baviaanspoort where they are allowed a far greater measure of freedom and are employed in or taught various trades or do work on the prison farm. They are accommodated in bungalows which are not locked at night, and have their meals in a communal restaurant. Recidivists who have behaved well at the Central Prison are transferred for the last few months of their sentences to Zonderwater, which is a training centre for freedom. Discipline is relaxed there and increasing contact is provided with the outside world through newpapers, radio, newsreels, and lectures. At the Central Prison more opportunities have recently been provided for men to qualify as skilled artisans and to improve their educational qualifications. There are so few European women prisoners that it is impossible to provide varied types of prisons for them. Similar schemes have been introduced for Non-Europeans. Male prisoners who are serving medium terms may be transferred to Leeuwkop Prison Farm, near Johannesburg. To begin with they are employed there on work such as stone- quarrying, but graduate to work (4) 12 February 1954. Hansard No. 2, Col. 465.

A SURVEY OF RACE in the fields or dairies, in the carpenters' or fitters' shops, or on building work; and finally, if their behaviour has been good, they are made monitors and given increasing freedom. Africans who are declared idle or disorderly under the Natives (Urban Areas) Act are now sent to Baviaanspoort where they are taught useful work and are kept away from real criminals. The "halfway-house" prison at Zonderwater caters for Non-Europeans as well as Europeans. When Europeans are discharged from prison, an inter-departmental committee of representatives of the Departments of Justice, Labour, and Education tries to place them in employment. Africans are referred to labour bureaux. During 1952, 40,553 African prisoners(-) elected to take part in the scheme whereunder petty offenders with sentences not exceeding four months may be hired out to farmers. A contract is entered into before the prison superintendent or magistrate. The offenders are placed on parole, given the maximum remission of sentence for which they are eligible, and are paid at the rate of 9d. per day for the remaining period of their sentences. The number of farm prison outstations has now risen to 16. In January 1954 they accommodated 3,066 African prisoners,(6) but, according to a press report of a recent speech by the Minister of Justice, (7) this number had increased to 4,500 by the end of the period under review. During January, several persons who had been convicted for participation in the Defiance Campaign and had elected to serve prison sentences instead of paying fines made statements to the press alleging that Non-European prisoners were shouted at and beaten up by warders, and were afraid to complain to senior officials or visiting magistrates or medical officers in case reprisals were taken by the warders. The Director of Prisons replied(") that he did not consider that ill- treatment such as that described could take place except in rare and isolated cases. A directive from him was in force that any prison official who was discovered assaulting prisoners should be tried in open court and not merely dealt with departmentally. An inquiry was instituted into the allegations: the results have not been made public. The Rev. H. P. Junod, National Organizer of the Penal Reform League, supported the Director of Prisons. In his many years of service as a prison chaplain, he said,(9) he had come across cases of assaults on prisoners, but severe action had always been taken by the authorities against the warders responsible. Treatment of Non-Europeans by the Police Because the police in South Africa have the unenviable task of enforcing laws which Non-Europeans consider to be unjust and hurt(5) Report of Director of Prisons, op. cit. (6) Information by Minister of Justice, Assembly, 4 February 1954. Hansard 1, Col. 178. (7) Rand Daily Mail, 30 October 1954. (8) Statement as published in the Star, 18 January 1954. (9) Speech as reported in the Star, 3 February 1954.

A SURVEY OF RACE ful to their personal dignity, resentment is inevitable. It appears, however, from many reports which have been made to the Institute of Race Relations by its Non- European members, that friction is increased by the aggressive attitude too frequently adopted by policemen, both European and African. The Institute has made a practice of reporting to Police Headquarters all cases of ill-treatment of NonEuropeans that come to its knowledge and that can be proved, and has always received a most sympathetic hearing. The Methodist Church, the Penal Reform League, and others have taken similar action, but in some cases no witnesses are willing to testify, and many instances must, of course, be unobserved by Europeans who are prepared to take the matter up with the authorities. The Institute of Race Relations has suggested(10) that intensive training should be given at police colleges along the lines of that provided at the Southern Police Institute at the University of Louisville in America. Selected police officers are there trained in the social aspects of police work as well as in modern methods of crime detection and law enforcement. The men are given a thorough grounding in the law they are enforcing and the trainee is made to realize the necessity for fair and impartial treatment for all under the law. Courses are given in "The Background of Racial, National and Religious Tensions," "Social Situations in which Tensions Arise" and "The R61e of the Police in Dealing with Tensions." Cases Involving Accused Persons of Different Racial Groups There has been much public comment during the year on the outcome of cases in which the accused were members of different racial groups. Towards the end of the period under review, a European farmer from Rustenburg, together with his son and two of his African labourers, was charged with murdering an African who had been hired out from prison to work on the farm. A joint trial by jury was held. Medical testimony differed about the direct cause of death, but it was proved beyond doubt that the prisoner had been beaten by the farmer and on his orders. To the expressed surprise of the judge, a majority of the jury found that a verdict of common assault would meet the ends of justice. The law provides that a jury is employed at trials if the accused requests one. If a European is facing a serious criminal charge involving a Non-European, however, the Crown may apply to the Minister of Justice to override a request for a jury, the case then being tried by a judge sitting with two assessors. But if Europeans and NonEuropeans are charged jointly, the Crown is precluded from making such application. The Attorney-General is reported(") to have said that in the case mentioned above it was considered inadvisable to split the trial for there was reason to believe that the full facts were more likely to be elicited at a joint trial. (10) RR. 18/1954. (11) Pretoria News, 6 October 1954. 153

A SURVEY OF RACE If a repetition of this type of case is to be prevented, the solution would appear to be an amendment to the law to enable the Crown to apply to the Minister to direct a non-jury trial in cases where Europeans and Non-Europeans are charged jointly. Separate trials of European and Non-European accused may lead to miscarriages of justice, as has been demonstrated during the year by the outcome of several cases under the Immorality Act. There have been a number of cases in which Europeans and NonEuropeans charged jointly under the Act have both been convicted. It was reported in the Assembly on 12 February by a spokesman for the Minister ofJustice(12) that 152 Europeans and 162 Non-Europeans were convicted under the Immorality Act during 1952. Several cases have occurred recently, however, in which a Non- European woman pleaded guilty while the European man appearing on the same charge pleaded not guilty. His case was then remanded. When it came to trial the woman, under cross-examination by the defence, gave evidence in conflict with her original statement and with the weight of other evidence, and the man was then discharged. A case that caused particular comment was one in which both the man and the woman were sentenced to a term of imprisonment. The woman served her sentence, but the man appealed. His appeal was allowed on the ground that the offence might have been committed without the woman's consent, and in that case he would have been guilty of rape, which crime was excluded from the operation of the Immorality Act. In these cases, if the facts were brought to the notice of the Director of Prisons before the woman's term of imprisonment had expired, her sentence was remitted. Further and more radical action is obviously required, however, and it is reported(13) that the Minister has ordered an investigation with a view to possible amendments to the Act. Native High Court Abolition Act In terms of the Native High Court Abolition Act, No. 13 of 1954, the Natal Native High Court was abolished and the jurisdiction previously vested in it was transferred to the Supreme Court. Procedure in Natal is thus brought into line with that followed in the rest of the Union. The Penal Reform League of South Africa The Rev. H. P. Junod, National Organizer of the Penal Reform League, reports that the past year has been one of both progress and setback. To start with the latter, the League has seen no decrease in imprisonment of petty offenders in spite of all its efforts; it has seen recidivism still increasing, except when penal reform principles have been accepted, as is the case at Baviaanspoort; it has seen a (12) Hansard No. 2, Col. 467. ("3) Star, 1 November 1954.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 mounting daily average prison population, a grave increase in flogging, and a stricter carrying out of the death sentence. Advances have included the developments at Baviaanspoort and Leeuwkop (described on page 151). A second Leeuwkop is being built at Goedemoed in the Orange Free State, Coloured prisoners are to be concentrated at Pollsmoor (Cape) on the same lines of policy, a prison hospital for T.B. patients is being built at Westlake (Cape), and the much discussed prisons-on-farms are developing on the pattern of medium security or open prisons. The Conference on "Crime, Punishment and Correction" convened by the League in September 1953, was mentioned in the previous Survey of Race Relations (page 102). Mr. Junod has prepared for the use of Institute members a plan for six discussion meetings on penal reform (RR.40 /54). The Penal Reform League is, unfortunately, experiencing extreme difficulty in financing its work. Social Services Association of South Africa Miss Thekla Hall, National Organizer of the Social Services Association of S.A., writes to say that this Association, as the specialist organization for work amongst adult prisoners and their dependants and amongst potential law-breakers, had record demands on its staff throughout the Union during the past year. Its 15 Prisoners' Friends alone assisted about 52,000 persons of all races, over 33,000 of these being Africans. Its social workers submitted almost 1,400 reports to magistrates on the home circumstances of convicted persons and supervised about 1,000 men and women for the courts. They also interviewed about 20,000 awaiting-trial prisoners and successfully recommended almost 100 admittances to work colonies and similar institutions. About 2,000 families of prisoners were given material assistance, and rehabilitation services were rendered to approximately 2,770 prisoners at time of discharge. Over 6,000 interviews in prisons and gaols throughout the Union were conducted by these social workers. The third annual Day of United Prayer for Prisoners in Southern Africa (inaugurated by Social Services) was observed by about 4,000 churches and missions of all denominations. This Day of Prayer emphasizes the vital need for reformation as a preliminary to rehabilitation. Legal Aid Bureaux The legal aid movement in South Africa, which was founded by the Institute of Race Relations, has since 1942 been controlled by the Law Societies. Legal Aid Bureaux, which exist in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Cape Town, Durban, Port Elizabeth, and Bloemfontein, receive government subsidies and, in some cases, municipal grants-inaid. The Johannesburg Bureau is dependent on donations from the public for the bulk of its income. Their main objects are to supplement 155

A SURVEY OF RACE facilities available for pro deo legal representation and to provide assistance short of court proceedings in either civil or criminal matters. When litigation is essential or if representation is required, the bureaux enlist the voluntary services of practising attorneys or advocates. Persons granted assistance are usually required to qualify under a means test. Investigators employed by the bureaux visit the cells at the magistrates' courts to interview awaiting-trial prisoners. Arrangements are then made with attorneys to defend persons who cannot afford to pay for legal assistance and have a prima facie defence, general advice is given to other prisoners, and negotiations may be conducted with the prosecutor for the withdrawal of charges which appear to be unfounded. A large amount of advisory and assistance work is done at the offices of the bureaux in civil matters such as hire-purchase contract difficulties, problems arising out of the relation of employer and employee or of landlord and tenant, or claims for damages. Reports on the various bureaux were considered by the Executive Committee of the Institute of Race Relations at its meeting in July 1954, and it was decided to arrange for a deputation to discuss with the Provincial Law Societies certain difficulties that the bureaux were experiencing, for example, insufficient funds and inadequate panels of lawyers. ANNEXURE I PUBLICATIONS DEALING WITH RACE RELATIONS The Institute has produced the following publications during the period under review: An Outline of the Systems of Government and the Political Status of NonEuropean Peoples in Africa South of the Sahara, by Muriel Horrell, the Institute's Technical Officer. Reprint of article in Race Relations Journal No. 4 of 1953. The Idea of the University. A symposium of addresses delivered by Dr T. B. Davie and Professor E. E. Harris at a conference called by the Institute, together with an account of the discussions at the conference, and the evidence presented by the Institute to the Commission of Enquiry into Separate University Education. Colour and Christian Community, by Dr Emory Ross. 1954 Hoernl6 Memorial Lecture. The Political Rights of the Coloured People. The evidence presented by the Institute to the Commission of Enquiry into the Subject Matter of the Separate Representation of Voters' Act Validation and Amendment Bill, 1953. Reprint of article in Race Relations Journal No. 2 of 1954. The Prime Minister's Letter to the Rev. John Piersma and the Letter sent to the Prime Minister by the S.A. Institute of Race Relations in Reply to his Letter to the Rev. John Piersma. RELATIONS: 1953-54 Equal Pay for Equal Work, by Dr Sheila van der Horst. Off-print from S.A. Journal of Economics, Vol XX, No. 2. This Week's Good Cause, by Mr Maurice Webb. Text of a broadcast address on the Institute given on 6 June. Reprint from Race Relations News, July 1954. (Available in Afrikaans and English.) A Guide to Health for Adults, by the Adult Education Section of the Institute. Non-European Policies in the Union and the Measure of Their Success, by Muriel Horrell. English for Indian Women, Books II and III, by the Adult Education Section of the Institute. Survey of Race Relations, 1952/1953, compiled by Muriel Horrell. 24th Annual Report of the S.A. Institute of Race Relations, 1952/1953. Race Relations Journal, Vol. XXI, No. I. Conditions in the Ciskei, by Prof. Monica Wilson. The Response of Africans to Industrial Employment, by Mr S. B. Ngcobo. Notes on the Occupational Distribution of the Coloured People, by Dr S. van der Horst. Race Relations Journal, Vol. XXI, No. 2. The Health of the Bantu, by Dr E. H. Brookes. The Political Rights of the Coloured People. Race Relations Journal, Vol. XXI, No. 3. A South African's Impressions of West Africa, by Prof. D. Hobart Houghton. Negro Progress in the United States, 1900-1950, by Prof. E. de S. Brunner. Race Relations News issued monthly throughout the year. Other significant books and articles dealing with race relations and related subjects which have recently been published include: Biesheuvel, S. The Nation's Intelligence and its Measurement. S. Af. J. Sci., 49, 120-138, 1952. Brookes, E. H. South Africa in a Changing World. (O.U.P.), 1953. Calderwood,'D. M. An Approach to Low-Cost Urban Native Housing in South Africa. Town Planning Review, Jan. 1954. Carothers, J. C. The African in Health and Disease. A Study in Ethnopsychiatry. (World Health Organization), 1953. Du Plessis, I. D. and Luckhoff, C. A. The Malay Quarter and Its People. (A. A. Balkema, Cape Town). 1953. East London Mayor's Committee. African Juvenile Unemployment in Duncan Village, East London. 1954. Epstein, A. L. Juridical Techniques and the Judicial Process. A Study in African Customary Law. Rhodes-Livingstone Papers No. 23 (Manchester University Press), 1954. Federal Missionary Council of the Dutch Reformed Churches. The Racial Issue in South Africa, 1954. Christian Principles in Multi-Racial South Africa, 1954

158 A SURVEY OF RACE Forde, Daryll (Ed.) African Worlds. A Symposium. Studies in the Cosmological Ideas and Social Values of African Peoples. (O.U.P. for International African Institute), 1954. Frankel, S. H. The Economic Impact on Under-Developed Societies. (Blackwell), 1953. Gaitskill, A. (Chairman). Report of a Mission to the Bechuanaland Protectorate to Investigate the Possibilities of Economic Development in the Western Kalahari. (H.M.S.O.), 1954. Gussman, B. W. African Life in an Urban Area. A Study of the African Population of Bulawayo. (Federation of African Welfare Societies in Southern Rhodesia), 1954. Hailey, Lord. Native Administration in the British Territories in Africa, Part V. The High Commission Territories. (H.M.S.O.), 1953. International Labour Office. Indigenous Peoples. Living and Working Conditions of Aboriginal Populations in Independent Countries. (I.L.O.), 1953. Keppel-Jones, A. Human Relations in South Africa. Political and Historical. (The Priory, Rosettenville), 1954. Kerr, A. J. The Native Common Law of Immovable Property in South Africa. (Butterworth, Durban), 1953. Kirby, P. R. The Musical Instruments of the Native Races of South Africa. (Witwatersrand University Press). Revised edition, 1953. Milwaukee Police Dept. A Guide to Understanding Race and Human Relations. (Mayor's Commission on Human Rights), 1952. Parrinder, E. G. African Traditional Religion (Hutchinson's University Library), 1953. Roupp-Phillips (Ed.). Approaches to Community Development. A Symposium. (W. van Hoeve, Ltd.), 1954. Seymour, S. M. Native Law in South Africa (Juta), 1953. Simpson, S. R. Land Tenure: Some Explanations and Definitions. (Journal of Af. Admin., April 1954. Vol. VI, No. 2, page 50.) United Nations. Summary of Recent Economic Developments in Africa, 1952/53. U.N.E.S.C.O. Rev. Fr. Congar. The Catholic Church and the Rice Question, 1953. Opler, M. E. Social Aspects of Technical Assistance in Operation. Report of a conference held jointly by U.N. and U.N.E.S.C.O. Roth, Leon. Jewish Thought as a Factor in Civilization. 1954. Shapiro, M. L. Race Mixture, 1954. Visser t' Hoofd, W. A. The Ecumenical Movement and the Race Problem. 1954. Woods, C. A. The Indian Community of Natal: Their Economic Position. Vol. 9 of Natal Regional Survey. (O.U.P.), 1954. Two new periodicals are: Bantoe /Bantu Monthly informal publication by the Native Affairs Department. Umqondiso. Monthly journal issued by S.A.R. and H. for its African employees.

RELATIONS: 1953-54 The following memoranda were issued by the Institute during the year: RR.174 /53 RR.176/53 RR.191/53 RR.192/53 RR.193/53 RR.199 /53 RR.215 /53 RR. RR. RR. RR. RR. RR. RR. RR. 5/54 18/54 24/54 25/54 27/54 28/54 29/54 40/54 RR. 45/54 RR. 62/54 RR." 85/54 RR. 90/54 RR. 95/54 RR. 97/54 RR.100 /54 RR.115/54 Some Suggestions for Study Groups, by Southern Transvaal Regional Committee of the Institute. Evidence for Commission of Enquiry into Local Government, by Southern Transvaal Regional Committee. The Principle of "Equal Pay for Equal Work" and its Effect upon the Employment Opportunites of Non- Europeans, by W. H. Windsor. Equal Pay for Equal Work, with Special Reference to the South African Racial Situation, by Colin Bruce. Evidence Presented to the Coloured Education Commission, by the Cape Western Regional Committee. Classification of Memoranda, journal Articles, Pamphlets and Books published by the Institute. Summary of Report of the United Nations Commission on the Racial Situation in the Union of South Africa, by the Director, Quintin Whyte. A Review of Recent Legislation, by Quintin Whyte. The Police Force and Race Relations Statement on the Natives Resettlement Bill. Summary of the Natives Resettlement Bill. Statement on the Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Bill. Statement on the Native Trust and Land Amendment Bill. Race Relations in South Africa, by Quintin Whyte. Plan for Six Discussion Meetings on Penal Reform, by the Rev. H. P. Junod. Evidence to the Commission of Enquiry into Separate University Education. Local Government System in the Transvaal, by the Southern Transvaal Regional Committee. Moulding of an African's Attitude, by Mr R. V. Selope Thema. Summary of Industrial Conciliation Bill of 1954 in so far as this affects Non- Europeans. Justice for the Poor. How a Legal Aid Bureau Works. by Adv. D. G. John. Statement on the Industrial Conciliation Bill. Committee of Inquiry into the Financing of Voluntary Welfare Organizations. Recommendations of Particular Interest to the Institute. Summary of Hansard Report of the Introductory Speech to the Second Reading of the Industrial Conciliation Bill by the Hon. the Minister of Labour. v . v

A SURVEY OF RACE RR.128 /54 RR.156 /54 RR.158 /54 Non-European Farm Labourers' Wages, by the Rev. D. S. Robertson. Report on Preliminary Talks on Johannesburg Group Areas, by Southern Transvaal Regional Office. Memorandum on African Housing in the Peninsula for Interdepartmental Committee Enquiring into the Siting of Locations to Serve Cape Town Municipality, by Cape Western Regional Committee. ANNEXURE II POPULATION STATISTICS 1951 Census(') Total number ... Males ...... Females ...... Urban ...... Rural Percentage urban(3) Number per square mile - urban and rural ...... Number per square mile - rural ... 1954(4) Estimated mid-year population ... Total ...... Males ...... Females ...... (1) From Special Report No. 200, Bureau of phical Distribution of the Population. Census and Statistics. Geogra- (2) It will be noted that 11,295 Africans are unaccounted for. These were travelling by rail when the census was taken, and have not yet been classified as urban or rural. The figures will be adjusted in final census figures: the figures for Africans are still provisional. (3) From additional Table to Bulletin of Statistics, April 1954. (4) From Bulletin of Statistics, August 1954, Table A2. Whites 2,642,7 1 1,323,353 1,319,360 2,071,683 571,030 78.4 5.6 1.2 2,805,000 1,403,000 1,402,000 Coloured 1,103,305 550,769 552,536 713,416 389,889 64.4 2.3 0.8 1,209,000 602,000 607,000 Asiatics 366,664 189,595 177,069 284,307 82,357 77.5 0.8 0.2 399,000 205,000 194,000 Africans 8,537,375 4,358,701 4,178,674 2,292,228 6,233,852 (2) 27.2 18.1 13.4 8,980,000 4,585,000 4,395,000 Total 12,650,057 6,422,418 6,227,639 5,361,634 7,288,423 42.6 26.8 15.6 13,393,000 6,795,000 6,5984000 160

A SURVEY OF RACE RELATIONS: 1953-54 ANNEXURE III THE COST OF LIVING FOR AFRICAN FAMILIES 1. Survey by the Institute of Race Relations in 1954 The cost-of-living was calculated for an "average" African family in Johannesburg, consisting of a worker, his wife, and three children aged 14, 10 and 1.- years respectively. Monthly expenditure Food ...... Rent ...... Transport ...... Fuel, light and cleaning Clothes ...... Tax ...... £14 18 ...... £ 1 19 ...... E - 13 . £111 £4 5 ...... £ - 1 4 10 4 1 q 2 8 £23 10 4 Estimated monthly incomeMan's average wage ... Wife's net contribution Children's contributions £11 £ 3 £c1 £E15 18 11 ...... F£ 7 11 5 Income deficit 2. Survey by the Johannesburg Municipal Non-European Affairs Department in 1950 A survey was conducted of the incomes of 66,588 Africans in the Western Areas of Johannesburg, this total including 20,298 families and a number of single men. Monthly family income range Under £10 £10 and under £15 £15 and under £20 £20 and under £25 £25 and over Percentage of total in this income range.(1) 25 40 15 9 11 According to this survey, the average family income was between £10 and £15 a month. This corresponds closely with the monthly minimum average family income of £12 16s. 6d. obtained by the Institute's investigators in 1950. (1) Summary of table contained in Municipal report.

3. Comparison of data from the Socio-Economic Survey conducted at Payneville in 1951 with results obtained by the Institute in 1950. Under the auspices of the National Building Research Institute,MrH.J.J. van Beinum conducted a study of the socio-economic status of African families in the Payneville Location, Springs, in 1951. If data from his final report(2) applicable to the Institute's "average" family are extracted, the result is as follows: Essential Minimum Monthly Expenditure N.B.R.I. Institute Survey, 1951 Survey, 1950 Food ...... £8 48 £11 4 3 Rent ...... £210 0 £113 1 Transport ...... 13 0 12 011 Fuel, light and cleaning ... £ 1 7 4 £ 1 7 4 Clothes ...... £ 2 11 0 £ 2 15 11 Tax ...... 1 8 1 8 £15 7 8 £17 14 4 The differences in the figures for clothing, rent and transport can in the main be accounted for by local circumstances. The chief difference is in the cost of food: in the National Building Research Institute's calculations food costs were based on a diet considered by the Division of Nutrition to be the barest minimum necessary for health. The cost of this diet was lower than it would have been in most other towns because a municipal market and milk depot with subsidized prices exist in Payneville Location. The National Building Research Institute has since conducted similar surveys in Port Elizabeth, Vereeniging and Durban; but the results are not yet available. 4. Socio-Economic Surveys conducted in Pretoria, 1954. In June and July 1954, the Pretoria Municipal Non-European Affairs Department conducted house-to-house socio-economic surveys at Atteridgeville and Lady Selborne, which have African populations of 10,000 and 50,000 respectively. The family income figures are not strictly comparable with those in previous surveys, since the formula now applied in determining rentals was used (i.e. full earnings of occupier of house, plus the full amounts paid by lodgers up to a maximum of £4 per lodger per month, plus half the income of each child of and residing with the occupier up to a maximum of £4 per child per month). What is of particular interest, however, is the extent to which the house-occupiers at Lady Selborne depended on the two latter items (rents and family assistance) to enable them to (2) Final Report of the Socio-Economic Survey at Payneville Location, published N.B.R.I., 1953. 162 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1953-54 163 balance their budgets.(3) Excluding churches, 91.5 per cent. of the property- owners were Africans, the rest being Coloured (5.1 per cent.), Asiatic (1.8 per cent.) and European (1.6 per cent.). Again excluding churches, (i) if no sources of income were excluded, 19.1 per cent. of the budgets showed an excess of expenditure over income; (ii) if income from rents was excluded, 76.2 per cent. of the budgets could not be balanced; (iii) if income from rents and from family assistance were both excluded, 78.4 per cent. of the budgets could not be balanced. (4) Most local authorities who in the past have provided sub-economic housing are now engaged in conducting income-surveys of their African population to enable the new system of rentals to be applied. Except in the case of Pretoria, resuts are not yet available to the Institute; but it will in due course be interesting to examine in how far the Minister's new formula for computing family incomes affects income-distribution as calculated in previous sur,7eys. The Johannesburg Western Areas survey and the Pretoria survey show very different results: in how far this is due to the application of the new formula in the latter case is not yet clear. The results are : Percentage of total in this income Monthly family income range range Johannesburg Western Areas Pretoria Under £10 ...... 25 41 £10 and under £15 ... 40 32 £15 and under £20 ... 15 12 £20 and under £25 ... 9 f 15 £25 and over ...... 11 (3) The percentages have been recalculated by the writer, to exclude Churches and Mission stations, which formed 3.8 per cent. of the property owners at Lady Selborne. (4) Whether the budgets, in the two latter cases, include the costs of accommodating and feeding the lodgers and family members is not stated.

164 Number of Schools Government ... Aided ...... TOTAL ...... Children Attending School . Government schools Aided schools ... TOTAL ...... Children of School Going Age not attending School (Approximate figures) ...... African Teachers Government schools Aided schools ... TOTAL ...... Cape 40 2,427 2,467 12,656 302,846 315,502 Natal 26 99 O.F.S. 613 Transvaal 688 796 Total 992 4,827 1,255 613 1,484 5,819 56,652 134,009 190,661 84,545 84,545 140,608 152,580 293,188 209,916 673,980 883,896 277,000 300,000 80,000 600,000 1,257,000 312 7,576 7,888 1,685 3,195 4,880 1,920 1,920 3,174 3,615 6,789 5,171 16,306 21,477 About 41 per cent. of African children of school-going age were thus attending school in 1953. Expenditure on African Education(2) The estimated expenditure on African education for the year 1954/55 is £8,498,000. If, as is probable, the growth of the school population from 1953 to 1954 was at the same rate as it had been from 1951 to 1953, the present expenditure per pupil is about £9 a year. The expenditure per African child of school-going age, however, is about £3 10s. Od. a year. (1) Information given by Minister of Native Affairs, Assembly, 23 February 1954. Hansard No. 4, Col. 1007. (2) Calculations by the writer. A SURVEY OF RACE ANNEXURE IV EDUCATION OF AFRICANS 1953 figures(I)

RELATIONS: 1953-54 165 ANNEXURE V PENSIONS AND GRANTS PAID IN SOUTH AFRICA(') Ite Year Europeans Coloured Asiatics Africans Family Allowances 1952/53 , £ £ £ £ No. of families ... 627 309 - Expenditure ... £51,579 £18,165 -Children's Maintenance Grants... 1952/53 No. of children ... 15,421 17,931 8,458 6,042 Expenditure ... £835,431 £365,175 £148,579 £55,159 Disability Grants 1952/53 No. of recipients 11,289 6,069 1,010 40,688(2) Expenditure ... £938,608 £ 189,785 £31,885 £410,324 Blind Persons' Pensions(3) ... 1953 No. of recipients 1,180 1,545 161 19,851 Expenditure ... £118,245 £62,759 £6,409 £211,933 Old Age Pensions 1953 (3) No. of Recipients 78,664 40,607 6,136 214.,837 Expenditure ... £7,794,602 £1,503,182 £213,311 £2,162,050 War Veterans' Pensions(4) ... 1953 No. of recipients 21,863 752 28 1,676 Expenditure ... £3,200,330 £30,451 £ 1,092 £ 19,614 Other War Pensions(5) ... 1952/53 (...... £3,905,600 ...... ) Poor Relief(6) ... 1950/51 (...... £224,811 ...... ) £ 14,365 Unemployment Insurance(7) ... 1953 £547,813 £365,237 £89,190 £33,892 Silicosis Benefits(') ... 1952 (...... £1,197,326 ...... ) £333,829 Maternity Allowances(9) ... 1951/52 (...... £70,190 ...... ) £7,804 Grants to Families of Leper Patients and to Arrested Cases (9) ...... 1950/51 £4,374 £1,836 £204 £27,532 Workmen's Compensation(') 1950 (...... £2,394,188 ...... ) £753,798 (1) Unless otherwise stated, the information is obtained from the Official Year Book of the Union of South Africa for 1952/53. No. 27. (2) Information given by Minister of Social Welfare in Assembly, 16 February 1954. Hansard No. 3, Col. 607. (8) Information given by Minister of Finance in Assembly, 16 February 1954. Hansard No. 3, Col. 606. (4) Information in respect of Europeans, Coloured and Asiatic from information by Minister of Finance, op. cit. The figure for Africans, taken from

A SURVEY OF RACE the Official Year Book, refers to special grants to needy ex-members of the Native Military Corps, and is in respect of the year 1951/2. (5) Separate figures for each racial group are not available. The proportions would probably be somewhat similar to those in the previous item. (6) Separate figures for Europeans, Coloured and Asiatics are not available. The figure for Africans refers to the year 1951/2 and is from the Official Year Book. Figure for other groups from the "Survey of Race Relations" for 1951/52. (7) Information given on behalf of Ministef- of Labour, Assembly, 23 February 1954. Hansard No. 4, Col. 1005. (8) From Annual Report of Silicosis Board for 1952. U.G. 21/53. (9) Figures obtained for "Survey of Race Relations" for 1951/52. This table refers to pensions or grants paid to individuals. The State (and in some cases also other public authorities) also spends considerable sums on group services, for example re-adjustment and sheltered employment services, subsidization of wages and settlements for elderly or infirm persons, schools for handicapped children, school feeding, relief work and pre-school feeding in distressed areas, children's institutions, etc. It also makes grants-in-aid to voluntary societies, and subsidizes numerous projects - social centres, creches, soup kitchens, boys' and girls' clubs, and many more. 166