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Exploring the Pattern of Islamic Social Movements: Four Case Studies

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Exploring The Pattern of Islamic Social Movements: Four Case Studies By: Seyed Saaid Zahed Zahedani I Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Ph.D. University of Leeds School of Sociology and Social Policy May 1997 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. 11 Abstract This thesis is a study of Iranian-Islamic social movements. Iran has witnessed four major social movements in the late nineteenth and twentieth century. Except for the Islamic Revolution of 1978-79 which attracted a great deal of sociological attention, and the Constitutional Revolution which has received some specialist study, the other two, regardless of their importance and influence in the Iranian history, have been grossly neglected. In order to have a better sociological understanding and a more general model of this type of social movements there is need to review all of them according to the same theory and with an identical method. These cases which are explored in this study are: the Tobacco Movement (1892) - an 'anti colonialism' movement, the Constitutional Revolution (1905-1906) - a 'justice' movement, the 15th of Khordad movement (1963) - an 'anti modernisation' movement, and the last in chain, the Islamic Revolution of 1978-79 - an 'anti imperialism' movement. This thesis also attempts to provide a contribution to the theory of social movements with a review and synthesis of the existing major theories of the area. Ten key social movement theories are reviewed and a new synthetic one is developed. The models under review belong to Smelser (1962), Davies (1962), Toch (1966), Blumer (1969), Wilson (1973), Tilly (1978), Touraine (1981), McCarthy and Zald (1987), Melucci (1989) and Scott (1990). These theories identify quite different 'engines' of the social movement and thus can be classified according to whether they regard the individual, society, or their relations as the main cause or initiator of the social movements. Following the discussions of the relationship between the individual and society, this thesis recognises the need for an approach to social explanation which looks at the fine texture of the interrelationship of the structure, agency, and their relations, and so proposes a 'synthetic' theory of social movements which recognises the importance of the conjunction of the three elements of the individualist, the structural and the relationalist models. In this theory of social movements, social context provides the 111 ground for the underlying mechanism of the movement to be released. Ideology plays the part of the relational factor between the individual and the society. It is the main mobilisational factor of social movements. Actors then 'perform' the movements at three levels of social actions: leadership, distribution, and enactment of the outburst. The synthetic theory provides a framework for a more comprehensive study of the four cases. Each of the movements is explained using it as a 'conceptual grid' and it is shown on each occasion to be useful tool in identifying the main agents, antagonisms, ideologies, social opportunities and constraints, and the accomplishment of the movements. So whilst the movements vary by 'focus' and by 'success' it is shown that it is Islamic ideology which shapes the goals of 'justice', 'freedom', 'independence' and 'democracy'. In all of the reviewed movements the authority of the shah came into dispute with the command of the ulama, and it was religious rituals and organisations which mobilised the people. Whilst the synthetic theory proposed here can provide an analytic framework with which to compare the movements, the history of the analysed movements reveals the significance of the 'political sociology' of Iran's last hundred years. This dimention provides an understanding of some of the 'initial conditins' which underpin the Iranian social movements. The thesis attempts to outline some crucial elements in this socio- political history, and attest their importance by examination of one further Iranian social movement, the National Movement of Iran (195 1-1953). This was a predominantly non-Islamic movement which failed because it declined to take the advantage of the authority of the ulama as one of the major sways at the socio-political setting of Iranian society. The adequacy of the resultant knowledge from the proposed model of Iranian-Islamic social movements is further tested against the some writings of nine scholars on Iranian social movements: Fischer (1980), Milani (1988), Parsa (1989), Amuzegar (1991), Ray (1993), Zubaida (1993), Moaddel (1993), Foran (1994) and Keddie (1995). iv Acknowledgement The writer is grateful for the help and support of many people. I wish to thank them all, however, due to the lack of space I will only mention a few. First of all, I should thank my supervisors Dr. Ray Pawson, Dr. Paul Bagguley, and Dr. Carolyn Baylies who enabled me to engage for the first time with some of the sociological debates that inform this thesis. Secondly, I would like to thank Simon Strickland-Scott, and Stephen Vartigans for reading my manuscripts and providing some useful comments that helped to clarify my analysis. Third, I wish to also thank my parents who supported me spiritually and encouraged me to continue my further studies. Similarly, I am indebted to my wife, Tahere, her parents, and my children: Hossein, Maryam, and Yekta. Finally, I should also thank the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Shiraz University for my scholarship funding. V Table of Contents Subjects Pages Abstract 11 Acknowledgement iv Table of Contents V Table of Figures x Transliteration xi A Map of Iran xii A. Chapter One: Introduction 1 1. Introduction 2 2. Definition of Social Movements 5 3. Types of Social Movements 10 B. Chapter Two: Theories 18 I. Introduction 19 2. Individual and Society 21 3. Social Movements Theories 27 a. Individualism 28 b. Relation ism 31 c. Social Determinism 39 d. Results 49 4. A New Approach 53 a. Ideology 54 b. Actors and their Behaviours 58 c. Social Context 59 d. Synthesis 60 C. Chapter Three: Methodology 63 vi 1. Introduction 64 2. The Operational Model of Theory 67 3. The Comparative Case Study 74 4. Methods of Historical Sociology 83 5. The Model of The Other Theories 88 D. Chapter Four: Social Historical Literature 92 1. Introduction 93 2. Historical Documents 96 a. The Tobacco Movement 97 b. The Constitutional Revolution 99 c. The 15th of Khordad Movement 101 d. The Islamic Revolution of 1978-79 104 3. Historical Interpretations 107 a. Individualism 109 b. Relation ism 111 c. Social Determinism 115 c.1. Structural- Functionalism 116 c.2. Marxism and Neo-Marxism 118 4. Conclusion 131 E. Chapter Five: The Tobacco Movement 133 1. Introduction 134 2. The Synthetic View 135 a. The Social Context 135 a. 1. The Political Structure 141 a.2. The Religious Structure 143 b. Ideology 146 c. Actors and Behaviours 150 d. The Movement 153 3. Other Perspectives 155 a. Individualism 156 vii b. Relation ism 157 c. Social Determinism 161 c. 1. Structural-Functionalism Perspective 162 c.2. Conflict Theory Perspective 164 4. Conclusion 167 F. Chapter Six: The Constitutional Revolution 172 1. Introduction 173 2. The Synthetic View 174 a. The Social Context 174 a.1. The State 180 a.2. The People 182 a.2.I. The Ulama 183 a.2.2. The Merchants 185 b. Ideology 187 c. Actors and Behaviours 191 d. The Movement 194 3. Other Perspectives 198 a. Individualism 198 b. Relationism 200 b.1. Tilly's Perspective 200 b.2. Melucci's Perspective 202 c. Social Determinism 205 c. 1. Structural-Functionalism Perspective 205 c.2. Conflict Theory Perspective 208 4. Conclusion 210 0. Chapter Seven: The 15th of Khordad Movement 213 1. Introduction 214 2. The Synthetic View 214 a. The Social Context 215 a. 1. The Opposition 219 viii b. Ideology 222 c. Actors and Behaviours 226 d. The Movement 228 3. Other Perspectives 231 a. Individualism 232 b. Relation ism 232 b.1. Tilly's Perspective 234 b.2. Melucci's Perspective 235 c. Social Determinism 237 c. 1. Structural-Functionalism Perspective 238 c.2. Conflict Theory Perspective 240 4. Conclusion 242 H. Chapter Eight: The Islamic Revolution of 1978-79 245 1. Introduction 246 2. The Synthetic View 247 a. The Social Context 247 a.l. The State 248 a.2. The Opposition 250 b. Actors and Behaviours 256 c. Ideology 261 d. The Movement 272 3. Other Perspectives 276 a. Individualism 276 b. Relationism 277 b.l. Tilly's Perspective 278 b.2. Melucci's Perspective 280 c. Social Determinism 281 c. 1. Structural-Functionalism Perspective 281 c.2. Conflict Theory Perspective 283 4. Conclusion 286 ix I. Chapter Nine: Conclusion 288 1. Introduction 289 2. History of Iranian-Islamic Social Movements 291 a. Social Context 292 b. Ideology 295 c. Actors and Behaviours 296 3. Results in Historical Sociology 298 4. Conclusion 301 J. Appendices 305 1. Appendix I 306 2. Appendix II 307 3. Appendix ifi 309 4. Appendix IV 310 a. The Small Migration 311 b. The Great Migration 312 5. Appendix V 315 6. Appendix VI 318 7. Appendix VII 319 8. Appendix VIII 320 9. Appendix IX 321 10. Appendix X 323 K. Notes 326 L. Glossary 332 M. Bibliography 334 A. Books and Articles in English 334 B. Books and Articles in Persian 341 C. Newspapers 343 x Table of Figures Figure 2.1: Schematic representation of the four-step sequence to membership (Toch 1966, 27). 29 Figure 2.2: The Mobilisation Model (Tilly 1978, 56). 36 Figure 2.3: Need Satisfaction And Revolution (Davies 1962, 7).
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