(This copy is to appear as front matter of the Encyclopedia of Communications.)

TRUSTEES FOR THE ANNENBERG SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATIONS

The Honorable Walter H. Annenberg Harry C. Coles, Jr. The Honorable Leonore Annenberg Merrill Panitt Wallis Annenberg

EDITORIAL BOARD

Erik Barnouw, Editor (To be named) , Section Editor To bia L. Wort h, Editorial Director (To be named) , Section Editor Larry Gro ss, Assoc iate Editor (To be named) , Section Editor (To be named), Associate Editor (To be named) , Section Editor

George Gerbner, Chair, Editorial Board

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCHOLARS

Binod Agrawal Scientist and Coordinator, Educational Resources Cell, Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, India.

Walter S. Baer Director of Advance Technology, Times Mirror Corporation, Los Angeles.

Ben Bagdikian Professor of Journalism, University of California, Berkeley.

Franc is Balle Director, The French Press Institute, Paris, France.

Albert Bandura David Starr Jordan Professor of the Social Sciences in Psychology, Stanford Univer sity.

Jesus Martin Barbero Dean, School of Communication, Valley University, Cali, Colombia. Howard Becker Editor, Social Problems; Professor of Sociology, Northwestern University.

Daniel Bell Professor of Sociology, Harvard Uni versity.

Luis Ramiro Beltran Director, Research Center for Interna­ tional Development, Bogota, Colombia.

John Berger Author, Another Way of Telling, About Looking.

Leonard Berkowitz Vilas Research Professor of Psychology, University of Wisconsin.

F. A. Bernasconi Director-General, Intergovernmental Bureau for Informatics (IBI), Rome, Italy.

Leo Bogart Executive Vice-President and General Manager, Newspaper Adverti~ing Bureau, New York.

Juan E. Diaz Bordenave International Consultant in Communica­ tions and Education, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Anne W. Branscomb Chairman, Communica tions Division of the Science and Technology Section, American Bar ASSOCiation.

The Right Honorable Lord Briggs Trustee, International Broadcast Institute; Provost, Worcester College, Oxford University, Oxford, England.

Charles Brown Chairman of the Board, American Telephone and Telegraph Co.

Roger Brown Professor of Psychology, Harvard University.

William F. Buckley Editor-in-Chief, National Review.

Kenneth Burke Writer; Emeritus, American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Muriel Cantor Professor of Sociology, The American University, Washington D.C.

James W. Carey Dean, College of Communications, University of Illinois-Urbana. John Carey Associate Professor, The Interactive Telecommunications Program, School of the Arts, New York University.

Thomas F. Carney Professor of Communication Studies, University of Windsor, Ontario, Canada.

Steven H. Chaffee Director, Institute for Communication Research, Stanford University.

Peter Clarke Dean, The Annenberg School of Communica­ tions, University of Southern California.

Thomas Childs Cochran Emeritus Benjamin Franklin Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania.

Michael Cole Chairman, Department of Communication, University of California, San Diego.

George Comstock S. I. Newhouse Professor, _So I. Newhouse School of Public Communication, Syracuse University.

Nabil H. Dajani Professor of Mass Communications, American University of Beirut, Lebanon.

Chidananda Das Gupta Co-Founder, Calcutta -Film Society; Editor, Indian Film Culture, New Delhi, India.

Wimal Dissanayake Head, Department of Communication, University of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Wilson P. Dizard Vice-President, Kalba-Bowen Associates, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Aimee Dorr Professor of Developmental Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles.

Umberto Eco Professor of Semiotics, Faculty of Letters and Philosophy, University of Bologna; Secretary General, International Association for Semiotic Studies, Milan, Italy.

Elizabeth Eisenstein Alice Freeman Professor of History, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Phoebe Ellsworth Professor of Psychology, Stanford Uni­ versity.

Steven Feld Assistant Professor of Communications, The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania.

Gloria Feliciano Dean, Institute of Mass Communication, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, The Philippines.

Jan Freese Director-General, Swedish Data Inspection Board, Stockholm, Sweden.

Oscar Gandy, Jr. Professor of Communication, Howard University.

Herbert J. Gans Professor of Sociology, Columbia Univer­ sity.

Gabriel Garcia-Marquez Writer; Member, UNESCO International Commission for the Study of Communica­ tion Problems (The MacBride Commission), PariS, France.

Howard Gardner Co-Director, Project Zero, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University.

Clifford Geertz Professor of Social SCience, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton.

Henry Geller Director, The Washington Center for Public Policy Research, Washington, D.C.

Rose K. Goldsen Associate Professor of Sociology, Cornell University.

Nelson Goodman Emeritus Professor of Philosophy, Harvard University.

Roberto Grandi Associate Professor of the Sociology of Mass Communications, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.

Jurgen Habermas Professor of Philosophy, Max Planck Institute, Munich, Germany.

Stuart Hall Professor of Sociology, The Open University, Milton Keynes, England. James D. Halloran Director, Center for Mass Communication Research, University of Leicester, England.

Cees J. Hamelink Senior Lecturer in International Communi­ cations, The Institute of Social Studies, ·The Hague, The Netherlands.

Hilde T. Himmelweit Reader in Social Psychology, The London School of Economics and Political Science, London, England.

Robert C. Hornik Associate Professor of Communications, The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania.

Herbert Hyman Crowell University Professor of the Social Sciences, Wesleyan University.

Dell Hymes Dean, Graduate School of E.ducation, University of Pennsylvania.

Sue Curry Jansen Professor of Sociology, State University of New York, Buffalo.

Garth Jowett Director, School of Communication, University of Houston, Texas.

Hidetoshi Kato Professor of Communications and Sociology, Gukushuin University, Tokyo, Japan.

Elihu Katz Director, Communications Institute, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israeli Professor of Communications, The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Southern California.

Mark L. Knapp Professor of Speech Communication, State University of New York, New Paltz.

Klaus Krippendorff Professor of Communications, The Annen­ berg School of Communications, Univer­ sity of Pennsylvania.

Julia Kristeva Professor of Linguistics, University of Paris VII, Paris, France.

Gladys Lang Professor of Sociology, State University of New York, Stony Brook. Kurt Lang Professor of Sociology, State University New York, Stony Brook.

Otto Larsen Director, Division of Social and Econo­ mic Sciences, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.

Don R. Le Duc Professor of Communications, University of Wisconsin.

John A. Lent Professor of Mass Communications, Temple University.

Emile G. McAnany Professor of Communications, University of Texas, Austin.

Nathan Maccoby Emeritus Professor of International Communications, Institute for Communi­ cation Research, Stanford University.

Maxwell McCombs Director, Communications Research Center, Syracuse University.

William McGuire Professor of Psychology, Yale University.

Denis McQuail Professor of Communications, University of Amsterdam, The Net-herlands.

Carolyn Marvin Assistant Professor of Communications, The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania.

William H. Melody Professor of Communications Studies, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada.

Paul Messaris Assistant Professor of Communications, The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania.

Leonard B. Meyer Benjamin Franklin Professor of MuSiC, University of Pennsylvania.

George Miller Professor of Psychology, Princeton University.

Gerald Miller Professor of Communications, Michigan State University. Alain Minc Cabinet Member; Adviser to French President Francois Mitterrand, Paris, France.

Maurice B. Mitchell Director, The Washington Program of The Annenberg Schools of Communication.

Vincent Mosco Associate Professor of Communications, School of Communications and Theater, Temple University.

Serge Motard Project Director, DGT, Center for Inter­ national Communication, Paris, France.

Horace Newcomb Professor of Communications, University of Texas, Austin.

Kaarle Nordenstreng Chairman, Department of Journalism and Mass Communications, University of Tampere, Finland; President, Interna­ tional Organization of Journalists.

Anthony Oettinger Professor of Information Resources Policy, Harvard University.

David R. Olson Director, McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Walter Ong Professor of English; Professor of Humanities in Psychiatry, St. Louis University.

Alfred Opubor Professor of Communication, University of Lagos, Nigeria.

Antonio Pasquali Deputy Assistant to the Director General, UNESCO, PariS, France.

Theodore Peterson Professor of Journalism, University of Illinois-Urbana.

G. Russell Pipe President and Editorial Director, Transnational Data Reporting Service, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and Washington, D.C.

Walery Pisarek Director, Press Research Centre; Head, Journalism Department, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland. Edward W. Ploman Vice-Rector, Global Learning, United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan.

Ithiel de Sola Pool Director, Research Program in Communi­ cations Policy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Alex Reid Chief Executive, British Telecom Spectrum, London, England.

David Riesman Member, Carnegie Commission for the Study of Higher Education; Emeritus Professor, Harvard University.

Thomas S. Robertson Professor of Marketing, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania.

John P. Robinson Director, Survey Research Center, University of Maryland.

Everett Rogers Professor of Communications, Institute of Communication Research, Stanford University.

Karl Erik Rosengren Fellow, Social Science Council, Depart­ ment of Sociology, University of Lund, Sweden.

Ralph L. Rosnow Thaddeus L. Bolton Professor of Psychology, Temple University.

Dan Schiller Assistant Professor of Communications, School of Communications and Theater, Temple University.

Herbert I. Schiller Professor of Communications, Third College, University of California, San Diego.

Wilbur Schramm Distinguished Center Researcher, The Communications Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu.

Benno Signitzer Professor of Communication Theory, Institute for Journalism and Mass Communication Theory, Salzburg, Austria.

Michael Silverstein Professor of Anthropology, LinguistiCS, and Behavioral Sciences, University of Chicago. Dorothy G. Singer Co-Director, Family Television Research and Consultation Center, Yale University.

Jerome L. Singer Director, Clinical Psychology Training Program, Yale University.

Tatiana Slama-Cazacu Editor-in-Chief, The International Journal of Psycholinguistics, University of Bucharest, Romania.

Anthony Smith Director, British Film Institute, London, England.

Barbara Herrnstein Smith University Professor of English and Communications, University of Penn­ sylvania.

Dallas w. smythe Professor of Communication Studies, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada.

Juan Somavia Director, Latin American Institute for the Study of Transnational Enterprises (ILETT), Mexico City, Mexico.

James Stappers Professor of Mass Communication, Catholic University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.

Tamas Szecsko Director, Center for the Study of Mass Communications, Budapest, Hungary.

Yasumasa Tanaka Chairman, Department of Political SCience, Gakushuin University, Tokyo, Japan.

Majid Tehranian Professor of Communication, University of Hawaii, Manoa.

Tzvetan Todorov Professor of Aesthetics, National Center for Scientific Research, Paris, France.

Gaye Tuchman Associate Professor of Sociology, Graduate Center, City University of New York.

Jeremy Tunstall Professor of Sociology, Department of Social Sciences and Humanities, The City University, London, England. Victor Turner William R. Kenan Professor of Anthro­ pology, University of Virginia.

Frank Okwu Ugboajah Head, Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos; Editor, UNILAG Communication Review, Lagos, Nigeria.

Klaus Wachsmann Emeritus Professor of ~Iusic. North­ western University.

Glen E. Watts President, Communication Workers of America, Washington, D.C.

Raymond Williams Fellow, Jesus College, Cambridge University, Cambridge, England.

Charles Wright Professor of Communications and Sociology, The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania.

Yassen Zassoursky Dean, Faculty of Journalism, Moscow State University, Moscow, U.S.S.R.

DoH Zillman Director, The Institute of Communica­ tions Research, Indiana University.