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New and Emerging Renewable Energy Opportunities in New Zealand

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New and Emerging Renewable Energy Opportunities in New Zealand NEW AND EMERGING RENEWABLE ENERGY OPPORTUNITIES IN NEW ZEALAND Jointly published by EECA Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority and Centre for Advanced Engineering University of Canterbury JULY 1996 Jointly published by the: Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority and the Centre for Advanced Engineering, University of Canterbury First Printing July 1996 ISBN 0-908993-11-0 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise disseminated, in any form or by any means, except for the purposes of research or private study, criticism or review, without the prior permission of the publishers. Copyright © 1996 Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority and Centre for Advanced Engineering. Cover A representation of some renewable energy sources. Against a background of plantation forestry indicating biomass, are pictures of (top to bottom) the recently constructed Hau Nui wind farm, roof solar panels, and the Hinemaiaia ‘C’ small hydro project near Taupo. Cover design by Print City, Christchurch. Photo credits: Standish & Preece (main picture), Wairarapa Electricity Ltd, Thermocell Ltd, and Tonkin and Taylor Ltd. Printing Print City, Christchurch Editorial Services and Book Design Charles Hendtlass and Una O’Grady, Centre for Advanced Engineering Disclaimer It will be noted that the authorship of this document has been attributed to a number of individuals and organisations involved in its production. While all sections have been subject to review and final editing, the opinions expressed remain those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority or the Centre for Advanced Engineering. Recommendations need to be interpreted with care and judgement. Contents Foreword ...............................................................................................................................................................iii Preface .................................................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................. vii Conversion Factors ............................................................................................................................................viii Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................. ix Section 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Context ............................................................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 The Renewable Energy Policy Environment .................................................................................................. 2 1.3 The Resource Management Act ...................................................................................................................... 3 1.4 Overview of New and Emerging Renewable Energy Technologies............................................................... 4 1.5 Future Policy Options ................................................................................................................................... 10 Section 2: Solar Energy ...................................................................................................................................... 13 2.1 The Solar Energy Resource........................................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Solar Thermal................................................................................................................................................ 21 2.3 Passive Solar in Buildings ............................................................................................................................ 33 2.4 Photovoltaic Electricity ................................................................................................................................. 45 2.5 Other Solar Conversion Systems .................................................................................................................. 63 2.6 References ..................................................................................................................................................... 67 Annex 2.1 — Developments and Applications of Photovoltaics World-wide ............................................. 69 Section 3: Bioenergy ........................................................................................................................................... 71 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 77 3.2 Woody Biomass ............................................................................................................................................ 79 3.3 Agricultural Biomass Crops .......................................................................................................................... 95 3.4 Municipal Solid Wastes .............................................................................................................................. 107 3.5 Dry Biomass Conversion Technologies ...................................................................................................... 127 3.6 Conversion of Wet Biomass ....................................................................................................................... 141 3.7 References ................................................................................................................................................... 149 Section 4: Power from Water........................................................................................................................... 155 4.1 Small Hydro Power ..................................................................................................................................... 159 4.2 Wave, Tidal and Ocean Current Power ...................................................................................................... 169 4.3 References ................................................................................................................................................... 189 Annex 4.1 — Potential small hydro schemes in New Zealand ................................................................... 191 Annex 4.2 — Wave data analysis example................................................................................................. 201 Section 5: Wind Power Generation ................................................................................................................. 207 5.1 Technology Review .................................................................................................................................... 211 5.2 The Current New Zealand Wind Energy Resource and Potential .............................................................. 216 5.3 Environmental and Social Aspects ............................................................................................................. 222 5.4 Economics ................................................................................................................................................... 224 5.5 Constraints and Opportunities ..................................................................................................................... 230 5.6 Further Research ......................................................................................................................................... 230 5.7 References ................................................................................................................................................... 231 Section 6: Integrated Energy Systems............................................................................................................. 233 6.1 Large-scale Integrated Energy Systems ...................................................................................................... 237 6.2 Small-scale Independent Energy Systems .................................................................................................. 247 6.3 Future Vision .............................................................................................................................................. 260 6.4 References ................................................................................................................................................... 261 Annex 6.1 — Procedure for sizing components of a RAPS system ........................................................... 263 i ii Foreword I welcome this report on the current status of new renewable energy technologies in New Zealand. Its publication is timely, as it comes when a range of new renewable energy developments are starting to flourish. Recently I have attended openings of a landfill gas plant in Silverstream to generate electric- ity, a landfill gas project at Green Island which will meet most of Dunedin’s reticulated gas needs and New Zealand’s first commercial
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