Natural Product Radiance, Vol. 6(5), 2007, pp.410-426 Green page: Research Article

Wild edible of Meghalaya, North-east Jasmine Therese Sawian1, Solomonnadar Jeeva1, Febreena Grace Lyndem1, Bhanu Prakash Mishra2 and Roytre Christopher Laloo1* 1Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, School of Life Sciences North Eastern Hill University, Umshing-Mawkynroh, Mawlai, Shillong - 793 022, Meghalaya, India 2Department of Forest Ecology Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences Mizoram University, Aizawl- 796 009, Mizoram, India E-mail: [email protected] * Correspondent author, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Tel: +91-364-2722227; Fax: +91-364-550076, 550108 Received 9 May 2006; Accepted 1 March 2007 Abstract the earth3. These forests inhabit a large The people of Meghalaya are very close to nature, and forests are one of the important number of trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers, natural resources in the state. The tribes of the state largely depend on forests for their livelihood epiphytes, faunal wealth and a wealth of and have acquired a vast knowledge about wealth and utilization of forest products. The non-timber forest products (NTFP) present communication aims to document the traditional knowledge about wild edible plants including medicinal and aromatic plants used by tribal people of Meghalaya. During present investigation, a total of 249 species of wild edibles belonging to 153 genera and 82 families were inventorised. Among them 129 are trees, (MAP), and wild edible plants. The wild 54 shrubs, 37 herbs and 29 climbers. The majority of the species were fruits bearing (125). edible plants with high diversity are widely Some edible plants have great economic value and are highly linked with socio-economic distributed in mountain forests and are development of tribal communities of the state. A few such species may be introduced in valuable source of food and medicines for agroforestry systems, which could be potential genetic resources for tree breeding programmes domestic and commercial purposes. in other areas of the country and also to provide edible plant resources to the communities in addition to creating photosynthetic pool to counter environmental degradation. Although rural people utilized wild plants for their livelihood, the Keywords: Wild edible plants, Traditional knowledge, Meghalaya, North-east India, Agroforestry, Genetic resources. scientists have recently realized importance of such plants in rural IPC code; Int. cl.8 — A23L 1/00, A01G 17/00 economy. Since late 1980s studies on use

Introduction Plants provide food and other 0 10 20 30 40 28° 00′Ν life-supporting commodities and are very A S S A M important for survival of human beings Ri-Bhoi and other organisms; besides, they protect District our environment and maintain nature. East Garo West The evidence of man’s dependency on Hills plants for his survival can be demonstrated West East Khasi by palaeo-ethnobotanical findings from Jantia Hills 1, 2 Hills prehistoric archaeological sites . South Garo Tropical forests are major 25° 15′Ν Hills reservoir of plant diversity, as they harbor B a n g l a d e s h 90° 30′ 91°00′ 91°30′ 92° 00′ 92°30′ Ε about 50% of the total plant species identified so far, with 12 per cent area of Map showing the study area

410 Natural Product Radiance Green page: Research Article

of wild plants in tropical forests have been taken up vigorously4, 5. a l m The easy access to the resources and proximity to widely dispersed rural markets are key factors enabling people to generate income from NTFP6. Income from NTFP b c n o seldom appears to account for a large share of a household’s total income, but it often is important in bridging seasonal or other cash flow gaps. In the areas having high plant diversity, income from NTFP d e p q can be the main source of household income for rural communities. There has been a revival of interest in medicinal and wild food plants during the last few f g r s decades among the ethnobotanists7 - 17 which is associated with an increasing desire for natural rather than synthetic medicine and wild or organically grown foods. h i t u Some studies have been conducted in Meghalaya on ethno- medicinal plants used by the tribal communities18-20 but there is paucity of information on edible plants of this region21-23. Therefore, v j k the present study was conducted to provide base line data that can be helpful in ensuring sustainable utilization of wild edible plants of Meghalaya. Edible fruits: a-Baccaurea sapida, b-Citrus medica, c-Cycas pectinata, d-Diospyros kaki, e- Iatifolia, f-Ficus auriculata, g-Ficus hirta, Study area h-Garcinia cowa, i-Garcinia tinctoria, j-Pyrus pashia, k-Rubus ellipticus; The state of Meghalaya Edible leaves: l-Begonia palmata, m-Begonia roxburghii, n-Caryota urens, o-Cayratia japonica, p-Centella asiatica, q-Rhododendron arboreum; regarded as “abode of clouds” Edible flowers: r-Bauhinia purpurea, s-Bauhinia variegata, covers an area of 22, 429 sq km t-Buddleja asiatica, u-Corchorus capsularis, v-Hovenia dulcis. lying between 25°47′-26°10′N latitude and 89°45′-92°47′E

Vol 6(5) September-October 2007 411 Green page: Research Article longitude, and situated in the North- the period between April 2004 and October contributed 15.3, 3.6 and 2.8%, eastern Himalayan region of India. It is 2005. Details on wild edible plants were respectively. bordered on the North-West, North and recorded by interviewing the local people Moraceae was found to be the East by Assam, and South and South-West and local markets were visited for most common family with 15 species. by Bangladesh. Three main tribes of inventory of wild edible plants used for Other important families were Rosaceae Meghalaya include the Khasis, Jaintias commercial purpose. Tribal informants (12 species), Rutaceae and Myrtaceae and Garos, who follow the matrilineal were consulted to locate and collect these (11 species each), Euphorbiaceae system of society. plants. They provided useful information (10 species), Anacardiaceae (9 species), Meghalaya has hard sedimentary on wild edible plants and their common and Clusiaceae, Myrsinaceae and Vitaceae rocks of the Shillong series along with names, including usefulness of different (8 species each). The generic granites, quartzite with phyllites and slates. parts of various plants. composition showed a contrary result. The soil is generally red, sandy loam of The standard methods as Moraceae was replaced by (3 families) lateritic origin24. Meghalaya falls under suggested by Martin32 and Cotton33 were Ancardiaceae, Euphorbiaceae and the sub-tropical zone and its location and adopted for herbarium preparation. Plant Rutaceae, which had highest generic topography characterize its monsoonic identification was done with the help of diversity. The monospecific and . The average temperature ranges regional and local floras34-36, and monogeneric families were counted as 38 from 10°C during the cold months specimens were counter-checked from the and 50, respectively (Table 2). The (November to February) to 27°C during herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India, flowering starts between January and the warmer months (April to June). The Eastern Circle, Shillong. The specimens March in majority of species and fruiting average annual rainfall is 2420 mm25. are housed in Ecology Research Laboratory, period varies from species to species. Meghalaya is one of the Department of Botany, School of Life Fruits of Baccaurea sapida biodiversity rich states of India in terms Sciences, North-Eastern Hill University, (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg., Citrus medica of vegetation and flora. Varied altitude, Shillong. Linn., Docynia indica (Wall.) topography, status of soil and climatic Decne, Gynocordia odorata and conditions favour high species richness Results and Discussion Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham., and and support different types of forests. Botanical and family name, local leafy vegetables such as Centella Deciduous and evergreen tropical forests, name (in Khasi), growth habit, season asiatica (Linn.) Urban and sub-tropical semi-evergreen forest and of availability and plant parts used are Houttuynia cordata Thunb. are sold sub-tropical pine forest are the major enumerated in Table 1. During the present in the market at a large scale. The seeds types in the state26. Wide geographical investigation information was collected on of Castanopsis indica A. DC. is eaten and climatic diversity provides a repository 249 species (belonging to 153 genera and raw by ethnic communities of Meghalaya. of valuable medicinal and wild edible 82 families). This is about 13.2 % of the Seeds are collected from the forests and plants of the region. These plants have a total species (1886) of vascular plants sold in the markets. Fruits are mostly valuable place in indigenous system of identified in Meghalaya34. It was observed consumed raw and leafy vegetables are medicine as well as tribal dietary that out of total wild edible species, 5% cooked, boiled or fried. The survey in requirements. Shifting cultivation and are under cultivation also11. the local markets showed that the vendors clear fellings have led to the massive Number of wild edible tree sell edible fruits, about 40% wild edibles, exploitation of virgin forests and species are markedly more (129) which are harvested mostly from the development of secondary communities followed by shrubs (54), herbs (37) and forests37-40. Due to lack of proper storage on disturbed forests27-31. climbers (29). Percent contribution of facilities in the region, the harvesters are different parts of plants used depicts that bound to sell their edible products in fresh Methodology fruits of majority of species are edible conditions41. However, bamboo shoots are Field study was carried out during (50.2%); leaves, seeds and flowers preserved by the traditional methods.

412 Natural Product Radiance Green page: Research Article Fruit Leaves, Stem Fruit Edible part Fruits Fruits Flower Flower Leaves, Shoot Leaves Leaves Fruit -April Fruit tember-March ruary-March Fruit cember-May Leaves, Flower arch-February Fruit July-November April-August April-February Fruit, Leaves April-June October March-AugustFebruary-AugustMarch-August Fruit Fruit - Leaves, Shoot April-July Fruit as April-June margins November duous forest Sep Umkhrah - hills at primary forests hills, mostly confined hills lower elevations lower elevation deciduous in forests in mixed evergreen forest secondary forests and grass lands into sacred forests sal forest under growth Sub-tropical forests of Khasi hillsGarampani at Jaintia hills April-August De Along the margins of river margins of Khasi hills an under growth Along moist areas in sub-tropical forests - lower elevations Common abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting Tree Khasi and Jaintia Shrub Common TreeTree Common Common in tropical forests, often as a Tree forests of Khasi and Jaintia hills Tropical M TreeShrub Frequent in forest margins and river sides Present in evergreen June-FebruaryLeaves Fruit, Shrub Shrub Herb Tree Byrnihat - Khasi hillsTreeTree Common in tropical evergreen forests forests of Garo hills Tropical March-June - Fruits, Aril Feb TreeClimber Khasi hills Common in Herb Tree Umling-Khasi Tree Secondary forests of Garo TreeTree Khasi hills at (G) Tree Common in secondary deci

(G) Tree Common Dieng-soh-sillih Dieng-soh-jymmang Dieng-japen Theilang-rong Dieng-pylleng Dieng-soh-silli - Mei-soh-khan - - Soh-bel Dieng-soh-longar - Dieng-soh-sying Jatap-masi Saru-bsein Dieng-soh-ram Armu Dieng-soh- ram-dieng Me-gong Dieng-neem Soh-ram-dieng Araceae Table 1 : Wild edible plants used by indigenous communities of Meghalaya Table Sapindaceae Amaranthaceae Moraceae Meliaceae Euphorbiaceae Schott/ Euphorbiaceae

Caesalpiniaceae Myrsinaceae Linn./ Actinidiaceae

Acanthaceae Lour./ Roxb./ Meliaceae

A. Juss./ Linn./ Wall./

Spreng./

Lindl./ (Burm.f.) Boj. Miq. Nees/

(Linn.) Correa ex Gaertn.

Wall. (Roxb.) Radlk./

Hook.f.

A. Gray/ Heyne ex Roth

Roxb. C. B. Clarke

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg.

Rutaceae Aphania rubra A. khasianum Ardisia floribunda Antidesma bunius A. diandrum A. ghesaembilla A. griffithi Botanical name/ Familyname Local H Actinidia callosa Adhatoda vasica Aegle marmelos Amaranthus gangeticus Roxb./ Aglaia edulis A. roxburghiana Bauhinia purpurea A. polycephala Argyreia nervosa ConvolvulaceaeArisaema consanguineum Artocarpus chaplasa A. lakoocha Azadirachta indica Baccaurea ramiflora B. sapida forests,

Vol 6(5) September-October 2007 413 Green page: Research Article es, Buds Edible part Leaves Flower Leaves Bark, Root Fruit Fruit Leaves Leaves, Bark Seed Fruit Leaves ber-February Fruit ruary-March Leav arch-February Fruit arch-February Fruit ay-February Bark ay-February une-July Shoot March-April Fruit September-March Fruit - Fruit February-December Fruit February-October November-February February-August at - Fruit of January-November often Septem home gardens hills - evergreen and mixed ls April-December Fruit, Leaves evergreen forests of hills dense evergreen forests J Jaintia hil in Sal and other mixed in higher elevations in dense evergreen forests common April-June and Garo perate forests of Khasi and Jaintia hills - ropical and sub-tropical forests July Jaintia hills along forest margins deciduous forests of Garo hills deciduous forests Khasi hills and pine forests Frequent in moist and shady areas of M Garo and Khasi hills and Nongpoh Tura along stream sides the disturbed areas Throughout the region alongKhasi hills - into sacred forests Garampani at Jaintia abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting Tree Frequent in deciduous forest slopes Feb Herb Tem Herb T TreeShrub Frequent in tropical Common in Shrub Common Shrub Common Tree Abundant in secondary deciduous M Shrub Tree Frequent in dense Shrub Common Tree Common - Tree Common in evergreen forests Herb TreeHerb Secondary forests and Tree Khasi and Jaintia hills, mostly confined M Shrub Khasi and Shrub Shrub Khasi hills M Shrub Khasi (J) Tree Common in evergreen forests

(J) Climber Fairly

Dieng-long Sla-lajaw mynneng Kamchal Dieng-soh-mir - Dieng-tuti- Risan-um Dieng-lakhoit Ja-lang-kwai Kwai-cha Dieng-sarag Soh-thri Dieng-soh-stap Dieng-soh-ot Syrbuid Badmaina Dieng-la-tyrpad Soh-shiah Soh-kyniet Dieng-siang-mat Soh-heh Soh-manong Dieng-ja-rem Vitaceae Lauraceae Rutaceae Verbenaceae Burseraceae Arecaceae Apiaceae Linn./

Verbenaceae Fagaceae Begoniaceae Griff./ Euphorbiaceae

Buddlejaceae Asteraceae Wight & Arn./

Nees & Eberm./

Arecaceae Roxb./ A. DC./ rtunatum

Blume/

(Thunb.) Gagnep./ Lour./ Rutaceae

D. Don./

(Linn.) Urban/

Wall. ex Colebr./ Wall. Petrak/

Linn./ DC./ A. DC.

A. DC. (Miq.) N. P. Balakr. (Miq.) N. P.

Linn.

Lindl. Linn. Roxb. (Swingle) Tanaka

B. variegata Botanical name/ FamilyBegonia palmata name Local H B. roxburghii Bursera serrata Calamus acanthospathus Bridelia stipularis Buddleja asiatica Callicarpa arborea C. rubella Caryota urens Castanopsis indica C. erectus C. purpurella C. tribuloides Cayratia japonica Centella asiatica Cinnamomum tamala Cirsium lepskyi Citrus hystrix Clausena heptaphylla C. latipes C. medica Clerodendrum info

414 Natural Product Radiance Green page: Research Article Edible part Seed Leaves, Flower, Shoot Leaves Fruit, Calyx Flower Leaves Leaves Leaves Flower Fruit -April Bark MayApril-December June-February Fruit Fruit October-May August-December March-July March-JulyMarch-September Fruit April-February Fruit February-September Fruit Fruit November-March July-September April-September Fruit April-November - Fruit ted February-September Fruit Jaintia hills state January-April scrubland ponds - Leaves, Rhizome streams and -Rhizome Leaves, the hills forests often cultiva of Khasi the province evergreen and belts of the elevations in tropical deciduous forest tracts province November of the state river sides June-April forest margins ntia hills ntia hills open areas in pine and sal in pine forests at higher elevations January-June along margins of common in ostly grown in home gardens - Rhizome and mixed bamboo forests forest margins of Garo hills undergrowth Common in meadows evergreen forests usually along river banks ponds deciduous forests Found in the Common along streams and abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting Shrub Common TreeShrub Khasi and Jai Fairly TreeTree Common in dense evergreen forests and Abundant throughout the state June-October Shoot Herb Common Herb TreeTree Common along Tree Along deciduous Along deciduous tracts TreeTree Common at lower Tree Khasi and Jai Common in Khasi hills, Herb Herb Climber Common in tropical TreeShrub Frequent in forests of Khasi and Tree Common Common throughout Climber Throughout the HerbTree M forests Tropical (J) Tree Frequent in

(G) Climber Present in tropical Rilong-phlang Dieng-sia-goda Jyrmi-bu-stem Soh-tyrsim Seij-lai - - Soh-kyrbam Dieng-soh-bar Agatchi-badura (G)Dieng-iong and Garo hills Dieng-thang Dieng-soh-phoh Soh-phoh - Shriew Mei-long-kha-saw Dudiblok Dieng-soh-japhon Dieng-piur U-sia-kiang Mei-long-kha-saw Shynrai - Moraceae Cornaceae Urticaceae Combretaceae Hamamelidaceae Tiliaceae Hook.f. & Rosaceae

Moraceae Blume/

Fabaceae Fabaceae Roxb./ Araceae

Griff./ Ebenaceae Wedd./

Linn./ Cycadaceae DC./ Zingiberaceae

Trec./ Dilleniaceae Decne/

Roxb./ Schott/

Griff./ Linn./ Wall. ex Roxb./ Roxb.

Linn./ Linn. f. /

Spreng. Roxb.

Schott (D. Don) Roxb. ex Wall. (Linn.) Moon

Poaceae (Wall.) Decne

Annonaceae Botanical name/ Familyname Local H Thoms./ C. serratum Cycas pectinata Dalbergia rimosa Debregeasia longifolia Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn./ Desmodium trifolium Colocasia affinis Dillenia indica D. pentagyna D. scabrella Diospyros kaki D. lanceaefolia Docynia hookeriana D. indica C. esculenta Conocephalus suaveolens Corchorus capsularis Cornus capitata Corylopsis himalayana Cudrania javanensis Combretum decandrum C. roxburghii Curcuma longa Cyathocalyx martabanicus

Vol 6(5) September-October 2007 415 Green page: Research Article Edible part Leaves Fruit Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Calyx Fruit Fruit Fruit arch-December arch-February Fruit ay-February April-MayOctober-April Fruit December-August Fruit March-AprilNovember-May Fruit November-April Fruit May-DecemberJune-December Fruit Fruit February-May September Fruit May-February January-December Fruit March-May Fruit March-June gardens Sylhet forests at Jarain January-October Fruit ry evergreen forests M Khasi hills foot on the elevations in tropical evergreen forests of tropical evergreen hills March-April ntia hills secondary and mixed dense prima Garo hills along forest margins cultivated in Khasi home and Garo evergreen forests and in open places and Jowai Tura forests of Khasi and Garo hills deciduous forests forests Along forest margins M forests slopes in swamps abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting Tree Fairly common in Shrub Widely TreeTree Khasi and Jai Common in dense evergreen Tree Common at lower ShrubTree Usually Tree ranges of Garo hills Common in Tura Tree Frequent in dense Climber Dense evergreen forests at Climber Common in secondary Common in TreeHerb and sub-tropical forests Tropical - Shoot Climber Common in secondary forests Tree Abundant in secondary and deciduous M Tree Khasi hills, near the Tree Sub-tropical forests of Tree Throughout the area often gregarious April-July (J) Tree Khasi

(J) Climber Frequent in

(G) Tree Common in all types of forests April-July (G) Tree Khasi and

Sla-luchai Soh-shang - Dieng-pankher Dieng-basier Dieng-soh-blor - Dieng-soh-khyllam Soh-khyllam- eit-blang Mei-ja-jew-khlaw - - Dhania-khlaw Soh-jew-tenksai Jermi-masi Soh-mylleng - Chambu Dieng-sa-ludong Dieng-ramai Thot-kak Sapindaceae Euphorbiaceae Blume/

Myrsinaceae Apiaceae Blume Myrtaceae Boraginaceae

Linn./ (G. Don) Linn./ Gaertn./

R. Br./ (Buch.-Ham.)

(Hook.f. ) Pax & Roxb./ D. Don/

Sapotaceae Roxb.

(Clarke) Mez

Wall. Roxb. Kurz Lam.

Hook. f.

Roxb. Roxb.

Wall.

Wall.

Euphorbiaceae peak Tura Meliaceae Erioglossum rubiginosum Eryngium foetidum E. subcoriacea Emblica officinalis Eugenia bracteata E. claviflora E. formosa E. fructicosa E. jambolana E. operculata Donella roxburghii Pierre ex Lecomte/ Drypetes assamica Hoffm./ Dysoxylum gobara Merr./ Elaeagnus latifolia E. pyriformis Elaeocarpus floribundus Elaeocarpaceae E. lanceaefolius E. prunifolius Embelia nagushia E. nutans Botanical name/ Familyname Local H Ehretia acuminata E. sessiliflora

416 Natural Product Radiance Green page: Research Article Edible part Fruit Seed Leaves Leaves Leaves Fruit Fruit -April Fruit arch-February Fruit ay-February Fruit December-AprilNovember-April Fruit May-August July-December -January-December Fruit September-March Fruit December-February Fruit January Fruit March-JanuaryMarch-October Fruit Fruit September-February Fruit March-January Fruit March-AugustFebruary-August Fruit Fruit h February-July Fruit, Leaves ude December-July Fruit forest and waste of Khasi and streams in November of Khasi hills as under growt at lower elevations forests - Fruit the province the province April-June rests at lower altit the province secondary forests - Tuber Khasi hills green and mixed the province sub-tropical tracts of ntia hills April-June and Jaintia hills Water bodies of Khasi hillsCommon in secondary forests July-November lands at higher elevations Khasi hills bamboo forests Frequent in secondary banks and forest margins at lower elevations Garo hills abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting TreeTree Nearly all over Herb Nearly all over the province Herb Herb TreeTree and Tropical Common throughout TreeTree Abundant, particularly along Khasi and Jai TreeTree Khasi and Jaintia hills Khasi and Jaintia hills Tree Common throughout ShrubHerb Waste lands and TreeTree Deciduous forests of Common in lower elevations along river Tree Mixed tropical forests Tree Common in Khasi hills ShrubTree evergreen forests Tropical evergreen fo Tropical Tree Frequent in tropical forests of the provinceTree M Khasi and Jaintia hills along forest margins M Tree Frequent in evergreen forests - (G) Tree Khasi, Garo

(G) Tree Frequent in ever

(J)

Dieng-myrchang - Shriew-u-pubon Jarian Jarian - sang Dieng-thylliang Phrap-agar Dieng-soh-rompain - Dieng-surme-blang - Dieng-soh-lampin Soh-phlang - Dieng-soh-mluh Dieng-soh-mluh Rengran Dieng-soh-danei Dieng-soh-rynsan khyllung Dieng-soh-jadu Dieng-soh-longkor Dieng-soh-kwang Dieng-soh- Dieng-soh- longksan Rosaceae Flacourtiaceae Polygonaceae Fabaceae Roxb./ Moraceae Schlecht./ Meissn./

Nymphaeaceae Clusiaceae Benth./ Hook. f.

Lour./

Gage

Roxb. Roxb. Roxb./

Salisb./ Wall. Roxb. Kurz

Buch.-Ham.

Wall.

(Lour.) Raeusch. (Lour.)

Wall. (DC.) W.F.Wight Roxb.

(D. Don) Hara

Hook.f.

Roxb. Buch.-Ham. Vahl

E. praecox E. praetermissa Euryale ferox Fagopyrum cymosum dibotrys F. F. geniculata F. Botanical name/ Familyname Local Ficus auriculata H cunia F. hirta F. F. roxburghii F. lanceolata F. Fragaria nilgerrensis F. nemoralis F. pomifera F. Flacourtia cataphracta Flemingia vestita Garcinia cowa F. jangomas F. G. pedunculata G. G. tinctoria G. paniculata G. spicata G. xanthochymus G. G. kydia G. lanceaefolia G.

Vol 6(5) September-October 2007 417 Green page: Research Article uber Fruit Fruit Seed, Aril Leaves Flower, Shoot, Root Flower, Fruit Edible part Fruit Seed kernel Petiole -February Fruit ember-May ay-February May-June May-January Peduncles November-April Tuber January-June January-AprilFebruary-July Fruit February-December Fruit Fruit April-November November-January Fruit March-May Fruit April-MayFebruary-March Fruit February-November Fruit May-November eams rests of March-NovemberLeaves Fruit, the state forests Dec ills August-March at May-September Fruit Balphakram forest as of the str forests of and secondary Khasi h forests of the state Garo hills as fields - T and Garo hills lower elevations in secondary forests in secondary forests under growth at under growth ostly in open places and along streams April-July Cultivated in Jhum Cultivated in Jhum fields Throughout the plains June Jaintia hills forests Nongpoh range sanctuary Confined to grasslands in lower elevations Common in the vicinity Khasi home gardens abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting TreeTree Occasional at Cultivated in Khasi Herb M Herb Herb Shrub Largely confined to sacred forests M Herb Forest Shrub Tree Very rare, confined to sacred fo Tree Common in forests of TreeClimber Common in deciduous Tree River banks of dense evergreen forests Shrub Common in deciduous ShrubShrub Common Common Climber Common in undisturbed Climber Frequent in secondary Herb Tree Frequent in tropical evergreen (J) Tree Common in tropical forests of

(J) Shrub

- Soh-manir Ja-myrdoh Dieng-mylliat Phan-karo Soh-lah Dieng-jowat -khlieh Pharun-barne Dieng-sohpang Soh-mai Dieng-soh-sning ballieh Dieng-lophiang Mei-lar-iong-um Dieng-thap- Soh-synting - - - Mei-soh-mynthar Sa-tymbra - Dieng-ja-lyntep Araceae Rubiaceae Convolvulaceae Gnetaceae Saururaceae Miers

Lardizabalaceae Schott/ Vitaceae

(Wall.) Sapindaceae (Roxb.) Roxb./ Verbenaceae

Rhamnaceae (Retz.) Hook. f. & Verbenaceae

Rubiaceae

Tiliaceae Thunb./ Markgr./ Wall./

Roxb./

Roxb./ Linn./ (Linn.) Lam./ Wall./

Sonner./ Royle/

Thunb./

Roxb.

Roth

Vahl

Roxb. Cucurbitaceae Rutaceae an forest under growth Sapindaceae Myristicaceae at lower elevations Lepisanthes rubiginosa Leenh./ Litchi chinensis Warb./ Houttuynia cordata Hovenia dulcis Ipomoea batatas I. racemosa Ixora subsessilis Leea macrophylla Lantana camara Botanical name/ Familyname Local H Gardenia campanulata Glycosmis pentaphylla Correa/ Gmelina arborea Gnetum montanum Grewia elastica hirsuta G. sapida G. sclerophylla G. Haematocarpus thomsoni MenispermaceaeHodgsonia heteroclita Thoms./ Holboellia latifolia an Homalomena aromatica Horsfieldia amygdalina

418 Natural Product Radiance Green page: Research Article ruit, Leaves, Flower Seed, Bark Edible part Fruit Leaves Leaves, Flower Leaves, Shoot Leaves Leaves arch-December Fruit, Leaves October-January February-July Fruit August-May Fruit February-December Fruit April-September Fruit, Leaves March-January Fruit - Leaves, Shoot January-May Fruit, Leaves, Flower February-May -December-February June-February Fruit Carpel of - Fruit, Leaves forests at wild at Khasi hills April-September Aril elevation in Khasi fields - places and sub-tropical forests - evergreen forests of April-July Garo hills in deciduous forest under in waste lands and near in shady localities as a forest M forest under growth the state under growth secondary forests in shady slopes Rivers and paddy fields lower elevations lower elevations growth and Jaintia hills forests Present in tropical and sub-tropical Water bodies of Khasi and Jaintia hills Khasi hills abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting TreeTree Occasional in Shrub Common in secondary forests Common TreeHerb Occasional in deciduous As Shrub Common TreeClimber Common along streams and Common in moist Climber Cultivated in Jhum Herb Tree Cultivated and also run wild at - F Tree Cultivated and also run Tree Common - TreeShrub Common at higher Herb TreeShrub Sub-tropical forests of Frequent in wet Climber Found in tropical (G) Shrub Common

Dieng-soh-pieng - Dieng-soh-khing Dieng-chandon - Dieng-soh-jala -tyrkai Dieng-soh-naior Jyrmi-soh-ram- khlaw - - - - Sam-khatsi - Dieng-soh-phie - Soh-lapudong Dieng-loba Dieng-tyrut - Malvaceae Icacinaceae Rutaceae Rubiaceae Olacaceae Sapindaceae Nelumbonaceae Myricaceae Linn. Melastomataceae Pontederiaceae

A. Gray/

Spreng./

Sabiaceae Hook. f. & Thoms.

Anacardiaceae Hook. f./ Willd./

Moringaceae

Rubiaceae Muell.-Arg. Buch.-Ham./

Blume/ Solms/

Cambess./

Myrsinaceae Roxb. ex Willd. Roxb./ Gaertn.

(Linn.)

Linn./

Lam./ Buch.-Ham./

Linn./

Wall. ex Benth./

Wall./

Mangifera indica Medinilla rubicunda Melastoma malabathricum Maesa indica Mallotus philippensis EuphorbiaceaeMalvastrum tricuspidatum MelastomataceaeMeliosma pinnata Melodorum verrucosum lower elevations water courses Botanical name/ Familyname Local H Annonaceae Momordica dioica Cucurbitaceae Monochoria hastata Moringa oleifera M. pterygosperma Murraya koenigii Mussaenda roxburghii Myrica esculenta Natsiatun herpeticum Nelumbium speciosum Nephelium longana Olax acuminata Paederia foetida

Vol 6(5) September-October 2007 419 Green page: Research Article Tuber Leaves ruit, Leaves Edible part Leaves Leaves, Root Fruit Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Fruit -June Fruit December Seeds - Fruit May-October December-April Fruit, Leaves July-September Roots, May-December Fruit January-December August-February January-July Fruit, October-AugustOctober-August Fruit Fruit undergrowth - forest January-July hills at higher elevations October Garo hills forests of growth May-August elevations, often cultivated disturbed and cultivated sub-tropical forests - as an sub-tropical in secondary forest margins at - F cultivated areas marshy and shady localities - forest under undergrowth common in tropical deciduous and lower elevations areas lower elevations secondary forests Common in secondary forest water courses the Jaintia hills margins and forest roads undergrowth higher elevations Common in waste lands and nearPresent in secondary April-July Common in waste landsCommon along evergreen forestCommon along periphery of the forestsCommon along river banks - - - abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting Climber Cultivated in Khasi and Shrub Along Herb As an HerbShrub As an Common Herb Shrub Very Herb Common in ClimberClimber Common in Often found in home gardens ClimberHerb Found in Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Common Tree Cultivated and run wild at Tree Common Khasi and Jaintia (J) Tree Frequent at lower

(G) Tree Rather rare in mixed evergreen forests at

Aoelgap Soh-brap - Jaiong Sam-thapar - - Dieng-soh- kajut - Sla-tympew - - Skhor-blang - Ja-ut Ja-lynnong Ja-rian - Bol-sal-thanuri Dieng-soh-iong- krem Sa-tanghi Soh-iong Piperaceae Rubiaceae (Roxb.) Marantaceae

Lamiaceae Phytolaccaceae Rosaceae Mimosaseae Scrophulariaceae Portulacaceae Verbenaceae Passifloraceae Link/

H.B. & K./ Willd./

Hook.f./ Wall./ Anacardiaceae Roxb./

Linn./

Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don/ G. Don/

Roxb./

Sims/ Piperaceae

Wall. ex Roxb.

(Ser.) Steud. (Ser.)

Linn. Colebr./

Hook. f.

Linn./ Linn. D. Don

Linn.

Polygonaceae

/ Acanthaceae Parkia roxburghii Passiflora edulis Botanical name/ FamilyPavetta subcapitata name Local H Phytolacca acinosa Pedicularis carnosa Pegia nitida Peperomia pellucida Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees/ Phrynium capitatum Piper betle longum P. malamiris P. Plantago erosa Plantaginaceae Plectranthus incanus Polygonum alatum Spreng. chinense P. dibotrys P. Portulaca oleracea Premna herbacea Prunus cerasoides jenkinsii P. napaulensis P.

420 Natural Product Radiance Green page: Research Article it, Leaves Edible part Seed Fruit Leaves Fruit Fruit Leaves Leaves, Stem Fruit Leaves Leaves ary-June Pods cember-January Fruit ay-February Fru ay-February -March-January Fruit Fruit February-JuneJuly-September Fruit January-December Fruit April-November March-AugustJuly-March Fruit August-May Fruit Fruit May-April Fruit hills - Jarain April-November st areas at January-December Fruit secondary - Pulp ts of Garo the forests of arly in evergreen forests isturbed fore hills Febru the state out the state higher elevations deciduous and higher elevations sub-tropical forests undergrowth March-July undergrowth nearly throughout the state - in pine forests as an undergrowth in evergreen fores in Jhum fields lower elevations forests, open lands and forest margins and forest margins forest margins in moist areas abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting Tree Frequent in evergreen forests June-February Fruit TreeTree Cultivated through Tree Very rare and found in the forests of DawkiTree - Rather rare, present in Tree Cultivated at Common in TreeTree Common Very common, particul Tree Common in March-October ShrubShrub Common As an undergrowth in Shrub As an forest Shrub As an forest Tree ranges of Garo Tura Tree Common in Mawprem area - Shrub Common Tree Found in secondary forests as well De Tree Nearly throughout TreeTree Forest margins and d Tree Throughout the state in all type of forests M Shrub Common in Found ShrubShrub Common Present in Secondary forests - Aril - - (G) Tree Common in forest of Garo hills M

(J) khlaw Dieng-chiri Soh-pyriam Dieng-soh-lak Dieng-soh-klong Soh-phoh Soh-shur Suskeng Dieng-tiew-saw Sa-ma Dieng-soh-ma Soh-pero Soh-shiah Dieng-soh-khaw iong Soh-nybbah - - - - Dieng-ja-la-ngap Dieng-soh-la-pied Dieng-ngan Dieng-soh-bhala Soh-podok Ja-kharia - Urticaceae Gesneriaceae Mimosaseae Moraceae Ericaceae Theaceae Sterculiaceae Connaraceae A. DC./

Caprifoliaceae Gaudich./ Solanaceae Saurauiaceae

Sm./ Linn. f.

Bureau/

Santalaceae Myrtaceae Rosaceae DC./ Rubiaceae

Anacardiaceae Nees/

Rosaceae Blume/ Planch./

DC./ Linn./ (DC.) Korth./

Linn./ (Benth). Merrill/

A. DC./ Sm./

Linn./ (Roxb.) R. Br./ Linn.

Sm.

Wall. Cardot

Wall. Murr.

(Buch.-Ham. ) D. Don

Psidium guajava Pseudostreblus indicus Pterygota alata Pyrularia edulis Pyrus communis pashia P. Randia uliginosa Rhododendron arboreum Rhus javanicus R. semialata Botanical name/ Familyname Local H R. khasianus R. lasiocarpus R. moluccanus Samanea saman javanica Sarcochlamys pulcherrima Saurauia napaulensis S. punduana S. roxburghii Schima wallichii Semecarpus anacardium AnacardiaceaeSolanum barbisetum secondary forests Rhynchotechum ellipticum Rourea commutata Rubus ellipticus

Vol 6(5) September-October 2007 421 Green page: Research Article it, Leaves Leaves Fruit, Flower buds Fruit, Seed Seed Seed Seed Leaves Leaves Edible part Fruit Flower y-June Fruit bruary Fruit arch-February ay-February Fru December-February Fruit October-February February-December Fruit March-November Fruit February-July - Fruit April-FebruaryJanuary-May Fruit, Leaves Fruit, Leaves March Fruit March-June hills opes of lower Februar of November-February forests August-May of the state forests in deciduous he southern sl the Khasi hills in evergreen tropical deciduous belts Byrnihat area - Pulp in secondary forests of Garo in cultivated areas M in secondary forests forests in cultivated areas home gardens June-Fe Common in cultivated areas Present in secondary deciduous forests at lower elevations forests of the state the state elevations the state particularly at lower elevations the Garo hills abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting Herb Herb TreeTree Frequent in evergreen and mixed Frequent in forests of Garo hills M Tree Common in Tree Tropical TreeTree Found commonly Found commonly in deciduous forests of - Tree Very common in t Tree Common in Climber Abundant throughout the state, August-March Shrub Khasi Shrub Common Climber Rare in forests of Tree Fairly common, particularly at - (G) Shrub Common (G) Tree Usually found

(G) Shrub Common (J) Climber Usually common at higher elevations - (G) Shrub Found

(J) Climber Common in dense forests Dieng-soh-podok- bakthang Ki-lan-jiat Dieng-saliat Dieng-soh-pair kynthai Dieng-soh-pier - Mimong-omak Star-um Dieng-star Dieng-soh-sarlei Dieng-soh-kyntoi Da-cheng-brup Syrpung Sla-ngnar Jyrmi-khnong Soh-ngan Khim-kha Soh-jhari - Sam-siphra - Myrtaceae Acanthaceae (Dennst.)

Myrtaceae Acanthaceae Sterculiaceae Caesalpiniaceae Anacardiaceae Roxb./

Anacardiaceae Asteraceae Nees/ Linn./

Roxb./ Roxb./ (Linn.) Skeels/

Schrad. & Wendl. Linn./ (Roxb.) Pierre

Hook.f./

Wall. ex Kurz/

(Roxb.) Planch. Wall.

Willd.

Wall.

Vitaceae Linn. (Linn.f.) Kurz

Roxb. Roxb.

Brace ex Prain S. xanthocarpum Sonchus arvensis Spondias axillaris S. mangifera S. pinnata Sterculia coccinea Sterculia S. roxburghii S. versicolor S. villosa suaveolens Stixis S. tetragonum Tamarindus indica Tamarindus Tapiria hirsuta Tapiria Tetrastigma leucostaphylum Balakr./ N. P. serrulatum T. Thunbergia grandiflora S. indicum Botanical name/ FamilyS. kurzii name Local H S. spirale Capparidaceae scaber Strobilanthes Syzygium cuminii

422 Natural Product Radiance Green page: Research Article ot Edible part Flower Pulp Fruit Fruit Fruit Seed, Tuber Leaves, Shoot Fruit Seed Fruit, Shoot ber Fruit ry-June Fruit ber-January Fruit tember-April Leaves Fruit, February-May Fruit, Leaves April-September Fruit April-July July-September June-November February-October August-October Leaves, Stem June-November March-September May-October September-February Fruit March-July Fruit May-September Sho forests at April-July altitudes forest margins elevations Novem lower Februa margin at April-May at high evergreen forests April-Septem undergrowth - Fruit evergreen forests deciduous and hills and sub-tropical higher elevations secondary forests tropical deciduous belts, in pine forest in tropical forest as in pine forests and forest undergrowth lower elevations an undergrowth higher elevations forests at higher elevations Common in tropical and sub-tropical Common in tropical and sub-tropical forests - secondary forests Frequent in Khasi at lower elevations and Garo hills elevations particularly in disturbed forest areas abit Habitat Flowering/Fruiting TreeShrub Occurs in tropical Common Shrub Common TreeShrub Found in tropical Mostly present in ShrubTree Common Climber Fairly common at Climber Common in pine forests Climber Climber Usually common at higher Climber Farily common at Climber Endemic to Khasi hills TreeShrub Frequent in primary As secondary forest Tree Common in tropical forest of Khasi Tree Common in open areas at Tree Common in secondary forests of the state Sep (G) Tree Frequent in (J) Shrub

(G) Herb As an kynthur rongkham Dieng-soh- Dieng-soh- Soh-ryngkham Soh-mon - Soh-lang-ksew Soh-lang-eit-ksew Jyrmi-soh-langtor - Mei-ja-khajrap - - Lokra Soh-mrit Jaiur-blai Dieng-soh-mirik - Dieng-soh-broi Soh-broi Dumakpul Dieng-ka-shyrang Fabaceae Rutaceae Araliaceae Asteraceae Vacciniaceae Rubiaceae Caprifoliaceae Wall./

Vitaceae Linn./

Wight/

Buch.-Ham. ex

Roxb./

Decne/

(Roxb.) Vis./ Wall./

M. Laws. Wight

(Benth.) A. Rich./

Edgew.

Hook. f. Lam.

Wall. Hook. f. & Thoms.

Lam. Wall. Mill. Wight & Arn.

DC.

Rhamnaceae (-) not known, (G) Garo, (J) Jaintia Trevesia palmata donianum Vaccinium griffithianum V. spinosa Vangueria foetens Viburnum foetidum V. simonsii V. vexillata Vigna angustifolia Vitis repens V. rugosa V. rumicisperma V. Botanical name/ Familyname Local H Xanthium strumarium Z. khasianum Z. oxyphyllum Z. rhetsa Ziziphus funiculosa Wall./ Z. jujuba Z. mauritiana Z. rugosa Zanthoxylum budrunga

Vol 6(5) September-October 2007 423 Green page: Research Article

Table 2 : Family wise distribution of the wild edible plants of Meghalaya

S. No. Family Genus Species S.No. Family Genus Species

1 Moraceae 5 15 42 Vacciniaceae 1 2 2 Rosaceae 4 12 43 Mimosaseae 2 2 3 Rutaceae 6 11 44 Elaeagnaceae 1 2 4 Myrtaceae 3 11 45 Actinidiaceae 1 1 5 Euphorbiaceae 6 10 46 Amarantaceae 1 1 6 Anacardiaceae 6 9 47 Zingiberaceae 1 1 7 Clusiaceae 1 8 48 Araliaceae 1 1 8 Myrsinaceae 3 8 49 Lardizabalaceae 1 1 9 Vitaceae 4 8 50 Boraginaceae 1 1 10 Verbenaceae 5 7 51 Burseraceae 1 1 11 Rubiaceae 7 7 52 Capparidaceae 1 1 12 Polygonaceae 2 5 53 Connaraceae 1 1 13 Sterculiaceae 2 5 54 Cornaceae 1 1 14 Rhamnaceae 2 5 55 Gesneriaceae 1 1 15 Tiliaceae 2 5 56 Cycadaceae 1 1 16 Sapindaceae 5 5 57 Ericaceae 1 1 17 Solanaceae 1 5 58 Gnetaceae 1 1 18 Saurauiaceae 2 4 59 Hamamelidaceae 1 1 19 Piperaceae 2 4 60 Icacinaceae 1 1 20 Acanthaceae 4 4 61 Lamiaceae 1 1 21 Araceae 3 4 62 Lauraceae 1 1 22 Caprifoliaceae 2 4 63 Marantaceae 1 1 23 Meliaceae 3 4 64 Buddlejaceae 1 1 24 Fabaceae 4 4 65 Malvaceae 1 1 25 Caesalpiniaceae 2 3 66 Menispermaceae 1 1 26 Arecaceae 2 3 67 Myricaceae 1 1 27 Asteraceae 3 3 68 Myristicaceae 1 1 28 Convolvulaceae 2 3 69 Nymphaeaceae 1 1 29 Dilleniaceae 1 3 70 Olacaceae 1 1 30 Fagaceae 1 3 71 Nelumbonaceae 1 1 31 Elaeocarpaceae 1 3 72 Passifloraceae 1 1 32 Annonaceae 2 2 73 Phytolaccaceae 1 1 33 Apiaceae 2 2 74 Plantaginaceae 1 1 34 Begoniaceae 1 2 75 Poaceae 1 1 35 Combretaceae 1 2 76 Pontederiaceae 1 1 36 Cucurbitaceae 2 2 77 Portulacaceae 1 1 37 Ebenaceae 1 2 78 Sabiaceae 1 1 38 Flacourtiaceae 1 2 79 Santalaceae 1 1 39 Melastomataceae 2 2 80 Sapotaceae 1 1 40 Moringaceae 1 2 81 Scrophulariaceae 1 1 41 Urticaceae 2 2 82 Theaceae 1 1

424 Natural Product Radiance Green page: Research Article

Conclusion Eastern Hill University, Shillong for esculenta in Kumaun (West Himalaya), The findings of the present study providing necessary facilities to complete India, Mountain Res Develop, 2000, 20(2), 146-153. indicate that wild edible plants are closely this work successfully and effectively. We are grateful to Prof. N. Venugopal and Dr. linked with socio-economic condition of 8 Dogan Y, Baslar S, Ay G and Mert HH, The use rural tribes of Meghalaya for their day-to- L. Kharlukhi for their valuable of wild edible plants in western and central day requirements. Increased suggestions. We thankfully acknowledge (), Econ Bot, 2004, 58(4), overexploitation of wild edibles may cause the uninterrupted assistance given by Shri 684-690. threat to certain species. There is an Bah Des Marbaniang and Shri Wilfred R. obvious need to explore wild edibles than Lyngdoh during the fieldwork. Last but not 9 Launert E, The Hamlyn Guide to Edible and can be harvested without much pressure the least, we are extending our thanks to Medicinal Plants of Britain and Northern Europe, London: Hamlyn, 1981. on a particular species in conformity with the ethnic people of Meghalaya for sharing the principles of sustainable utilization of their prestigious traditional wisdom. 10 Narayanan M, Ratheesh K and Anil Kumar N, genetic resources. That will add a new Uses of Wild Edibles Among the Paniya Tribe dimension towards traditional References in Kerala, India, In: CIP-UPWARD 2003: management and conservation of plant 1 Renfrew JM, Paleoethnobotany: The Conservation and Sustainable Use of wealth of the region. Prehistoric Food Plants of the Near East and Agricultural Biodiversity: A Sourcebook, Utilization of wild edible plants Europe, Columbia University Press, 1963. International Potato Centre-Users’ Perspectives with Agricultural Research and will be an effective tool for restoration of 2 Smith D Bruce, The Independent Development, Los Banos, Loguna, traditional knowledge system inherent in Domestication of Indigenous Seed-Bearing , 2002. tribal people. This can easily be achieved, Plants in Eastern North America, Center for if the government launches programmes Archaeological Research, Southern Illinois 11 Tardio J, Pasral H and Morales R, Wild food involving local community on care and University, Occasional Papers 7, 1986. plants traditionally used in the province of share basis for conservation of such genetic Madrid, Central Spain, Econ Bot, 2005, 59(2), 122-136. resources. The necessary steps should also 3 Whitmore TC, An introduction of tropical rain nd be taken for cultivation of important wild forests, 2 Edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998. 12 Sundriyal M, Sundriyal RC and Sharma E, edibles in agroforestry systems. Dietary Use of Wild Plant Resources in the Undoubtedly, the traditional wisdom of 4 Non-wood products from tropical rain forests, Sikkim Himalaya, India, Econ Bot, 2004, controlled exploitation will constitute the by M Plotkin and L Famolare (Eds), 58(4), 626-638. traditional heritage of the people of Conservation International, Washington, DC, Meghalaya. 1992. 13 Arora RR and Pandey A, Wild edible plants of There is an ample scope for India: Conservation and use, Indian studies on regeneration behaviour, 5 Sustainable Harvest and Marketing of Rain Council of Agricultural Research-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, population structure and status of such Forests, by M Plotkin and L Famolare (Eds), Conservation International, Washington, DC, New Delhi, 1996. biological resources. The studies on 1992. phenological characters of different 14 Sundriyal M and Sundriyal RC, Wild edible species must be given due importance. 6 Wickramasinghe A, Ruiz Perez M and plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: nutritive value The outcome of such studies will be useful Blockhus JM, Non-timber forest product of selected species, Econ Bot, 2001, 55 in determining appropriate conservation gathering in Ritigala forest, Sri Lanka: (3), 377-390. strategy. Household strategies and community differentiation, Human Ecol, 1996, 24(4), 15 Maikhuri RK, Nutritional value of some 493-519. lesser-known wild food plants and Acknowledgements their role in tribal nutrition: A case The authors are thankful to the 7 Bhatt I, Rawal D, Ranbeer S and Dhar U, The study in Northeast India, Trop Sci, 1991, 1, Head, Department of Botany, North Availability, Fruit Yield, and Harvest of Myrica 397-405.

Vol 6(5) September-October 2007 425 Green page: Research Article

16 Xu YK, Tao GD, Liu HM, Yan KL and Dao XS, 25 Rakesh K, Singh RD and Sharma KD, Water 33 Cotton CM, Ethnobotany: Principles and Wild vegetable resources and market Resources of India, Curr Sci, 2005, 89 (5), Applications, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 605 survey in Xishuangbanna, Southwest , 794-811. Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, Econ Bot, 2004, 58(4), 647-667. USA, 1999. 26 Champion HG and Seth SK, A Revised Survey 17 Rajasab AH and Mahamad Isaq, of the Forest Types of India, Government of 34 Haridasan K and Rao RR, Forest Flora of Documentation of folk knowledge on edible India, New Delhi, India, 1968. Meghalaya, 2 Vols, Bishen Singh Mahendra wild plants of North Karnataka, Indian J Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India, 1985-1987. Trad Knowledge, 2004, 3(4), 419-429. 27 Mishra BP, Tripathi RS, Tripathi OP and Pandey HN, Effect of disturbance on the regeneration 35 Balakrishnan NP, Flora of Jowai and Vicinity, 18 Kharkongor P and Joseph J, Folklore medico- of four dominant and economically important Meghalaya, 2 Vols, Botanical Survey of India, botany of rural Khasi and woody species in a broad-leaved subtropical Howrah, India, 1981-1983. Jaintia tribes in Meghalaya, In: Glimpses of humid forest of Meghalaya, north east India, Indian Ethnobotany, by SK Jain (Ed), Oxford Curr Sci, 2003, 84 (11), 1449-1453. 36 Kanjilal VN, Kanjilal PC, Das A, De RN and and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, Bor NL, Flora of Assam, 5 Vols, Government 1981, pp. 124-136. 28 Mishra BP, Tripathi OP, Tripathi RS and Pandey Press, Shillong, India, 1934-1940. HN, Effects of anthropogenic disturbance on 19 Neogi B, Prasad MNV and Rao RR, plant diversity and community structure of a 37 Jeeva S and Anusuya R, Ancient ecological Ethnobotany of some weeds of Khasi and Garo sacred grove in Meghalaya, northeast India, heritage of Meghalaya, Magnolia, 2005, 3, Hills, Meghalaya, Northeastern India, Econ Biodiver Conserv, 2004, 13, 421-436. 20-22. Bot, 1989, 43, 471-479. 29 Mishra BP, Jeeva S and Laloo RC, Effect of 38 Jeeva S, Mishra BP, Venugopal N and Laloo 20 Rao RR, Ethnobotany of Meghalaya: fragmentation on plant diversity and RC, Sacred forests traditional ecological Medicinal plants used by Khasi and Garo community characters of the sacred groves of heritage of Meghalaya, J Scott Res Forum, tribes, Econ Bot, 1981, 35(1), 4-9. Meghalaya, northeast India, In: National 2005, 1(1), 93-97. Conference on Current Trends of Research in Science and Technology, Organized by Gauhati 21 Maikhuri RK and Gangwar AK, 39 Laloo RC, Kharlukhi L, Jeeva S and Mishra BP, Ethnobiological notes on the Khasi and Garo University, Guwahati, Assam, India, Abstract No. OP-L14, 2005, p. 107. Status of medicinal plants in the disturbed tribes of Meghalaya, Northeast India, Econ and the undisturbed sacred forests of Bot, 1993, 47(4), 345-357. Meghalaya, northeast India: population 30 Mishra BP, Jeeva S and Laloo RC, Sacred groves structure and regeneration efficacy of 22 Agrahar-Murugkar D and Subbulakshmi G, of Meghalaya: A traditional ecological heritage important tree species, Curr Sci, 2006, Nutritive values of wild edible fruits, berries, for in situ conservation of plant diversity, In: 90(2), 225-232. nuts, roots and spices consumed by the Khasi International symposium on Integrated Management of Fungal Diseases (IMF), tribes of India, Eco Food Nutr, 2005, 44 40 Jeeva S, Mishra BP, Venugopal N, Kharlukhi L (3), 207-223. Organized by Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, India, 2005, p. 81. and Laloo RC, Traditional knowledge and biodiversity conservation in the sacred groves 23 Vasudeva Rao MK and Shanpru R, Some of Meghalaya, Indian J Trad Knowledge, plants in the life of the Garos of 31 Jeeva S, Laloo RC and Mishra BP, Traditional 2006, 5(4), 563-568. Meghalaya, Ethnobotany, 1981, 3, 41-45. agricultural practices in Meghalaya, northeast India, Indian J Trad Knowledge, 2006, 5(1), 7-18. 41 Sarmah R, Pant RM, Majumder M and 24 Gansser A, Geology of the Himalayas, Adhikari D, Marketing of agricultural and Interscience, New York, United States of non-timber forest products around Namdapha America, 1964. 32 Martin G, Ethnobotany, A Methods Manual, national park in Arunachal Pradesh, Chapman and Hall, London, 1995. Arunachal Rev, 2004, 5(8), 8-14.

426 Natural Product Radiance