A CAUSATIVE-DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF TURKEY'S MAJCR PRCBLEMS AND

A CQUwUNICATIVE APPROACH

TO THEIR SOLUTION

(DEMOCRATIC PLANNING AND MASS COMMUNICATION)

Dissertation

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University

By ILHAN OZDIL, B.S. The Ohio State University

195U

Approved by*

VI Adviser Table of Contents

Page Introduction • . • T± Propositions ...... Tl The Sti*ucture of the Study ...... •▼'111 The irfethod uf the Study...... • . . . lx The Vindication of the Topical Selection...... Xl

P&A Diagnosis Chapter 1 A Brief Retrospect ...... 1 Chapter II About the Nature of the Kemalist Revolution .... 9

1. The Nature of Kemalisra...... 9 2. The idain Principles, Objectives and Reforms of the Kemalist Revolution 13 3. Turkish Revolution as a Far-reaching Democratic Educa­ tional Process ...... 16

Chapter III A Causative-Diagnostic Analysis of Sane Uajor Problems of Turkey...... 25 1. Agriculture ...... 35 A. Definition and description of the problem...... 35 B. Causative-diagnostic analysis of the problem . . . 1+1 C. Remedial proposals and their communicative bearings ...... 1+8 D. Present Situation...... 5U 2 • Industry 56 A* Definition and description of the problem ..... 56 B. Causative-diagnostic analysis of the problem . . . 63 C. Remedial proposals and their communicative bearings ...... 73 D. Present Situation ...... 76 3* Public Health and Social Welfare...... 79 A. Definition and description of the problem...... 79 B. Causative-diagnostic analysis of the problem . . . 82 C. Remedial proposals and their communicative bearings ...... 87 D. Present situation ...... 91 li. Politics and Democratization ...... 98 A. Definition and description of the problem...... 98 B. Causative—diagnostic analysis of the problem . . . 101 11

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C. Remedial proposals and their communicative bearings ...... 105 D. Present situation...... 110 5. Education • . • • • ...... 116 A. Definition and description of the problem • • . . . 116 3. Causative-diagnostic analysis of the problem . . . 128 C. Remedial proposals and their communicative bearings...... 1.3U D. Present Situation...... 137

Ft. B Therapy

Chapter IV A Communicative Approach to the Solution of Turkey^

Problems ...... 150

1. Remedial proposals Demand a Change in the Need-Value Systems and Cognitive Perceptual Processes of Indivi­ duals. This change calls for Re-education...... 151 A. Need-Value S y s t e m s ...... 1^1 B. Cognitive-Perceptual Processes ...... 157 C. The Re-educative P r o c e s s ...... 159 2. Improved Canmunication May Facilitate the Re-educative Process, and Help Bring About the Desired Change and Action...... lol A. Socio-Economic Development and Communication . . . 161 B. Communication and the Communicative Behavior . . . 165 C. Communication, Persuasion and Action ...... 170

Chapter V What Media, Why, Where, When?...... 176

1. Present Ilass Communication Facilities and Their Use in Turkey...... 177 A. Radio ...... 177 B. F i l m ...... 193 C. Television ••••••••••••»..•••.. 212 2. Integrated Mass Communication Can Contribute to De­ liberately Planned Socio-Economic Development ..... 215 A. Development Flans in British Colonies...... 217 3. The Colombo Flar ...... 221 C. The Healthy Village...... 227 D. Jumna—Par Punarnirman...... 231 Ch.' ter VI Conclusions and Recommendations in Terms of

Current 'Trends and Practices...... • •

I* Communication Situation • • . • ...... II* Communicator ...... III. Communicatee (Audience) ...... IV. Communication Media...... V. Communication Content and Communication Effect • .

Bibliography ...... • ...... ••••......

Appendix Ac knowledges ent

The writer would like to acknowledge the guidance given by his adviser, Dr. Edgar Dale. His tiii«iy comments and encouragement are deeply appreciated*

▼ Introduction

This dissertation is an attempt to study seme major problems of

Turkey from a communicative standpoint and to show how an effective use of the mass communication media — in particularly, radio, tele­ vision, motion picture — can contribute to the solution of these problems and to the acceleration of the progress of the country.

The study is based on several propositions which direct the course of the writer's thoughts, the nature of the data, the argu­ ment s, suggestions and conclusions throughout this work. These propositions are:

1- Turkey is a revolutionary c cam try undergoing comprehensive reconstruction and development programs in every aspect of

its life and structure.

2— The recent steps in these reconstruction and development

programs are generally taken in accordance with such scienti­

fically conducted international surveys, studies and

appraisals as the Report of the Economic Mission to Turkey

sponsored by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, in collaboration with the Turkish Goverrsaent;^ 2 Turkey, Country Study by ECA; the Twentieth Century Fund

The Economy of Turkey, An Analysis and Recommendations far a Development Program. Washington D. C.i International Bank for Re­ construction, 1951.

Turkey, Country Study, U. S. EGA ▼1 ▼ii Study, Turkey, An Economic Appraisal^ — as well as national

development programs.

3- Behind the problems with which these surveys, studies, and re­

ports deal, and behind the recommendations as to their solu­

tions and as to how to bring about further developments, there

lies a fundamental factor of education and communication.

U- In order to implement the content of these recommendations —

made with regard to such problems as agriculture, industry,

education, public health, etc. — the planners should, in

fact must, communicate the meaning and implications of these

programs to those concerned. This is imperative in the sense

that the nature of the attitudes and conceptions on the part of those who will eventually be affected by the outcomes of

the proposed changes makes either for the success or for the

failure of the whole plan and effort.

5- As far as socio-economic planning is concerned one of the

main targets of education and communication is admittedly to

bring about the necessary modifications and changes in the concepts, attitudes, behaviors, perceptions, and responses of

individuals so as to make them more susceptible and favorable

to, as well as critical of, the planned and proposed reforms.

In this respect mass communication and aducation by mass com­

munication media have much to offer and contribute, especially

in the countries where the rate of illiteracy is high and

3Thornburg, Spry, Soule. Turkey, An Economic Appraisal. New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 19h9• where poverty and isolation prevail. This, as a matter of

fact, is one of the main concerns of this study.

6- In exploiting the potentialities of the mass communication media for the benefit of the Turkish people, and in channeling

the activities of the existing and prospective mass communica­

tion facilities in such a way as to contribute to the solution

of the country's problems, we can draw upon the accumulated

knowledge and methods developed in other countries over many

years and adapt them to Turkish conditions.

The writer believes that in tackling our nation-wide problems

and in motivating the people, we rather fail to make use of a

broad-gauge mass media program. For that matter, he shall

particularly stress the importance of mass media as he develops

a suggested communicative approach for the problems of the

country. The writer's concern in this matter is mainly based upon the

hypothesis that without a due process of communication and

education aiming at desired changes in the "cognitive-percep­ tual" processes — which are dynamically related to the "need—

value" systems of individuals — the intended reforms and

developments tend to remain Imposed and cm the surface rather

than assimilated and understood*

As far the structure of this dissertation, it consists of two main parts: (A) Diagnostic, and (B) Remedial* In the diagnostic part the writer will attempt to identify, analyze, aid classify the selected problems of the country, especially H x those which are explicitly stated or implied in the previously men­ tioned studies and reports, and those which have immediate implica­ tions for the people and demand an organized speedy communication and education.

In the remedial part the writer will endeavor to discover and

suggest ways by which the existing and prospective mass media in

Turkey might be used effectively by the governmental and non-govern— mental planners and organizers in attacking the problems of the country at a communicative level*

In order to eliminate the time-consuming trial and error process, the writer shall, in this part, draw upon the accumulated knowledge and experiences of the United States and UNESCO mass communicators,

and base his suggestive resnedy chi the experiment results conducted by them with regard to similar problem situations.

It should be pointed out at the outset that the purpose here is not to work out a blue print of mass communications with regard to problems involved, but rather to suggest ways and principles on which the exploitation of the existing mass media could be based, and accord­ ing to which their operation and content could be channeled to more purposive and functional objectives.

The method chosen for this study is as follows:

1* For collecting the necessary data, the writer drew upon present factual qualitative and quantitative information as furnished by the previously mentioned international surveys and reports.

2. Questionnaires — have been desighed and sent to the concerned ministries in order to find out the extent to which the recommendations X made in these reports are put into effect, and the use made of the mass media in implementing these recommendations*

3. Then the problems have been classified in order of importance and immediate effect and a causative-diagnostic analysis of each has been made as based upon socio—psychological, political, economic, and geo—historical considerations* This has been done in order to show that behind every problem there lies a "cognitive-perceptual" factor related to the need-value systems of individuals. This factor, in the long run, makes for the success cr failure of the proposed re­ forms. Furthenacre, the writer wanted to make it explicit that in ad­ vocating any reform or any program of development, one must necessarily consider the causative human factors -— tendencies-in-situation or attitudes, behavior patterns, cultural heritage, social norms, group affiliations, etc. — in order to reduce resistence, to create a felt- need, and to initiate a conscious action. In fact, this should be the underlying consideration of a mass communication program.

U. Having secured the data mentioned above, and having made the causative diagnostic analysis, the writer has then singled cut the points in this analysis which call for a comprehensive program of communication and education, in order to bring about the necessary attitudinal and behavioral changes and action.

5. The writer has also made an intensive study of the UNESCO ex­ periments conducted under similar conditions and also examined data concerning the role of the mass media — especially that of radio, television, and motion picture — in the problem areas involved, e.g. agriculture, industry, health. In this connection, the agricultural XI information program of the U. S* Dep. of Agriculture, the Jumna-Far

Punarnirman Extension Project, EC A Film Project, and The Healthy

Village Pilot Project, have been given special consideration.

The purpose in making these studies was to explore the experi­ mental ground and to gather concrete evidence on which to build the suggested c cmmunicative therapy for the solution of the problems in question, and to propose a coordinated action to make an effective use of the mass communication media in Turkey.

In a country such as Turkey where the time factor is of vital importance in closing the gap between the conditions existing in

Turkey and those that prevail in more advanced countries of the V/estern world, a proper and effective use of the mass communication media may contribute to the acceleration of the progress which is already underway. To vindicate the selection of this problem area as the subject of this dissertation, the following statement might be made:

In view of the physical handicaps which prevent access to the data and conditions back at home, aid In view of the time factor in­ volved, the writer is fully aware of the difficulty in working out a detailed canprehensive study. Nevertheless, despite some of the efforts to make use of the mass media in attacking the problems of the country, the fact that no systematic study has been done to relate and show the role that mass media can play with regard to the solution of the country's problems, has compelled the writer to select this prob­ lem as the subject of this dissertation.

The preference in the selection of the problems for consideration Xii is based on their immediate and direct bearings upon the social, political, and economic progress of the country and its people.

In putting the emphasis on the communicative and educational aspects of the problems, the writer intends to alter, perhaps only slightly, whatever lethargy is left from the past, and make the greatest bulk of the people, i.e., the peasantry, more susceptible to the idea of progress and the variety of moral and material bmefits that such a progress may bring to the majority of the nation,

Sound progress is highly dynamic, Chce it is started in the minds of the people and once it is accepted by the greatest bulk of the nation, its momentum carries it forward with increasingly favora­ ble results* In this respect the following quotation would be an orderly closing remark:

It is impossible to lay down a railway without creating an intellectual influence,**

Colunbus, Ohio Ilhan Ozdil 195k

l*Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, p, iii Part A DIAGNOSIS

I A Brief Retrospect lii the past, as a three-continental, supranational, and suprare- ligious empire, and noir (quoting sate of the oft-used editorial ad­ jectives) as one of the most dynamic, progressive, and democratic countries of the world, Turkey has been the subject of many scholarly and unscholarly works* In its most powerful days the Ottoman Aspire was regarded with owe* As the Aspire gradually grew weaker, she cease to be looked upon as the "sick nan of Europe,"^ surrounded by the ever-growing European powers, imbued with colonial and imperialistic ambitions and ready to deliver the "coup de grace." This "coup" actually case about with the defeat of the Central Powers in 1918 and with the signing of the Treaty of Sevres (August 20, 1920), which lopped off the limbs of the Turkish people* (See the Map I, Ottoman Aspire at its peak and after the Treaty of Sevres*) In defiance of this treaty which, as a burial certificate, counted out the Turkish nation, a new revolution started* This revolution rid the country of its centuries-old internal crisis and of Its external enamies. The military aspect of the revolution ended with the victory

*The tens was coined by the Russian Csar Mjcholas I in January, 1853, during a conversation with the British ambassador at the theatre. Ahmed Hamid; Mustafa Muhsin, Turkjyw Tar* hi, pp. 615-617* 1 2 a

'Vttomo.n Under <> v le i *n a n rhe > ft cent _ //Tj a _

Map I 1 - The Ottoman Snpire under Suleiman The Magnificent 1520—1566 2 - Turkey According to the Tteaty of Sevres - August 10, 1920 2b

Map I 1 - The Ottoman Etapire under Seleiman The Magnificent 1520-1566

2 - Turkey According to the Treaty of Sevres - August 10, 1920 3 of the Turkish arms ovsr the victors of World. War I and with the sign­ ing of the Treaty of Lausanne (July 2i*, 1923) • This was the official recognition of Turkey as a sovereign power and of a "Turkey for the Turks." Soon after the signing of this document, the birth of a new Republic was declared in October 29* 1923* (See the Uap II, the Re­ public of Turkey.) With this, an empire died and a nation arose. The real Turkish Revolution started after having guaranteed the international security of the nation within the national boundaries* The contemporary students of Turkish affairs, having rid themselves of the streotyped prejudices, are now able to view and interpret the Turkish Revolution and the achievements of its leader Atatiirk — the late president and the truly great figure of the Twentieth Century — with a clearer vision. A perspective of three decades of the young Republic and a first­ hand acquaintance with the country mad its people, have led modern writers to a reappraisal of the Revolution, its achievements, reper­ cussions, and consequences* This reappraisal has been attempted not only from the standpoint of Turkey, but from the standpoint of the world as well* Nov one encounters, not infrequently, writers speaking of thB Turkish Revolution as "the most nmnnlng revolution"^ In modern history, and comparable only with that of Russia — though the differ­ ences are even mare b&sic.^ As the noted historian and writer A* J*

^Willie Snow Ethridge, • Across the Aegean," Saturday Review, z x x n (October 21», 1953), p. 55* ^Bogdan Radlsta, "Turkey: The Revolution that Knew When to Stop," The Reporter, x (January 19, 195U), p. 22* u

Map II Turkish Republic Alter the Treaty of Lausanne, July 2U, 1923 5 Toynbee puts it* It (tbs Turkish Revolution) was as if, In our Western world, the Renaissance, the Reformation, tbs secularist scientific mental revolution at the end of t be seven­ teenth century, the French Revolution, and tbs Industrial Revolution had d.1 been telescoped into a single lifetime and been made compulsory by lar.U

Today, at the end of the third decade of the Republic, the Turkish revolutionary experiments are considered far enough along to give high probability to seme preliminary conclusions. Tbs contemporary observ­ ers seem to be in agreement on the following points, which have gone through the toughest tests of survival of recent history! 1* The Turkish nation surprised the world by its powers of re­ cuperation and by its willingness to threw off Immemorial custom and live up to the ethical and political standards of a popular republic. 2. The Turks, practically in one generation, have been able to develop a way of life that is in accordance with any bill of human rights and with the idea of "self-determination." 3. The nature and direction of the Revolution has made it clear enough that the process of tradition from the anacfaroniaa of the Ottoman Empire to the modern model of the Turkish Republic is not comparable with any other revolution associated with World War I. For no nation c a t so close to utter annihila­ tion and than reversed its probable fate so completely as to become a key power in tbs global struggle whose collaboration is sought eagerly by the opposing farces.

kArnold J. Toynbee, The World and the Waat, pp. 27-23. 6 U« Turkish statesmanshlp has learned from history to forget the old multinational Ottoman Bfcnpire and to care for the neir nation and for a "Turkish Turkey,"5 5* During the thirty years of the Republic, the Turks hare son the respect and acknlratlon of the world for themselves and indeed for their name itself, which had been a byword of dread or of contempt among the Western nations. They have also proved that Turkish reforms were not an attempt to "ape the west," but it was a psychological transplanting of their cul­ tural roots, not primarily from East to West, but from past to present,

6 , So far as the capacity of human beings to change their own lives Is concerned, the Turks have proved to be extraordin­ arily adaptable to sudden and extreme changes. This in it­ self is a distinct asset for the rapid pace and new inter­ dependence of the modern world. The unprecedented experience of the Turks in psychological transition — while pioneering a fusion of the once supposedly incompatible ways of the East and West — emerges as one of the necessities of history and modern life which all bosan society will undergo eventually in order to survive. 7, From the standpoint of economic recovery and expansion, how­ ever, Turkey has hardly kept up with the population increase.

'’The Items 1-b are based on the considerations in firmest Jackh, The Rising Crescent, Turkey Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow, pp. 159-166- 7 A retrospect of thirty years reveals that the Turks have not achieved industrial and agricultural efficiency proportionate to the mechanical capacity of their nee equipment. The train­ ing of competent laborers and technicians has not been com­ mensurate with the projects launched. The average of achieve­ ments and the standard of living have not been very close to the high standards of their osn best demonstrations. This, however, cannot obscure the fact that the modern Turks have pushed their industrial production far ahead of the neigh­ bouring countries, and they afforded their peasants opportuni­ ties unprecedented anywhere in the Middle Bast,

8 , As far as their cultural progress is concerned, the Turks have stimulated this progress to such an extent that now there are individual Turks with International reputations in the fields of science, art, literature, as well as stateananshlp, 9. Despite the precarious situation in which Turkey has found itself, especially during and after World War II, she has carried on the revolution for the ac Movement of the "govern­ ment of the people, for the people, by the people" to its full realisation. Thus, the Turks gave, far the first time in history, proof that a new state which starts on a one-party basis in its formative years need not become a totalitarian dictatorship, and that it can progress through a process of

self-education to government by the p>eople,6

^The items $-9 are based on the arguments in Blabee, The Hew Turks, pp« 20, 177, 182, 6 Viewed frcm this point of view, the victory of the Western constitutional spirit In tbs Turkish elections of May* 1950 is, in the words of Toynbee, "a landmark which nay perhaps even signify a turn of the political tide in the world as a whole. 10* Now that Turkey is within the framework of a c selective mili­ tary, economic, and cultural security system (i.e., United Nations and NATO), the rate and intensity of the Turkish revolutionary change are "phenomenal." As it is described at the close of its third decade as a Republic c if not the "paradise" that propagandists sometimes paint, Turkey is "stable, strong, democratic, progressive, and booming."®

7a . J* Toynbee, op* d t . , p* 29. ^Turkey," Time, L U I (October 12, 1953), p. 58. "The Turkish Revolution Is safe, frcsi Its enanles and tram Itself*"!

II About the Mature of the Kanallst Revolution 1. The Nature of Kasiallan This rather bright and enthaaiastlo retrospect should not, however, give the reader the iwpresslon that the completion of the Revolution Is in sight* Despite sone o la las — although well weaning — that the most seaming aspect of the Kanallst Revolution Is Its ability to pause at the very height of its power,^ actually this norenent Is just gain* ing monentwu Kanal Ataturk, b y engineering the transition fron hopes to initial aehievenent, has set a pace which is now creating new conditions and chain reactions calling for new objectives* This revolutionary transi­ tion cannot afford to panes until the readiest and nost isolated con- wunlty is affected by the social, political, ec encode, and cultural designs and benefits of this eoveaent) and wtrtai the individual con- ■unities and persons are capable of doing their share consciously in this ever expending reconstruction* It Is not the iasaedlate purpose of the writer to recount or reap­ praise the scope and anhtevents of the renal 1 st Revolution by and large* For such has been written and Is being written on this very

%ogdan Radiate, op* d t *. p* 2$*

2 Ibid*, p* 2b* 9 10 topic* Nevertheless, a quick glance at the nature and objectives of the Turkish Revolution nay veil serve as a stepping stone to the forth­ coming discussions and the understanding thereof* Actually, the seeds of the Kemalist Revolution were sown with the earlier failures and successive setbacks — starting wLth the defeat before Vienna in 1683 — of the Ottoman fiapire* These continuous failures had proved that the Ottoman's traditional method and technique^ the Ottoman synthesis of Faith, State, and way of life, had become no longer good enough for survival* Several attempts to check the down­ fall of the Bspire — starting with Sultan Selin III, 1789-1808 — also failed because of the internal reactionary and intervening external farces* The failure of the remedial attempts paved the way to revolution­ ary ideas* As it is usually the case, the movement first began in the minds of the elite* The subsequent Xoung Turk Revolution i merited in granting the Constitution in 1876 (restored in 1908). But this attempt in general was not a success because of the incoherence of its program and shallom-rooted nature of Westernisation — with the conflicting ideas of pan—Turanisrn^and pan—Islam* Nevertheless, all these prepared the ground far a mare radical aid far-reaching revolution, whJLch was precipitated by the disastrous climax reached with the defeat of the Ottaaai Aspire in 1918* The Kemalist Revolution is a consequence to

^Pan—Turanian (or pan—TurldLam) was a concept — fashionable among some Ottoman intellectuals during the last quarter of the TTXth century and especially in the earlier XXth century — which held that all the Turks of the world ought of right to farm one sovereign people under the rule of the Ottoman Aspire* 11 this sequence — having, in turn, its own sequence and consequences* It is important to note that the Eatallst Revolution Is not a simple uprising against a preexisting order, ncr 1 b it a mere sudden political change* It mould be mere accurate to describe it as "social engineering," -which implies an active intelligent guidance or social processes and introduction of purposive activity on the part of society,** Viewed frcm the standpoint of the concept of "social engineering," the Kemalist Revolution signifies the conversion of an oriental, theo­ cratic, and backward society to an occidental, rational, and progress­ ive nation* It also implies an attempt at sudden transformation of beliefs, ideas, and doctrines* Briefly, It is the setting up of a new order — regardless of realms of life — contradictory to the tra­ ditional one*£ For the realisation of this end, the Kamallst Revolu­ tion is so designed as to provide opportunities for social services and to be constructive rather than prohibitive In character* In this it differs substantially frcm the other significant contemporary revo­ lutions • To be more specific, the following ideological comparison could be made. Far Instance, the principles of the French Revolution (1789), which abolished class privileges and proclaimed juridical equality, brought along the dictatorship of capital, political freedom, and economic slavery* Inequality between men and women remained* This

**Helen Everett, "Social Control," Encyclopedia of the 8 ooial Sciences, IV, p* 3U£* 5o. T* Oasset, The Revolt of the Masses, p* UO. 12 revolution caused a considerable discrepancy between ideal and reality.

Conmunlcm in Russia has resulted in tbs dictatorship of the proletariat and brought about disorder in social relations* Fascism and Nazism established the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie as against communism* The Japanese Revolution affected only her machinery; it was not her mind that was changed or reformed. The Turkish Revolution, unlike the others, has concerned Itself with political institutions, social relations, religion, the family, economic life, the customs, and even tbs moral basis of society* Thus, it paved the way for the reconstruction and redefining of all aspects of life* As it is rightfully observed and stated b y Allens It is difficult to find any aspect of Turkey's life which has not been affected by the flood of new ideals which so suddenly broke through the Islamic dikes. In fact, the Turkish Revolution gives every indication of being one of the most — - if not the most — far-reaching revolutions ever accomplished by so large a society in a corresponding length of time. The instigators of the revolution realised that the great revolu­ tions are those of manners and thought* Furthermore, they were aware that the intended social engineering could not possibly be accompli shed and results be lasting unless the principles sank deep into the souls of the multitudes. ^ To bring this about, the c ocmrunic at ion of the principles to the masses, and the importance of education as the groundwork of the revolution and as the insurance of its survival have been well appreciated*

^H. E* Allen, The Turkish Transformation, p* 65* 7ouatacve Le Bon, Psychology of Revolution* p. 2$. 13 This appreciation of the important role oiT education as a "social technique," manifests Itself in the Turkish effort to launch "the most comprehensive system of child and adult education that the world has yet witnessed*"® The factor underlying this all-out educational effort has been the awareness of the fact that, in transplanting the roots of the nation from Eastern to Western culture and civilisation, the acceptance of the art and technology of the West was not enough* Any civilization, any way of life, is an indivisible whole In which all the parts hang together and are interdependent* Thereby, the idxole mind and soul of the Western society had to be taken into account,^ For the Turkish revolutionaries, the attributes of the concept of "Westernization" did not, however, mean to copy Western institutions developed in a different philosophy of life* They have been molded into a new pattern which Is Turkish In character and designed to re­ create the Turks both as a nation and as individuals* 2* The Main ftrinciplea, Objectives, and Reforms of the Irma! 1st Revolution* The principles of this new pattern — which Is popularly called "Kemaliem," and which expresses the Revolution's philosophy of life — were at first the platform of the People's Party as symbolized by the "six arrows*" Then, they were embodied In the Constitution of the Republic in 1937* These principles do not only signify outwardly changes, but they also imply a change of mind, a way of life* As it

&H* B* Allen, op* cit,, p* 126* ?A* J* Toynbee, op* cit*, p. 26* 1h is specified In the Turkish Constitution, •L0 the Turkish State 1st (1) Republican, (replacing the Ottoman dynastic empire); (2) Nationalist, (replacing the supranational empire by the national sovereignty of the people for the people by the peo­ ple* Turkish national 1 am Is based not on religion or race but on common citizenship and devotion to the national ideal); (3) Populist, (meaning equality In law and repudiation of class privileges and of class war as well as of the abuses of capitalism); (it) Statist, (meaning constructive intervention of the state in national economy); (5) Secular, (replacing the Moslem church-state by the definite separation of state and church); (6) Revolutionary, (replacing "western! sing11 reforms aid western privileges by revolutionizing the Turkish mind in favor of a Turkish Turkey; and meaning the determination to depart radi­ cally fTcst tradition and precedent if they did not serve national interests) The other most—talked-ab out outward reforms of Kemalism are also closely associated with a radical change of mind* For example, the abolishment of fes (November 5 , 1 9 2 5 ) was not a matter of fashion, but

^The Turkish Constitution, Turkey Today, No* 11, Turkish Infor­ mation Office, New Tork, p* I}. ^-Ernest Xaokh, op* cit*, p* 172, and George Lenczowskl, The Middle East in World Ajfalrs, p* 120. 15 rather It bee one an Issue of politics and religion* It did not only mean the replacement of the fez by a hat, but It also meant to nation­ alize and international! ze the Turkish mind* Furthermore, It signified a break from ignorance, fanaticism, hatred against progress, and affi­ liation with an International civilization. It taught the Turkish people to discriminate between their civic life as individuals, and their religious duties as Moslems. The unveiling of women, too, had the same national and interna­ tional significance. It meant a fundamental change in the legal, so­ cial, and economic position of the Turkish women, and speeded up their emancipation which, in ten years, was to surpass that of any Western nation. By changing the alphabet from the Arabic Script to the interna­ tional Latin characters, one of the main reasons of Illiteracy In the country was attacked at its very roots, (October 1, 1928). The Arabic script was not only unsulted to the Turkish language, it was an hinder- ance to a better, clearer, and easier coununlcation, which is so neces­ sary for the emancipation of mind. This reform helped put an end to Turkish illiteracy and brought new light to age-long isolationism of the Turkish people. The separation of church fTcm state (192U) meant getting rid of the Holy Islamic Law not as a religious but as a political Institution. It also signified the elimination of a factor which had done great harm to 1fce cause of progress and re-awakening. Thus, "lalciau" enabled Turkey to be on equal terms with other nations In the International so­ ciety. 16

The adoption of the Seise Civil Code (February 1 7 , 1926) and the Code of Civil Procedure of the Swiss Canton of Keuchatel, and also of the Italian Penal Code and the German Commercial Code, not only re— stilted in the abolition of the shariat (the Holy Lair of the Karan), but it also meant the reorganization of the Turkish society on the levels of the family, civic, and commercial relations*

In replacing the Moslem m i anriar, based on Mohammed1 s Hegira (622), the international Christian-Qregorian calendar (and clock), the in­ ternationalization of time concept was implied and carried out* (Decem­ ber 26, 1925) The Introduction of all these principles and reforms of the Revo­ lution were thoroughly prqp ared for by psychological tactics and enacted democratically* This enactment followed a pattern which was tentative and evolutionary at first, then exemplary, and finally par­ liamentary and legislative, which extended over about twelve years*1 2 3* Turkish Revolution as a Far-Reaching Democratic Educational Process, Aimed at the Baancipation of the Peasantry and the Reconstruction of the Country* As it has already been pointed out, in the realisation of the revolutionary principles and reforms, education as a social technique played and still plays the most important role* As a matter of fact. It would be quite appropriate to describe the whole Turkish revolu­ tionary movement as a far-reaching educative process* This is elo-

^Ernest Jackh, op* cit., pp* 176-177. 17 quently expressed by Ernest Xackh in the following fashion: What appeared necessary, and actually was carried through, was a unique democratic program of education in the broadest sense, applied to a nation whose majority was illiterate. It was a basic education of the mind and was not merely in­ duced by a democratic constitution and by civil laws, though they were agreed to by the parliament of the National Assem­ bly or by a variety of educational institutions* The educa­ tion was aimed at the creation of a new outlook, national, as well as international, and thus reached further and deeper than any so-called "Westernization." Indeed, it was much more than woat we Westerners are accustomed to understand by this terra.” If the Kemalist Revolution, which had to be generated from the top down, was eventually to turn into an effective self-conscious grass­ roots movement, no other course than this pervasive democratic program of education could be taken* In this educative process, the intellec­ tual emancipation of the people has been given a transcending impor­ tance. This was imperative for the creation of the intended republi­ can, nationalist, populist, statist, secular, and revolutionary society* Furthermore, the instigators of the Revolution were quite aware of the time-honored truth that a "people cannot choose its in­ stitutions until it had transformed its mind*"^* One should not, however, be naive enough to believe, or think, that the accomplishments of the Revolution to date have been without difficulties. To the contrary, the whole movement has gone, and is still going, through several frustrating experiences. The causes of this frustration — though temporary — are both external internal, psychological and physical*

1 3 Ibid.. p* 1 7 3 . ^ O u stave Le Bon, op* cit*, p* £?• 16 The external causes of frustration may be siaamed up as follows: (a) the aftermath of World War I, and the Turkish War of Inde­ pendence, and the resultant economic crisis; (b) the World War II crisis and Turkey's economic isolation dur­ ing the war; (c) the precarious geo-political and strategic situation of the country which directly involves Turkey in world affairs, and the subsequent defense burden she has to bear for survival* Internally, the causes of frustration may be summarised in the following fashion: (a) the country as a whole — though potentially rich in natural resources — was taken over from the defunct Empire following consecutive devastating wars* Therefore, the economic re­ covery had to start from scratch and had to be carried out unaided; (b) the bulk of the population — on whose intelligence, under­ standing, cooperation, and effort, the success of the Intended reforms, and economic recovery so much depended — was Illit­ erate* What is more, this bulk was suffering from an age-long "lethargy*, mainly caused by such physical factors as nil ravages of man and nature, war, misgovernment, Invasion, im­ migration, famine, disease, earthquake, sad flood;^ and by such psychological and moral factors as political oppression and exploitation, and the thwarting influence of the misln-

l^Lewis V* Thomas, Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey 19 terpreted and degenerated mysticism of Islam* This bulk in question Is the Turkish peasantry* which, statisti­ cally makes up the 68*1 per cent of the population* (According to the October, 195>0 statistics, the population Is 20,902,618)* If one takes the term peasant In its broader sense which Includes everyone who, by his own labor, draws directly upon natural resources for his living, this percentage even reaches 75 per cent of the total population* The above-mentioned farces had for a long time defined a very great many of the most fundamental patterns and features of peasant life: e.g., the structure and the role of the famlly-unlt and vlllage- unit, agricultural and industrial tools and techniques, dwellings, clothing, mentality, etc* These farces, until recently, tended to persist practically unchanged* Owing to this continuous changeless­ ness, a relative absence of change nad became an overriding character­ istic of Anatolian peasant life and had caused the peasantry to de­ velop into an almost entirely "mute mass."1^ The underlying causes of this characteristic probably extends even to the question of the Anatolian peasant's basic stock and it is still open to a systematic study by the social scientist*

0 The Increasing awareness on the part of the new regime of the high correlation between the recovery and progress of the country and the intellectual-material emancipation of the peasantry, has generated a systematic striving toward this emancipation * The underlying objec­ tive of this intensified systematic effort Is to rouse the peasantry

^Lewis V. Thomas; Richard N* Frye, op* cit*, p* 38* 20 to a conmon sense of purpose aa modern Turks, to bring It up to a wi*Tvtwniw level of new technical efficiency, and to transform the peasant fran a member of a "mute mass" Into a participating full citizen of a republic.^*7 Toward the realization of this end, many positive steps have been, and are being, taken. Since the solution of Turkey's fundamental problems depends highly upon the elimination of "inertia1* on the part of the peasantry, this great bulk Is the very core of these problems. This fact In view, In the educational plnniviwg, to provide the peasan­ try with ml n1 mm level of education is gaining priority. The Village Institutes — an educational Innovation of which the Turks are proud — are just an example. They are designed to give the able young peasant first-hand participating knowledge of the aspects and methods of modern living, and to train him as a living preceptor of the sort of basic gradual minianaa change. In agricultural reorganization, too, the peasantry has been brought into the focus of attention. The realization of the fact that the de­ velopment of agriculture as the base far further industrialization and economic recovery Is fundamental in Turkey, intensified the governmen­ tal efforts to provide the peasant with the modern knowledge, tools, methods and techniques of agricultural productivity. It Is expected that increased agricultural productivity will facilitate Industriali­ zation, will raise the Income of the farmer, will boost the national income, will open broader markets for industrial goods, and will create

1 7 Ibid., pp, 1 2 0 , U2 . 21 additional economic resources* For the further industr* at t nation of the c ountry, as well, the peasantry Is In the center of the planned efforts* Far one thing, the peasants are the major source of labor power* Industrial progress and efficiency of Turkey depends heavily upon the efficient utilization and adequate technical training of this force* Secondly, In the industrial expansion, the Industries concerned with the processing of all type of agricultural products and transmitting the sioqple methods of pro­ cessing to the peasant farmer, are now being emphasized* The Improve­ ment of village handicrafts, quality control, and marketing assistance are also being given close attention and being considered beneficial to the standard of village life* In the improvement of public health, also, the peasantry Is cost­ ing Into the focus of the health activities* Since the productive efficiency of this great majority depends a great deal upon its state of health, an Increasingly organised effort is being spent far the improvement of the poor environmental sanitation conditions and the low standards of hygiene of the peasantry* H o n g this line, primary emphasis is being put upon facilities and services aimed at the pre­ vention of disease, public education on the value of clean surroundings, better methods of sewage and refuse disposal, protection of food aid water supplies. In so far as politics and the democratic strides of the country are concerned, the transition firom a one-party system to multi-party politics has brought the peasant majority into the political lime­ light* (1?U6 and 195>0 and 195U general elections*) With the realise- 22 tion of the democratic maxim of "government of, far, and by the peo­ ple, " the political education of the peasant majority has become more important and crucial than ever. The peasant has been quick to sense his "pivotal role" and the vital importance of his vote.1® In order that this awareness and vote may always be used discriminatively far progressive and constructive purposes, a better communication and education aimed at the training of the discriminatory abilities of the peasant, as well as other groups of the population, is most essential. For what is at stake is the continuous success and political stability of the country. In the solution of its crucial problems, in the enlightenment of the peasantry with regard to these problems, and in securing its par­ ticipation to solve them, the post-war Turkey has observed a sudden boom and boost. This is mainly attributable not only to Turkey's intensified efforts in national recovery and progress, but also to its participation — since 1 ?U7 — in the benefits from the Mar«*™i1 Flan, to the help received from the Economic Cooperation "1 stration (ECA), the Organization far European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), the International Bank far Reconstruction and DeveLopment (IBRD), and the Internet!anal Monetary Fund (BtF).1^ This international cooperation not only brought in the necessary technical and financial help, it also provided Turkey with a more ob­

Howard A* Reed, "A New Force at Work in Democratic Turkey," Reprinted from the Middle Bast Journal, V. 7, no. 1, (Winter 195>3)* P. 3$.

1 ?T. G . A. Hunts, Turkey, Economic and Commerci a l Conditions in Turkey, pp. 112-120. 23 jective outlook on Its problems and. with more coho sire plans for de­ velopment* Yet, surprisingly enough, these plans, while arranging things In order of priority and In terms of their Immediate bearings on the national welfare, seem to fall to point out the importance of the mass media of oommunicat ion. They lack concrete recona&eniatlans regarding the use of the existing and prospective mass media In con­ nection with the shcrt and long-range programs of development. They also fall to show how an effective use of mass coianunications — aimed at the psychological and educational preparedness of the peo­ ple — may contribute to the success of these plans and to the solu­ tion of crucial problems, especially as they may be affected by the degree of enlightenment of the peasantry* The continuous and repeated emphasis on the peasant population stems from the fact that In the long run the final success and assimi­ lation of the Revolution, and the realisation of Its professed objec­ tive, i.e., to become (for Turkey) one of the most civilised nations of the world so that Turkey achieves the rank of a useful in­ dustrious member of the family of nations .2 0 depend to a great extent upon the peasants, upon their capacity for education, economic productiveness, and political responsibility* In this respect, mass communications have much to contribute to the en­ lightenment of the peasantry and to the acceleration of progress. The following chapters will be devoted to the causative—diagnostic analysis

2°Bisbee, op* cit., p* 21*6. Aa quoted from former president Inarm* s a&xmal address* to the Turkish Or and National Assembly In 1?U£>* of Turkey's problems and to the commmlcatlve-tberapeutic considera­ tions with regard to their solutions* •orrery happening Is the manifestation of a specific causal nexus..." R* M* Uaclver III A Causative—Diagnostic Analysis of Some Major FToblems of Turkey It has been stated at the outset that this work is an attempt to study some major problems of Turkey from a communicative standpoint, and to shorn beer an effective use of the mass media can contribute to their solution* As a prelude and background to this central Issue, in the chapter titled "A Brief Retrospect, ■ the writer has tried to pre­ sent the reader with an up-to-date evaluation of Turkey, as based upon the critical appraisals of foreign observers* Since the Turkey pic­ tured in this brief retrospect is the product of the Kemalist Revolu­ tion, the second chapter has been devoted to a brief appraisal of this movement* This was deemed to be necessary not far the argvment' s sake, but rather as a logical step into the consideration of the prob­ lems involved* For these problems ware Inherited, diagnosed, apod have been attempted to be solved systematically by the regime based upon the principles of the Kemalist Revolution* Therefore, approaches to their solution carry the brand peculiar to this movement — thus making the understanding and appreciation of its nature Imperative* The criterion for the selection of the problems to be considered in this work has been their Immediate bearing upon the economic, so­ cial, political progress, and general welfare of the oountry* Indeed, the problems involved in this study (i.e., agriculture, industry, pub­ lic health, politics, education) are universal in character* Upon 25 26 their solution depends not only the well-being of individual nations, but the general welfare of the miole world. About the Mature of die Problems. It should be kept in mind, homover, that the degree to whlnh these areas of hue an life and social living are problems, varies from one country to another. Furthermore, concepts of general welfare are

products of prolonged human experience,1 and are relative to the "need-

value" ays terns of individuals, which define their "cognitive-perceptual11 processes. By changing or eliminating social forces operating in a social system, b y providing new experiences, and by introducing new "need-value* systems, the "cognitive-perceptual" processes of indivi­ duals and concepts of general welfare may be profoundly altered. In fact, what the Kamaliat Revolution did for Turkey was just that. Although each having characteristics of its own, the problems considered in this study are problems in the sense that they are per­ plexing cr not quite certain. They challenge the individuals* minds and the responsible authorities to enquire into their causes and de­ mand solution. The difficulty created by these perplexed and troubled situations is spread throughout the entire "field," infecting it as a whole Viewed within a broader framework, these problems may be con­ sidered as "social problems," becauset (a) the removal or control of these problematic situations are

^Gillette mid Reinhardt, ftrcblana of a Chen|^^ Social 'Order, p. vii. 2jofan Dewey, How We Think, pp. 12-Ik, 108. 27 completely beyond the ability of one person or a few indivi­ duals; (b) the moral responsibility for their solution is placed upon the society at large; (c) they are social in their results Furthermore, these problems do not ordinarily stand Independent of one another. They rather comprise an "intercausal system," which can hardly be understood apart from the evolutionary character of the social order in tiiich these problematic situations appear The Causal Quest or the Qenesis of the ftroblsms. The understanding of the intercausal nature of such problems as agriculture, industry, health, education, is always a very important factor in planning to administer either preventives or "cures" to any or most of than. It Is Important because they tend to beget, foster, and encourage each other. What is more, there are similarities among them in that they r e produced by a plurality of causal conditions Put differently, what we designate as causes of each problaatatlc situation are the various "conjunctures" of things in the process of creating some difference that arrests our attention. And what we call effects are actually particular properties manifested by things In their various conjunctures. To the extent that we relate the differ—

3oiUette and Reinhardt, op. cit., pp. 3-U*

^Ibid., p. t II.

^Ibid., pp. 7-8 . 26 ence as closely as possible to the pertinent conjuncture, we are apprcodnating the discovery of the causes* It is the perception of this difference that prompts our causal enquiries*^ When these academic c onsiderations are applied to the causa tire analysis of the problems with which we are about to deal, the causal factors behind these problems seem to root back to, or fall Into, the following fields or categories* (a) physical; (b) hereditary; (c) social; (d) economic; (e) cultural; (f) g overmen tal or political; (g) peychological*

As a matter of fact, nearly every problem may be accounted for by referring it back to these conditions* Of course, one set, or conjunc­ ture, of conditions may be more weighty as a cause than some other set* As the solution of a mathematical problem consists in supplying

the missing factor, the solution of our problems involves; (1 ) the discovery of the causes of the situation which constitute the problem;

(2 ) the demonstration of the method of procedure and the discovery of controls for restoring the situation to what it should really be* Tet, not all people have exactly the ease conception of a given problematic situation* This is attributable to differing information, insight, attitude, Interests, and character* Furthermore, while there may be agreement on the diagnosis of the causes, the causal conditions may be either outside the bounds of control, or, because of some in­ herent difficulties, controls may be limited, as In the oase of seme problems produced by* (l) such fiats of nature as droughts, floods,

^R* M* Mac Ivor, Soolal Causation, pp* 382, 172* 29 tornadoes, earthquakes; (2 ) the conflict of social Interest, -which may­ be so pronounced aa to block applying preventive and curative programs.^ For the c anoative—diagnostic study of the problems of Turkey, the causal categories above could be interpreted in the following terms* (a) Physical causes. This category- -would include all the external factors and conditions -which modify the behavior of man, and register effects on his society, e. g., the geographic factors of soil, topography, climate, all kinds of natural resources, etc. These physical causal factors may reveal their Influences by regulating mass movements and density of population, by determining where people will live, what kind of life activi­ ties they will pursue, and, to seme extent, how they will feel, think, and behave* Although these external factors determine the courses of action of man, they, in turn, are modified and controlled by him* Civilised man has "condition­ ed relation” to nature* (b) Hereditary causes* This implies some inborn qualities of

man, which are determined by means of the germ cells, 1 * e., the genes* However, all these inherited characteristics are, to some extent, c cntrolled by environment* In other words, there Is a fairly stable reciprocal relationship between the two, which regulates hnman action and Interferes in many problematic situations as a causal factor*

^Gillette and Reinhardt, op* cit*, pp. U, 16-18* 30 (c) Social causes. These causes are the ones which originate from social life, social structure and conventional actlvi— ties. They are apparently associated co-extenslve with civilisation. Since social causes enter Into many social problems, their study deepens our Insight into the nature and intricacies of the social organism and promotes our social economy by leading to possible remedial measures. Society from which social causes and problems emanate, is a system of interdependencies of persons and conditions, func­ tions and structure, and Is conditioned by the physical fact­ ors surrounding it. The understanding of this system may provide the key to the solution of the problematic situations originating from this system.® (d) Economic causes. This implies the causes which, while affecting every aspect of life, emanate from the use of national resources. They are related to the general economic system (e.g., Fascism, Co— mn1 mn, Socialism, Capitalism) and are explainable in terms of the allocation of resources, ex­ ploitation of resources, production, distribution, income, business cycles or fluctuations, labor, and the behavior of economic units Any quest into social and economic causation would be well

®The considerations in the Items a-c are based upon the related discussions in Qlllette and Reinhardt op. cit.. pp. i|l-&>, 1*18, 23—27. 9j» A. Hardin and Virgil Salera. Elementary Economics, 3-7. 779-803. ------31 served by the concept of "equilibrium and precipitant* * For this concept would Introduce us to vital sources of change rather than minimising it in favor of status quo* In fact, we would advance effectively in our causal enquiries and ex­ pect much enligbtenaent if we seize upon the difference, the

contrast, and change-provoking factors*1'0 (e) Cultural Causes. These are the causes whose roots extend in­ to the cultural structure and pattern (ideological, behavior­ al, material) of society* Culture is defined as a • ••the actual selection of sows part of possible human behavior ctnsidered in its effect upon materials made according to the demands of an i.d.o., and modified by the total environment*^ An insight into the patterns of culture may furnish very im­ portant clues in our enquiry* Many a causes of the problem­ atic situations may be inherent in such atomic elements of culture as individuals, their tools, and the emotional and intellectual bonds which unite them, or in its more organic and higher elements such as the implicit dominant ontology and morality* (f) Governmental or Political causes* This category refers to the causes whose origin might be found in the political- governmental system of society* This system Is a "mode of regulation" applicable to the establishment and maintenance

IpR* M. Maclver, op* cit*, 169* Hjames Feiblman, The Theory of Bon an Culture, p. 9U* i.d.o. stands for Implicit donTTHht oflwlfltfy "IhTii xae -subconsciously accepted belief of the majority of the member a of group respecting the ultimate nature of reality*" p. 7 5 * 32 of ordered societies. It is an expression and partial reali­ zation of cultural values. Tet, the fact that the main poli­ tical instruments may be taken over and controlled by any sets of interests or any philosophy of life, and that they are subject to tides of change and revolutionary surges, dis­ tinguishes politics from culture. The politico-economic complex is designed to control the relationships of men with respect to things.^ An extension of our causal enquiry into the way this control operates may furnish us vith one of the missing factors in the solution of the problematic situation involved. (g) Psychological Causes. Mo matter vhat the problematic situa­ tion, its causes, and remedial measures may be, a problem is a problem insofar as hnaan beings are concerned. In the long run, the solution of a problaauttic situation will have to be carried out by man. And the degree to vhloh this attempt is a success or failure, is to affect his life and his pursuits. Every aspect of life, i. e., physical, social, economic, cultural, etc., contributes to the psychological make-up of man, and determines his "cognitive-perceptual1* processes, vhich is dynamically related to the need-value systems of in­ dividuals. These systems are central in the personality structure of the individual interacting vith the environment, lad they may be the regulating factor behind every act.

^ R . M. Maclver, op. cit., pp. 28£-267* 33 As far as "the solution of problematic situations is con— earned, the knowledge and understanding of the psychological make-up, cognitive—perceptual processes, and the need—value systems of individuals may provide the most important missing factor in our causal quest. The external material factors may readily be accounted far* But, '♦what we cannot fully apprehend is that which is intrinsically dynamic. This is human nature, with its endlessly changing responses to endlessly changing situations* The understanding of psychological causes of problems is especially important from the standpoint of communication and in designing the strategy and programs of mass communication. It is important, because communication aims to bring about the necessary preparedness, modifications, and changes in the con­ cepts, attitudes, behaviors, perceptions, and responses of individuals — whose understanding of, and participation in, the solution of problems may be vital. The communicative act cannot occur unless the communicator is aware of the psychological barriers to communication, the psychological make-up of the audience (or the communicatee), its "tendencles-in-sltuatian" and the operation of its selec­ tive systems* The solution of problematic situations, if It is to be achieved collectively, is directly dependent upon the under-

1 3 Ibid., p. 3 9 2 * 3k s'banding of the situation, its causes, and the implications of the suggested remedies by all concerned* This understand­ ing may be realised only when there is a "community of mean- ing«lU between the caunwnlcator and "interpreter." Otherwise, it would be futile to expect any response and participation froa the c oamunicatoe. Before we go into 'die causative analysis of Turkey's prob— less, it would be quite appropriate and pertinent to close this academic treatment of causal quest by saying that in human society, the problematic situations may finally "... be resolved into matters of social give-and-take in the nature of ccmunication. In its effort to diagnose the problems of ths country, to draw up plans for their solution, modern Turkey has been quite enthusiastic and generous* Mover the less, as the recent international surveys re­ vealed, the "impatience" on the part of the governments to do all that is necessary quicker, has always made the total cost of these efforts quite prohibitive* Furthermore, these plans semned to be lacking an arrangement in an order of priority* The large-scale participation of Turkey in the international or­ ganizations and plans of economic reconstruction (e.g*, the Marshall Aid, ESC A, BtP, PEEC, IBRD, IMF, see page 22) has opened a new era in

^Walter Coutu, ftwrgeat Himai Mature, p* 286* ^Gillette and Reinhardt, op* cit*, p* 29* 35

the development of the country* The almost unbiased^ studies and

surveys conducted in connection with these joint international enter­

prises and Turkey's sincere efforts to comply with them, have brought

a cert= in cohesion in the diagnostic analyses of the problems and in

Ians for development*

Dow there is a tangible trend on the part of the governmental

circles to forgo the more spectacular (although desirable) developments

in oroer to achieve the less spectacular but profitable and useful*^-?

I'urtherniore, the recently designed programs of development are not

self-centered. They are so planned as to make the contribution of

Turkey to international recovery possible*

The following considerations of Turkey's major problems are based

on the diagnoses, analyses, and therapeutic recommendations made in

the surveys conducted by the previously mentioned international or­

ganizations* The main objective of the writer is to discover and ex­

pose the conimunic at ion demands that are overtly stated or implicit in

these diagnostic—therapeutic analyses and recommendations*

1. Agr iculture *

A. Definition and description of the problem*

In agriculture one may see one of the major means of human beings

to adjust themselves to nature. In fact, this has been a long-standing

l^The reason why the writer says "almost unbiased" is that the specialists who participate in these surveys, no matter how scientific— minded they may be, can hardly avoid reflecting the socio-economic tendencies of the system to which they belong*

■^t . g . a * Munta, Turkey, Economic and Commercial Conditions in Turkey, pp. 3, 112-120* 36 occupation of mankind aid also a long-standing problem throughout the -world. Historically, Turkey has depended upon agriculture as its princi­ pal means of livelihood• Despite the recent efforts on the part of the Republic to achieve a near balance in its economy through Industrial development, today Turkey remains predominantly an agricultural coun­ try* For* a) Turkey's principal natural source is the fertility of her soil; b) Turkey's major industry is farming;

c) almost 6 0 per cent of the population draws its living from the land, to feed themselves and the rest of the nation;

d) over 5 0 per cent of the national income is derived from the land; 3.®

e) the land provides the bulk of the internal requirements for food as well as exports of several produce traded in the world markets for raw materials and capital and consumer goods; f) the Increase in the productivity of the land and the people of Turkey is essential not for the self— sustalnance of the country alone, but also for the economic recovery of the international community in which she participates* Now one may raise tbs question wly is it that the most fundamental source of livelihood and economy of the nation should still r omaln to be problematic in character? The whole field of agriculture is still problematic bee onset

^®Facta on Turkey. Turkish Information Office, pp* 16-18* 37 In the first place, Turkey Is potentially * much larger producer

of agricultural products (grain and other foodstuff) than It has been.

Yet, despite the recent "phenomenal" increase in agricultural yields,

the results are tan all in comparison with the needs of the country and

in terms of output per man and per acre. (See the figure I) 1935-39

consumption being assumed normal, the subsequent population Increase

of 17 per cent now requires an annual production of 1*, 700,000 metric tons of bread grain and 3, 70 0 ,000 metric tons of coarse grain. There is still much room for improvement• Secondly, while the land under cultivation amounts to 26 per cent of the total area (see the figure II), the grand total of land culti­ vated in a given year exceeds slightly 1 5 per cent of the total land surface, because: (a) most of land now under cultivation Is cultivated according to such ordinary Anatolian methods as leaving a plot "fallow" at least one year In three — approaching roughly to 13-lli per cent of the total surface; (b) same two per cent of the total area Is estimated to be used for purposes other than normal farming, e.g., market gar­ dens, orchards, vineyards, olive groves, etc.^ Third, the total cultivation accounts for the direct employment of 75-60 per cent of the population. This may lead us to conclude that: (a) Turkey*s present agriculture is wasteful of human energy; (b) Turk- ey's population is, as compared with the else of the country, aaall, 21

19rurkey, Country Study, BCA, p. 7. 2°L. V. Thomas, and R. N. Frye, op. clt„ p. 21*.

21 Ibid., p. 21*. ACREAGE UNDER CULTIVATION

YIELD IN TONS

HE PHENOMENAL INCREASE IN AGRICULTURAL YIELD IS ILLUSTRATED BY THESE FIGURES

Figure I Frcm Facts on Turkey Turkish Information Office, )tJ.)| E." 52nd St., N.Y.

SIZE OF FARMS OW NED BY THEIR OPERATORS

UNDER 1 1 ACRES

(a v e r a g e , 5' M'lliLlbft' rtOLDlfjfcS 1 6 a c re s)

114-11 40 ACRES 5,764 HOLDINGS

OVER 1140 ACRES 418 HOLDINGS 39 Fourth, the total production is still governed by, and at the mercy of, the uncertain climate of the country* Fifth, the peasant, on whose shoulders rests the productivity of the country, Is still poorly equipped, both fro® the standpoint of technical "know-how" and equipment* Although the situation la Im­ proving rapidly, there still are places eh ere his farming equipment Is quite identical with that of Anatolia's earliest* The fact that the Turkish peasantry Is still inadequately equipped with regard to modern technological know-how and equipment cuts down its productive efficiency* The following data, though from 193U-35, is significant •nnwgh in showing Turkey's comparative productivity* Hr* Colin Clarke, the Australian economist, provided ease Interesting figures for the net productivity per male earner occupied In agricul­

ture on the basis o€ the 193U—3 5 crops (In International Units) Hew Zealand...... 2,1*1*1* Ana trail a ••••*..• 1,521* Argentina...... * 1,233 U* S* A* •••*•••• 661 Holland...... 579 Germany...... 1*90 Great Britain • •..*. 1*75 France ...... 1*25 P o l a n d ...... 195 Turkey ••••*•••• 109 Syria *****...... 9 8 I r a q ...... 93 Egypt ...... 90

2^Bernard Neman, Turkish Crossroads, p* 173* Hr* C* Clark Is quoted from his widely studied boadiiiSs of Economic Progress* There he insists In comparing not money incomes Cut real wages” —■ what money can buy* As his standard, he took the purchasing power of the gold dollar over the period 1925-31** This he called an International molt* All data from different countries was reduced to this standard* llO

H O W THE L A N D IS USED

!\ v- UNDER CULTIVATI6N <$)

M E A D O W S ' ■ J 0 ^ | I-** W *V~3t ,

v ^'-V > ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ WASTE LANDS, LAKES

i t •*1 i ,\.vA\wV) ut k-I*.

Figure II

Fran Facts on Turkey Turkish Information Office Ulih E. 52nd St, 1*1 The differences are attributed by Mr. Clark to harder work and more efficient methods. Sixth, there is small inducement to the peasant to produce aore* Despite the rapid improvement, only about 15 per cent of fara produce leaves the district where it was raised. And, while 75-80 per cent of the Turks are engaged in agriculture, they receive only shout 1*5 per cent of the national income.^3 Briefly, the whole field of agriculture, ahen considered free the standpoint of economic welfare of Turkey, is still problematic in character. Natural—physical forces acting upon agriculture need to be controlled to better advantages, aanpcwer needs to be organised and equipped wi th respect to technological knew—hem and tools, adequate Incentive for more production m d adequate of distribution need to be developed. B. Cauaative—Diagnostic analysis of the problem. So far as they can be determined, the causes of the agricultural problems of Turkey may be accounted for in terms of the previously mentioned causal categories. (See pp. 25—31*) Suppose we call the whole matter broadly as basic production difficulties. Certain causes of the production difficulties may be attributed tot (a) Fhyaical—natural conditions. This involves the geophysical structure and the climatic conditions of Turkey. For our purpose, it sill be sufficient to emphasise some of 1he outstanding characteristics of the land and its climate which govern the variety, the quality, and

23Ibid., pp. 171*, 181*. h 2 the quantity, of the agricultural products. (See the figure III) Turkey lies almost entirely between the 56th and U2nd northern parallels. It has an area of 296,505 square miles, 96.9 per cent of which lies in Asia and the rest in Europe. The central and fundamental feature of the land is the vast, roughly oral great Anatolian Plateau, stretching between the Northern Anatolian and Taurus mountain chains which parallel the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. The Anatolian plateau has mi arerage elevation slightly more than 3000 feet above the sea level. Tbs water courses which cross the plateau can be considered of negligible importance. Much of central Anatolia does not drain to the sea. With the ending of the plateau come the mountain chains which are followed by a long and steep descent to the coastal plains. These coastal plains are, In general, "marvels of fertility.* On the west, where the prolongations of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean coastal ranges approach each other, the result Is a com­ plicated mountain system descending to the Aegean. To the east, one enters an even more complicated system of mountains, plateaus, valleys, and alpine lakes. As for the climate of Turkey, it ranges from typical Alpine to typical Mediterranean. The coastal mountain chains, while helping the coastal piains enjoy abundant rainfall, make the central Anatolia's climate a continental one. This central area has cold and severe win­ ters and, in sharp contrast, blaming summers. Hare the problem of rainfall is critical since the animal precipitation averages only about ten inches. Map III

Topographic Structure of Turkey Uh In this potential "broad basket", wheat Is sown by hand, ordinari­ ly in the fall* During the six months from October to March, almost two—thirds of the total annual precipitation Is to be expected* Often, however, the total moisture Is Insufficient and the grain dies* Thus, the central plateau, potentially one of the greatest wheat areas of the world, is at the mercy of "capricious" annual rainfall, so far as its productivity Is concerned*^ In sharp contrast to the Central plateau, the Aegean and Marmara regions, and the Black Sea littoral are quite abundantly watered* The annual precipitation reaches, especially towards the eastern extrestity of the Black Sea littoral, 100 inches* The Mediterranean region may be characterised by a precipitation pattern of wet winters and dry sumner, thus tending toward a semi-tropical climate* The southeast Anatolia may also be characterised by hot and dry summers, by cool to bitter winters, and by hardly adequate rainfall* The remaining Eastern Anatolia, despite its rugged structure, at least Includes a more balanced precipitation pattern* These structural and climatic conditions of the country control greatly the density, and the pursuits of the people, and govern the agricultural diversity end productivity* Near, or along the seacoast, where agriculture and trading are more flourishing, the density varies frcm 75 to 100 per square mile* In the "crescent shaped strip", which lies inland from the Aegean and the Mediterranean, the density ranges from 25 to 75* In the dry Interior and eastern regions, the population

2^L*_V* Thomas and R* N* Frye, op* olt*, pp. 18-23, and Be aim Darkot, Turkiye Cografyaal, pp* 8—5U. 1*5 density shows a variation from 1 to 25 per square mile* Along the seacoast and In the neighboring valleys and hillsides the tobacco, raisins and other specialised crops are grown by intensive agriculture* Gb the central plateau, where the people is thinly scattered, wheat and other grain are raised by dry faming*^ As this brief geo-physical account of Turkey reveals, In general, the agricultural productivity Is at the mercy of the shifting climate. Nevertheless, since the soil Is fertile, the undesirable Influences of natural causes could be controlled by irrigation, fertilisation, and by improved methods of farming* (b) Another important set of causes is economic* nils Is reflect­ ed in the mentality of the Republic (which jrevailed until recently) that ma1 ntal ning its social integrity and independence and raising the standard of living of its people, can best be realised by building a diversified Industrial system.2^ Because of this mentality, Turkey has underestimated the important relationship of agricultural develop­ ment to industrialisation, thus delaying the reorganisation, moderni­ zation, and earlier mechanisation of agriculture* The consequences of this point of view have been rather far- reaching* While the peasants make up some 80 per cent of the popula­ tion, and while the program of industrialisation has been oarrled out on their meager productivity, It can hardly be said that the peasants

2 5 Ibid., pp. 5 -8 . 26Tbe Bconcmy of Turkeys An Analysis and Recommendations for a Development Arogran* International Bank for Reconstruction and Devel­ opment, p* 3 * ii6 have had 80 per cent of the benefits of the movement* So long as the emphasis of the governmental effort has remained on rapid industriali­ zation, the fact that agriculture forms not only the broad basis of national economy but constitutes almost the whole of it, has been ob­ scured. Thereby, in most parts, the agricultural know-how and equip­ ment of the peasant have remained the smie as they were centuries ago. The Anatolian farmer has kept broadcasting his seed by hand, plowing it under haphazardly, reaping and threshing his grain by hand* And, tin til recently, he almost never used fertiliser* To these might be added other such contributing causes ass (c) The Lack of adequate cp™mrHcation and transportation facili­ ties* This lack has always been a powerful influence, delaying the diversification and intensification of agriculture* The peasant farmer could hardly be expected to increase and improve production without the certainty of being able to sell, or without the knowledge

of what can be bought from the outside w a rId.^7 Poor roads, limited motor transport equipment, and a thin network of railroads have stood in the way of large crop movements* (d) The most important of all causes are certainly psychological* In contradiction to the dynamism of the Revolution, the relative "immobility* of the peasantry had already been pointed out. In order to affect this great majority much remains to be done* The recent re-evaluations of the national resources have put the agricultural reorganisation at the top of the national program of die-

27kunts, op* cit., p. lilt.* 1*7 velojment. With this, the interest in the peasants has been intensi­ fied. For in the solution of the problems of agricultural productivity (e. g., the improvement of production techniques, mechanization, irri­ gation, etc.) the understanding and intelligent co-operation of the peasants were indispensable. The whole problem could be as simple as to have the peasants to adopt a safe m i n i m u m of new methods and efficient machines. But here lies the biggest question of all, the basic problem of Turkeys "... how to get the peasant ... to do anything in anyway except exactly the one way he 'always* has done it?"28 This question involves a complete change in the "need-value" systems of the peasants and their persuasion with regard to the bene­ fits that they will derive frcm the new way. Obviously this is a matter of communication. In other words, the peasant should be per­ suaded to give up the attitude of "what was good enough for my father is good enough for me.“ He should be freed frcm the grip of ignorance. It should be demonstrated to him that one man with a tractor can plow as much in a day as a man with a yoke of oxen can plow in six. He should be persuaded that the frustrating control of nature could be stemmed by using simple modern methods. Briefly, he should be made aware of new needs aid he should want mare, not simply far egoistic reasons but for the progress of the nation in wealth and power. Sound progress, as stated earlier, is highly dynamic. Once it is rationally accepted by a group so long "dormant," Its own momentum

28L. V. Thomas and R. N. FTye, op. cit.. p. 26, 1*8 carries it forward with increasingly favorable results*^? The encour­ aging fact about the Turkish peasant is that, although he has suffered an age-long lethargy and oppression before the Republic, his outlook is necessarily practical, even materialist. Ctace the means and desire far better living are provided, and once he is shown a method that pays, he will adopt it*30 C* Remedial Proposals and Their Conrannlcative Bearings* A mare objective evaluation of the nation's economic sources by ths Government and by the recently conducted international surveys, have made it all clear that in a country such as Turkey, industrial progress depends very largely on increasing the productivity of agri­ culture* Therefore, the development of agriculture, not as an alter­ native to, but as the basis for further industrialization is the first principle* On ths realization of this principle depends the increase of the income of the farmer* This, in turn, means a rise in the national income, broader markets for industrial goods, and the release of men for industrial vork*^ The study of these international surveys and prograas of develop­ ment shows a significant agreement on the recomaendatlons as to how to raise the agricultural productivity of Turkey* These recommendations are classified under the following headings which disclose the essen­ tial elements of the program i

^ The Bconomy of Turkey* I* B* R* D* op* clt», pp* U-5* ^Bernard Newman, op* cit., p* !>1**

33-1. B. R* D. op* cit., p* 3 * U9 X, Expansion and improvement of the research and the extension services* II • Improvement of production techniques, I I I , Mechanisation. IV* Irrigation* V. Gradual expansion of agricultural credit* V I . Price support, revision of present price and storage policies. V I I . Expansion of the commodity standardization progran and provi­ sion of adequate marks ting facilities and information* VIII* Forestry and Fisheries* 32 In accordance with the central theme of this study, the purpose of the writer here is to single out and classify those recommendations whose realization involves same kind cf training and improved communi­ cation, which may call for the use of the mass media* Therefore, those recommendations which are beyond the scope of this purpose, will not be dealt with* 1* Expansion and improvement of the research and extension services* The recommendations in connection with research and extension work include:

1 ) the estab 1 1 stment of a — all planning staff to assist the Minister of Agriculture in planning and carrying out a "compre­ hensive prograa" to increase production;

2 ) the training of more technicians aid extension personnels 3) the revision of the curricula of the Agricultural and Veterin­ ary Colleges so as to provide "specialised training" in applied agricultural sciences U) the concentration of the experiment stations and laboratories more on research than engaging in production* The recommendation emphatic ally bases the success of an agrlcul—

32Ibid., pp* 17-25. 50 tural program on the development, through research and experimentation, of superior information on production methods, marketing practices, and its wide dissemination by a competent carps of extension workers who can help farmers to apply it* Here, the implication far adequate communication is strikingly obvious* A line of comounlcatlon must be established between research and experiment laboratories, the governmental planners, and the indivi­ dual farmer, who will make use of this "superior information" and pro­ duction methods originating from these centers. This communication may be direct from these quarters to the peasants by using several media, or the extension worker may serve as the medium. In either case, the use of the mass media of communication may contribute to the translation, dissemination, and demonstration of the new knowledge end methods to the peasant audience. It may help bring about the necessary modification of attitudes and beliefs and may stimulate the motivation so essential for effective communication and for the success of the intended change. II. Improvement of production technique. In this connection it is strongly suggested that the research and extension services should concentrate on*

1 ) methods of improving the production technique of the wmall landowner, especially* (a) the substitution of a row crop for fallow; (b) the encouragement of vegetable gardening in dry farm­ ing areas] (c) the development of better hand t o d s and small implements^ «r>d the methods of persuading the peasants to adopt them, beeause this may bring about a striking Increase In productivity? (d) wide-spread testing of fertilisers throughout the coun­ try;

(e) development of feed for live s to c k , particularly the use of oil cake* 2) Since the live stock production Is far below potential, the following possibilities are suggested to produce mare and bet­ ter feed: (a) the Improvement of grassland and village grazing areas; (b) the inclusion of forage crops in the rotation on larger farms; (c) a greater use of oil cake* Here again, the question is that of communication* The peasant is hardly expected to camply with the suggestion of, say, the substitu­ tion of a row crop for fallow, the development and use of better hand tools, and a greater use of oil cake, unless he is enlightened as to why, how, and when of the suggestion through an intelligent communica­ tion, demonstration, and persuasion* III* Mechanisation. Mechanization, which is now being carried out with the assistance of ECA, is emphasised as a means of expanding agricultural production*

In this connection, the program points out that a substantial extension of mechanization will depend upon:

1 ) the consolidation of land holdings! 52

2 ) the Increased use of tractors and auxiliary equipment rented on a part—time basis; or

3 ) the growth of co-operative pools* Nevertheless, the lack of trained tractor operators is stressed as a serious problem at present* This, also, entails a program of training and communication, so designed as to rapidly turn out effi­ cient and competent operators of agricultural machinery, and skillful mechanics* IV* Irrigation* Earlier, in the causative analysis of the agricultural problems of Turkey, the semi-arid nature of most of her cultivated and cultiva­ ble lands had been mentioned* With this fact in vies, the program suggests that irrigation should receive high priority* Snail—scale irrigation projects based on earthen dams or underground water should especially be emphasized, because they are inexpensive and likely to yield mare imediate and widespread returns than large-scale irriga­ tion schemes* To a people long-accustomed to ths frustrating features of the land and climate and accustomed to leaving himself and the fate of his crop at tbs mercy of a “capricious" nature, the whole Idea of modern

irrigation becomes m crucial matter of communication and persuasion* For, throughout centuries, he has developed a submissive attitude, and has been more to take whatever happens for granted, blaming it on the "Almighty" rather than himself t "Allahin i^ine &aris±lmas." Unless he is sold on the new idea, he will be hesitant about interfer­ ing with the will of God, and he is likely to stick to what he thinks S3 the best. And that la where the dramatic power of ccnaninlcatlon and persuasion comes Into the play* V* Marketing of agricultural products* According to the diagnosis of the International reports, "gluts and shortages mod wide price variations" are characteristic of today's Turkish farm markets* This situation cannot be remedied by even the best physical facilities alone* Therefore, an efficient and accurate "dissemination" of price and market information to both producers and nHHm aman (and also to the consumers) Is recommended. For m adequate marketing of farm products, other such facilities should also be provided as*

1 ) transportation, especially, (a) farm-to-market roads; (b) the impror«ent of the equipment and services for rail and coastal shipping of farm products; and particularly (c) the improve- sent of local and feeder roads*

2 ) standardisation and Inspection of farm products, with special attention to cotton and tobacco; 3) the creation of an Agricultural Marketing Service within the Ministry of Agriculture to collect and disseminate statistical information on current and prospective production, supplies, Inventories, price and consumption far all major products* U) the establishment of local producer-managed processing and marketing co-operatives, also charged with educational and promotional functions* As might have been derived from these recommendations, the whole field of marketing of agricultural products, the accurate collection 5h and dissemination of price and market Information, directly involve the problem of communication. An effectively operating network of ccmnrunl- cation appears to be, and is, Just as vital as tbs be3t physical facilities for the fleer and regulation of the agricultural products* In this respect, the important role of the mass media, is sell appreci­ ated and is a coeaaon p l a c e , 33 especially in the progressive countries* D. Present Situation. Frcm the foregoing discussion of the problematic character of Turkish agriculture and from the suggested therapeutic measures for its improvement, the reader may tend to derive a rather gloomy picture of the situation* It should be made clear that many outstanding achievements of the regime with regard to agriculture have not been dealt with, in order to stay within the boundaries of the central theme of the study* Nerrertheless, to show the trend, the following appraisal of the present situation might be in order* The recent change in the governmental mentality and policy with respect to the importance of agriculture in the national economy, and the reorganisation of agriculture in accordance with the internation­ ally designed programs of development, have begun to yield what they call "phenomenal" results* It seems that the long-desired momentum has finally been created* The whole situation is effectively described and sunned up in the following quotation from President Bayer*s "The

33xhe c on aider at ions In the section dealing with the "Remedial Proposals and their Communicative Bearings" are based on The Economy of Turkey* I. B* R. D., op* cit*, pp* 17-2$» which are supported by simi­ lar suggestions and arguments in Turkey, EC A, op* olt., pp* 23-2U, 31-3Uj Thornburg, Spry, Soule, op* cit., pp. 6 U, 157; and hunts, op* cit*, pp. ltk-6 0 * 55 State of the Nation Message", November 1st, 1953* (delivered at the opening of the Grand National Assembly) t The flourishing advance In agricultural production has been one of the most Important factors contributing to the econ­ omic recovery of the country* ... Not only the mechanisation of agriculture, but also the practical application of the modern farming techniques learned by our rural population, have combined to bring about the auspicious advance of nearly 1 0 0 per cent marked in all branches of agricultural producticn*3U This statement might be supported and illustrated by a few sta­ tistical figures* In connection with mechanisation, fbr example, the n u m b e r of tractors purchased by Turkish farmers reached U0,000 in 1953

(frcm 6 , 0 0 0 at the start of 1 9 5 1 , an increase of about 900 per cent)*35 A grain importer as recently as 1950, Turkey became a grain ex* porting country in 1951* and in 1953 ranked as the fourth largest grain exporter in the world* Grain production totalled 13*600,000 tons in

1 9 5 3 , a rise of nearly 1 0 0 per cent over the 1 9 5 0 figure of 7,762+,0 G0 tons* Livestock raising also showed rapid development by increasing from 56,000,000 in 1950 to 62,000,000 head in 1953* The share of net agri­ cultural production in the national production has advanced from h9 per cent in 1938 to 5 5 .U per cent in 19^8, and 5 7 * 8 pier cent in 195l.^ The increases in other agricultural productions are also very sub a tan—

-&1953 Progress Report from Turkey, Turkish Information Office, pp. 6-7* 35in 1933 there were 266,2lli steel plows and 1,132 tractors in Tur­ key* Steel plow increased to 507,U93 in 19U8* Facta on Turkey, op* cit* p. 19. ^ T b e figures are taken from the Brogress Report* op* cit.* p. 7, and Facts on Turkey, op. cit., p. 16* 56 tial* Farm acreage shows a 25 per oen-t increase. Yet, this rapid movement and improvement has Its own risks which must be warned against. For Instance, In numbers of cases villagers have plowed "marginal land," even pastures, In order to expand pro­ duction to die utmost. The fact that this plowing was done by the American and E3CA supplied metal plows, seme times tractor drawn, dig­

ging at least 25 centimeters deep, runs the risk of exhausting the little moisture dry Anatolian fields secrete by turning up the soil and exposing it to the hot sun and dry wind. An even more serious potential threat Is the erosion stimulated by excessively deep plow­ ing, especially of marginal lands. The scarce top soil of the central plateau might be blown away In a dry year, as exemplified by the Dust Bowl in the U. S. And whatever remains may dry out faster, thus causing a sharp drop in the crop yield. As this example would Indicate and imply, in advocating new methods, not only ths advantages but also possible risks should be pointed out and demonstrated, so that what has been done will not be undone. This in itself is a problem of learning, and calls for a well- thought-out program of cosmrunlcation. 2. Industry. A. Definition aid Description of the Problem. Ths case of Industry in Turkey should be examined, in the writer's opinion, from two standpoints. First, It is a problem of delayed in­ dustrial revolution. Second, It is a problem of hasty Industrialise-

^H . A. Reed, op. cit., p. 36. 5 7 tion. As a problem of delayed Industrialisation, its causes and conse­ quences are quite different frcm those of the problems of the more in­ dustrialized nations* In the countries where the 19th- Century Industrial Revolution has been widespread and successful, the industrial problems today are more of a socio-economic nature than technical* liore specifically, the consequences of the transition from the hand— loom to the mechanical loan have been:

(1 ) technological change revolutionized the division of labor and created factory life with its mechanized and rationalised

work;38

(2 ) it has resulted in the shift of population from the land to the city;

(3 ) this shift in population led the individual to a gradual loss of his identity as a worker and subjected him to the uncer­ tainties of mass production and distant markets; (U) there has been a tendency in political control to pass from the landed aristocracy to the industrial and caoaercial classes; (5) the Industrial Revolution also gave rise to a philosophy of individualism which argued that "he who works for his own in­ terests alone best serves his fellows. This philosophy took deep root in the early part of the Industrial Revolution

3&Karl Mannheim, Freedom, Power, and Paw nr ratio Planning, p. 6 *

3^Gillette axd Reinhardt, op* cit., p* 199* 58 and exerted a profound Influence on all classes;

(6 ) specialization end division of labor have tended to place laborers on unequal footing in the economic structure, and often produced conflicting interests among the laboring classes;^

(7 ) such arbitrary policies of industrialisation as to output restrictions, capital investment, control of patents, re­ sources m d market outlets, initiated lawful state interfer­

ence to maintain full, production and control of arbitrary monopolies.^ The establishment of the new economic-industrial order in the

Occident in the 19th Century had different consequences in the Ottoman Qnpire. The failure of the Ottomans to realise the Industrial Revolu­ tion resulted in the economic and political "servitude" of the Bap ire, whose causes will be discussed later. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, the relatively self-sufficient economy of the Snplre, sustained by agriculture and primitive handicrafts, collapsed. The rapid industrial grearth of Western Europe cracked the Ottoman Bnpire wide open to commercial, in­ dustrial, and financial exploitation. During this period of politico- economic servitude exploitation, Turkey passed through various phases of a semi-colonisation t h2

U0 Ibid., p. 179. k^Karl Mannheim, op. cit., pp. 115-116.

^ L a Turouie an Vole d 1 Industrialisation, Public par la Direction Oen^al^TaKSseT pT 5 .""------$9 (1) The Invasion of Turkish markets by Western machine products practically ruined many of the old handicraft occupations* (2) As an open market, Turkey began to live beyond her means and incurred a long-continued adverse balance of trade* (3) The financing of the deficit Incurred by this adverse trade balance by foreign loans, coupled with the privileges of the "Capitulations" given to the foreigners, created the long- lasting problem of "foreign debts*" All these combined deprived Turkey of the right to impose protective tariffs and to devel­ op her own industry*^ When the Kemalist Revolution took over the country, it inherited an economy which had not undergone a major change for centuries* This situation and the effect of the long-lasting foreign exploitation and abuses gave rise to the attitude and feeling on the part of ths nation­ alists that "An open market for the products of Western Industries, Turkey was doomed to become a sort of colony*"^ Therefore, independ­ ent Turkey had to depend on national industry, ^ This view was expressed by Ataturk in one of his speeches as fol­ lows! Industrialization is one of our chief problems* We shall create every industry, great or small for which there are in. our land the conditions necessary to Its work and development**”

^Thornburg, Spry, Soule, op* cit*, p* 12* kkjbid*, p. 21* Quoted from a report of the Turkish Ulnlstry of the IntSrTor, 1?3U* * • % z. Karal, Turkjye Cuahurtyeti Tarihi* p* 15U. ^Ibid., p* 1*>U« Also in Thornburg, Spry, Soule, op* cit», p. 23* 60 This new attitude toward industrialisation has found expression In the policy of a "self-contained" and "self-sufficient" Turkey and prevailed as recently as 1 9 5 0 * It has Initiated an era of "ambitions but amorphous" industrialization to which it has been referred as hasty Industrialization# Thus, the industrial problems of modern Turkey are a combination of a delayed industrial revolution and the resultant hasty movement to make up far the delay. The consequences of this movement, as ths re­ cent international appraisals reveal, may be sunmed up as follows: (1) The program of industrialization has been extremely costly and inefficient. (2) It had to be financed at the cost of precluding the improve­ ment of the agricultural economy. (3) The haste in industrialisation retarded other forms of pro­ gress along mare promising lines* (U) During the second phase of industrialisation, i.e., Statin, the movement has been financed frcm ths "sweat of the tax­ payers and the consumers' defenseless brows." But its bene­ fits have not widely been diffused. (5>) Those industries which do pay a profit (e.g., textile) have deliberately been run at an excessive profit so that the losses of the other state enterprises might be covered

(6 ) A combined cczisequence of all these has been the high cost of living and low standard of life almost throughout Turkey*

v. Thomas sad R. N. Frye, op. cit., pp. 3U-37. 61

In summary, it Is true t h a t the Republic's program of Industriali­ zation provided Turkey with a system of industry, Tet, the case of industry in Turkey remains problematic because: In the first place, Turkey is potentially a much greater producer of industrial products* She is rich in natural resources. But, the benefits of industrialization hare not as yet been widely diffused. This is reflected by the fact that some 80 per cent of the population continue to live in villages. 8 out of every 1 0 workers are still en­ gaged in farm work,^ (See figure IH) Second, due to "poor" operation and design and heavy cost of maintenance, ths production of the already established industries is still not commensurate with the subsequent population increase de­ mand* Third, despite the speedy growth of industry, its share In, and contribution to, the national income (when one thinks in terms of in­ dustrial potentialities) is still not very high, (See figure VII) Fourth, the early expectations that Etatian, with its state-owned and operated industries, would create a self-contained and self-suffi­ cient Turkey have met certain frustrations. Now, the government is finding it increasingly difficult to carry out the whole burden of in— dustrial development. This in itself creates the problem of reor­ ganization of industry in terms of private enterprise, both domestic and foreign,

k®The Economy of Turkey, I, B, R* D* op, cit,, p, 9, k^Ibid., p. 62

21 MILLION PEOPLE

...WHERE THEY LIVE

1, 627,000

...HOW THEY M A K E THEIR LIVING 9O If_Q_ O II_C o I 0_ Io 19191919 o_ o o o O O o Ilf o IIIi AGRICULTURE 8 0 %

MINING AND INDUSTRY 8*/. PUBLIC SERVICE, PROFESSIONS, ETC. 7 % COMMERCE, TRANSPORTATION, ETC. 5 %

Figure III

From Facts on Turkey, Turkish Information Office UIUl E T 32nd St., N.Y. 63 FiTth, while designing a new policy and program or industrialisa­ tion, the question still remains, i, e., how to salvage Turkey's in­ stalled industrial network so that its operation may eventually become economically feasible. Finally, since industrialization entails the question or labor, the matter oT skilled labor, despite the existing nucleus oT a trained labor farce, is still a chronic problem. This implies and calls for a comprehensive program or training and communication, G, Causative—Diagnostic Analysis of the Problem, A causal quest into the problem or industrialization In Turkey may lead one to the f allowing diagnostic considerations, (a) One or the important causes of the industrial problems of Turkey is politico—econcmic, This has two facets to It, The first may be linked with the failure of the Ottoman Bnpire to initiate the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century, Among the causes of this failure are the "Capitulations •" The Capitulations were the privileges obtained by the European powers from the Ottoman Snpire in the 17th and 18th Centuries. Under these privileges the citizens of these powers could engage In commerce over the territories of the Step ire under the protection of the laws of their own countries. Because of these immunities, the foreigners had been able to acquire sane exhorbitant rights which enabled them to es­ cape the administrative laws of the Ottoman Qcwernmant and to g et away from the taxes and tariffs. Although the capitulations were, origin­ ally, nothing but a gesture of liberal! au and good-will on. the part of Turkey, the Bnpire found Itself In her weakness confronted with the TURKEY'S INDUSTRY A N D COMMERCE G R O W I N G

(DISTRIBUTION OF NATIONAL INCOME IN PER CENT)

OTHER INDUSTRY AGRICULTURE SOURCES

1942 8.8% 5 8 . 3 % 7 0 %

1943 14 9 */ 5 3 . 5 % 3 . 4 %

1944 19.6% 79.6V, 6 . 4 %

MINING A N D INDUSTRY — a six year record

• " « » » » * 5 1 % UP a m i '•"****«#**

1936 9 1 % UP 4

iao% up

r Injure IV

From Facts on Turkey Turkish Information Office Wih " 7 5T2nd St., N.Y. 65 demand of renewal of these "prerogatives." Thus tied d a m by the jurldic al ties of the capitulations, the Qnpire had been turned into a market and a source of raw material by the European powers for their industrial production. The violation of the Ottoman tariff to the advantage of the Industrial goods of the Western powers went to such an extreme that while the import duties collected on the articles coming from abroad were uniformly 5 per cent, on the Turkish export products a tax of 10 per cent was being charged. Under these circumstances, the national industry could hardly flour— ish.5° Aggravating this situation was the deficit caused by the adverse balance of trade. This deficit was financed by foreign loans, which were extended by the industrial powers partly for strategic reasons, partly to finance their profitable export trade. Since repayment lagged, Turkey accepted administration of her "foreign debts." The following example illustrates the importance of this debt. Before 1?1U the foreign debt had risen to 716 million, with France holding 60 per cent, Germany 20 per cent, Britain 15 per cent. This "institution" was controlled by an international "Council of Adminis­ tration of the Ottoman Public Debt," which collected the revenues for the debt service. Through taxation, its power reached every corner of the aspire.'*'** As a result of this double handicap, the industrial revolution was delayed until the inception of the Republic. The in-

S°La Turquie en Yoie d ’Industrialisation, op. cit., p. 6 . ^Thornburg, Spry, Soule, op. cit., p. 13. 66 dustrial capacity of the Ottoman SSupire Just a few years before its collapse reads (1915 figures)^ The number of Industrial The number of daily The annual value of plants workers production ------^ 2 5 E------(Hr a) 7,570,006- As has already been pointed out, the hasty industrialisation of Turkey was an attempt to close the gap created by this delay* The in­ dustrial revolution in Republican Turkey has gone through three stages: X* Although it has been customary to present the Turkish Indus- trializatlon as an Statist enterprise, in the first decade of the Re­ public (1 9 2 3 —1 9 3 3 )9 the government relied largely an domestic private enterprise under the high protection of the state* In this connection: a) the Is (Ish) Bank was established to help finance private in­ dustrial enterprises* (Still in existence, the Bank is a semi—public institution.) b) In order to eliminate the obstacles surviving from the old regime, the National Assembly passed a law for the Assistance of Industry (1927)* This law provided grants of land and buildings, tax exemption and reduced transportation rates to industrial concerns as direct governmental encouragement* Despite this encouragement, the industrial growth during this first period proceeded slowly* This may be attributed to (a) an acute shortage of investment funds and managerial and t echnlcal skills; (b) the competition of foreign industrial goods; (c) the world-wide

Z* Karal, op* cit., p* 155* 6 7 depression of the early 1 9 3 0 's*'^ The resultant disappointment caused by the "failureri of private enterprise to bring about the hopes of a speedy industrialization led Turkey to try, as an alternative, the system of state enterprise, popu- ✓ _ larly called Statian. This marks the beginning of the second period of Turkish industrialization* II* The period of Etatism was characterized by the direct inter­ vention and participation of the State in the realization of the basic industries which, during the first period, private capital and initia­ tive had been unable to organize* An official rationalization of Etatian may be found in the program of the People's Party (1935) * Although considering private enterprise a basic idea, it is one of our main principles to interest the State actively in mat­ ters where the general and vital interests of the nation are in question, especially in the economic field, in order to lead nation and country to prosperity in as short time as p o s s i b l e . ^

To prevent any misunderstanding and misinterpretation, it must be made very clear that Turkish Etatism is not connected with any foreign ideology* It does not involve any class problem, such as management or labor union, profits or wages* Etatism in Turkey must be considered as a device of expediency introduced in order to apply modern technolo­ gy to the natural resources of the country by cystematic state initia­ tive and governmental planning and in order to transform as quickly as possible an economically dependent nation into an Independent state*

In Ataturk1 s own wordst "Turkey's application of the system of

53*rhe Economy of Turkey* IBRD, op. cit*, p. 7. ^Thornburg, Spry, Soule, op* cit.* p* 37* Quoted from the Pro­ gram of People's Party, 1935, Part ll7 par* a* 6 6 etatism Is not a mere translation taken from the socioliem propagated by theorists since the nineteenth century. It Is a system peculiar to Turkey, born of Turkey's needs. The meaning of etatism to us Is: to hold to the principle of the individual's private initiative, but to take into state hands the fatherland's economy, keeping in mind all the needs and the unaccomplished tasks of a great nation and a vast country.£5 During this period (193U—1950)# the Sumer Bank, a state—owned bank and holding company, has been established to finance and manage industrial development being carried out in accordance with "five-year" plans. In addition, the Eti Bank has been created to promote develop­ ment in the mining and power fields. All these marked the transition

/ of the State from the role of the liberal-neutral protector to Station, Although during the first period of the national economic develop­ ment industry still had a dominant agricultural character (i.e., in­ dustries relating to agriculture were predominating 1*1*, 2 0 per cent in 1932, 1*3,95 per cent in 1933), the emphasis of industrialisation in the second period shifted in each five-year plan,^ The five-year plans, which were, and are, executed by the Sumer Bank, included every­ thing the government wished to develop first. The criteria on which the Bank relied far investment were: (1) The industries using home—produced materials and making goods of which the output was below the needs of con­ sumers.

^^Ernest Jackh, op, cit,, p, 191* Turquie an Voie d'Industrialisation, op, cit,, p, 12, 69 (2) The establishments using domestic surplus materials to make products either for export or for the domestic market* (3) The industries making goods for which there was a large domestic demand but which had to be made out of imported materials, and only if these materials might in time be produced within the country* (U) The industries using Imported materials which could not be produced within the country, but making products which might be useful t o the domestic population*” The following considerations intervened in favor of such a program dictated by the anxiety to insure the country its integrity and its economic Independence: a) The extreme dearth of foreign exchange, which is increas­ ingly difficult to remedy In view of the present crisis* (Meaning the world-wide crisis of the early 1930's*) b) The anxiety to secure for the Turkish workers and farmers a mare remunerating domain of activity, because of the persistent drop of prices of raw materials in the world markets* c) The possibility of endowing the country with the tools for which there is need and which are presumably .advantageous under the existing international conditions*^ At the outset, the whole movement of Etatism seemed very promis­ ing and feasible • But, the lack of definite criteria to facilitate coordination at the top and within a balanced national program, the waste in labor and materials, and the ineffective service of the main

/ objectives chosen, brought Etatism close to "failure," and contributed to high cost and a low standard of living* Nevertheless, even the

/ most ardent critics of the Turkish Etatism now agree that, despite its "poor" design and operation, its "imbalances" and "heedlessness", Turkey's present industrial plant is still "the best that Turkey could

57xhamburg, Spry, Soule, op* cit*, p* 28* 58La Turquie an Voie d 1 Industrialization, op* cit*, p* 31*• 70 possibly have hoped to get during the last fifteen years or so."59 III. The shortcomings of the Etatist policy and the resultant discontent with the qystem were reflected at the polls in the 1 9 5 0 elections* With this election the administration which had sponsored Etatism. was crusted, and an administration which premised to change the course of etatiaa by bringing in mare private enterprise was brought to power. This marled the beginning of a new period in the industri­ alization of Turkey, which looks like a hybrid partnership between the State and private enterprise, both domestic and foreign* The opening of tills era has also another significance* Because of its attitude at the polls, Turkey is considered "the first nation to turn resolutely back from callectivian by decisive voluntary action. "w The success of this period will depend, however, upon overcoming some important obstacles such ass the psychological factors that stand in the way of private investment, state competition, the lack of managerial class, restrictions to foreign investment, and the lack of propaganda abroad, etc* The far-reaching consequences of this third period cannot as yet be determined* It should be pointed out that this new era has been initiated as a remedial measure, as a therapy* This therapy itself may originate conditions which might become the causes of further problems* (b) In addition to these political and economic causes of the

^ L * V* Thomas and R* N. Frye, op* cit*, p* 35. ^°Clarence B* Randall, "Can We Invest in Turkey," The Atlantic* V. 192 (November 5* 1953), p* U9* 71 existing problematic situation, the socio-psychological causes should carefully be taken into consideration. Among the factors that delayed the industrial revolution is the social structure of the Ottoman Etepire. A study of this structure reveals that prior to 1920 * s the Muslim Turks had no commercial or in­ dustrial class of their own. Except for the Turkish peasant producing foodstuffs, the Turks were not producers. Turkish expansionism was not based on economic sexploitation — characteristic of the colonial empires of modern European states. This could be accounted for by the fact that throughout their history the Turks had been rulers, admin­ istrators, soldiers. The business, commercial, and industrial activi­ ties of the Sap ire were carried on, and managed by, the Christian subjects, e.g., Greeks, Armenians, and Jews and foreign concessionar­ ies. By the ruling Turks commerce and industry were looked upon as degrading activities. This was an attitude originating firom a long established social structure. Because of thLs attitude the substitu­ tion of the Turks for the Christians as the coming managers of commer­ cial enterprises and as the "chief hewers of stone and drawers of water" has been one of the great problems in Turkey's national econo- my.^l

The prevailing re1 tg*s influences also discouraged economic and industrial development. This may be attributed to the mystical tradi­ tion of Islam. The constant denial of the reality of the world and worldly things is perhaps the strangest Influencing factor in this

6lE. Blsbee, op. cit., p. 98. Quoted from E. C. Hears in Modem Turkey. 72 tradition. This denial Is given a clearer expression In the doctrine of Sufiaa, Muslim mysticism: The whole world of diversity and multiplicity is void of absolute reality and value.* 2 In accordance with this philosophy, life on the earth is consid­ ered merely "an occasion to gain experience which will be useful ... in the next world ... the object of this world Is that it should supply provisions for the next. "63 There are even considerations In Muslim mysticism according to which "poverty" is a virtuer Happy are the poor In spirit, for the kingdom of heaven shall belong to them. Detachment from objects brings about the disappearance of self-concern and a secure sense of Intimacy of the lord.61* This denial of the reality of the world and worldly things went so far that secular subjects were Ignored in the school curriculum, which eventually confronted Turkey with a grave shortage, even ab­ sence, of technical and managerial personnel. In addition, the previously mentioned Capitulations and con­ cessions, together with external financial difficulties, had bred a resentment and distrust of foreigners. This attitude alone has had a marked Influence on the course of industrial and other developments under new Republican regime*

6 2jaque de Marquette, Introduction to Comparative Mystlelai, P* 170.

63ibid., p. 1 7 3 .

^Jbld., p. 1 7 7 . 73 Ail these socio—psychological causes still contribute to the e x i s t i n g problematic nature of industrialisation In Turkey and must be taken Into account in every planning. C. Remedial Proposals and Their Ccmnunlcative Bearings. Today, in the program of national development, the industrialisa­ tion of Turkey f ollows agricultural reorganisation. This is in accor­ dance with the recent modification in the governmental policy which gives priority to agricultural development as the basis for further industrialisation. Nevertheless, it should not be taken as a relaxa­ tion in the industrial program. It rather signifies a concentration of attention on the most promising fields for further industrial ex­ pansion. In connection with Turkey's further industrial expansion, the recent surveys suggest three guiding principles: (1) Since per capita income is low, the production of low cost basic essentials should receive preference over the pro­ duction of luxury items. (2) Since Turkey has relatively little capital and much man power, projects requiring large amounts of labor in rela­ tion to capital should receive preference. (3) Since only limited amounts of foreign exchange are availa­ ble, projects requiring a high proportion of domestic funds should have preference over those requiring a high propor­ tion of foreign funds.®5 The recomaendations made on the basis of these principles may be sunmed up as follows. It should be reiterated, however, that the purpose of this stu$jr is to single out and classify those suggestions which Involve and demand a program of cosmral cation. I. The most important fields for industrial expansion are:

^^The Economy of Turkey, IBRD, op. cit., p. 25• (1 ) Processing of agricultural products* In this connection, the encouragement of simple methods of processing of all agricul­ tural products is suggested* Attention is called especially to preserving perishable foods and supplying basic staple foods within the reach of low income families. (2) Light machinerya metal and tool industries. It is recommended that through the help of the agricultural extension service,, the use of a practical, cheap and simple metal plow and a sim­ ple grain separator could be introduced to replace the wooden plcnr and sled. These tools may find not only a wide market but they may also work a minor revolution in Turkish agricul­ ture. (3) Village handicrafts* It is a fact that in many villages the products of the hand-looni are a much better source of income than that of the land* Therefore, with improved instruction, quality control, and marketing assistance, the value of the village handicrafts could be enhanced to the point where it can contribute to the standard of village life* II* More attention should be given to the production of low-priced staple and basic materials* Nevertheless, the timing and amount of specific investments are governed by such factors as the availability of trained workers, mastery of required techniques and interrelation with other industries* These factors are hard to appraise in advance* III* As recommended for agricultural products, an Industrial Marketing Division should be established in the Ministry of Economy and Camerce. This Division should be in charge of providing the 75 public research and information aerrices essential to both State and private enterprise• IT* It is highly recommended that the government, in setting production, inventory and price policies, should adapt its production to consumer needs and sell the products of its industries at the low­ est price consistent with efficient business operation* V* The modernisation of mining operations is essential for higher production* This, however, implies the adoption of new and perhaps more complex equipment, which, in turn, demand the trainl ng cf the workers so that they may operate them efficiently* VI* Full utiH zation and proper maintenance of Turkey*s existing industrial plant and mining equipment is at least equally as important as expansion of physical facilities* In this connection, such services as shop repairs mad manufacture of spare parts should be centralized* VII* Training of personnel for efficient production is fundamental* In order to provide the necessary industrial skills, the following points are recommended to be emphasizedt (1) In-service training of workers; (2) training of all levels of management, including super­ vision, foremen, crew bosses; (3) training in business administrative services, advertising and marketing*®® Needless to say that these recommendations imply a basic training and c ananmicatlon* Such training and conmunication should aim at pro­ viding the industrial personnel ^ th the skills and "knew—how” neces—

^ T h e considerations in the section dealing with "Remedial Pro— posals" are based on The Bconony of Turkey, IBRD, op* cit*, pp. 25*32; and supported by Thornburg* d|pry» ~Tfoule*op* cit*; Turkey, BCA, op* cit. i Munts, op* cit* 76 sary far an efficient production* They should also at preparing the public with regard to the use and advantages of industrial prod­ ucts* For instance, the production of light machinery may be regard­ ed as a technical operation* But its proper use at a proper place is a question of communication. Simple methods of processing agricultural products, the Improvement of village handicrafts, utilisation and maintenance, etc., may all be resolved Into a single matter of communi­ cation* This in turn entails the questions of what kind of communica­ tion, at what level, for what audience, and ttrough what media, aspects which are the subject of the remedial part of thLs study* D* Present Situation. Despite the controversial nature of Etatian, Turkey now has a ■cmflTi heavy industry, relatively scattered light industries, and a diversified manufacturing capacity* The nucleus of a trained labor force now exists, and an increasing number of men are acquiring ex­ perience aid skill in the management of industrial enterprises* Fur­ thermore, thanks to Statist venture, there now came a logical time for private enterprise (domestic and foreign) to plunge into the large field of industrialization opened by the State* The main task of the goven anents during this third stage of in­ dustrialization is apparently to "doctor" the shortcomings of the existing set-up and to follow a well coordinated and designed program of industrial expansion* At present, the principal Industries In the consumer goods cate­ gory are textiles, sugar, paper, leather, shoes, food processing, and alcoholic beverages* In the category of heavy industry are iron and 77 steel, metalwork, cement, building materials, and chemicals, practi— cally all established by the state in the last tiro decades,67 However, considering the potentialities, the ever-widening economic equipment and structure of the c ountry, it has now been realized that foreign capital and foreign technical "know-how" are needed to boost the State and domestic private enterprises. Along this line, the industrial policy is now so designed as to attract the investment of private capital by encouraging private enterprise and providing adequate safeguards* The impact of this new policy is already manifested by the trend to establish the new sugar and cement factories and the textile mills in co-operation with private enterprise a d capital. Another trend toward the liberalization of industry might be seen in the passage of one of the most liberal laws on foreign investment, which opens Turkey to foreign capital (January IS, X9*?h) • It is titled "Law for the En­ couragement of Foreign Investment" and was enacted to attract the in­ flux of fo*eign capital into Turkey. The new law opens to foreign investment all fields of economic activity in which domestic capital operates. It furthermore makes it possible to transfer abroad both original capital and profits in the currency of investment and at the prevailing official rote of exchange. It can be expected that the present annual investment in industry from public and private funds (now over -U0,000,000-) will be boosted by

6?Facts on Turkey, op. cit., p. 17. INDUSTRY M g

1928 1939 1949 1951 TONS TONS TONS TONS SUGAR negligible 95,508 134,800 160,000

STEEL none none 103,000 135,409

PAPER none 8,941 19,226 23,202 c n .

Figure IV b*

From Facts on Turkey Turkish Information Office tiW+ E * 52nd Ot* 3 N»Y* 79 this law.^* It is most desirable, however, that, while resorting to most up- to-date methods and means to hiring about industrial efficiency, the government should establish a just as efficient canmunication network and program far the purpose of training, educating, and informing not only the industrial personnel, but also the consumer public* 3* Public Health and Social Welfare, A* Definition and Description of the Problem, Needless to say, there is a direct correlation between the physio—psychological well-being of man and hi« happiness and efficien­ cy in life* He not only strives to maintain his individual existence and to propagate his kind, he also strives to attain happiness* It should not be forgotten, however, that this striving takes place in an environment which is a source of supplies and the habitat of hos­ tile organisms, as well as a source of psychological forces* Therefore, any attempt to study health problems should take into account not only the physical factors, but also the mechanisms by which man adapts himself to his environment* In this adaptation, the role of beliefs is just as important as tbs simpler mechanisms* Fur­ thermore, it has intensely practical bearings in the field of public health^? which should not be overlooked in designing plans and commu­ nication programs to conbat health problems* In the case of Turkey, the lack of simpler mechanisms of healthy

^Nerws Fraa Turkey, Turkish Information Office, V* 7, (March 18, 195U), p T 3 . ------&9charles Macfie Campbell, Delusion and Belief, pp. 5-7* 80 living and beliefs on the part of the public Kith regard to health, are tiro major aspects of the problematic situation* Xt is true that the progress made in the field of public health and welfare for the past thirty years of the Republic is "impressive*" It is a "bright promise on a very dark background* "70 y©t, the case of health and social welfare remains problematic, because: First, undesirable sanitary enviromental conditions and low standards of hygiene still prevail from the remotest village up to the modem metropolis* Better methods and mare modem control of food and water supplies, housing, sewage and refuse disposal are badly needed* Second, health and medical services still fall short of the pub­ lic needs* Especially in the rural areas, there is an acute scarcity of trained medical personnel* Without exaggeration, thousands of doctors, nurses, midwives, health officials, health centers, and abundant medical supply are needed* For instance, the proportion of hospital beds in 19U9 amounted to 9*U$ for every 10,000 inhabitants, which may be compared with lf>iuO bn the United Kingdom, 131 in the United States, 53*3 in Palestine, 21*0 in Greece, 12*0 in Bulgaria, and 11*6 in Iraq. Furthermore, the distribution of hospital beds is most uneven* One—third of the total (about 18,000) is in Istanbul, with a ratio of 7 beds for each 1,000 persons* Although the number of practicing physicians is 6,31ii (1951), and although there has been about $0 per cent increase in 19h0‘s, the

7°E. Bisbee, op* cit,, p* 129* 81 ratio is still one physician to each 3*300 persons* What is more, Turkey needs twenty times as many nurses as at present. There ware 850 registered nurses in 1951 in all of Turkey. 71 Third, despite the established control and systematic attack an diseases, several of them still prevail, And in some cases they even tend to become a major threat to society. For Instance, there has been an increase in the tuberculosis rate in Turkey during the past ten years, due largely to the unfavorable economic conditions created by World War II. Between 1931-39 the overall total of deaths from TB in the whole Turkey was approximately 31,000 per year. The death rate during the war years, however, was estimated between liO-f?0 , 0 0 0 per year. And despite this increase, the average number of beds allocated to persons suffering from TB was, until recently, only 1.15 per 10,000 72 of population. Fourth, due to the long—suffered ignorance, illiteracy, Arid isolation, the views of the people about hygiene, diseases, their causes and control, show tremendous variations. The attitude and knowledge of individuals with regard to health may range from the moat primitive oriental concept of health, which frequently attributes the ravages of disease to godly or sinister powers, to the most sophisti­ cated scientific one. Fifth, in proportion to the public needs and in view of the high ratio of Illiteracy, the existing methods of combatting health problems

T^Munts, op. cit., p. 125, and Health and Social Welfare in Turkey, Turkish. Information Office, p. i'9. 72Ibid., pp. 12-13* 82 cannot be said to be altogether satisfactory. It must be painted out, however, that problems of health and welfare, as a responsibility of the State, are being dealt with effectively and systematically. As Dr. J. If. Vine (a representative of the UN W. H. 0., who surveyed Turkey's health facilities in 19U9) explained, the deficiencies of the Turks in dealing with health problems and disease control are not in knowledge of those responsible for health improvement but in the lack

of funds and trained n u r s e s . 73 5. Causative—Diagnostic Analysis of the Problem. Among the major causes that lie behind the problematic health and welfare situation, historico-political, phyBico-econcmic, and socio-psychological causes might be considered of prime importance. (a) Historic o-politic al Causes. At first such an approach to the problems of health and social welfare may look quite irrelevant. Nevertheless, historico—political causes are, to a great extent, responsible for today's problematic health situation. A brief retrospect would reveal that the Turks made "invaluable" contributions to medicine, before and after the establishment of the Ottoman Qapire. Such persons as Rhazes (Ebubekir Razl, 850-923 A.D.), Avicenna (Ibni Sina, 960-1037 A.D.), and Ebu Reyhan (972—1028) had international reputations. Social assistance, hygiene, medical treat­ ment aid research, preventive medicine also date back for many centur­ ies and had great importance attached to then until the decline of the

73js. Bisbee, op. cit., p. 12iu 83 Ottoman Binp±re.7U With the beginning of the decline (17th Cent.)^ various economic, social, and political factors exerted a negative aid retarding effect in the field of health. Hospitals and other health institutions began to be neglected. Health, once a popular concern had become a minor problem. So much so that during the later years of the Ottomans, the health affairs of the whole Empire were entrusted to an Insignificant General Directorship of Health attached to the Ministry of the In­ terior. The most aggravating factor was the successive wars, especially World War I and the war of Independence (1919-1922) which caused in­ vasion, destruction, migration, and upset the stability of the popu­ lation. The health conditions of the people and the country inherited by the Republican regime were, to put it mildly, badly in need of re­ habilitation. And means far this rehabilitation were far from being sufficient and adequate. The Republic, appreciative of this grave health situation, de­ clared it to be the function and one of the attributes of the State to assure medical and social aid to the people. This function has been based on the fb 11 owing policy * To preserve and improve the health of the nation, to de­ crease the mortality rate, to increase population, to fight against the destruction of the contagious diseases and epidemics, and thus to insure the growth and develop­ ment of the individual members of the nation as sturdy, industrious, and health of bodies.75

^Health and Social Welfare in Turkey, op. cit., pp. 22-21*. ^ E . Z* Karal, op. cit., pp. 166-167* 81* (b) Physico-Economic Causes*

Poor physical aad mental health may also be correlated with poor physical environment and facilities and with economic factors* In the case of Turkey, among the contributing physical causes of health problems ares 1) "grossly inadequate" public sanitation, Inadequate methods of sewage and refuse disposal, food and water supply protection, poor housing and poor diet;

2 ) the lack of transportation and cannmnication and the resultant isolation of especially rural areas and population; 3) the lack of elementary health and medical services and medical personnel, especially nurses, and health officials* These poor environmental physical conditions are lergely attribu­ table to economic factors* As already pointed out, despite its poten­ tialities, Turkey still is a poor country* This could be illustrated by the distribution, of national Income per capitax

Qross National Output and Income per C a p i t a ? ^ (In 'berms of 1938 prices) Output Income per capita Year (millions of T.L.) Index Amount (T.L.) Index

1938 8,037,1 100.00 387 100.00 191*8 9,206,6 111**50 396 102.30 19U9 8,1*86,3 105.60 353 91.20 1950 9,835,5 122.1*0 1*02 103.90 1951 11,083,2 137*90 1*1*7 115.50 1952 12,1*36,6* 151*. 7 0 1*70 121.1*0 *In terms of current prices According to latest releases, the national income an an overall per

^Economic Development in Turkey, Turkish Information Office, p. 5* 85 capita basis has shown the following increase: From 136 in 1938 to lUO in 1950, to 152 in 1951, and to 170 in 1952 (all figures based an 19U8 values) • 77

While a steady rise may b e noticed in the per capita income and in the living standard of the people, this rise is still far from off­ set ing the present problematic health conditions. This economic situation prevents further allotments in the government expenditures to health and welfare activities. The appropriations for health for the fiscal year of 1953-5U stood only at U.l per cent of the general expenditures, which is not enough to carry out a broad program of health improvement. (C) Socio—Psychologic al Causes. Soclo-psychologlcal causes are perhaps the most difficult aspect of present health problems with which to deal. As stated earlier, the physical conditions for the improvement of health may be provided within economic limits. Hospitals might be built, doctors, nurses might be trained. But unless the psychological ground is prepared, the physical measures may suffer frustrations. Therefore, socio— psychological factors should be taken into account in designing a strategy to combat health problems. It has already been stated that individuals1 attitudes toward health range from a most primitive Middle Age concept of physical well-being to a most sophisticated and scientifically oriented one. The former concept generally considers the ravages of disease as

77nwws From Turkey. Turkish Information Office, V. 6, (March 12, 1953), p T “J, 06 visitation of God angered by the sins of the people* This attitude

is closely related to religious teachings* The people who are influ­ enced by such a concept need to learn of the germ theory and undesirap- ble environmental conditions as the causal factors of m health (both physical and mental)* Fortunately, however, the common people*s superstition do not hamper modern medical methods as much in Turkey as in same other countries* The main frustration canes from the fatalistic acceptance of disease; "Allah has given the illness, ** it is the will of God* Therefore, it is God, not man, who must decide its outccme* So, why not keep the patient comfortable in every way possible to await his fate?78 The worst of all obstacles to hygiene might be found in certain ingrained customs which facilitate direct contagion from sick persons and daily contamination of food, thus aggravating the situation* This is made possible, because the relatives aid friends do not avoid the patient, lest they may offend him or her* Underlying all these causes is certainly ignorance* It Is an ig— naraice of disease symptoms and of how contagions occur* While the insistence of the government on lessens in hygiene through every possi­ ble channel cannot be denied, the high rate of Illiteracy stands In the way as the most serious obstacle In dealing with health problems* (According to the 19U5 statistics, of the total male population above 7 years of age only 39*50 per cent were literate; for the female

?8E* Bisbee, ogc^olt•, p* 122* 87 population above 7 years of age, this percentage was lh*60.>79 In passing, one point should be mentioned to the credit of the religious attitude which is a great health asset. It is the concept of "cleanliness” in Islam* The majority of the people being Muslim, they abide by the ritual cleaning of » n exposed parts of the body- five times a day before praying by using, as a rule, running water* And where water has been abundant, the Turks have attained the "acme Oa of personal cleanliness*” Nevertheless, in view of the many dangers of diseases, this ritual cleansing of body loses its significance so long as the cleansing of clothing is ignored. C * Remedial Proposals aid Their Communicative Bearings* The international reports given on Turkey are united in praising the "impressive achievements" in the field of health for the past 30 years* They especially emphasize the expansion of hospital facili­ ties, the increase in the number of physicians and nurses, and "vigor­ ous attacks" on tuberculosis, malaria, trachoma, and other diseases* But, they are also united on the insufficiency of health and medical services for the needs of Turkey* There is a g eneral agreement on the following recommendations and suggestions made in order to increase the health and productive effi­ ciency of the Turkish people * (1) In more general terms, the widespread need for primary medical and health assistance is recognized and the improvanent in

79l. V* Thomas, op* cit.* p. 155*

80e * Bisbee, op* cit*, p. 12h* 88 the poor conditions of environmental sanitation and the lonr

standards of h y g i e n e (that are largely responsible for the prevalence of mazy diseases) is suggested* (2) In mare specific terms, the program reccmmends the develop­ ment of an integrated long term public health plan based on a system of regional hospitals and subsidiary network of health centers to serve the surrounding territory* The principal purpose of these hed. th centers is suggested to be disease prevention and health education in the broadest sense* (3) In view of the existing shortage of trained medical personnel, it is recommended that highest priority be given to the training of technical staff* In order of inmediacy, these are: (a) the training of nurses; (b) the expansion and improvement of the schools for mid- wives; (c) a training course for x-ray and laboratory technicians, with special attention to training in the diagnosis of tuberculosis j (d) the training of two separate types of health officers, 1* e., medical aides and sanitary inspectors; and the establishment of an effective sanitary inspection ser­

vice charged with such functions as the abatement of nuisances, public education on the value of clean sur­ roundings, better methods of sewage and refuse disposal, 89 protection of water supplies, and inspection of food and housing;

(h) The most repeated diagnosis of the general need is preventive hygiene , It is suggested that greater emphasis be put on public health and the principles of disease prevention, both in the medical schools and in state health programs. Inter­ national reports disclose the failure on the part of the medical personnel to appreciate the value of preventive medi­ cine as reflected in the emphasis on cure rather than preven­ tion in existing health and medical programs*

(5) With regard to specific services, the following recommenda­ tions are made: (a) the reorganization of the tuberculosis service: (b) the establishnent of a central laboratory far diagnosis of TB for the whole country and to serve as a training center; (c) increase govemnent responsibility for all TB hospitals and dispensary services; (d) the wider use of mobile epidemic units. As the reader may have already noticed, the dominating features of these recommendations are education and training, both professional and public. At the professional level, this education may be carried out an a formal basis in the universities, medical schools far special

^^The remedial proposals are based on the recoomendations made in The Economy of Turkey, I, B, R, D,, op, cit., pp. 51-57 and supported by E, bisbee, op, ciVl, pp. 120-130, 9 0 purposes, laboratories, etc* But at the public level this training and education is expected to be rather of an informal nature* The education of the public regarding health problems, the improvement of sanitary conditions, disease prevention, proper diet, and the control of specific popular diseases (TB, malaria, trachoma), etc*, may be re­ solved into a single problem of communication* If the people were literate enough to read and follow instruc­ tions on medicine containers and in health pamphlets in the absence of a doctor or medical personnel, and if there were enough local leaders competent to carry out hygienic and preventive measures, the problem and process of communication would greatly be facilitated* Yet, in view of the high rate of Illiteracy and the lack of medical technical staff and workers, and because of the importance of time factor, the cnaminl cative process ought necessarily to be carried out on a mass coumunlcation basis and through the use of audio-visual media, especially visual* In this respect, film, radio, and televi­ sion, considering their dramatic and demonstrative potentialities, might render very effective service* The following anecdote may very well illustrate the p o i n t First Film Thrills Turkish Villagers Yenice: A new kind of world premiere was held in this small village of Central Anatolia* It was the first motion picture the 160 villagers of Yenice had ever seen* They liked it very much*

®^Robert T* Hartman, "First Film Thrills Turkish Villagers*n Uncle Sam in Turkey, Turkish Information Office, reprinted from a series of articles an Turkey by the same writer that appeared in various Issues of the Los Angeles Times during September 1951# PP* 21-22. 91 The first film was an arty thing about New Mexico Indiana, . . The second film was a colored Walt Disney cartoon on rudimen­ tary sanitation, with Turkish ccxmentary. It amusingly por­ trayed how flies, mosquitoes and fleas carried sickness from one person to another, and how to keep down insectsIn rural communities* As the main feature the audience was shown a documentary on the United Nations' first year In Korea* Afterward, men frcm the audience were Invited to speak through microphone in a sort of Impromptu quiz* There were several volunteers* Asked which film they liked best, all replied in favor of Disney* "Why?" one young farmer was asked. "Well, I never knew before there was any connection between flies and feeling sick," he declared* "From now on, whenever I see a fly I shall kill him." D. Present Situation* Although the responsible agency (The Ministry of Health and Social Assistance) to plan and carry out health programs is criticized far being complex and over-centralized, it is admitted that Turkey has a good program of health and welfare* The Ministry of Health and Social Assistance works in close co­ operation with provincial, municipal, charitable and private institu­ tions* The whole organization spreads over the country as followst In the provinces we find health advisers, health directors, health officers, health centers, municipal physicians, ambulating physicians, municipal obstetricians aud midwives, municipal hospitals and dispen­ saries, hone for the aged and infirm, etc* In villages there are village doctors, village midwives and village health officers* Social assistance and preventive medicine are two major tasks of the ministry* (a) Hospitals and other health Institutions play an important role in social assistance* These institutions nustoer 19U with a total 92 of 17, IhS bods, where the poor are treated free of charge. In- and out-patients are being treated in increasing mnbers by- these insti­ tutions: Tear

191*0 1*2,185 1*09,891* 1950 108,095 6 5 l , 5 H Special attention is given to keeping down the rate of infant mortali­ ty. Because of this attention the infant mortality rate, which stood at 170 per thousand in 1933, dropped to 78.1* per thousand in 1950. The establishment and operation of the medical and allied voca­ tional schools also cane under the heading of social assistance* These institutions are the source of doctors, dentists, pharmacists, registered nurses, etc. Another source far health personnel are the graduates from the health and hygiene departments of the Village Institutes. (b) Cki the theory that prevention is much better than cure, the Ministry of Health emphasizes preventive medicine* Several mass media (radio, press, and movies) are used to inform and educate the general public with regard to preventive measures against diseases. The major diseases against which the ministry conducts wide­ spread campaigns are as follows: (1) typhus, (2) typhoid, (3) pox, (U) diphtheria, (5) plague, (6) summer diarrhea, (7) necotoriae- is, (8) venereal disease, (9) malaria, (10) tuberculosis, (11) rabies, (12) trachoma, (13) leprosy. Among these, malaria, tuberculosis, and trachoma, as open threats to -the population, are being given special attention* Malaria has 93 been Turkey's "traditional scourge" and Is endemic In several areas* The division of the country into malaria control areas and an intensi­ fied systematic fight by drainage and mosquito prevention, cut down the malaria death rate from 93»6 to 12,6 per 100,000 in five years (19U3-U7) • Recently, the BCA assistance stepped up the antimalaria program. The increase in malaria control areas and organisation between 19U14-19U9 is indicated below* U, D.'s Malaria Con- Major Inde— Second- Population Tear Buployed trol Workers pendent Areas ary Areas of Areas rm "isr---- 553— — 15--- "n:— 19li9 293 1177 27 Hi 9,616,676 The fact that there has been an increase in the tuberculosis rate in Turkey during the past ten years (due largely to the unfavora­ ble economic and social conditions created by the Second World War) made TB a major health problem* (See page 81) The fight against TB in Turkey is waged Jointly by the Health Ministry and the Societies for the Control of IB* The B* C* G* pre­ ventive inoculations are now being given all over the country* The number of TB dispensaries increased to 39 in 1953 as against in

1950* TB hospitals are also being constructed rapidly. For instmxce, the number of such hospitals was only in 19U9 with no mare than

1,097 beds* The figure has now reached (1953) 6,357 beds in 63 hos­ pitals* In addition to the provisions of the 10-year national health program, a bill was passedin 191*8 providing over 1,063,000 per year to be apent for anti-TB activities for the next 1£ years. Trachoma is end male in the Southeastern provinces. Acting on 9k recommendations adopted at the second Turkish Medical Congress (1927), the campaign against trachcma was taken up vigorously to localize the disease* This campaign included free treatment and medical supplies, and educational activities* The result in the typical cities is as follows:

Persons No* Blinded Rate per City Tear Population Examined by Trachoma 10.000 Diyarbakir 1927 — --- ■■ - Jo 19li9 Ul,000 3U,U96 81 23.£ Siirt 1927 ------U5 19k9 16,230 9,698 1k lii.li The increase in the expenditures for public health and increase in health services, are also Indications of the importance given to health and welfare in Turkey* Government appropriation for health and welfare rose from 522,700tLin 1920 to 31,768,852Ljn 1953* (See the figure V a and b*) Furthermore, a nation-wide Health and Accident Insurance Flan has been introduced whLch includes all workers In establishments employing five or more. The Flan provides adequate treatment and financial sup­ port in case of occupational accidents or diseases. Women workers re­ ceive free pre-natal examinations, help and care during child birth and are entitled to 75 per cent of their salary during absence because of child birth* Widows of workers who lose their lives as a result of occupational accidents or disease receive 30 per cent of his wages and an additional 15 per cent for each child. Workers totally disabled on the job receive 60 per cent of their former salary* Despite the impressive progress made in the field of health dur­ ing the past three decades of the Republic, tbs government realises ?0 ~

GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS FOR HEALTH AND WELFARE

$3 1,7 6 8 ,8 5 2

a'” * 7 & ■

.’Y'an racis on Turkey^ Turkish Information Office 1 |11 EjT 52nd Si• t N»T• 96 the insufficiency of the existing health facilities. The necessity to increase the m u ber of hospitals, beds, doctors, registered nurses, and other auxiliary health personnel is self-evident throughout the country* With this in mind, Turkey1 s major requirements were drawn up in November 191*6 by the Health Ministry1 s Higher Health Council in what is popularly known the Ten-Year Health Han, stannary of which is given below: (A) To attach even greater importance to preventive medicine, with special emphasis on child welfare and the lowering of the infant mortality rate, and intensified work against communicable and contagious diseases, especially against malaria and tuberculosis* Health education and the propagation of useful knowledge in this field will be increased* (B) To provide adequate medical facilities for villages and villagers. The village populations of Turkey, who make up almost 30 per cent of the total population, are the main source of the country1 a strength and future growth* At the present time, it is planned to provide one rural health officer and one rural midwife for each group of ten villages; and one health center with ten beds far every group of forty villages* In attendance at these health centers will be two physicians, one midwife, one health officer, and one visiting nurse* (C) To train both existing mod new personnel in conformity with advanced modern techniques; and to increase their number in each category, so as to provide at least one physician for every 2,000 of the population, instead of one for every 3,000 as at present* (D) To establish and operate in each of the seven sooes Into which Turkey has been divided for this purpose, new health Institutions (complete in every respect as to personnel and organisation) which will form the nucleus of future medical schools, while at the same time serving to meet all medical and social n e e d s *^3

®^Data on "Present Situation11 are based on, and taken frost Health and Social Welfare in Turkey, op* d t *t 1953 Progress Report irtm TurSy, op* d t .; and Facta on Turkey, op, cit. INCREASE IN HEALTH SERVICE

PHYSICIANS

1938

1942

1946 Each symbol — 100 physicians in public health services W 5 0 ^ 0 2 0

HOSPITAL BEDS

1938

1942

1946 Each symbol 1000 Beds 1 9 6 0 - 1 8 8 6 7

• Lt*are V .

Orcin racts on Turkey^ Turkish Information Office hhh ■ . <2nd~t.j IT.V'. 9 8 In addition to this plan, internatianal co-operation Tor improv­ ing Turkish medical facilities has received a new impetus* W. H* 0. set up a training center in Istanbul, far the personnel of IB combat units* Co-operation with Unicef for helping expectant mothers and far combating infant mortality has been widened. Also Marshall Aid Funds have been allocated to medical equipment and to the development of medical facilities. Because of the scientifically designed and systematically con­ ducted health activities, recently boosted by international co-opera­ tion, Turkey Is looking forward to a healthier future. U* Politics and Democratization. A. Definition and De script ion of the Problem. Despite its very ticklish nature, the discussion of politics in Turkey has been included in this study far three reasons: First, the political structure of a country reflects its philo­ sophy of life and way of living. Second, approaches to the solution of the national problems are generally determined by the politico-economic philosophy of a country. Third, political life and structure rely, especially in democra­ cies, heavily upon public opinion; and the formation of public opinion may, in its entirety, be boiled down to a problem of communication. In d**Hwgr with the issue of politics, one may tend to establish an academic ground far his arguments and point of views. This academic discussion will be undertaken here in so far as it may have bearings far Turkish politics and in so far as it is related to the central theme of this study, i. e., comrnnlcation. 99 To the writer, the whole problem of politics may be regarded as a problem of social control* Although It Is difficult to define the meaning and the scope of this concept, In broad terms, It implies an exertion of Influence by the public on human beings In order to main­ tain the existence and ardor of a social group* Social control may manifest itself In dealing with such major categories of social prob­ lems as (a) administration, (b) policy and polity, (c) social farces and human nature. The mechanisms of this control are created in action. This action is generally a manifestation of "collective be­ havior, " and may be Illustrated by social unrest, mass movements, and institutions In which society Is farmed and reformed.®^ The d cm in ant pattern of this control may be laissez-faire, authoritarian, or demo­ cratic, and the direction It takes may be conducive either to social stagnation or to social progress* In Turkey the nature of social control and the direction it should take have been defined and determined by the Kemalist Revolution* A retrospect of thirty years of the Republic reveals that the Turkish concept of social control is that of "social engineering," implying an active intelligent guidance of social processes and introduction of purposive activity on the part of society* (See 9) Its dominant pattern and direction is democratic* Therefore, the problem of poli­ tics in Turkey Is the one created by the functioning of this democratic pattern* This pattern in Itself does not necessarily signify an effectively

^Robert e . Parkj Braest W* Burgess, Introduction to the Science of Sociology* pp. 785-786. 100 functioning social control* We have ample evidence in history that a democracy may be a "sham democracy which favors only restriction and extremes of poverty and plutocratic wealth, or a sham planned society in which all human freedom vanishes forever*The big question is — not only far Turkey but for the whole democracies — how to pre­ vent deterioration of the system and how to make it creative* It is

politics that will eventually decide the courset deterioration, status quo, or progress* If politics tend to be creative in the same sense as creative science, which begins where the mind moves away from established patters, then the course is that of progress and is safe* (1) So far as Turkey is concerned, one aspect of the problem may be defined as that of implanting genuine democracy* The writer feels that such a distinction is necessary, because many a people tend to be satisfied rather naively with the kind of democracy where the peo­ ple go out and vote, thus seemingly discharging their citizenship responsibility* Democracy involves more than that* Its success and survival de­ pends not only on casting votes but rather on the vigilance and dis­ crimination of the voter as to what issue is genuine and what is manipulated* M o d e m democratic society relies heavily upon collective responsibility, upon the votes of the masses whose mind is prone to slogans m d satisfied with oversimplified formulae* Therefore, there is always the possibility that the resultant majority rule and the

^Karl Mannheim, op* cit*, p* 30* 101 platform on which this rule is established may not necessarily prove salutary. To minimize this possibility, the establishment of genuine democracy is imperative. This implies a kind of democracy which is: ... allied to rational science and the diffusion of know­ ledge which is greatly facilitated by excellent means of _ mass communication and highly developed educational skills. (2) This brings us to another aspect of the problem, i.e., poli­ tical education of the public. Such an education aims at the enlight­ enment of the public mind with regard to vital issues and training of thought as a fact-finding instrument. This is necessary to free con­ cepts from emotional undertones and statements of facts from evalua­ tions — or, simply stated, to remove ambiguity.® ? This is especially true for Turkey where every aspect of life is either being recreated or reconstructed. As is well observed by New­ man, too many British and Americans seem to think that once a man has a free vote, everything is fine. He is also right in stating that the Turks cannot afford to make that mistake. fifl In Turkey the institu­ tions of freedom and democracy are only thirty years old. And the revolution that introduced democracy is just beginning to gain momen­ tum. If we make the mistake of interpreting democracy simply in terms of "free votes" we may run the risk of losing it. B. Causative-Diagnostic Analysis of the Problem. (a) Historico-polltical causes.

86Ibld., p. 73. 8?Ibid.. p. 290. ®®Bernard Newaan, op. clt., p. 150. 102 It should be remembered that Turkish democracy is the result of

the Turkish transformation from a supranational empire to a national­

istic republic* Therefore, in the explanation of the problem, his­

torical-political causes should be taken into consideration, How

this transformation occurred has already been described. (See the

chapters 1 and II) The question here is how this transformation con­

tributed to the present problematic political situation*

We know from history that attempts prior to the Republic to establish popular constitutional government had failed (1876 and 1908).

When the Kemalist Revolution took over the country, it had to build a bridge of constitutional law and democratic order across the five centuries that represented the historic gap between the end of Near Eastern Christendom in the f crm of the Byzantine Jfrnpire and the be­ ginning of the modem secular Turkish Republic*^ This had to be accomplished with a nation that had almost no experience with the con­ cept and practices of mo d e m democratic state* The motto of the Revo­ lution, i.e., the "uncanditional sovereignty of the nation," had to be realized with a people almost 90 per cent illiterate and afflicted with a concept of "unmet—i Muhammad" (the whole Moslem Community) which made them perceive themselves as a religious entity rather than a modern compact nation*

Therefore, the major task of the Revolutionary party seemed to be the education and training of the people in how to develop a government of, far, and by, the people* In fact, the one-party rule

S^Emest Xackh, op* cit., p* 159. 1 0 3 of the People's Republican Party between 1923-1950 may well be con­

sidered a period of training in democracy. During this time there were two attempts to establish opposition. But both parties (Pro­ gressive and the Liberal Party of the Republic, 1925 and 1930) failed because of the reactionary elements in them who Jeopardized the very existence of the Republic

Nevertheless, the door was left half-open to opposition. This was evident in the fact that an Independent Group was farmed within the framework of thB People's Party* Members who registered as In­ dependents held their own caucuses and nominated their own candidates for elections, subject however to party approval. The practice of this kind of opposition gave a nominal freedom between 1939 and 19U5*

In June 19U6, the amendment to the Law of Associations legalized the e stablishnent of new parties* These parties could represent vari­ ous groups of the people, workers, peasants, socialists, but not re­ ligious, secret, separatist, or subversive groups. This event marked the opening of a new era, the era of multi-party politics. Of the mare than a dozen parties that took immediate advantage of this amendment only the Democratic Party showed significant gains in the

?°E. 2. Karal, op. cit., pp. 116, 118. lOli

19U6 elections*'”91 After this initial victory, the Democrats continued

to gather strength and w o n a "land-slide" victory in 19^0. This is

the party in power at the present time whose term of office will expire

i n LI ay 195U.

While this historical development proved the success of the 27- year-old democratic training in popular government, it has also pro­ vided for the present checker-board like political face of the country which seems to be inevitable for a democracy*

(b) Within this historical development of politics there also lie the psychological causes of the situation* The transition from one- party system to multi-party politics brought the people face to face with the acute dilemma of fact-finding, evaluating, and making deci­ sions about party platforms, Issues, and political candidates*

With all the media of mass communication and means of propaganda directed to the voter to appeal far his vote, he is likely to be con­ fused and bewildered* For, as a fact-finder, he is to come upon

^ In Turkey (as of 1?U8) there are 13 officially registered political parties* They are: The Republican People's Party Established* 9.8. 1923 The National Recovery Party * * . • 18.7. 19hS The Social Justice P a r t y ...... 13.9. 19k5 The Denocratic Party ...... 7.1. 19U6 The Liberal Democratic Party * * • 11.3. 19U6 The Turkish Social Democratic Party 26.U. 19U6 The Turkish Socialist Labor Party • 2U.5 19U6 The Labor and Agrarian Party of Turkey 17.6.19li6 The Fatherland P a r t y ...... 21.6 .19U6 The Turkish Conservative Party * . 8.7. 19U7 The Free Democratic Democratic Party 9.3.191*7 The Progressive Party of Turkey • • 3.7. 191*8 The Nation's Party .*•..*.. 20.7. 19U8 (Now replaced by the Nation's Republican P. Feb, 195U) 105 ambiguous presentation or policies or facts, or unpleasant data which

may correspond neither with his personal desires nor with ideas he

shares with a party. He may also have to face the sugar-coated dis­

honesty of the demagogue. All of these are possible and probable in

a democracy. The perplexing nature of the political scene may result

in the withdrawal, indifference, emotional unrest, or aggression of

the voter, unless he is well enlightened and his d is criminatory

abilities so trained as to enable him to cast his vote Judicially

with the least possible emotional bias. This can only be made possi­

ble by a sound political education and by diffusion of knowledge con­

ducive to making rational Judgments.

C • Remedial Proposals and Their Communicative Bearings.

The remedial proposals to be considered here have no relation

to the international surveys or reports to which the writer referred

frequently in the previous chapters. Politics being an internal affair

of individual nations, such international reports refrain from passing political Judgments. Therefore, all the considerations and proposals here are organized by the writer himself as based on data having direct

or indirect bearings on Turkish politics.

The point was made that the introduction of multi—party politics in Turkey brought the voter face to face with the acute dilemma of fact-finding, evaluating, and deciding with respect to parties, party platforms, and national and international issues. During the one- party period, he still had to face the same dilemma, but then there were not many sides to issues. Then he was confronted with the prob­ lem of one party, now he has to deal with the problems of many parties. 106

Nevertheless if democracy is to survive, the voter should genuinely concern himself with the diversity of democratic political life* For it is in this diversity that he will find the expression of his inter­ ests and ideology and the dynamic progress of his country* Therefore:

I* The voter should be aware that in a political system where the people help determine policies far the conduct of government, political parties serve useful purposes:

(1) They formulate issues and present them to the voter*

(2) Under the Turkish system (as well as American), political

parties are means of unifying the legislative, executive and

judicial departments, thus making possible the realisation

of a given policy*

(3) They act as agents of interest groups and furnish candidates

who will further their issues*

(U) They serve as educators of the voters on public issues in

order that they may develop a judicial attitude*

(5) They organize and express public opinion and public wiU.^2

II. The voter should be aware that parties may also fail to serve the public and seek to defeat the public will by:

(1) gradual ly becoming traditional and making the voter party

blind rather than service conscious; (2) encouraging the unscrupulous office—seeking politicians who

may be able to attract voters to their detriment;

(3) fostering control of parties by "big interests” which, by

^^Qiilette and Reinhardt, op* cit,, pp* 783-78U* 1 0 7

large contributions to party f u n d s , may obligate party managers to block regulatory legislations; (U) promoting multiplex and cumbersome platforms, sometimes designedly; (5) decoying voters by raising false issues in order to draw public attention away from the real situation.93 III. The voter should understand and realize that democracy does not of itself create progress. It only gives the opportunity far progress. Representative government, the tinder lying characteristic of democracy, is not the final answer. It also has its disadvantages. Far instance, it may be irresponsive to the needs of society, it may include too many checking devices, it may offer opportunities for the operation of hidden forces in determining legislation, administration, etc. Nevertheless, scientific advances of our time (psychological as well as technological) enable us to understand the causes of malad­ justments and the sources and forms of the abuses of power. The ques­ tion is whether the voter has enough insight and wisdom to seise upon facts and to base his opinion on these facts; whether he is willing to share responsibility in the solution of the problems of democracy, in the deliberate pT »t ng of opportunities for social, national, and in­ ternational integrity and welfare. IV. A full and Intelligent democratic participation should depend upon "public opinion." Though the tens is controversial, public

93aid., pp. 78U-785. 1 0 6 opinion, particularly in democracies, affects individual human action

and the conduct of institutions•

Despite the common impression, however, public opinion does not

necessarily depend upon, and is not measured by, the mere number of

persons to be found on each side of a question. In order that public

op ini cm may be the "proper motive force" in democracy, it must be such

that:

(a) "while the minority may not share it, they feel bound, by conviction not by fear, to accept it";9U (b) "it should be the outcome of rational decision after free participation. "95

Although democracy functions on the basis of public opinion, the voter should be aware that public opinion has its limits:

(a) It cannot decide technical and expert matters*

(b) It cannot carry out executive affairs*

(c) It cannot anticipate coming events and try to shape

public affairs.^

V* The voter should also be conscious of organized public persua­

sion or of propaganda designed to influence and control his mind*

Such an attempt is common in all societies and is more complex in

democracies:

(1) It (propaganda) is usually based on careful selection of

ideas aid facts* (2) It may bring confusion.

^A.Lawrence Lowell, "The Nature of Public Opinion," Reader in Rib lie Opinion and Corapqnic ation, p. 17*

^Gillette and Reinhardt, op. cit*, p* 635* 96Ibid.. p. 639. 109

(3) It may promote crowd-^nindedness.

(U) It may breed suspicion and Indifference

(5) It may use modem means of mass communication and repro­

duction, press, radio, film, television, mimeograph,

phonographs, photographs, and the like, to Implement the

intended purposes.

All these aspects of democratic politics (parties, public opinion, and propaganda) demand, to function effectively, the education of voters or voters—to-be about the issues and governmental problems.

The objectives of this education are expected to be:

1) The training of the critical and discriminatory abilities

of mind, of a critical intelligence to render the mind capable of evaluating the matters presented to it.

2) The cultivation of a healthy skepticism which rejects a hy­

pothesis because it is not yet full^ tested.

This sort of training is especially important in Turkey where the rate of literacy is not very high, where the population is divided into too many email communities called villages (many are isolated), and where the institutions and practices of modern democracy are fair­ ly new. As stated earlier, the main political problem in Turkey is to implant genuine democracy —— a democracy allied to rational science and the diffusion of knowledge and information. In our time, swift dissemination of knowledge can be greatly facilitated by excellent means of mass communication and highly developed educational skills,

^ I b i d ., pp. 6U0-6UU. 110 and is necessary for the control of power.

D. Present Situation*

The introduction of multi-party politics in Turkey in 19U6 and the

orderly transfer of government from the People*s Party to the leaders

of the Democratic Party in 1950, Trill go down in history as the evi­ dence of Turkish democratic political maturity, and as among few signi­ ficant events of the century. In fact, this event has already been described by Toynbee as "a landmark which may perhaps even signify a turn of the political tide in the world as a whole.** (See the page 8)

Today, Turkey enjoys, as one of the ranking democratic countries, a government of, for, and by the people. The credit for this result goes to the People*s and Democratic parties, the press, and the

Turkish people, which behaved with a deep sense of history and con­ ducted a dignified campaign and election. On the occasion of the May

1950 elections, Mr. Webb, the acting Secretary of State, U. S., said:

... the elections of May 1U, the first in which fully organ­ ized parties participated, were carried out in a manner that would do credit to any of the Western democracies whose democratic traditions and institutions have been developing over a longer period of time.9®

As an example of the reaction of the U. S. Congress, the follow­ ing excerpt from Senator Mundt * s statement could be givens

... in our era of history, when the areas of freedom are so rapidly diminishing all orer the world, I think it can be demonstrated that Turkey probably more than any other area of the world freedom is forging ahead faster and expanding its avenues of opportunity mare generally than any other country. I think it is tremendously important to emphasize

^ Turkish Elections of 1950 and United States Reaction, Turkish Information Office, p. 11* m that fact.99

In 19U6, the limited cohesion of the Dmnocratic Party seemed to

have rested In negative critician of, and resentment toward the men­

tality of the men who had been in power so long. There were, and

are, Individuals who embraced the Democratic cause far basically per­

sonal reasons. Those who stayed in the People »s Party tried to in- i nn fluence its development in a liberal direction*

By 1950, however, issues were well defined. The Democrats de­

clared that “democracy is the principle most consistent with national

interest and human dignity." They called for decentralization of

government by granting more authority and initiative to provincial

officials. They also advocated non-political planning boards. The ✓ major emphasis seemed to be on the issue of Btatism. The Democrats

advocated the restriction of State—operated enterprises aid drew very

specific lines on the proper bounds between State aid private enter­ prise.**'0^ This implied an "infusion of capitalism" into the Turkish

economy.

In showing the intentions of the founding People's Party, the

following quotation from former president inorni' 5 address to his party is very significant*

The Republican People's Party's..• aim is to ensure free and fair elections. If we win, we shall continue to carry out our duties, if we lose, we shall constitute the

99lbid., p. 17.

IOOl . v. Thomas, and R. N. Frye, op. cit., 103.

Bisbee, op. cit., p. 222. ns>

opposition, at the same time remaining on friendly terms with the party in power.

Results of the national elections on May Hi, 1950, were as follows*103

Elections of 1950

Voters registered Ballots cast Democratic Republican 8,905,576 7,916,091 U,2h2,831 3,165,096

The percentage of registered electorate who voted was 88.68.

Composition of the Grand National Assembly by Parties ■Prlor Klection After 1950 fclection Democrat . . . “• « •" . 5L • • • • • ^ T " . . TJI50" People's Republican . 1*03...... 69 Nation ...... 1 Independent6.*...... 9 The Constitution Highlights

The Turkish concept of democracy, inspired by the ideals and in— stitutions of Western democracy, is embodied in the Constitution*

Here are seme highlights:

• Sovereignty belongs unconditionally to the nation*

• Every citizen is born free and free he lives.

• Liberty consists in the right to live and enjoy life without

offense or injury to others.

• All citizens are equal before law and are obliged to respect

the law. Special privilege is abolished*

• Inviolability of person and freedom of conscience, thought,

speech, press, assembly, association, travel, labor, private

102Ibid., p. 231. Turkish Elections of 1950, op. cit., pp* 3-U, and L. V. Thomas and R. N. Frye, op* cit., pp7l53-51u 1 1 3 property, contract, and incorporation are among the natural

rights of citizens.

• The life, property, honor, and heme of each and a n are in­ violable.

• No one may be molested on account of his religion, sect,

ritual or philosophy.

. Primary education is obligatory for all citizens and is

gratutious in the government schools.

Government

. All men and women over 22 years of age have the right to vote.

. The Grand National Assembly is chosen every four years at a

general election. • The legislative function and executive power belong to the

Assembly. The Assembly exercises its legislative function

directly, and its executive power through the intermediary of

the President of the Republic, whom it elects.

• The judicial power is exercised in the name of the Assembly by

independent tribunals constituted in accordance with the law.

• The President chooses the FTemier, who must be a member of the

Assembly. The Premier Is entrusted with the task of forming a

Cabinet, members of which must also be members of the Assembly.

The Premier goes before the Assembly with an address in which

he outlines the policy of his government. His government

stands or falls depending upon whether or not the Assembly BY THE PEOPLE FOR THE PEOPLE THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT

PRESIDENT APPOINTS PREMIER WHO HOOSES HE CABINET

Minister of STgto Minister ond Vico Promioi of Slot#

Ju&lie Lobar

Finance In d u s tr ia l D e fe n se Public e v e lo p m e n l C ustom s W o rk s

Economy Education and Commerce S p Healthh© A& ^ Social n r l n l # A gr iculture °V < ;,C Welfare Foreign Communication* ® I f y Affair* ~»1 A v D °7'HfGRAND^A‘T

DEMOCRATIC PARTY

REPUBLICAN PEOPLE S PARTY

INDEPENDENTS AND OTHERS

GRAND NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

EVERY CITIZEN OVER 22 YEARS VOTES TO ELECT THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

Figure VI

Fran Facts on Turkey Turkish Information Office Uuli E. 5>2nd 3t*3 N.Y. H 5

approves his p r o g r a m .

While these lines were being written, a new election was dawning

upon Turkey (May 2, 195b). Whatever the results of this election may

be,10^ the writer feels confident that the progress of thirty years will not be endangered. This confidence is based on three facts:

(1) There is enough difference between the major parties to

provide an "antidote" to revolutionary excess.

(2) The People's new sense of their power provides a healthy

break to an overweening ambition.

(3) The high calibre of the electorate and the leaders of Turkey

is tested and well p r o v e d . 7

lOUpacts on Turkey, op. cit., p. 6.

105The results of the general elections of Hay 2, 195U, are as follows: May 2, 195b Eligible voters registered 10,259,U52 Number of votes cast .•••...••••. 9,035,617 Overall ratio of participation ...... 88.65^ Number of seats contested ...... 5bl Seats won by the Democratic Party ..... 501* Seats won by the Rep. People's Party • • • • 31 Seats won by Rep. National P a r t y ...... 5 Seats won by Independent Candidates .... 1 The popular ballot gave U.U6 million votes to the Democrats as against 3.2 million to the Republicans. The Republican Nationals re­ ceived 600,000, and UO,000 were shared by other candidates. Other political organisations which put up candidates that failed to get elected included the Peasant Party and the Democratic Labor Party. Sixty of Turkey's 6b provinces were carried by Dmaocratic Party candidates. The Republicans won in 3 provinces. News From Turkey, Turkish Information Office, V. 7, No. 16 (June 2U, T 9TOTT- 3: -----

^^Bogdan Radista, op. cit., p. 23.

107b . Bisbee, PP* 237, 256. 116 "It is certain that, should a nation happen to reach rapid­ ly a high level of education, in the struggle for life, all of its moral and material powers will increase.”108 Ataturk U. Education*

A. Definition and Description of the Problem*

In modern society education emerges as one of the most, if not the most, powerful social techniques designed far fashioning men's minds*

By social technique it is meant "all methods of influencing human be­

havior" so that it fits into the prevailing patterns of social life *

The dominant pattern may be democratic or authoritarian* Education

serves both systems*

It has now become a truian that effective functioning of human

activities depends heavily upon education, designed on the basis of

social and individual needs and inculcated during the proper "periods" of human growth* It has also been realised that, as society has grown more complex in its organisation and functions, education has practi­ cally become the governing factor in the efficient operation of all other social services* In view of this realization, it is not any­ more an issue whether or not education should be included among the major state services* Now, it is even considered the most important and productive duty of such international organizations as the United

^®K* Ataturk Djyorki, Varllk Tayinlari, p* 7U* This is a com­ pilation"*of Ataturk' s statements on different subjects and occasions* The above quotation is translated by the writer.

iO^Karl Mannheim, op* cit*, p* 6* 117 Nations* In spite of this truism and realization, however, education re­ mains as one of the unsolved problems of the world* This is reflected in the grave fact that "three—fourths of the world * s population are under-hcused, under-clothed, under-fed, and illiterate. The uni­ versal question is, therefore, how to put this social technique (education) to the service of all mankind, and how to make it availa­ ble to the greatest number of people possible* The worldwide importance of the problem is evidenced in the creation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) and in the efforts to launch "fundamental education" programs throughout the world* Those who envisioned and brought into being the UNESCO were not simply concerned with the diffusion of knowledge as such; but rather, in the universal dissem­ ination of knowledge, they perceived tbs key to the solution of basic economic and social problems which give rise to national and inter­ national conflicts* This perception was based upon the greatest teachings of past that progress and peace within and anong nations are possible only through education — which widens men's vision and alters their behavior. To implement this objective, i.e., the realization of progress and peace through education, UNESCO is determined:

^•^Fundamental Education, Federal Security Agency, Office of Education, p* 1* H I Ibid., p. viii. 118 • to collaborate In the work of advancing the mutual knowledge and understanding of peoples through all means of mass com­ munication; • to give fresh impulse to popular education and to the spread of culture; and • to maintain, increase and diffuse knowledge •

I* Viewed within a worldwide "gestalt," the problem of education

shows a variation between the basic question of "wiping out" illiteracy

and that of literary, aesthetic, scientific sophistication; between fundamental education and highly refined specialisation* With about

three-fourths of the world's population being illiterate or semi­ literate, the most crucial aspect of the problem is self-evident, i.e., fundamental education.

The term fundamental education means the endowing lamum beings with the basic tools of education and the proper use to which these tools 3hould be put, for the benefit of the individual and of society as a whole. More specifically, the purpose of fundamental education may be stated as follows. Any minimum fundamental education must en­ able men and women:

• as workers — to control their physical environment, and to conserve and exploit the natural resources of the earth so as to raise their standard of life; • as citizens — to live together in harmony in their com­ munities — family, group, tribe, and nation, and eventu­ ally in a world society; . as individuals — to bring out the best that is in them to achieve physical health, and to develop self-respect through spiritual, moral, and mental progress and the formation and fulfillment of noble aspirations.^ 3

Such an education encompasses both formal schooling and out—of—

H ^ Basic Facta About the United Nations, Dep. of Pub. Informa­ tion, UN., p. 2l. ■^■^Fundamental Education, op* cit., p. 1. 1 1 9 school education* The elements that might be Included In any program of fundamental education could be: (1) the schools, (2) adult educa­ tion, (3) education for women and girls, (U) health education, (5) fundamental education in a rural economy, (6) fundamental education in an industrial economy, (7) literacy campaigns, (8) language problems and language teaching, (9) the use of mass media, (10) libraries and museums, (11) fundamental education and the arts and crafts, (12) com­ munity activities, the creative use of leisure and physical education,

(13) religious and moral education*^^ The choice of means and media for any program of fundamental edu­ cation will certainly be dictated by the urgency and the degree of difficulty of the problons faced, and by the environmental end popula­ tion characteristics of the area where this program is to be launched* II. A second aspect of the universal problem of education is more academic and controversial* It involves the rec onstruc tion of the prevailing conditions, system, content, and methods in terms of changing concepts of education and instruction, based on research findings and social and individual needs* Such a revision is neces­ sary, if education is to remain dedicated to the central task of re­ constructing a culture which, left unreconstructed, may eventually collapse of its own frustrations and conflicts* It would be "the greatest error" to ignore this rec onstruc ti on and assume that educa­ tion is an isolated institution and can perpetuate itself without re—

H^Ibid., pp. 3-18* 120 gard for "the cyclonic farces that are sweeping the earth.

The central issue of the problem of reccnetruetlon is concisely formulated by J. K. Hart, in the following words:

How can the enormous energies of the Individual ... be re­ leased far growth in the child, nurtured in freedom and strength, cultivated to creative power and disciplined to effective form — all to the end that that which was farce of nature in the child shall become socially creative and socially directed in the adult.

During the past half century, some major reconstructive steps have been taken to meet the challenge of this question. These de­

velopments can be considered in two categories:

(1) those which have to do with providing the conditions and

tools for education. More state control, non-sectarianism, and free

and universal education are the characteristics of the reforms in this

first category;

(2) those which deal with immediate school—roam problems of in­

struction. The laboratory—experimental work that has been done in

this connection covered the following points:

A. The natural endowment including,

(a) "instincts," impulses and tendencies manifested at

birth;

(b) instincts, impulses, and tendencies progressively

appearing through life, and thus dividing life into

"periods" of development.

^■^Theodare Brameld, aids and Means in Education, A Mid-Century Appraisal, pp. ix, 12. 3*l6joseph K. Hart, Education in the Humane Community, p. 1113. 121 B. The process of change by which the child becomes an adult; or the learning process, dominated by the two great primitive tendencies; (a) the tendency to conform uncritically to the action of the group through uncritical yielding to emotional im­ pressions, to intuition, to suggestion, to relatively unconscious learning; (b) the tendency to vary, to invent, to meet new difficul­ ties through the focusing of emotion and critical judgment upon new and unusual sets of condition, i.e., the tendency to solve problems through conscious use of intellect* C. The problem of individual differences — variation of the one from the norm or type, due to endowment and environment • D. The development of better systems of physical, mental, and pedagogical measurement, in order to diagnose individual differences and as a basis for repressive or remedial meas­ ures.11?

The results of the work in these various fields have been: • a new kind of school which is not merely a place in which to prepare for life, but just a bit of real life; • a new concept of child that allows the chi Id to "live himself1* naturally into the life of the adult, doing the things neces­ sary to a child;

117james Leroy Stockton, Project Work in Education, pp. 36-38. • a near kind of method based on Interaction of the child and experience, and on "interest" as the cause and ally of "effort" * £ new ^**3 of curriculum that emphasizes the practical, the useful.118 III. A third aspect of the educational problem concerns adult education. This term, which has become fasionable during the recent years, is related to the growing concept of the continuity of the edu­ cative process, which regards man as forever learning. The deep cleavage existing between the old and new generation, and the dangerous culture lag between those spheres of social organi­ zation which require management on the level of planning and our ways of thinking and conduct which have remained on historically backward levels, may readily be attributed to the failure of the adult world in orienting itself to the needs of a dynamic society. The realiza­ tion of the fact that in a changing age no one can take for granted that what he has learned in his youth will carry him through life, and the psychological studies to explore new methods to overcome wide­ spread apathy toward learning, have greatly intensified the movement of adult education throughout the world. Today formal schooling and adult education are no longer con­ sidered mutually exclusive. But they are rather complementary aspects of the educational scheme which lasts lifetime. As it is now looked upon, adult education is post-education and re-education for those who wish to keep abreast of scientific advances and swift social changes.

118Ibid., pp. U0-U9. 1 2 3 It gratifies the universal wish for both information about new dis­ coveries in one's special field and general reorientation in the world at large. Furthermore, it should be considered one of the most impor­ tant cornerstones in the educational groundwork far democracy, because democratic society needs to recruit leaders from all strata. Depending upon where the adult education activities are launched, the following functions may be suggested: (a) remedial education (i.e., giving adults the opportunity to have the education they did not have in childhood) (literacy campaigns)j (b) occupational education (i.e., helping adults to be more efficient workers and to acquire new skills and knowledge which will be of practical value to themselves and the community) j (c) recreational education (i.e., encouraging the fuller and more creative use of leisure); (d) liberal education (i.e., helping adults to acquire knowledge and under standing of a disinterested character, in the field of culture, arts, science, literature, history, language, etc.); (e) political education (i.e., helping adults to play their part in social life and govertment in their community, and so to become good citizens of their country and the world) .120 The problems of education considered within a universal context apply, almost without any reservation, to Turkey as a whole. I. Despite the rapid advances made during the past 25 years, the need for the expansion of fundamental education in Turkey is not les­ sened, on the contrary it has bee era e more pronounced. This point may be supported by the following diagnostic considerations: (1) In Turkey, where the need far development in every sphere of life is so great, the rate of literacy is still very low: (See the

^■^Karl Mannheim, op. cit., pp. 2b7, 253* 257* ^^Fundamental Education, pp. cit., p. 5. 12k table I) The Rates of Literacy and Illiteracy In the TopCTaVion (7J and above years a g e (The census of 19U5) ken Total Women 7,5357317 15,166,911 7,30175**5 Literate Illiterate Literate Illiterate CJT7 ------1375 B3'.2 ' per cent per cent per cent per cent The same statistics reveal that there is an increase in the per­ centage of illiteracy among the adult age groups, 20 years of age and on. Another point to be inferred frcm the statistical figures is that the rate of Illiteracy increases as one moves from cities to dis­ tricts, frcm districts to villages, and from the west to the east. That means that the rural population is the hardest-hit group by il­ literacy hence deserves more attention* Furthermore, of the children of school age, only 52 per cent can attend schools* And those who attended and finished the village schools, have little, or no, facilities to further and refresh their education within their environment. (2) It has further been disclosed that in Turkey today: (a) the standard of living of the people, in general, is low (due to (1) lack of adequate knowledge, (2) tenacity to traditions, (3) the primitive nature of the working equipment, (U) insufficient production, (5) the lack of organization in the production and consmption affairs.);

(b) the sanitary and health conditions are not appropriate, even primitive* The child mortality rate is high; Table I 125 Population As Regards Age and Education, (18 years of age and up.) — In the 'Whole Country

Men Women

Age Groups« Proportion. p.c. Proportion. P.C. Total Total Literate 11lit. Literate Illit,

0-1* 1 286 705 - 100.0 1 181* 799 — 100.0 18 255 378 52.6 1*7.1* 258 838 21*.0 76.0 19 131 855 62.2 37.8 88 01*0 39.2 60.8 20- 21* 789 205 61.8 38.2 691 680 21*.3 75.7 25- 29 1*81* 328 56.9 1*2.1 619 069 16.6 83.1* 30- 3l* 731 283 52.7 1*7.3 699 657 13.5 86.5 35- 39 607 377 1*5*3 5U.7 578 390 11.0 89.0 1*0- hit 51*2 301 31*. 3 65.7 558 000 7.9 92.1 1*5- U9 1*01 379 30.0 70.0 378 1*99 7.8 92.2 50- 51* 282 856 25.0 75.0 1*31* 107 1* .5 95.5 55- 59 171 162 23.7 76.3 219 398 5.2 9U.8 60- 61* 199 908 16.6 83.1* 31*9 207 2.2 97.8 65- 69 98 661* 16.9 83.1 121* 606 3.1 96.9 70- 7h 80 007 11.2 88.8 132 961* 1.7 98.3 75- 79 30 1*22 11.9 88.1 38 852 2.1* 97.6 80- 81* 28 838 5.8 91*.2 1*6 220 1.1 98.9 85- 89 7 527 7.1 92.9 9 388 1.9 98.1 90- 9k 7 178 5.2 91*.8 11 1*62 1.1 98.9 95 1* 01*7 5.7 9l*.3 6 368 1.1 98.9 Unknown 11 291* 20.1* 79.6 13 106 8.1 91.9

Based onx T.C. Bas Bk. istatistik Gn. lid. Genel Nufus SayTml, 21 Arallk 191*5. Ankara: 1950. P. 178 126 (c) local and regional differences In the language is a

handicap to a better c cncmmication, and unity In language is necessary;

(d) the family, because of the lack of the necessary know­

ledge, is not wholly capable of discharging its role in the national life;

(e) the people lack knowledge in the field of aesthetics.

This lack reflects itself in the different phases of i pi life and manufactures.

(3) Mare than 20,000 villages have no school at all*

It should be pointed out, however, that some effective measures

have already been taken toward the solution of the problem posed by

the need far an expanded fundamental education, which will be consid­

ered later.

II. Although the history of most of Its educational institutions

is only as old as that of "the Republic, the problem of educational re­

construction in view of the changing conditions and educational prac­ tices does exist in Turkey. The recent international surveys brought

this point to bear mare clearly. In view of the rapid economic and

social development of the country, and especially in view of the re­ cent democratic strides, such a revision of the prevailing system, methods, gad curricula has become imperative. This is especially true

for secondary and higher education.

■l^-Halk Terblyeai Kakklnda Muhtira, Mi 111 Egitim Bakanligi, p. 1. (A memorandum put out, in mimeograph form, by the Ministry of Educa­ tion of Turkey in connection with Public Education). 127 It is granted that the Republic's pioneer generation has made Its

"first trial—run through the whole gamut of education from basic literacy to atomic science." 122 Yet:

(a) the prevailing pattern of learning from the earliest grades

to the university level still emphasizes memorization and fannalistic learning;

(b) there is a rigid educational hierarchy and the teaching

process is based on the strict subservience of students to teachers;

(c) the authoritarian character of the educational system is

manifest in the virtually complete absorption by the central government of all responsibility for the system;

(d) college and university training suffers from inadequate

curricula and academic standards (especially in agriculture,

technology, industrial engineering, goverranent, administra­

tion, business management, cost accounting and personnel ad­

ministration) and from the uneven quality of professional training;

(e) most important of all, the extent of independent and scienti­

fic thought and specialized and technical training remains

dangerously small;

(f) the training and quality of teachers, especially village 121 teachers, need improvement;

(g) almost none of the originality displayed at the primary

^-22E* Bisbee, op« cit., p. 97* 123fhe Economy of Turkey, op. cit., p. h9» 128 level in devising methods to meet peculiar Turkish needs has appeared in secondary education.

III. The problem of adult education seems more acute than ever*

For, to the early and continuing problem of illiteracy, it has now

been added the urgent need for the fundamental training of adults,

especially the peasants, with respect to agricultural methods and

techniques, Industrial skills, improved health and sanitary conditions

and disease prevention, political participation and responsibility*

In fact, the expansion, improvement, and efficient coordination

of adult education activities and facilities have now become a must

— if the gap be We e n the '‘Turkey of the jet plane, and the Turkey of

the oxcart" is to be bridged at all, and if the intelligent participa­

tion of the masses in deliberate planning of opportunities is to be

insured. "Civilization can only progress if the masses are trained

systematically and coherently far the task before thent."^'*

B. Causative—Piagnostic Analysis of the Problem.

A causal inquiry into the problem of education in Turkey may lead us to hi star ico—cultural and economic considerations.

(a) Historico—cultural causes.

When the historical transition fran. the Ottoman Qapire to the

Turkish Republic occurred, the new regime was confronted with the gi­ gantic task of recreating the educational system, and re-educating the people.

■^^E. Bisbee, op* cit., p. 89.

125>J. T. Bodet, "Adult Education and the Future of Our Civilisa­ tion," Adult Education, p. 15. 129

The educational system had to be recreated, because, despite the

efforts in westernization, the educational system of the defunct Sn—

pire was outmoded, religiously oriented, and was lacking a unity of

program and ideal. Due to pseudo-Hnresterilization, there was a dualism

in the field of culture. Teaching of subjects dealing with the

Islamic Code and the Shariat was carried on in the Koranic schools

called maktabs and madrassehs. Instruction was mostly religious in

nature. There were also schools teaching sciences according to modem methods of education. But even in these schools, religious teaching

had an important place. It was not until 1839 that reforms In the

elementary education were gradually introduced, and it was not until 1869 that the whole organization of public education was put under a code of general education.

There were also a number of foreign schools representing various school systems such as French, German, Italian, Austrian, British, and

American. Schools of Christian and Jewish minorities followed the 1 education pattern of Greece, Bulgaria, or France.

With such an unintegrated system, the Republic could not certainly catch up with the m o d e m world. On the principle of Unity in Educa­ tion, the Republican government, as a first step, abolished all the theological schools and declared the Ministry of Education to be the sole authority in 1 matters of education. Yet, this could not dimin­ ish the seriousness of the fact that when the Republic was declared in

1923, there were only 5000 primary schools and 350,000 pupils in

126 A. H. K. Sassanl, Education in Turkey, F. S. Ag., pp. 8-11. 130 Turkey. The number of teachers was just over 10,000. If one con­ siders that the number of the pupils accounted only far less than l£

per cent of the children of school age in Turkey, the difficulty and seriousness of the situation may be appreciated better.^? The people had to be re—educated, because, when the first census of the Republic was taken in 1927, it was learned that, out of a popu­ lation of 13*6^8,270 only 1,111,U96 knew how to read the Arabic

characters then in use. Percentagewise, this was not even 9 per cent of the population. When we consider that some of these people could not write and could read nothing other than the Koran, the predicament in which the Revolution had found itself is well understood.^® The underlying causes of this predicement may be attributed mainly to the difficulty in learning the Arabic Script. This precipitated the "Alphabet Revolution." In this connection a law was passed (November 3, 1928, No. 13$3) and the Arabic Script, a combination of U82 letters, was discarded. In their stead the new 29 lettered (in­ cluding those with diacritical marks) Turkish alphabet of Latin origin was adopted — which was better suited to the phonetic needs of the Turkish language. U. 0. Williams of the National Geographic Magazine, the eye-witness of the early days of the Revolution, wrote: The Arabic Script, apt medium for moslem art, presented difficulties to the student, so that more than four-fifth of the Turkish people were Illiterate* Time and again I have found cultured Syrians, Arabs, and Turks unable to decipher the calligraphy which was both

-^7 The Development of Fundamental Education in Turkey, Mi 1.13 Egitim Bakanligi, p. IT. -*-2®Nusret Koymen, Demokrasiyi Kurtaralim, p. 25. 131 literature and art throughout Islam, Is it any wonder that the nearly five hundred (5 0 0 ) letter combinations of the Arabic Script have long daunted worker and peasant. ... men who can converse fluently in several languages cannot read the street signs in the land in which they lived for years. But the last few weeks a vast change has come. ... The blackboard and copy book have become major equipment in post office, police station, store and bank. But the class­ room is wider than that.... Cafes, ferries, and street cars are all improvised classrooms of this nation at school.129 This attempt at re-education was most necessary especially far the peasait group, then over 80 per cent of the population. This group, as a result of neglect and Isolation throughout centuries, developed a relative changelessness in its mentality and total way of life. This passivity, caused mainly by the fatalistic attitude of Islam and centuries of oppression that nhad endured them (the peasants) to racking poverty and periodic wars and by the gaunt hills and barren soil that "had taught them to expect little from nature and to believe that no changes in technique could ever for long out—wit her changing in fertility, n^ O was the main obstacle to swift progress. This attitude had to be corrected by an effective re-education of this largest group which still is a major problem. To remedy this precarious educational situation, the Republic has had to undertake the most urgent tasks below: (a) to build and equip new schools in cities and, mare especially, in villages; (b) to train additional teachers and inspectors for the schools;

0. Willimas, "Turkey Goes to School," The National Geogra­ phic Magazine, v* LV, (January 1929), pp. 95-108. -U^Barbara Ward, Turkey, p. 57« 132

(c) to p r e p a r e suitable schemes of training;

(d) to encourage villagers to assimilate the education offered and to increase their skill in the use of mechanical appli­ ances; (e) to provide special courses for those who did not receive their primary education at the proper age; (f) to set up People*s Schools for those who have had no school­ ing at all*^^" As for the underlying causes of the problem of reconstruction of the prevailing educational system, methods, and content, they may be traced back to the complex educational system of the Ottoman Bnplre. As has already been stated, during the Biapire there were a number of foreign schools* The long association with these schools has had in­ fluence on the present educational set-up* As a result, the present educational program is generally and paradoxic ally a combination of the French, Anglo-Saxon, Russian, and German ideas and principles, with French still dominating*^ 2 in a school under the influence of such systems, children are taught always to do what they are told to do, and nothing else* They are expected to be passive, submissive, and to reflect their teachers and books — a situation not unfamiliar to Americans as well* Yet, the rapidly changing conditions and needs of the country and the people necessitate the revision of the prevailing systau, not

-^-*-Educatian in Turkey, Milli Egitim Bakanligi, p* 2*

-*-32a . H* Sassani, op* cit*, p* 11* 133 on the basis of "the systems copied Iran abroad, but rather as the local

situations may dictate*

(b) Economic-Physical Causes.

The fact that the activities of the Ministry of Education are very

much dependent upon the appropriations from the national budget, limits

the area of operation of the Ministry. The funds available for educa­

tional purposes are dim ini shingly email In comparison to actual needs

and Impose serious difficulties* If it was not far this limitations,

such immediate problems of education as elementary education, illiter­

acy, might have been brought nearer solution* These limitations are

incurred by the world crisis which compels the government to appropri­ ate the bulk of the expenditures to national defense*

However, the striking point is that, even the burdensome cost of

continuous military mobilization through the Republic*s whole third

decade, has not greatly hampered the acceleration of the educational

program* And appropriations far education have always been on the in­

crease :

Year General Budget Appropriations for Education T m tl ■ ti------1933 182,201,71*1* 11,095,326 191*3 1*86,717,31*9 55,012,885 1952 1,750,925,1*01 201,9Uh,170 Among the physical causes contributing to the difficulty of the situation, the lack of transportation, and the distribution of the peasant population into 1*0,000 villages may be cited* The lack of

133rurki2B Cumhuriyetl Maarifi. 1923-191*3, Maarif Vekaleti, 191*1*, pp. 17O-I7I3 and7~~Education in Turkey, op. cit., p. 963 and A Brief Report by the Turkish Government on the Educational Activities in £he 55fcsr YbaFT9^CT9F?.' MiiiT Wt l S B^kanllgl, p." 5.------13U transportation and the irregular distribution of the villages make consolidation of schools and the organization of fundamental education activities rather difficult*

C • Remedial Proposals and Their Cornnuni cative Bearings.

While profiting from their accumulated experience, the Turks al­ ways welcome unbiased recommendation that might contribute to the solution of their problems. The recent international surveys and de­ velopment programs include some significant remedial proposals for strengthening the educational base of Turkish society:

(1) A thorough re-examination of the content, methods, and organi­

zation of the educational system at all levels through the

aid of foreign specialists should be undertaken.

(2) During this re - e x a m inatian of the system, the following possi­

bilities should be explored: (a) encouraging greater freedom of thought and enquiry at all

levels and reducing the authoritarian characteristic of

the educational system; (b) returning to local government a larger share of the

financial burden of primary schools;

(c) placing greater emphasis on the training of students in

the airi ila and professions most urgently required far

Turkey*s development program;

(d) shifting the central emphasis to the middle and higher

educational levels where facilities need greatest ex­

pansion and greatest qualitative improvement;

(e) tightening the entrance requirements of colleges and 13$ universities and raising their academic standards;

(f) revising the present system of training village teachers

so as to provide a longer and mare diversified training, and older, more mature and better educated personnel for primary schools.^^

In addition to these, the following recommendations might be made:

(3) Fundamental and especially adult education activities should

be coordinated in co-operation with those govex~~iental and

non-governmental agencies that are engaged in such activities. These activities should be so devised that, while contribut­

ing to the elimination of illiteracy an one hand, they should

also be correlated with the deliberately planned programs of economic development on the other. The establishment of a

correlation as such might serve very practical purposes by

bringing about favorable attitudes toward new ways and by

yielding immediate results in the economic field. The recommendations considered in connection with the prob­ lems of agriculture, industry, health, and politics, may well serve as a guide as to what the content of such an adult edu­ cation program should be. The American effort to make adult education an "instrument of social problem solving" as well as an Instrument of self- development, might provide the key concept for the reorgani­ zation of the Turkish adult education activities, its methods,

13UThe Economy of Turkey, IBRD, op. cit., pp. U9-51. 136 content and agencies.

(U) Literacy campaigns should be stepped up, since learning to

read and write will train and open people's minds and will put into their handsa valuable essential and practical tool

for progress. Furthermore, without this essential tool,

lasting progress in fundamental education will be difficult,

if not impossible. Such campaigns will requires

(a) concentrated initial publicity to arouse a wide­ spread popular desire for literacy; (b) well-graded manuals, charts and visual aids to make learning interesting and easy, even where teachers are little trained, and so to encourage the rpupils* to persevere; (c) the organization of training for teachers and * informants1j in this connection the 'each one teach one* method may well prove most e f f e c t i v e *3-35

In order that efforts in mass literacy teaching may not be wasted, adequate reading materials (also related to the subjects of the pro­ grams of development as well as to literary, aesthetic, cultural field) should necessarily be provided*

These recommendations, which actually are aspects of formal and informal education, may be reduced to a single problem of communica­ tion, so far as content and method are concerned. The underlying activity of the educative process and of its aspects (teaching and learning), is essentially ocraminication* The effectiveness of the educative process is greatly dependent upon the effectiveness of com­ munication, upon the way the c ontent is camnunicated* The media of communication will be determined by the nature of the content, the

^■^Fundamental Education, op* cit., pp. 10-11. 137 communicatee, and the circumstances*

When one considers that modem education is no longer a one-way communication from the teacher or book to the student, and that it in­ volves experience, participation, interaction, construction of objects, manipulation of material and tools, the necessity for using various media of communication becomes self-evident*

This is also true for the training of adults* Particularly in the initial stages of fundamental education — when difficulties in the way of formal education and the teaching of literacy demand an approach based on audio—visual means, which will serve to by-pass, temporarily, instruction through, the written word —- such mass media of communication as film, filmstrip, radio, and television are capable of making clear contributions*'*'^

'*The most productive and im­ portant duty of the State is public instruction*”137 Ataturk

D* Present Situation*

After the consideration of the problematic aspects of Turkish education, now we may take a quick glance at its present structure*

(See the figure xii)

Administration Today education in Turkey is considered a state prerogative and all educational activity is directly under the jurisdiction of the

Ministry of Public Education, headed by a Cabinet officer* The educa—

136ibid., p* 12.

137e * Bisbee, op* cit., p* 85* 138 tlonal system embraces Tour categories: elementary, secondary, higher and technical. Their programs are keyed to "catching up" with the modern world.

The educational policy of Turkey is designed to reach all classes of people* To realize this, the system has been so established as to provide children from all walks of life with equal opportunity to attend schools of general knowledge, culture and technical training.

The student's ability is the only criterion for advancement along the educational scale. All phases of education are provided by the State free of charge and are coeducational.

Elementary Education

As has already been stated, education has been the guiding spirit of the whole Turkish revolutionary movement. The leaders were firmly convinced that only through education could the Turkish citizen fully enjoy freedom and the privileges of a civilized world. This conviction was expressed by Ataturk in these words: "The truest guide in life is education."

On the basis of this conviction, the abolishment of illiteracy has been one of the major objectives of the Republic* As a first attempt in this direction, the "People's Schools" were launched.

Their immediate objective was to teach the Turkish people to read and write and instruct them in the possible and necessary ways of earning a living. The activity of these schools continued from 1928 to 193$. luring this period 60,373 schools were opened and were staffed by gl,8l6 men and women teachers. A total of 2,1:86,8U$ men and women citizens learned both to read and write fundamental knowledge. The 13 9 appropriation for this purpose was 2,6i9,h39 TL per year. Now, there are seme attempts to revive these schools*

As a permanent measure, elementary education in Turkey was made compulsory for children of both sexes between 7 to 12 (compulsory attendance age being 16) by Article 87 of the Turkish Constitution, which readsi 11 Primary education is compulsory for all Turks, male or female, and is free in public school*

In the last 25 years, elementary school education in Turkey has made marked improvement in quality. The curricula, which have been revised several times, bear all signs of the modern conception of edu­ cation, and teachers are doing their best to teach their pupils in a manner best suited to their individual interests and dispositions*

Now large sums are being spent for the qualitative and quantita­ tive development of elementary education* The average annual increase in the number of such schools has been 883 during the past three years

(as against 298 per year in the period up to 1950).

The Problem of Rural Education*

Faced with the problem of providing in a short time qualified teachers for 1*0,000 villages, many containing less than U00 inhabit­ ants, the Ministry inaugurated the "Village Institutes." Twenty-one of them have been built in strategic agricultural districts of Turkey and the government is planning to have one village institute far each province*

^-5®Adult Education in Turkey, Mill! Egitim Bakanllgl, p. 5.

^-■39The Turkish Constitution, Turkish Information Office, p* 16. lU o These Institutes give five years of 'training to selected boys and girls who have already completed the five years' course at a village school. These young people return to their villages with a thorough knowledge of agriculture and of the handicrafts in their districts.

Boys receive instruction in farming, building, carpentry, and metal work, while girls are taught mothercraft, sewing, nursery, and house­ wifery. These are in addition to their professional training in teaching. Recently, these Institutes have also been training pupils to become Health Officers and Uidwives. The following is a sample of program of studies in village institutes:

Program of studies in the village institutes

Hours per week, by year Course I II III 17 V

1 2 3 u 5 6

Turkish •••••••••••••••••.. h U h U h General psychology — - — 2 - Adult and child psychology ...... - - - - l Education ...... 1 l General educational methods • • ...... ——— 2 — Special educational methods and practices • • ———— 6 Sociology ———— 2 Educational history and a (to ini strati on ... ———— 1 History 2 2 l 1 1 Geography ...... 2 2 l 1 1 Home economics ...... — 1 i —- Mathematics...... 5 3 3 3 - Physics ...... — 2 2 2 - Chemistry ...... — 2 2 1 — Natural sciences •••••••••••••• 2 2 2 2 ~ School hygiene ...... ———— 1 Writing (penmanship) 1 1 1 - - Drawing 1 1 1 1 1 lUi

Working ...... — 1 1 1 — Physical education and sports .*•••.. 1 1 1 1 1 kusic .•••• ...... 2 2 1 2 1 Military tactics ••**••••..... — — 1 1 1 Hone management and child care •••••• —— — 1 1 Cooperative education and practice .... ———— 1 Practical work with course .....••* 10 8 9 6 7 Vocational education and shop practices • • 9 7 8 7 8

Total ...... 39 39 39 39 31

The Village Institutes are considered:

•.• one of the most successful and promising ventures yet launched by the ruling group in its attempt to rouse the peasantry to a common sense of purpose as modern Turks and to brine it up to a minimum level of new technical effici- ency#^**l

The graduates of these institutes are expected to serve not only

as teachers, but also as:

... living preceptors of the sort of basic, gradual, mi nlmum change whose immediately demonstrated profits Till recommend it to all peasants who see it at first hand*^*^

As it is stipulated In the "Manual of Regulations" of the Village

Institutes (Item 10):

The teachers trained by the village institutes, elevate the peasant to a view of life where he can work with modern tools and methods and improve his standard of life*1*4^

Secondary Education*

The aim of secondary education in Turkey has been to prepare stu­ dents who have completed the 5-year elementary program of studies for

^*®Abul H. K* Sassani, op* cit*, p* 25* ■^■L* V* Thomas and R. N. JVye, op, cit*, p, 120*

^ Ibid., p* 121.

1U3Nev»at Ayas, Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Mill! Egitial, pp. 338-9* 1U2 specialized fields offered by the higher Institutions of learning* In addition, Turkish secondary education now also alms at providing special curriculums for those who no longer wish to continue their studies In higher Institutions. It comprises two stages: the middle school and Iycee, each stage requiring 3 years of study. All second­ ary schools follow the same program of studies, except that in the secondary schools for girls additional courses such as home economics and nursery are provided. The trend to modify secondary education in accordance with the changing conditions and educational practices is strong and is already bearing fruit. The introduction of multi-purpose secondary schools and a wider application of audio-visual aides might be cited in the way of examples. There has also been gratifying increase in the number of secondary schools. Budgetary appropriations for secondary education in 1953 totalled over 12,678,000, compared to 9,61*2,000 set aside far the same purpose in 1950. An additional 125 secondary schools, and 9 new lycees were opened during the past three years as against the total of 213 secondary schools and 36 lycees opened prior to 1950. This means an average of 62 secondary schools and 3 lycees per year for the 1951—1953 period, whereas the average was 8 secondary schools and 1.5 lycees per year in the period of 1923—1950.^^* The government has decided to open at least one secondary school in every district and one lycee in every province within the next three years.

1^1953 Progress Report, op. cit., pp. U-5» 1U3 Technical-Vocational Education* Technical education in Turkey has been given special impetus dur­ ing the past ten years* It plays an Important part in the industrial development and reconstruction of the country* Further efforts are being made to develop and increase such schools in order that larger number of citizens may utilise them in furthering their resources* Today technical education programs include the following institu­ tions: (1) Professional Teachers Training Colleges far men and women, (2) Boy's Trade Institutes, (3) Boy's Junior Trade Schools, (U) Evening Trade Schools, (5) Building Trade Schools, (6) Village Courses, (7) Technical Universities, (8) Technical Schools, (?) Schools for Air Mechanics, (10) Vocational Institutes for Girls, (11) Evening Trade Schools for Women, (12) Village Courses for Women, (13) Men's Junior Tayloring Schools, and Men's Evening Tayloring Classes, (lit) Chemical Trade Institutes, (15) Schools for Mining, Teacher Training* Until 192h the majority of elementary and secondary school teach­ ers had no professional standing. Very few people in the country be­ lieved that teaching is an art and had to be learned. By a law issued in 192U, the appointment, promotion and suspension of teachers were regularized* Today, elementary and secondary school teachers must have special qualifications and must meet certain standard requirements to obtain their teaching certificates* There is a uniform syllabus and system of training teachers pre­ scribed by the Ministry of Education and followed by the normal schools. The complete mastery by the students of fundamental knowledge uuk and familiarity with the practical application of such knowledge is the objective. For convenience, the teacher training institutions in Turkey can be considered in two parts: A. those which train instructors and teachers of general educa­ tion; B, those which train teachers of technical-vocational education; A- Those included in the first category are: 1# Courses that train the village instructors; 2, Village Institutes; 3* The Higher Village Institute; U« Normal Schools; 5, Teachers Colleges and Institutes of Pedagogy; The Higher Teachers' Training College, B- The teachers of the technical-vocational schools are trained in the following courses and teacher training institutions: 1. Courses for the training of the travelling village teachers; 2, The Women's Technical Teachers' Training College; 3* The Men's Technical Teachers' Training College, It has long been recognized that the mastery of subject matter is not enough for teaching. It is necessary that a teacher should know the ways and means and direction of teaching and should be competent in handling them. The above institutions are the ones that are devoted to the realization of this competency. IkS

NUMBER OF PRIMARY PUPILS (7-12 YEARS OLD)

« « _ 1932 366,125 Boys XI Xt 201.236 Girls AAAr k k

1942 AAAAAA7£ £ £ £ £ £ 4 649,471 Boys 290,940 Girls

(££££££££££4 1,045,026 Boys V\AAAAAAAAA7 1951 -52f

630,389 Girls Each symbol — 100,000 pupils

ENROLLMENT IN SCHOOLS OF HIGHER EDUCATION ..Pr

Each symbol ~ 5,000 students t m m - UNIVERSITIES & VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS COLLEGES O O o O O < M A 7,851 M 4,501 8.431 M 1.782 1938-39 V | BOYS « GIRLS BOYS ^ GIRLS

o _o_ o_ o o o o o o o o o 41,21 2 n 21,614 BOYS BOYS 1951-52 mmnO O < v r n i 1 2,466 5,177 GIRLS GIRLS H ?!

Figure VII From Facte on Turkey Turkish Information Office Jt)|)i E. 52nd~St., N.Y. 21*6 Higher Education.

Although various institutions of higher learning developed in

Turkey during the Ottoman era, it was not until 1900 that a university

in the modern sense of the term started to operate without the re­

strictions of a religious oligarchy* Later the ecclesiastical centers

of higher education were abolished to be replaced by modern universi­

ties. Today higher education is provided in three multi-faculty uni­

versities (in Istanbul and Ankara) and several higher professional

schools, academies and conservatories. Universities are autonomous,

but they establish contact with the State through the Ministry of Edu­

cation. Higher education, once the privilege of a restricted group,

has now been made available to all classes.

Also, preparations have been completed and construction has

started to establish a new university in eastern Turkey. This insti­

tution will bring a great center of culture and civilization to eastern

Anatolia and will be called Ataturk University.

Adult Education.

The government1s awareness of the importance of Adult Education is evidenced in the early campaigns to wipe out illiteracy. Although ad­ ult education, particularly the education of the peasantry, is still a great challenge in Turkey, nevertheless the groundwork for its solution has already been laid. Furthermore, there are conscious efforts on the part of the responsible governmental and non-governmental agencies to tackle the problem by concerted action.

At present, the following agencies contribute to adult education:

(1) the program of the Ministry of Public Education, (2) the army, 1U7 (3) adult courses of the Ministry of Agriculture, (U) programs of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, (5) programs of the ministries of Justice, Labor, and State Enterprises, (6) People's Houses, and Centers of Turkish Culture, (7) libraries and museums, (8) radio, C9) cooperatives, (10) universities* The main handicap in the field of adult education is lack of coordination and organization* To remedy this situation, the govern­ ment has recently drafted a new law providing far the establishment of a General Directorate of Adult Education within the framework of the Ministry of Public Education* In this connection, Dr* Watson Dlckenaan of Berkeley, California, was invited to Turkey as consultant* The new organization, while coordinating and channeling the piecemeal and scattered activities in the field of adult education on one hand, will cooperate and collaborate with UNESCO on the other* The objectives of this prospective adult education organization are stated as follows: 1* To bring up all the citizens to a minimum level of literacy* 2. To promote the professional and vocational knowledge of the citizens on the Job} to prepare those without a profession or vocation far a Job in terms of their abilities; to ensure cooperation and mutual assistance; to increase the productive capacity and to strengthen professional ethics* 3* To provide the people with the knowledge necessary to become a good member of the family and a good citizen* U* To ensure the unity of language and spirit among the citizens; and to reinforce devotion to the principles of the revolution* 5* To increase the interest of the people toward fine arts and to develop and refine their aesthetic taste* 6* To help those young people and adults who have not been able to get any schooling to secure an education at an elementary or above levels outside the formal education* 7* To broaden the national and international world outlookof the citizens by providing them with the means and opportunities to get acquainted with their country and its surroundings* 1U8 8* To help the citizens acquire the habit of evaluating and using wisely their tines of leisure* 9* Finally, through these ways, to raise the standard of living of a great majority, which is very low*

The whole organization will be put at the disposal and service of

the people in accordance with their desire and needs, and will be im­ proved as it meets their demands* An extensive use of the existing schools, People's Houses, and their personnel will be made*

The establishment of an “Institute of Adult Education," a "Periodi­ cal of Adult Education," and a “Department of Adult Education" to train future adult educators is also under consideration*

With this sketchy description, the writer has tried to show that education is a major occupation in Turkey* The whole system of educa­ tion is now engaged in an all-out effort to bring the cultural, techno­ logical, and living standards and level of the people up to a point where the most fortunate nations of the world now stand* In the whole scheme of education, adult education has a unique place. For behind the “skills" aspect of the movement lies the idea of a better and more successful work lifej behind the intellectual aspect of it rests the idea of coping with the problems of life and society as they may relate to the realm of intellectj behind the recreational aspect of this edu­ cation stands the idea of using the leisure time wisely and creatively, and improving human relations in a mare informal setting*

In our educational and democratic enterprise, we would be well advised if we keep knowledge "connected" and in "circulation*"

It is obvious that the relation between democracy and edu­ cation is a reciprocal one, a mutual one, and vitally so*

*^Halk Terbiyesi Hakklnda Uuhtlra, op* cit** p. 9* 1U9 Democracy is itself an educational principle, an educational measure and policy ...... Jit) cannot endure, much less develop without education

J. Dewey, Problems of Man, pp. 3U, 37. Data in the part dealing with "Present Situation" are based on* 1. A. H. K. Sassani, op. cit., 2. The Development of Aduif*)Sdncation in Turkey, op. cit., 3. Education in Turkey, Turkish Information Office, U. 19^3 Progress Report from Turkey, op. cit. Part B

REMEDY

The writer stated at the outset that the recent steps in the re­ construction and development of Turkey have been taken in accordance with deliberately designed programs based on scientific ally conducted surveys* To implement these programs, the planners will have to de­ pend to a great extent, upon the effective communication of the pro­ posed changes to those who will eventually be affected by them. For the success or failure of these programs will be determined greatly by the attitudes, understanding, acceptance, and cooperation of the people for whom these changes are Intended, and by the extent to which the people are let in on planning.

To prepare the ground for the designed changes, mass communica­ tion and education through mass caninuni cation media have much to offer and contribute. Having discussed Turkey's major problems from a causative-diagnostic point of view and having explored the cannmnica— tion demands In the remedial proposals, now a communicative approach to the solution of these problems will be studied.

1$0 IV

A Communicative Approach "to

the Solution of Turkey > 3 Problems

1. Remedial Proposals Demand a Change in

the Need—Value Systems and Cognitive-

Perceptual Processes of Individuals*

This Change Calls for Re-education#

When a social or economic planner proposes, far example, the im­ provement of agricultural production by using modern techniques,

machinery, fertilizers; or suggests preventive hygiene by resorting to mass inoculations, malaria and tuberculosis campaigns, he may possibly meet seme resistance, on a limited or mass scale* Such a likelihood

always exists, because people are usually reluctant to give up the

established modes of thinking and ways of doing things*

To propose a change, even though it is designed to bring a better life, often implies a revolutionary rearrangement of the need-value

systems and cognitive—perceptual processes of individuals* Unless this rearrangement (through re-education) is made, and unless better means and ways are provided, the planner and his plans are likely to meet frustrations, even failures*

A* Need-Value Systems,

(a) Needs, The structure and dynamic processes of human arganian, the processes of society, and the nature of a person^ experiences give rise to, and are responsible for, a series of needs, quasi-needs, and

151 152 operational concepts.^- These needs may be distinguished in more gener­

al terms as: (1) "unlearned or biogenic"; and (2) "learned or socio­ genic."

(1) Biogenic needs are those which spring primarily from physio­

logical structure of the body and dynamic biochemical equili­

bria;

(2) Sociogenic needs are the ones acquired in the c our se of the

genetic development of the individual, and in connection with

interpersonal relationships or with established social values 2 and institutions.“

This categorization does not, however, establish a rigid framework

of concepts. The general classification above, and the mare specific

needs within them are not necessarily mutually exclusive, independent,

instinctive drives or motives, each seeking satisfaction through a specific pattern of behavior.

It is true that needs have the character of "organizing" behavior. But this behavior cannot be divided up into several units of effort far each need. Behavior as a unity may be an attempt to s atisfy sever­ al needs distributed through these categories. That means that there is a functional interrelationship between them. The satisfaction of one need may be prerequisite to the satisfaction of another.3

Although the concept of need is a universal one, needs are basi-

^D. A. Prescott, Baotion and the Bducative Process, p. 11.

^Muzafer Sherlf, An Outline of Social Psychology, p. 12. 3ft*eacott, op. cit., p. llJi. 153 cally related to culture and show variations from culture to culture*

Therefore, frequently, the culture of a given society is responsible

for the dearth, variety, satisfaction, and frustration of needs.

Socio—cultural forces either tend to suppress and thwart needs,

thus creating psychic and social maladjustments; or they deliberately

rive rise to new needs from time to time* In the fonaer case, society may resort to punishment for suppression and confinement of needs, and is characteristically backward or authoritarian. In the latter case,

society may have recourse to re—education for the arousal and establish* ment of new needs, and is predominantly progressive and democratic.

Needs are also related to valences. What valence a certain object or activity has depends partly upon the nature of that activity and partly upon the state of needs. An increase in the intensity of need

(far example, the need for an increased farm production) leads to an increase of the positive valence of certain activities (such as using fertilizer or machinery) and to an increase in the negative valence of certain other activities (such as using a wooden plow and resorting to fallow) .

In fact, any statement about change of needs can be formulated in terms of positive and negative valences. There is also a correlation between the valence of an activity and its consummatory value for satisfying the need. This does not necessarily mean, however, that all activities having positive valence have satisfaction value in case of consumption. Experience may change the valence as well as the meaning 1SU which an activity has far an individual,^ The important question here is how to create the intensity of need and how to provide the experi­ ence that may contribute to change,

A change in needs may result from a great variety of circumstances*

These circumstances (psychological, social, physical) may appear within the total life space of a person and have to be considered as parts of one connected field. The emergence of needs may be accounted for in terms of cultural anthropology, developmental psychology, and the psy­ chology of motivation.

The most relevant point for a socio-economic planner and communi­ cator is to find out the restraining farces affecting needs. Failure to overcame obstacles may result in a temporary or final withdrawal of the person and decreases "persistence." When this withdrawal is not fully accepted, it is frequently accompanied by an open or concealed conflict which may result in aggressiveness. If, however, the with­ drawal is the consequence of a full acceptance of the inaccessibility of the goal, this is an actual "giving-up." In this case, that which is "inaccessible” ceases to be an effective part of life space. On the other hand, experiencing some success may lead to a relative increase of persistence*^

Another point of interest for an economic planner and communicator is that change in needs and goals and the velocity with which this change occurs depend upon the change in the cognitive structure, indi-

^Kurt Lewln, Iji Social SclftttcOj pp« 273^ 27^ie ^Ibid,, pp. 280-281, 155 vidual differences* the psychological past and social atmosphere.

Conditions for the experience of success or failure also should be taken into consideration. The experience of success or failure depends on the level of performance within a frame of reference which may be the level of aspiration* the past performance or the standards of a group. The determining factor of success or failure is the extent to which the dominant fraae of reference is reached.^

The relative changelessness and lethargy of the Anatolian peasant may be interpreted within the framework of the foregoing discussions*

The long struggle of the peasant with the frustrating forces of nature and the oppressive forces of the Ottoman Qapire and his failure to overcame them resulted in a dearth of needs and in a "ne faydasi var"

("what is the use") attitude* which was near a total "giving-up."

However* we near have ample evidence that this withdrawal was a con­ cealed one. Whenever and wherever he has been provided with the ways and means by which to overcome natural obstacles the peasant has been quick in acquiring new needs and goals and in exploiting and furthering his resources* in fact* aggressively so.

(b) Values. The term value (or norm) is not a very clear con­ ception in psychology. Values partially define the areas of emotion­ ality in each of us and give direction to the behavior by which we attempt to work out our needs. In psychological terminology* values may be defined as "constructs which have the same psychological dimen­ sion as power field*" i.e.* they provide the possibility of inducing

6Ibid., p. 287. 156 farces of certain magnitude upon one's environment•

While values influence our behavior and determine which types of activity have a positive and which have a negative valence for an In­ dividual in a given situation, they do not necessarily have the character of a goal (e.g., the individual does not try to reach the value of fairness but fairness is "guiding" his behavior.)?

Values emerge in the process of group interaction while pursuing the necessities that satisfy vital needs. Under the influence of accumulating routines of action, tools, techniques, and symbols of communication, values become more or less standardized. In turn, these standardized values regulate largely the Individual's behavior, set standards of work attainment, new aspirations and goals to follow.

This "superstructure" of standards, rules, and values also contribute to the formation of the individual's tastes, attitudes.^

The process of "picking—up" such values is carried on through contact, by selective perceiving and learning. Of course, it is im­ possible for an individual to represent all the values characteristic of his general culture• The range of an individual's values is limited by his actual contact with persons (membership groups or reference groups), objects, and situations, i.e., actual "stimulus situations."

Consequently, due to the differentiation of interdependent social units in a given society, each unit will have differentiated sets of values (e.g., capitalist, prolstarla, sex, age groups and their values

7lbid., pp. UO, 39* ^Muzafer Sberif, op. cit., p. 93. 157 p and aspirations). In organizing social, economic activities of a society, in intro­ ducing new needs and values, the planner and communicator would be well advised if they familiarized themselves with the established values which, through deliberate planning, they are attempting to re­ organize, modify, or even abolish. Such values may either block or, when used wisely, facilitate the implementation of the programs of de­ velopment* In any case, the study and determination of values possibly to be encountered, should be one essential aspect of social economic planning* If they are to be modified or abolished, new and better values must be introduced and their superiority must be proved. If, however, the prevailing values can contribute to the implementation of the program, they should be intelligently emphasized and exploited* In either case, a thorough knowledge of them is necessary* B. Cognitive—Perceptual Processes. Cognitive—perceptual processes are dynamically related to the need-value systems of individuals. That is, the state of the needs Influences greatly the cognitive-perceptual structure of the life space.10 The term cognition covers all the various modes of knowing — perceiving, remembering, imagining, conceiving, Judging, reasoning* And the cognitive function is an ultimate aspect of our conscious life* Perception, in particular, refers to "the process of becoming im—

9Ibid., pp. 95-97* ^^Kurt Lewin, op. cit., p. 27U* 158 mediately aware of something."1^- It has now become established that perceptions are not mere cognitive affairs. They are highly selective and their organization Is determined not solely by the properties of the external stimuli but, at times, by the currently operating internal factors (motivating states of the individual, e.g., hunger, lust, «nri attitudes). Despite this distinction, however, cognitive-perceptual processes are functionally inseparably related in the psychological product of any given moment. 12 There are several scientifically controlled experiments designed to show the correlation of cognitive-perceptual processes to need-value systems. The immediate implication of the results of these studies for us is that the intensity of the need governs the structure of life space. Thus, the thoughts, fantasies and perception of a person long starved, center on food. The growing need produces autistic processes and also makes it imperative to find some means to satisfy the need. ^t this stage, the realistic process is stimulated. Affected by our immediate needs, cognitive-perceptual processes have the capacity to mediate adjustments and to serve needs.^ It should also be born in mind that needs affect the cognitive perceptual structure not only of the psychological present, but even of the psychological future and past. A socio-economic planner should be well aware that to design un—

James Dr ever, A Dictionary of Psychology, pp. Ul, 201. ^Muzafer Sherif, op. cit., p. UU. 3-3ibid., pp. 67-83* 159 realistic plans, regardless of the Immediate needs of the people, may result not only in an economic and political fiasco, but also creates further burdens on the already overburdened people* For example* a planner may dream of mechanizing agriculture and of introducing "power farming," Yet, the immediate need of a long—frustrated people may be simple handtools, and a metal plow, and their cognitive—perceptual processes might be governed, at the moment, by the simple desire of making the ends meet, satisfying his hunger, keeping his back warm. At this stage, it would be much wiser to introduce minor reforms with more Immediate results* For the people would be more susceptible to such changes, since, in view of their pressing needs they would be more realistic• C, The Re—educative Process, Whatever the need-value systems and cognitive perceptual structure of individuals may be, deliberate planning of social and economic activities goes hand-in-hand with "re-education." He—education is a process in which changes of knowledge and beliefs, changes of values and standards, changes of emotional attachments and needs, and changes of everyday conduct occur within the framework of the individual1 s total life in society*^* To teach a peasant, long-accustomed to the wooden—plow, bow to operate a tractor is not merely a matter of teaching a set of new operating skills* Before the peasant can become a skilled tractor operator, he will have to acquire a new system of habits, standards,

-^Kurt Levin, Resolving Social Conflicts, p* 58* 160 and values peculiar to the thinking and behavior of a modern farmer* Those who want to initiate an effective re-education program, need additional insight into the dynamics of the process and the constella­ tion of farces that might be dealt with under varying conditions* The re-educative process affects the individual in three ways: (1) it changes his cognitive structure; (2) it modifies his valences and values; (3) it affects motoric action, involving the degree of the in­ dividual's control over his physical and social movements.^ The "re-educator" should have a thorough understanding of the way in which each of these above-mentioned psychological components are affected by any specific step in re—education* It has already been realized that re-education is not simply a rational process* Abstract methods of transmitting knowledge help only very little in changing one's subsequent outlook and conduct. The following premises might have some guiding value for the re-educator: 1* The re-educative process has to fulfill a task which is essentially equivalent to change in culture* 2* Even extensive first-hand experience does not automatically create concepts (knowledge)* Systematic search (experiment) for the truth may be necessary* 3* Social action no less than physical action is steered by perception (of facts and values)* Thus the basic task of re-education is to change the individual's social perception* Without this change in social perception a change in the in­ dividual's social action cannot be realized* U. As a rule, the possession of correct knowledge does not suffice to rectify false perception* It is known that seme relation exists between visual perception and knowledge* Yet, the lines which appear curved in an optical illusion do not straighten out as soon as we know that they are straight*

15Ibid,, p. 59 161 5. Incorrect stereotypes (prejudices) are functionally equiva­ lent to wrong concepts (theories)* 6* Changes in sentiments do not necessarily follow changes in cognitive structure. Knowledge and sentiments are independent to a marked degree, unless there is an active involvement in the problem. 7* A change in action, ideology, a real acceptance of a changed set of facts and values, a change in the perceived social world — all three are different expressions of the same pro­ cess* Social perception and freedom of choice are interre­ lated*

8. Acceptance of the new set of values and beliefs cannot usually be brought about item by item* 9* The individual accepts the new system of values and beliefs by accepting belongingness to a group* The chances for re-educa­ tion seem to be increased whenever a strong we—feeling is created*^

Deliberate planning goes hand-in-hand with re-education* Re-edu­ cation influences conduct only when the new system of needs, values, and beliefs dominates the individual's cognitive-perceptual structure* It is the argument of this study that an improved communication and re-education through mass communication media contribute to this end* 2. Improved Communication May Facilitate the Re-educstive Process and Help Bring About the Desired Change and Action* A. Socio—Economic Development and Ccwmninication* The central issue of our time is the transition toward a planned society — a society where opportunities for social integration and economic development are deliberately planned* In such a society communications emerge as one of the most vital factors in carrying out

^Ibid., pp. 60-6 6 * 162

the intended developments. The importance of communications is elo­

quently expressed in the following quotation: Communications are the bloodstream which provides the vitalizing and unifying force in modern civilization* Along this stream flow the thoughts, the knowledge and the information which make it possible for complex in­ dustrial societies to function and for underdeveloped countries to fertilize their ancient cultures with new ideas and methods #17

The potentialities of this vast "reservoir of power" might be used far both constructive and destructive purposes* Therefore, the hand­ ling of this highly sensitive and complicated social technique poses

serious questions* What is the message? For what audience? For what purpose? With what effect? These are only a few of the critical questions* An Indiscriminate use of communications and an uncritical acceptance of the content may well add misinformation to ignorance and the "dictator^ web" to the chains of poverty and disease*

In a democratically planned society, most of the planning is done by specialized agencies for the community* It should be pointed out, however, that in a planned society government and the comnunity are no longer separable entities*A complete understanding and approval of, and confidence in, the intended reforms on the part of the communi­ ty are essential to the success of the program of development and of the government*

The results of systematic or even superficial studies concerning underdeveloped areas have made it mere and more evident that the

^■7Arno G* Hath, "Communication and Economic Development" Inter­ national Conciliation, no* U77, (January 1952) p. 1* (Quotation xs 1 bom the prAiaie by Anne Winslow, Ed.) ^Karl Mannheim, op* cit*, p* 115* 163 greatest obstacle to socio-economic reconstruction is not necessarily

the lack of funds and equipment but rather the lack of interest and

support by public opinion. Indeed the public is frequently indiffer­

ent, ignorant or hostile. This situation is mainly caused by the lack

or inadequate use made of the media of communication and information.

In any underdeveloped country, one finds a high and direct

correlation between lack or absence of communications (railways,

highways, telephone, radios, printing press, film, and television)

and the backwardness of the people and country. As a result of the

absence or deficiency of communications, the majority of people of all

the underdeveloped countries have been isolated into peasantry and are practically prevented from participating in the main stream of national

life. The situation in highly developed countries, however, is totally different. The absence of a peasantry in the United States, for in­

stance, may readily be attributed to the country's broad public edu­ cation system, rural delivery of the mails, rural electrification, im­ proved rural roads, rural telephones, radios, and television. As a result of this ever exp an ding system of communications, the American farmers have not been isolated into a peasantry, have been active participants in the national life, and are less tradition-bound than farmers anywhere else.^

To show the alnnni ng inequality between the systems of communica­ tions of the highly-developed and underdeveloped countries, the fol—

1?Theodore W. Shults, "A Guide to better Policy for Agriculture, ■ Consumer Reports, V. 19. (April 195U) pp. 187-188# 161* lowing figures would suffice:

While the United States has i*0,709,389 telephones, India with more than twice as many inhabitants has only 128,911 telephones, Indonesia with seventy—eight million inhabit­ ants, only 35,750 telephones and Pakistan with seventy—five million, only 17,UU5* The United States has 1,773 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 5U,017,938 copies; Saudi Arabia has not a single daily newspaper. The United States has 19,796 motion picture theatres with 12,38U,l50 seats, as contrasted with 1* cinemas, seating 2,$00 people, in Afghanistan. The United States has 2,890 broadcasting and 108 television stations; in many countries there are only one or two radio stations. While the United States has more than 105,000,000 radio and 15,600,000 television receivers, twenty countries have less than 100,000 radios, five less than 5,000. ... In the United States, there are mare than 675 radio sets per thousand in­ habitants ... 305 in Denmark..; in India, Indonesia and Saudi Arabia, however, the ratio is only one or two sets per thousand inhabitants. . . "20

In this comparison Turkey (with its 200 newspapers, approximately

600 movie theatres, four existing and three prospective radio stations and 79U,657 radio receivers) stands in a relatively fortunate position.

Without the means of communication, it is difficult, if not im­ possible, to inform the people about programs of socio-economic de­ velopment and to enlist their cooperation for their implementation.

Strangely enough, however , problems of communications — mass communi­ cations in particular —- have been almost entirely neglected in the plans and programs of socio-economic development and technical assis­ tance. Although, in Turkey, there are efforts to organise and improve the use of mass media, there is no concrete evidence that the develop­ ment of film and radio services, and the problem of public information have been systematically integrated in broader economic and social

Arno 1. Huth, op. cit., pp. U-5. 165 projects*

This question of systematic integration is apparently a universal

one. It is undertaken substantially only in the British Commonwealth.

Turkey, in order to initiate more constructive, energetic, and inten­

sive action in her efforts in socio—economic development, must examine

the communications1 role and must integrate the communication strategy

with economic, social, and educational projects* B. Ccmmunication and the Communicative Behavior,

So far there has been no attempt in this study to explain what

communication means* The concept may be approached and explained from

several points of view, e.g., cultural anthropology, sociology,

semantics, cybernetics, and psychology. It is not, however, the intent

of the writer to engage in an academic discussion of the concept of

communication. The purpose here is to present the key points and ter­ minology of the concept which might make its understanding possible.

Whatever the approach to its explanation may be, the term com­ munication, broadly speaking, covers any instance of establishment of commonage i.e., the making common of same property to a number of things.^ Such an establishment of a commonage (common meanings, common attitudes, common selectors in the form of significant symbols) makes it possible to call out the same response in both self and the 22 other* Without the cannon context necessary for community of mean­ ing, no adequate response can be called out, therefore, no comnrunica-

21charles Morris, Signs, Language, and Behavior, p. 191* 22vralter Ccutu, op* cit., pp* 283-286* 166 tion takes place.

The term communication may also be defined as "anything that con­ veys meaning, that carries a message from one person to another.” The

exchanged "message" may be an Idea, a feeling, and attitude, a philo­

sophy of life, a skill, etc. The criterion for the success of the communicative act is the degree to which it effects the desired ad­ justment or influences other people.^

So far as human beings are concerned, communication is "the guiding motive" of their life. It is a strong impulse or behavior.

Civilization exists and society and social institutions can be under­ stood only by virtue of communication and the means of communication.^*

As a behavior, communication is placed in the conceptual frame­ work of the current cormulations regarding cognitive-perceptual pro­ cesses conceived as dynamically related to the need—value systems of individuals. According to these conceptualisations, these systems, which are central in the personality structure of the individual, re­ sult in instabilities and disequilibriums. These disequilibriums are coordinated with an increase in tension in the individual. Cognitive- perceptual processes structure the environment in such a manner as to reduce tension.

Viewed within this conceptual framework, communicative behavior is a "specific form of molar behavior" which occurs in a field possess­ ing specified properties. Psychological, social, and physical forces

23p. e . Brooker, "Communication In the M o d e m World," Audio- Visual Materials of Instruction, p. 5*

^*Weiner, The Human Use of Human Beings, pp. 3, 9. 167 operating interdependently within this field, determine the course of

this behavior and its outcomes. For a thorough understanding of the

communicative behavior*

(a) the forces which determine the effects of communication, i.e., constructs regarding individuals designated inter­ preters; (b) the forces which determine the production of communications i.e., constructs about communicators~; (c) the nature of communications content considered as a stimulus field; (d) the characteristics of the situation or field in which com­ munication occurs;

should be explored and formulated.

Practically any communicative act includes a communicator, a communicatee or interpreter, communications content, means of communi­ cation, and communication situation. Therefore, a brief explanation of these terms would be in order here.

(1) A c ommunic a tar is the user, producer, or controller of a body of sign—symbol material with the intent of cognitively

structuring the field of specific interpreters or communica­

tees who are assumed by the communicator to have specific

needs and demands. (2) Interpreter or cocmunicatee is the one in idiom the sign-pro­

cess is aroused by the signs of the communicator. Or, an in­

terpreter is the one who perceives a specific body of sign—

symbol material produced by the communicator as a stimulus

field in term of his existing systems of needs, expectancies,

and demands. The communicatee may be the communicator himself.

^Franklin Fearing, Toward a Psychological Theory of Human Com­ munication, Reprint from J. o£ Personality, ppT 71, 7** (3) Communications content is an organized stimulus field con­

sisting of signs and symbols produced by a communicator and

perceived through single or multi-sensory channels* (U) Means of communication are those media which serve the pro­ cess of communication, the process of making common*

(5) Communication Situation, Every communicative act occurs in a

situation possessing quasi-physical, quasi-social and quasi­

psychologic al properties which induce and determine the course

of behavior of communicators and communicatees* Characteris­

tically, this situation is ncrt always well structured, hence

increases tension on the part of the potential communicator

and communicatee. The comnunication content is an attempt to

structure the situation cognitively. If and when the per­

ception of such content brings communicators and communicatees

into a dynamic relationship, communication is said to have occurred*26

In the communication situation, the important dynamic fact is "how the person perceives the situation and what he wants In it." The pro­ duction of the stimulus field, or content, in a communication situation is rather directed and intentional than random* This intention is correlated with a tension system and assumes future effects* The way the communicator perceives the communicatees is likely to determine the Intent and nature of the communication content*

The major difficulty in modern communications is that the communl-

26Ibid,, pp. 72-7U, and, Charles Horris, op* cit., p. 119* 169 cat or and communicatee are separated spatially and temporally. For

this reason, the content produced Is usually based on assumptions about

communicatees and may not be readily modified In terms of communicatee

response. The difficulty in making this modification may be inherent

in the psychological make-up of the communicator or In the technologi­ cal limitations of the medium used.

Communications content is "the primary agency in human society

through which individuals have social relationships with each other

and with their physical environment." 27 ' Such a content may furnish the frame of reference for human action. In order to achieve this

action, however, communications should be highly "planned" and com­ municatee centered. That is, the communicators should be explicit regarding the effects to be achieved on particular interpreters. The reverse is a relatively unspecific and greatly communicator-centered communication. In a communication as such we find an "expressive be­ havior" rather than "ccmmunicative behavior."

In addition to the specificity of intent, coronunications have other such dimensions as reality, authentic it y, ambiguity, congruency.

The degree of these contribute to the success or failure of the com­ municative process.^®

Besides being a behavior, communications may also be considered as a social process, or a social instrument. In this sense, it has two major functions in society:

2?Ibid., p. 77. 2 ® Ibid., pp. 77—86. 170 (1) social control; (2) to provide for harmonious social change.**^ What has been referred to so far as socio-economic planning or programs of socio-economic development, all imply some degree of both social control and social change. The extent to which the communica­ tion process allows us to maintain a certain consensus on how we want that control and change to take place and to identify their goals, de­ termines its success or failure* The result may be either a complete breakdown of social organization or a conscious social participation. Since the development of modern mass media of communications, the problems of social control have moved into a new plane, i*e*, from face-to-face contact to a more and more indirect communication, indi­ rect transmission of facts and ideas. In either case, communications boil down to the problem of interplay between individuals and social situations as they are set up by culture. In this interplay, the main objective is to evoke certain responses and to bring about certain actions. Perhaps one of the most important points far a communicator and planner to keep in mind is that, in order to bring about the desired responses and actions on the part of the in­ dividuals, they must take into account the need, value, attitude, and perceptual systems of the individuals which define aid determine their "reaction patterns."^ C. Communication, Persuasion, and Action.

John E. Ivey Jr., "Communications as Social Instrument," Communication in modern society, p. 11*8.

30lbid>, pp. 1U8, 150. 171 Due to the growing importance of the role of mass communications in the economic, political, and social organizations of modern society* the effectiveness of communication has become a major concern in human relations research* As it has been pointed out earlier, the communication process is effective to the extent to which it brings about the desired response, action, and change* When and if the intentions of the communication are not realized, this may be attributable either to the persistence of the opinions and habits on the part of the interpreters, or to a wrong approach and lack of persuasion on the part of the communicator and communication content* A persuasive communication is actually a learning experience which successfully induces the individual to accept new opinion, idea, even skill. One key element in the persuasion situation is the "recommended opinion" presented in communication* This key element may be conceptualized as "a compound stimulus which raises tho critical question and gives a new answer. Suppose, the communicator con­ cluded that "It will be at least five years before Turkey will be economically self-supporting," In presenting this idea, it is assumed that the communication contains words which operate as effective stimuli in posing the question, "How long before Turkey will be econ­ omically self-supporting?" The answer stated in the conclusion is a specific one, "at least five years," Unless statements presented in communication operate to pose a question and suggest an answer, com-

I* Kovland; I* L, Janlsj H. H, Kelley, Ccraminication and Persuasion, p, 10. 172 munication may not be regarded as capable of inducing a new opinion. Persuasive communication is effective insofar as it stimulates the individual to think both of his initial opinion and of the new opinion recommended in the communication. We should be reminded, how­ ever, that mere thinking does not result in the acceptance of a new opinion. In order to change opinion it is necessary to create a ''rational" support far the conclusion and a greater incentive for making the new implicit response than for making the old one. Here lies a very important hint for planners and communicators.- Assumedly, there are three main classes of stimuli in the com­ munication situation which can produce the shifts in incentives: (1) the observable characteristics of the perceived source of the communication;

(2) the setting in which the person is exposed to the communica­

tion;

(3) such content elements as "arguments" and "appeals.” Of course, the successful operation of these stimuli as incen­ tives is determined by the predisposition of the individual:

A successful communication is one in which these various stimuli are both adapted to the level of verbal skill of the individual and capable of stimulating his motives so as to foster acceptance of the recommended opinion and action.33

Another important aspect of persuasion is that the general prin­ ciples of learning concerned with attention and comprehension operate,

3^Ibid., p. 11.

33Ibid., pp. 11-12. 173 assumedly, in persuasion as well. Nevertheless, an essential differ­ ence between instruction and persuasion involves the expectations or anticipations that affect a person's motivation to accept or reject the communication. Three types of expectations are operative in in­ creasing or decreasing the degree of acceptance: (1) expectations of being 'right* or 'wrong'; (2) expectations of being impartially advised, or of being manipulated by the c crmunicator; (3) expectations of being approved or disapproved by others. These expectations, which are involved in persuasion situations, range on a continuum from strongly facilitating expectations which motivate acceptance to strongly interfering expectations which moti­ vate rejection.-^* Action. It has been reiterated several times that one of the criteria of an effective communication is the realization of the intended action. By saying intended action we want to make a distinction between the already prevailing routine action and the one which is new and might be introduced to replace the old one. This action does not necessarily have to be an overt one. It may be an acceptance of the message com­ municated, or a commitment to what has been said. In any case, a rational acceptance and execution of the action should be assumed. If an action is not rationally accepted, that is, If the person whom we went to act does not have an intelligent insight into the implications and consequences of the action that action can­ not be said rationally accepted and executed. For example, a common

3Uibid., pp. 290-293. 17U soldier carries out an entire series of functionally rational actions accurately without having any idea as to the ultimate end of his actions or the functional role of each individual act within the framework of the whole. ^ Whether a series of actions is functionally rational or not is determined by two criteria*

(1) functional organization with reference to a definite goal) (2) a consequent calculability when viewed from the standpoint of an observer or a third person seeking to adjust himself to it.36

Here rests an important hint for the socio-economic planner of action and far the communicator who might be responsible for inducing the individuals into action through a persuasive communication.

Action, however, is not so easy to get. This may be caused not only by the failure of communication but also by the very human factor which prevents one to go through the •’painful'1 process of re-education lest the "comfort” and status quo might be disrupted. Or, despite the achievement in creating the necessary motivation far action, it might be frustrated by lack of specific outlets for learning and for the realization of action. An agricultural planner, far instance, may design programs for the use of metal plow and fertilizers and may go into the trouble of communicating the idea. If the metal plow and fertilizer are not made available at the sane time at least to ex­ periment with, what action can be expected?

The following are suggestions which might be of seme practical value to the Turkish planner and communicator*

3$Karl Mannheim, Man and Society In an Age of Reconstruction, P. 5U. ------36ibid., p. 53. 175 1. Start where people are. 2* Try conversion through diversion, that is, use the old knowledge and action to start the new. 3. Be satisfied with little changes. Progress is a series of nudges, not a big jump. U. Provide local examples. 5. The personal flavor in communication may also be an im­ portant factor in getting action. This implies an infor­ mal approach. 6. Team effort is an important way of getting action. Moti­ vation may thus be heightened and explanations made clearer. 7. Don't expect too much too s o o n . 37

To this we might add:

8. Keep a close relationship between action and "action re­ search," in order to expand fact finding and to make necessary modifications in your action plans. Where action research is closely geared to a program of action, the field worker can determine the 'absolute' effective­ ness of any single step and can evaluate the applicability of his program in terms of the target g r o u p . 3°

3?Edgar Dale, "How Do You Get Action,” The News Letter, v. xviii, no. 3, (December 1952) pp. 1—U.

3&D. Krech and R. S. Crutchfield, Theory and Problems of Social Psychology, p. 501. V

What Media

Why, Where, How?

So far seme majocr problems of Turkey have been causatively anal­ yzed, cornmunication and education demands involved in these problems have been explored, and the why of a ccrrjpunicative—remedial approach to their solution have been considered. Such a communicative—remedial approach involves an extensive use of mass media of communication,

For, in the solution of the fundamental problems of the country and in bringing about the desired technological, industrial, agricultural, social, and economic changes, the cooperation of those who are to be directly affected by these changes are indispensable.

This Implies an enlightened and adjusted public opinion, which, in turn, requires information and explanation of the projects and their goals. Re-education and diffusion of knowledge and information, the pre-requisite3 of change, cannot be achieved through traditional farms of education. New methods and means must be used — especially in the countries where the time factor in the process of "catching up" with the modern world is vital* Mass communication through mass media is one of these neiw methods. Before considering the mass communication media with regard to their use (in this study only radio, film, and TV) in socio-economic development, the existing mass media facilities in

Turkey will be studied*

176 177 I. Present Mass Cccimunica tlon Facilities and Their Use in Turkey.

A, Radio,

"Mechanized mass production" and dissemination of ideas through radio have become one of the outstanding characteristics of m o d e m timfs. It did not take very long for the principles of Faraday and

T. C. Maxwell, and the early works of H. R. Hertz, E. Branly and

Guglilmo Marconi, to start a new race for the domination of the space through electro-magnetic waves.

This race has been intensified as soon as the very important role of radio in fashioning men's minds and its social implications have been realized. As the writer would prefer the term, the race in electronics could be illustrated by the following example: The number of the middle and short wave stations in the European countries jumped frcm 123 in 1926 to 310 in 1938. And the total amount of power in­ creased from *116 in 1926 to 8230 in 1938. It may be noticed that as against a 152 per cent increase in the number of the stations, the increase in power is 7000 per cent. This was mainly caused by the fact that, in view of the increase in the number of stations, international agreements confined radio services to limited frequency bands. Difficulties created by these limitations initiated a power race between nations which still continues.

Radio in Turkey. The first experimental broadcasts in Turkey were carried out in

1923 in a hall at the University of Istanbul. In 1927* Turkey Joined the international race by establishing her first broadcasting system.

The wireless stations established by P. T. T. (mail, telegraph and 178 telephone) administration in Ankara and Istanbul provided for this service*

After the first experimental broadcasts, the operation of this service was transferred to the "Turkish Wireless Telephone, Incorpora­ ted." This corporation, however, failed to keep pace with the rapid developments in Europe at that tame.

In order to close the gap and to take the proper place in the international scene, the government made preliminary studies to es­ tablish a powerful station in Ankara. The preparations for this pur­ pose started in 1933* In 1936 the operation of the service was transferred to the government. Two years later (1938)> the radio

Ankara was put into operation*

Since then, the service rendered by this station to improve and increase the public interest in radio broadcasting has been outstand­ ing. This can be confirmed by the following statistical data:

Tear The Number of Receivers The Rate of Increase 7 5 5 5 1936 1061*0 1*0.00 1937 25510 233.00 1938 1*6230 102.90 1939 711*18 35.25 19U0 9121*1 27.75 19U1 99978 9.57 19U2 123671* 23.52 19U3 150095 13.63 191*1* 170530 13.63 191*5 178762 1*.90 191*6 187579 5.00 191*7 207650 9.00 19U8 21*0525 17.99 19U9 287831 19.66 1950 3621*56 1953 (September) 791*657 The highest rate of increase coincides with the dates of 1937 17 9 (233 per cent) and 1938 (103 per cent) when the operation of the radio service was transferred to the government.^

The rapidly increasing public interest has necessitated the es­

tablishment of regional radio stations. The first of these stations, Radio Istanbul, was completed by R. C. A. (Radio Corporation of Ameri­

ca) in 19U9* It has been in operation since September 19U9> with a

power of 1$0 kilowatts.

The third regional station (short wave) is Radio Izmir which has been in operation since August 1950 on an experimental basis. Its

power does not exceed UOO vat (0.5 kilowatt) and it broadcasts on U5*U5 meters. In addition, three new middle—wave radio stations will be built in Adana, Erzurum, and Izmir, and will be put into operation by

the end of 1955* The following table shows the present status of

Turkish radio stations m

Name of the Station Call-sign Wavelength Power Frequency Radio Turkey TAR 16U8 meters i2o kw 182 Kc/s Ankara I TAQ 19-7U m. 20 KW 15195 Kc/s TAP 31.70 m. 20 KW 9U65 Kc/s Ankara II TAS Ul.18 m. 100 KW 7285 Kc/s TAT 31.53 m. 100 KW 9515 Kc/s TAU 19.79 m. 100 KW 15160 Kc/s TAV 16.8U m. 100 KW 17820 Kc/s Istanbul TAW U28 m. 150 KW 701 Kc/s Izmir ------U5-U5 m. 0.5 KW 6600 Kc/s The area of coverage and clear reception of these stations varies.

The area of transmission of the longwave station during the daytime

covers whole Turkey, except the eastern borders, with a radius of UOO—

500 km. But this area is narrowed down during the evenings, and clear

reception becomes limited to an area of 80—100 km. in radius. Follow­

ed. R. Ertug, Radyo igletmeciligi ve Meseleleri, p. 59. 180

ing a large fading zone, and after 500-600 km. there starts the

"secondary zone." The area of reception for the shortwave broadcasts is 25-30 km.

in radius, then it fades out to be heard clearly in the countries for which it is intended. The station Ankara I (short wave) broadcasts

for the bordering countries and the Balkans. The station Ankara II broadcasts for the North and South .American countries, Western Europe,

Bar East and India, with the antenna angles of 30 and 60 degrees.

(See the map)

Besides the regular broadcasting system, there are radio stations within certain educational institutions, established to train pro­

fessional personnel far the field. These are:

1. Radio of Technical University of Istanbul (250 volt, 0.25 KW,

U2 meters, 700 kc, shortwave).

2. Radio of Technical School of Istanbul (50 volt, 0.05 KW, U2 m.,

7100 kc, shortwave).

3. Radio of Vocational Teachers' College for Men.

Some of these stations have been making experimental broadcast for more than ten years.

Today Turkey is one of the 22 members of U. E. R. (Union Europeene

de Radio Diffusion) which was established in 1950 upon the Russian in­

tent to dominate the International Union of Radio Broadcasting (U. I. R.) The administrative center of the organization is in Geneva,

Switzerland and the technical center is in Brussels, Belgium. 181

Map IV

The Diffusion Area of Radio Istanbul 182

Operation and Sponsorship.

At present, Turkish radios are owned and operated by the State*

The central administration of the existing radios is under the respon­

sibility of the Turkish ffress, Broadcasting, ami Tourism Department *

The radio affairs are handled by an office within the framework of

this department which is called the Turkish Press and Tourism Depart­ ment Radio Office,

The task of this office, as asserted by the Press and Tourism

Law (no. 5392, Art*, 9), is "to arrange the operation of the radio broadcasting and to regulate the relations of the country with other international broadcasting associations."

Another important organization in connection with radio affairs is the R. Y* D, K* (Consultative Committee on Radio-broadcasting)*

The above-mentioned law (no. 5392, Art. 15) provides for the establish­ ment of such a committee:

In order to present their views on the principles and programs of the broadcasts to be made over the Turkish radios, a Con­ sultative Committee on Radio broadcasting is established. This Committee is composed of the following members: (a) One representative from the Ministry of Education; one from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; and one from the Chairmanship of General Staff; (b) Representatives (one for each) from the literature, law, commerce, history, medicine, and science de­ partments, as they will be designated by the Inter- Universities Committee from among the faculty members; (c) Representatives (one for each) from the Academy of Fine Arts and Ankara State Conservatory, as they will be elected by the facility councils from among them­ selves; (d) Three experts in the field of fine arts as they will be designated by the General Director's Office; (e) Two representatives from the press associations as they will be elected from among the candidates desig­ nated by these associations on the basis of drawing name lots* 183 The lair considers the director general as the natural member of

this committee.

As might have been deduced from the f orerunning explanation, this

Committee is created in order to take the necessary measures far the

constant development and improvement of the Turkish radio broadcasting

service. The same article provides at least tiro meetings a year. De­

cisions reached in these meetings are sent to the office of thedirec­

tor general as recommendations to be considered and implemented.

As attached to this central organization, there are units directly responsible for the operation of the radio services; The Directorship

m of Radio Ankara, and the Directorship of Radio Istanbul, These are

functional units in the sense that, from the standpoint of technical installations, personnel, and authority, they form a complete organi­ zation with a capacity to design and broadcast definite programs. The main functions aid services in these units are;

a) The Office of the Director b) The Office of the Chief Engineer (Technical Service) c) The Office of the Program Director (Program Service) d) The Managership of Musical Broadcasts e) The Managership of Radio Plays and Verbal Broadcasts f) The Managership of Shortwave Broadcasts g) The Service of Administrative Affairs h) The Broadcasting Committees

Finance.

As in many other European countries, the radio service in Turkey draws its ordinary revenue from appropriations in the State budget.

The State, in turn, receives the sums accruing from fees paid far the use of receiving-sets. The fees vary according to the category of the set and the use to which it is putt 181*

TL 2 for crystal sets; TL 5 to 10 Tor valve sets; TL 10 to 50 for sets installed in public places; TL 5 Too* sets installed in educational establishments or hospitals; and TL 1 for sets installed in ccmnmnity centers (e.g.. People 1s Houses)•2

When several loud—speakers are connected to a set, 25 per cent is charged for every extra loud-speaker* For sets used for the reception of press news and stock exchange reports, the tax is TL 50 to 100 according to locality*

There is a close correlation between the increasing public inter­ est dn radio and the increase in the revenues accruing from fees paid for the use of receiving-sets* This point can be illustrated by the following figures which show the increase in the radio revenues within a ten-year period:

Fiscal Year The section in the budget Lira ...." ' 32 --- ■ 7 0 6 ,6 0 0 19U1 32 750,000 19U2 31 9 7 0 ,0 0 0 19U3 31 1 ,1 0 0 ,0 0 0 19UU 29 1 , UOO,000 19U5 29 800,000 19U6 29 1, 500,000 19U7 29 1, 700,000 191*8 29 1,300,000 191*9 33 2 ,2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1950 36 2,750,000 1951 30 3 ,0 5 0 ,0 0 0 1 8 ,7 2 0 ,0 0 0 As a source of income, the place of advertising in the radio busi­ ness has recently been appreciated* At present, Turkish radios accept commercial advertising, provided it will not disturb the audience and yet will bring money to the state treasury* The kinds of advertisement acceptable by the radios are those sent by:

2F. Terrou and L* Solal, Legislation far Press, Film, Radio, UNESCO, p. 190. — 8------18$ (a) Official bureaus and institutions, municipalities, local

administrations (provinces), State economic organizations,

public service associations, charity and cultural associa­

tions, political parties (advertisements without any politi­

cal propaganda flavor).

(b) All kinds of dealers (advertisements concerning the commercial

activities of dealers). (See the table II)

After this sketchy account of the development of radio services

iu Turkey, the main features of the radio programs will be considered next. More than anything else, the content and the nature of these pro grams can reveal the quality of the service rendered. iain Features of the Radio Programs.

An examination of the early programs reveals that in the beginning

the main objective of the programs was to be entertaining. However, between the years of 1929-1936, alongside the entertaining nature of the prograns, their use as a tool of political propaganda became another important objective*

The general tendency today is toward a new concept of radio which is designed not only to entertain but at the sane time to educate the masses within its reach. To realize this objective, radio programs are so arranged as to meet artistic, cultural, economic, political,

agricultural, commercial, hygienic, social, and educational needs both of the individuals and masses. Radio Au vertise:.:ent

Durations of Corning broad­ boon broad- Evening Troadcast s the broad­ casts (x) cast!s casts 16. 00-20.00 20.00-2 2.1;5 Period Period

Kinds of the Price The text Price The text Price The text Fiice The text Broadcasts of the of the of the of the Lira verbal Lira verbal Lira verbal Lira verbal adver­ adver­ adver­ adver­ tisement tisement tisement tisement

Short Advertisement 125 1 min. 75 1 min. 125 1 min. 100 1 min. 10 words 1C words 10 words 10 words jj | 5 min. 1000 h$ s. 700 1 min. 600 h5 s. 1000 U5 s. 48 r o S CJ s fo 10 min' 1500 1 min. 1000 2 min. 1300 1min. 1500 1 min. o S o s. 30 s. 30 s. •h a u 30 p 8ft

rrt (ft

• 2000 2 min. 1300 2 min. 1700 2 min. 2000 2 min. 30 s. adverti; The The dur; form form of (x) Ho advertisement is accepted for the morning broadcasts, except Sundays and official holidays.

From K. It. Ertug, Radyo Tsletaneciligi ve Leseleleri, p. 1U8 Table II 90T 187

As already noted, in the designing of the programs, the judgments

of an expert Consultative Committee are taken into account* Further­

m o r e , public requests and the comments made by the Turkish press are

taken into consideration* Nevertheless, there is no evidence that

programs are evaluated and their appeal measured through a periodic or

continuous c onuminic at ion s research, based on the analysis of the con­

tent, the listeners* characteristics, gratification studies, etc*

Also, one does not find any office in the set-up responsible far con­

ducting communications and public opinion research*

The main features of the radio programs could be considered under

such general topics as:

I* Music broadcasts* II* Verbal broadcasts (radio talks) (a) News bulletins (b) Talks, conferences (c) Flays and skits (d) Announcements, advertisements III. Remote broadcasts, on the spot reports* IV* Transcriptions or recordings*

As far as music broadcasts are concerned, Turkish radios are in a unique position. This is because oriental and western tastes are com­ bined in the musical inclinations of the people. This, however, while making far richness in the program on one hand, creates controversy

on the other* Far it has never been possible to satisfy the demands

of those people with opposite tastes. Both parties have been complain­ ing about the insufficiency ctf the time devoted to either music,

(Turkish music 55 per cent, Western music U5 per cent).

Among the "verbal" broadcasts, news bulletins hold an important position. Due to their importance in regard to public opinion, the 188 preparation of the bulletins has been taken over by the Press, Broad­ casting, and Tourism Department since 19Ll|., and is being handled by the "Hews Service." The ratio of musical, verbal, and miscellaneous broadcasts over the major stations might be shown as follows:

Ankara Istanbul l™lr UU.30 hr.: 53% 51-30 hr.: 80.1$ 39-fTcT hr. x TBTH*? Music 2U.00 hr.: 28.6% 12.25 hr.: 19.k% 9.30 hr.:1 8 . Talks 15.30 hr.: 18.lx% 00.05 hr.: 0.2^ 1.10 hr.: 2.1# Uiscel.

Data concerning the number of the listeners of these programs in general or different phases of them are not yet available. One of the reasons for the unavailability of such data is that Turkish radios have large audiences outside the country — particularly in Iran, Azerbaijan,

Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Cyprus, Aegean Islands, Western Thrace, Bulgaria,

Romania, Yougoslavia, and Greece. Those outside listeners are either

Turkish in origin or the old nationals of the Ottoman Qnpire who are familiar with the Turkish culture and music.

Inside the country, the daily audience is estimated to average about 3.5-U.5 millions. Although the number of receivers cannot be compared with those of othar Western European countries, the incidence of listeners is approximately 5— 7 persons per set. It should be re­ membered that group listening is customary in Turkey.

At present, the daily broadcasting duration of the main radios is as follows: 189 Morning Noon Evening Broad. Broad Broad*

Radio Istanbul

Sunday 12.57 23.30 10 3310 33

Saturday 12.57 2U.00 11 0311 03 Other days 12.57 15.00 2 03 17.57 23.30 5 33 7 36

Radio Turkey (Ankara-Long Wave)

Sunday 8.28 U4.00 5 32 17.57 23.00 5 02 10 3U Saturday 7.28 9.00 1.32 12.15 15.00 2 U5 16.58 23.30 6 32 10 k9

Other days 7.28 9.00 1.32 12.15 1U.00 1 U5 17.58 23.00 5 02 8 19

Radio and Propaganda. No matter who owns the radio, be it a state or individuals, mildly speaking, a certain amount of propaganda behind every aspect of the program is very likely. The most important of all is, of course, political propaganda.

In the democratic countries, the utilization of radio by the political parties has for long been customary. However, in practically every country, the use of radio by the political parties is put under some regulations and sanctions. For instance, in France and Italy the regulation of the political propaganda is exercised by law; in England this is taken care of by mores and customs and by agreement between the 190 parties and B. B. C., in the United States this regulation is provided for by the orders issued by the Gederal Communications Commission* Until 19U6, there was no argument in Turkey as to who was going to make use of radio, in so Tar as political propaganda was concerned*

For there was no opposition party to claim any right or privilege over the state radios* However, since the inception of the multi-party system, the utilisation of radio by the political parties has become one of the most controversial issues of the Republic* Recently, provisions have been made by law in connection with the utilization of radios by the political parties* The relevant articles of the law read as follows (Press and Tourism Law no* 5392, Art. 23): Article 23* In order that they may explain their platform for the Grand National Assembly elections, among the poli­ tical parties which have terminated their conventions, those with organizations at least in the capitals of the provinces, or those with at least three representatives in the G* N* A* and with organizations at least in the capitals of three pro­ vinces, are given free-of-charge time over the State radios during a period starting 15 days prior to the elections and ending two days before the election day* Every political party which fits in the description above can deliver four 15-minute talks during this period*.• However, a new election law (no* 55U5* Feb* 16, 1950) amended the above provisions as follows; Article 1*5 ♦ Propaganda over the radio cannot exceed 10 minutes a day for each party. Those parties with candidates for less than five election zones cannot benefit from the provisions above* Those parties with candidates for more than 20 election zones can make use of the first provision twice a day* Of course, these provisions are not final, and are subject to fur­ ther amendments* It can be jxpected that, before long, more satis­ factory provisions will be made to regulate the propaganda activities 191 of the political parties, and the remaining obstacles to the realiza­ tion of genuine democracy will be eliminated.

Supply of Equipment.

No transmitters car studio equipment are at present manufactured in Turkey. There are few workshops for assembling receiving-sets, but

99 per cent of the sets have to be imported from abroad. The main exporting countries are the United States, and Great Britain which supiply Turkey with approximately 20,000 receiving-sets per year. The greatest obstacle to importation is the lack of foreign currency.

There are no custom duties on broadcasting equipment, as the State itself imparts all its requirements in this field. The custom duty an receiving-sets is approximately 30 per cent of their value according to the size of the set. However, the government, which has made great efforts to popularize broadcasting, is planning to facilitate the pur­ chase of the receiving sets by the following measures;

• a considerable reduction in custom duties;

. the construction of a factory for the manufacture of low-cost

receiving-sets, which may soon be undertaken by a Belgian firm.

. the rapid electrification of the country, especially rural

electrification, which is enabling listeners to do without

accumulators and batteries, is also easing the situation.

Professional Training. Professional training is given by the Technical University and by the Higher aid secondary technical schools. However, there is no school or establishment specializing in the training of radio engineers and technicians. 192 Recently, a two-men radio mission, requested by the Turkish government and sent by UNESCO, organized courses, which lasted 3-3*5 months, at Ankara for the training of sound engineers and program directors. The course in sound engineering was given by Mr. Jean

Bernard (Chief Sound Engineer of Radio Diffusion Fran^aise) and attended by 2h students. The course in radio production techniques was given by Mr. Garett (France, Radio producer) and was attended by lU students. The graduates of these courses are now employed by

Turkish radios.

In addition there are students sent abroad (U. S. and Europe) to study in the field of electronics and radio.

Conclusion.

Stress should be laid on the importance which the Turkish Govern­ ment attaches to the development of broadcasting and on the very great efforts made for the establishment of a program service of a high cultural and artistic standard.

Also, there has been a tremendous increase in the purchase and use of the radio receiving-sets — mainly due to price reductions and to the increase in the purchasing power of the peasants.

When schemes for the construction of new transmitters have been carried into effect, Turkey will have sufficient equipment to provide "satisfactory11 reception throughout the country.

Yet, all these cannot obscure the fact that, of the approximately six million fanilies in Turkey, only one—tenth have radios, thus leav­ ing nine-tenth of the problem unsolved. It would also be naive at this moment to assume that radio in Turkey has become an all-around 193 tool for mass education* Most serious broadcasts, by and large, do not reach people who are not likely to read serious printed matter, in fact, cannot read at all*

It is to be hoped that the government's plans for the local manu­ facture of low—cost receiving-sets and the organization of collective listening will soon be carried out. Otherwise, we will have to wait too long before we can make an effective use of radio as a tool for ■j r, ass education and enlightenment*''

3 . F i l m .

:.iotion pictures have now entered their second half century. In fifty years, the mechanical contrivances of Marey, Reynaud, the

Lumieres, Friese-Greene, Paul and Edison, and Henri Chretien, as de­ veloped into cameras and projectors, opened new horizons for man's vision and imagination* These contrivances also provided men with vicarious experiences, with an increasing degree of "realness,11 which not only entertain but teach as well*

Since the first emergence of the motion picture from the labora­ tories of abstract science as the Edison's "peep-show" called

"kinetoscope" (189U), the margin between the original scene and the projected one has been narrowed down step by step. The junction of the motion picture with electronics and the resultant "sound picture,"

^Data concerning radio in Turkey are based on the following sources: 1* H. R. Ertug, Radyo igletmeciligi ve Meseleleri, 2. Istanbul Radyosu (a booklet on RacUo Istaribul), 3* Press, Film, R~adio, UNESCO, li. Report of the Director General, 1951, UNESCO, 5* tVie data furnisEe3~Ey~the Directorate General of the Press, Broadcasting, and Tourism in reply to the ques­ tionnaire sent in connection with this study. 1 9h

the introduction of colored movies, finally the advent of 3—JL> (three-

dimensional) movies using ,rbinacular11 cameras and polarized light, and

"cinerama" and “cinemascope” which made “peripheral vision” possible

through the use of “anamorphoscopic lens," and “stereophonic sound,”

have contributed to this improvement*

Today, the motion picture as an entertainment medium outclasses

any other in the scope of its provision in the world, whose population

is estimated to buy more than 235*000,000 seats a week* Although it was invented out of the machine world, the motion picture has certain

anique features which are of great social and artistic significance:

1* The motion picture offers the services of its greatest artists and technicians to the remotest audience with a suitably equipped theatre or with a hall to accommodate a road show*

2, The motion picture offers a common level of performance to all audiences* All that is required is adequate equipment and efficient operation.

3- The motion picture is capable of offering a wide range of entertainment facilities on the same premises with change of program as often as patronage demands*

U* The motion picture is capable of offering entertainment on an international scale in the form of films from for­ eign sources which can be titled or given new sound tracks in the heme tongue*

5* The motion picture, with its newsreels, documentaries and record films can open the narrow windows of a remote lo­ cality until they overlook all the countries of jthe world, with its people, its events and its discoveries*4

Briefly, from the standpoint of its social implications, the motion picture serves as a record of social conditions (documentary),

as a carrier of social ideas (propaganda), as a visual expression of

^Roger Manvell, Film, pp. 13—lU 195 society (language), and as a creative force in social life (cultural)

Tivrough these services, the .film plays a heavy part in the revolution

of thought, in shaping our thinking, and in influencing our behavior

and lives.

Filin in Turkey. Structure. As against the governmental control and sponsorship

of broadcasting activities, there is no special government department

taking care of motion picture affairs in Turkey. Legislation is con­

fined to censorship, taxation and import duties.

Censorship, as a responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior, deals with public security, public morals and national sentiments.

Children under the age of twelve are not admitted at night to theatres

showing entertainment films. Local authorities have the power to pro­ hibit the showing of films that have passed the censor, when, in their opinion, they may cause disturbance of public carder. A rule laid down by the Military Authority prohibits export of uncensored films. An authorization to be issued by the police is required for photographing films outdoors.

hlovie technicians are not organized, but all employees in the motion picture field must be of Turkish nationality. The only pro­ fessional organization is the "Yerli Film Yapanlar CemiyetiH (National

Film Producers Association)•

Commercial Film.

Exhibition. There are about 600 35 mm. movie theatres in Turkey.

5L. Katz, "Social—Cultural Aspects of Photography," The Encyclo­ pedia of Photography, V. ix, p. 32^5. 196 Sane 70 per cent of these are regular and 30 per cent are open-air theatres which are active only during summer* There are no permanent

16 mn. theatres in operation* A ruling exists, according to which no

16 mm. entertainment films may be shewn within the radius of 15 km. of a theatre showing 35 nun, films* iiovie theatres in the larger cities give thirty showings per week, whereas in the provinces eight shows are given per week* The larger theatres in the cities change their programs once a week and other theatres twice weekly* Programs usually consist of a short film and a feature film* Turkish and foreign newsreels are also shown* Ex— liibition of these films as well as of other national and foreign films of educational character which are made available by the government free of charge, is obligatory. There are no newsreel theatres*

Movie theatres are privately owned and well equipped. No foreign capital is involved. The success of films in Turkey depends largely on receipts realized during the initial showing in the first class movie houses of Istanbul.

Although no precise figures of annual movie attendance are available, it is estimated in the neighborhood of 25,000,000, with annual per capita attendance of 1*1* The larger cities account for approximately 70 per cent of this total* Attendance is now 60 per cent higher than before the war* The average gross price of admission including tax is approximately 70 piastres (0*357 U* S* dollars) and is subject to municipal control*

As from 1 August 19U8, taxes on admission prices are 70 per cent of the net price (or U1 per cent of the groes price) when foreign 197

films are shown and 25 per cent of the net price (20 per cent of the

gross price) in the case of national films* These taxes, which include

a government tax, a municipal tax, a contribution to a fund for aiding

soldiers' families, are collected by the municipalities* Theatres do

not pay a performance fee for music on sound track. Plans to introduce such a tax are under consideration.

Distribution. There are some 30 distribution companies and no

agencies of foreign companies. Most producers of Turkish films also distribute other films* The following approximate percentages are given on grosses collected from films by different countries:

u. s...... • • • e «• 70 per cent ti National. .... • e • e w • 10 tt ti Egypt ...... ♦ • e e • * 5 n n France...... • • * » * • 5 tt n U. K...... ♦ w * • • • ii it Italy ...... • • * « * e 3 n ii Other countries . » • e * • m 2 tt

Films are rented to the theatres exclusively on a percentage bas­ is. Block-booking is practised* For import of films an import license from the Ministry of Commerce is required. There is no commercial distribution of 16 mm* film to any appreciable extent*

Sub-titling of fcreign films is obligatory, dubbing is not* But, since audiences prefer dubbed films, the number of such films is in­ creasing.

Impart duties on printed films are TL 9*62 per kilogram, (with a

5 per cent reduction for countries to which Turkey has extended most- favored-nation status), plus miscellaneous taxes amounting to 18 per cent of customs duty and plus an 18 per cent transaction tax, which is levied on the landed cost." 198

Production, There are five major studios and four in the making.

Of these, the Atlas Studio with one medium size and one small stage and the studio of Ipek Film with one stage also have a recording room, a carpenters shop, a painting shop, a mechanical workshop and a labora­ tory, each. The other studios are less adequately equipped.

These studios and laboratories are pr;ivately owned and no foreign capital is involved. Besides the major studios, there are some U0-£0 small producers which make use of the facilities of the major studios. Due to lack of experienced personnel and adequate equipment, the films produced are technically of rather modest quality, Sound recording is not usually done simultaneously with the photography, but afterwards in the re­ cording room. Average costs of production of a feature film are TL Uo,ooo-5o,ooo,

So far there are no plans for the production of animated films and very few color films have been produced. Films of informational character are produced by the Press Department of the Prime Minister1 s

Office,

Educational Film,

Although the evolution of the educational film may be traced back as early as 1893 (Passion Flay), full appreciation of its potentiali­ ties as an educational device is fairly recent. Compared with the technical and creative standards current in the theatrical motion picture, the pattern of the educational film was years behind, and 199

prior to 19h0 it was "cut to a dry and academic pattern.

Early educational films were in the nature of "the News Weekly"

(1910), scientific pictures, with slow or arrested motion, including

such subjects as the growth of plants, the emergence of butterfly frcm

chrysalis, etc. They were used as "fillers" in theatrical program.

The advent of the 16 mm. motion picture brought new impetus to

the educational film (1923)* Another landmark in the evolution of the

educational film is the introduction of "sound film." Early sound

films were actually silent pictures with a recorded commentary or

description. The development of 16 mm. sound-on—disk projector (1930)

and the following 16 mm. sound-on-film projector (1 9 3 3 ) opened new

horizons far the medium as an educational device.

The extensive use of the motion pictures by the Armed Forces

(especially in the U. S.) in their emergency training program and

their conspicuous success, heightened the educational circles' interest

in the educational films. Now, new films with definite educational value are being produced by professional film corporations, governmen­ tal agencies, industrial concerns, various public welfare groups, universities and school systems.

Technical refinement and development, however, have not stopped.

The advent of color and three dimensional photography offers new possibilities.

What is an Educational Film?

As to the nature, definition and classification of the educational

^G. M. Elliot, "The Genesis of the Educational Film," Film and Education, p. 18. 200

film, opinions vary. Obviously, because of its wide possibilities of

expression, the medium of film can hardly be classified except loosely.

Perhaps the following classification can be made. Nevertheless, the

distinctions are rather one of use than something inherently different

in nature of the films themselves:

1 ) the use of motion picture for record purposes; 2 ) the use of motion picture for the "creative treatment of ac tuality"5 3 ) the use of motion picture for the creation of film fiction.7

Between the extremes of the first two categories lie simple

"record films," Instructional Films, Educational Films, Propaganda

Films. Here a differentiation between "instructional" and "education­

al" is made on the ground that instructional films aim at explaining

a process so that the audience may learn it for themselves, whereas

educational films are made for classroom instruction and demonstration.

Their main concern is to provide further aid to demonstration in those

subjects where movement in a pictorial form is useful.®

When considered from a broad educational point of view, the motion

picture is a "multiple method of communication." Through this medium,

the whole gamut of human experience may be communicated from the educa­

tor to the learner wherever a learning situation exists. Since a rigid

classification of films as "educational" and "entertaining" is not al­

together sound, UcClusky's definition might be considered more appro­ priate and suitable. As he puts it, the educational film is:

^Roger Manvell, op. cit., p. 90.

8Ibid., p. 91- 201

... one which contributes to the achievement of* desirable educational goals by making effective use of motion pic­ ture as a medium of c cxnmunication.9

Inasmuch as the purposes of education are broad and multiple, any attempt to establish criteria an the basis of this definition is highly complex and difficult. For this very reason, producers seeking a sim­ ple production formula for educational films find that no such pattern exists.

Those who attempt to outline a comprehensive functional differ­ entiation of educational films are advised to take into account the following consider at icns:

(1) The educational value of films in teaching is their power

to communicate concepts involving motion.^

(2) The motion picture has the power to communicate ideas in a

realistic concrete manner not possessed by language — thus

offsetting verbalism in teaching*

(3) The motion picture can be used in connection with all types

of learning*

(U) The motion picture is a time-saving educational device

The potential contribution of the motion picture is very much de­ pendent upon the wise integration of the film, on the part of the com­ municator and/or educator, with the needs, interests, and activities

^McClusky, "The Nature of the Educational Film," Film and Educa­ tion, p. 23.

10This may be the motion of the camera as well as motion of the subject photographed.

11Ibid., pp. 26-27. 202

of the people or pupils, and with the programs of socio-economic de­

velopment. The vicarious experiences that the motion picture provides

may develop improved abilities to reason, to think, to farm opinions,

and to draw conclusions, even to acquire skills — but only when there

is a directed response to the ideas which it communicates* Educational Film in Turkey*

Until recently the Film Section of the Turkish Press Department

of the Prime Minister's Office was the only producer in the field of

educational film* The films produced by this Section are news films

on important events in Turkey and documentaries of an informational character, all on 35 mm. These films are used both in Turkey and abroad in cooperation with newsreels companies*

Consistent with the world-wide trend toward using mare and more audio-visual aids or mass communication media in the educational activities of all levels and kind, the Turkish government requested expert aid from UNESCO to improve and reorganize its facilities and activities in this field* Along this line, Dr* Adolf Hubl, Director of the Bundesstaatliche Hauptshelle fur Lichtbuild und Bildungfilm at

Vienna, was sent to Turkey in 1950. The purpose of the first part of this mission which lasted three months, was to introduce the use of audio-visual materials in schools aid institutions of higher learning and to give course of instruction to teachers on methods of using films in teaching*^ As a result of Dr* Hubl ’ s report and work, the Turkish Ministry

-^Report of the Director General, 1951* UNESCO, pp. 82-63. 203

of Education decided to establish a Visual Aids Center at Ankara*

actually called the Educational Film Center (Qgretici Filmier l&erkezi

«• - QFli)- This center* with its laboratories* projection roan, offices* workshops and stcre-room, was opened in April 3* 19$2.

The Center is charged with the task of providing the necessary equipment and materials and training personnel for the education of the in- and out-of-school children and adults through audio-visual aids. Mare specifically* the present activities of the Center are as follows:

A) To complete its organlzation and equipment, which requires time and utmost care. Although seme of the equipment had to be im­ ported from the U. S. and Europe, and seme had to be ordered specially, today, the Center is in a position to operate.

B) To establish branches in the 63 provinces. In such a relative­ ly large country as Turkey, it is rather difficult to carry out an audio-visual education program from a few centers. On this ground, considering the transportation and shipment facilities, 1 3 Regional

Centers have been established, with as many branches as the number of the provinces within the region attached to each center. Thus, in 1 3 provinces out of 63 there are Regional Centers and in the remaining $0 there are or there will be branches. In future, each branch will or­ ganize sub-branches in the districts within each province.

Today, the personnel far the 1 3 Regional Centers have already been trained and the necessary equipment far their operation have been provided. I n addition, 13 branches have been put Into operation. Al­ though the personnel for the remaining 3? branches have not as yet 20k

been trained, the schools can avail themselves of the services of the

Regional Centers until the branches are organized* (See the Map V)

C) To conduct courses for the training of the personnel to serve

at the Regional Centers and branches* Those who have already been

trained, are capable of conducting courses to train personnel for the

use and operation of audio-visual equipment and materials* With the

academic year of 1953, all teacher candidates began, while in school,

to undergo a course in the use and theory of audio-visual aids con­

ducted by these centers and branches* In—service courses for the

training of teachers will also be open*

D) T o prepare "diapositive" strips and films. In order to meet

the urgent need in this connection, the Educational Film Center ordered

"dispositive" strips and films from Europe and the U* S. appropriate

to the programs of schools of all level* But, this can only meet the

15 per cent of the need* The rest will, of course, be prepared in

Turkey.

So far, in addition to the materials brought from abroad and

dubbed in Turkey, 13 diapositive series, two stripB, and four films

have been prepared and made available to schools and other institu­ tions*

The financial sacrifices made far securing and preparing the audio-visual aids, make careful maintenance and handling most neces­

sary* Far this reason, no persons other than those who have been adequately trained, will be allowed to use or loan such equipment or material* The persons who have been trained by USIS (United States

Information Service) or other agencies can avail themselves of the :..an V

The present activities of the :xiucaticnal riL. Center ( j.'h) in Cooperation with U3I3. 16 ' . m tfe 35 mm film Kataloju U3I3

Km Qttrn

US-f/l/ordl- • Servtcr unit £V/m Crnfte A * u *■> n a I Gtmtr^for « f tt j

0 *nc A(J /o *»f ti U i i.rb'J 20

5 206 equipment and materials of QFM, provided their ability will be tested by QFM centers and branches and their certificates will be replaced*

E) To provide projectors and motion picture equipment for the

schools* At present, there is no production of equipment in Turkey*

Seme of the motion picture projection equipment is being imported from

Europe and the U. S. But, considering the peculiarities of the coun­ try, it is necessary to order equipment which is not available in the world markets. Along this line, seme projectors operating with kerosene have been designed by OFLi and manufactured in Austria*

F) To provide for the technical and pedagogical development of its own personnel* In this respect, the Center follows very closely the same activities abroad aid seeks the assistance of the local and foreign experts in order to increase the knowledge and experience of its personnel.

G) To cooperate with identical agencies (e.g., USIS).

The OFU has also sought the assistance and cooperation of the institutions engaged in audio-visual education activities, both in the country and abroad. UNESCO made it possible for the Director of the

Center and for two of his staff to study extensively the audio-visual activities and establishments in Austria and Western Germany. It also sent, as was mentioned, Dr. Hubl for five months to assist the govern­ ment's work in audio-visual education.

In this connection, the assistance of the Educational Film Center of the Austrian Ministry of Education and the Institute of the Educa­ tional Film of Western Germany should be mentioned* The cooperation between the USIS and QFM is most cardial and 207 fruitful. To support the OFM1 s activities, the USIS provided 13 sets

of motion picture equipment (sound), strips and films for use in the

13 Regional Centers* Also, in order to reach the villages without

electricity, the USIS's ten mobile units, each accompanied by a teacher

from the Ministry of Education, are in operation and close cooperation

in 10 Regions.

Considering the territorial difficulties in the three eastern

regions for the mobile units, the USIS furnished each of these regions with two generators, thus making it possible during the winter months

to carry on the audio—visual education activities in the villages without electricity*^

Because of their high relevence to the activities of the Educa­

tional Film Center, the reproduction of the following suggestions has been considered appropriate:

1. Production should be in the hands of specialized film­ makers who are prepared to study and experiment in edu­ cational film technique. 2. Planning of films should be carried out not with a view to wide sales or private profit, but as a definite part of the nation's educational curricula* Many important advanced films (or for that matter the right sort of sim­ ple ones) can be made only under subsidy* 3. Both planning and production should be intimately linked with the users' needs. The teacher knows little of the technique of film production* The technician knows little of curricula and classroom practise. Only by sympathetic collaboration between the two groups of specialists can the films be adequately made. The film producer should be as interested in the practical use of his finished product in the classroom as the teacher himself and should, as part of his researches, attend schools where his films are show­ ing*

1316 mm. ve 35 wn. Film Katalogu, Amerikan Haberler Merkezi, Tiirkiye (USIS) pp. 13-16. (Based on the description of the activities of QFM by S. Barutcu, the director of the Center.) 208 U. The scheme must Involve the provision of projectors on a generous scale in schools and colleges* It must involve the establishment of Regional Film Libraries, possibly assembled by the local Authorities themselves either singly (in certain cases) or in groups so that prints or films required by teachers can be easily and systematically booked. The medium of the Instructional film in the past has gained a bad reputation with potential users as much through the trouble it takes to get films at all, as through the badness of them when eventually they arrive. Films should become, like textbooks, apparatus in the hand of the teacher as and when he wants it, and of a guaranteed quality which ensures they are not an insult to his class. 5. The scheme should involve the pooling of international re­ sources, so that instructional films made abroad can be in­ terchanged with those made in (Turkey) to the mutual benefit of all film-making countries. International exchange of opinion will be of the greatest value in the development of new techniques. For any scheme to operate which involves all these considera­ tions State subsidy and promotion seem essential. The films should be made by the units which have already begun to study the technique of the instructional film. But only the State is in the position to originate a comprehensive scheme which, once launched, will become part of the normal educa­ tional provision of the conununity.^-d

The United States Information Service. (USIS)

The information program of the USIS (a branch of the U. S. Eiabassy in Turkey) i3 designed principally to acquaint the Turkish people with

American policies aid to perpetuate an atmosphere friendly to the U. S.

So far as Turkey's major problems are concerned, it is probably the film program of the USIS which is most directly designed to assist in the solution of these problems. In this connection, an "excellent and extensive" cooperation is reported between the USIS and the min­ istries of Education, Agriculture, Communication, Interior, Labor,

Health, Public Road, and Forestry Department.

The USIS, through its branches (in Istanbul and Izmir), also con—

■^Roger Manvell, op. cit., pp. 197-198 20 9 tributes to the audio-visual education activities of the schools and

other institutions.

Films are loaned to reputable groups, or shown in rural areas by

ULI3 raobilo units. The principal distribution of films is through the

audio-visual centers of the Ministry of Education and other government

organizations which have received the films on permanent loan from

'JSIS,

The film program of the USIS includes films which are classified

under such headings as: Military, European Recovery Program, Social

Life, Geography, Children, Education, Industry, Science, News Magazine,

Woman, Sceneries, International Relations, Music and Fine Arts, Health,

Forestry, Sports and Amusement, History, Agriculture, Communication and

Transportation.

Among the films available, there are many which might have direct bearing on the problems discussed in the diagnostic part of this study.

Jespite their foreign origin, concrete educational contributions might be expected from the showing of these films in connection with the pro­ grams of development.

In the way of equipment, USIS reports having the following pro­

jectors: Bell and Howell (79), Victor (22), Ducati (2).

As a foreign agency in Turkey, USIS testifies to the fact that more could be done in educating the people of underdeveloped areas through mass communication media. So far as Turkey is concerned, a start has been made.*^

-^The considerations concerning USIS are based on the question­ naire returns sent to this particular agency. 210 British Council,

Another contributing agency in the field of educational films is

the British Council, It has a "well—stocked" film library, and it re­

ceived in 19U9 an up-to-date mobile unit with 16 mm, arc projection equipment. It was designed specially for operations in the remote and

mountainous regions of Turkey.

The unit is self-contained in so far as operation, servicing and living accommodations are concerned. And it will be possible for the

van to tour for up to three weeks without returning to its base. It

will show films from the van to audiences of up to 2000 and perfor­ mances will be given by day and night.^

Raw Materials.

At present Turkey does not produce filmstock. Annual consumption

of 35 mm* stock, which was 1,000,000 meters before the war, reached

3,000,000 m. in 19U9 and is covered by imports from the U. S. The

only difficulties in the importation are the currency restrictions, Filmstock for the production of educational films is not subject to

the usual import duties of TL 5.13 per kilogram plus miscellaneous taxes amounting to 15 per cent of customs duty, plus 18 per cent trans­

action tax levied on landed costs.

Equipment.

As already stated, at present there is no production of equipment in Turkey. The production equipment of the existing studios cannot be said to be entirely adequate. Above all, good sound recording appara-

^The Use of Mobile Cinema and Radio in Fundamental Education, UNESCO, pp."112^135^ 211 tus and cameras are lacking. As reported by the UNESCO survey, studio

owners do not feel that they are in a position to indicate precisely what their needs are, and they think new production methods must be studied.

Needs in the field of educational films are subject to budgetary allowances. Because of the organized activities of the Educational

Film Center, needs are constantly increasing. The recent purchase of some 600 16 ram. motion picture projectors is the indication of the ijrovring size of activity and the resultant increase in needs.

Professional Training.

Reportedly, there is no system of professional training of film technicians in Turkey. As there is a great lack of qualified techni­ cians of all kinds in both the field of production of feature films and documentaries, professional training is Turkey's most urgent problem in the field of motion picture. There is a primary need for technicians to be trained abroad and for inviting foreign experts to cane to Turkey, which is now being practised.

An important remark in the UNESCO survey is that, since Turkish films must of necessity be produced with a modest budget, Turkish technicians to study abroad should be sent to the countries where costs of film production are not high.^

The remarkable point in the field of motion picture in Turkey is

^The main source of data on Film in Turkey for this survey have been: 1. Press, Film, Radio, UNESCO, 1 9k9, pp. 178-180. 2. 16 mm. ve 35 p p . Film Katalogpi, (USIS), pp. 11-16. 3* Questionnaire returns from USIS and the Press Department of the Prime Minister's Office. 212 the feature of film legislation concerning films an educational and

technical subjects. According to this law such films are exempt from

import duties and other taxes. The same applies to the following material and equipment: mobile projection units, projectors, film

production equipment and raw stock, in case they are imported for

educational and cultural purposes. Educational films imported by

private concerns are examined by a special governmental commission,

before they are released by the custom authorities. Also, the same

la w obliges the movie theatres to show such Turkish and foreign educa­

tional films as the government will make available to them free of

charge. (See the appendix far an unofficial translation of the Film

Legislation concerning the educational and technical films).

In closing this survey of the film facilities In Turkey, it would be appropriate to say that the chances of using films in Turkey as a really "dramatic instrument of popular teaching" are very great. The

large and attentive audiences attracted by the mobile film units of

OPM, USIS, and British Council and fascinated by the power of the moving image are the concrete evidences of the visual teaching poten­

tialities of the motion picture.^®

C. Television.

As a result of the "breath-taking" developments in the field of

electronics, television, the youngest of all mass media, appears to be

coming of age very rapidly.

The works of Berzelius, May, Garey, Maurice Is Blanc, Paul Niepkow,

l^Roger Manvell and R. K. Neil son Baxter (Bd.), Cinema 19$1, (From the article by Sine 1 aire Road titled "A Turkish Journey") pp. 93-99• 213

Meinrich Herz, Marconi, Broun, Rosing, Lee de Forest-, C. F. Jenkins,

J. C. Baird, and particularly Vladimir Koema Zworykin contributed to the creation of television.

The general principle behind this electronic 'tairacle" is:

the transmission and reproduction of a view or scene showing people and objects in action by a device that converts vary­ ing light rays into electronic waves of similarly varying in­ tensity that in turn are converted into visible light rays that reproduce at a distant point the original view. ^

Television made its first public appearance in 1930 and developed rapidly by the introduction of the "image orthicon" tube in 1939 and the "vidicon" tube in 1950. Through these improvements, television, promises to be a powerful mass communication medium which may, and already does, affect social, political, economic, educational, aid other aspects of society.

Television in Turkey.

Another evidence of the Turkish Government's awareness of the educational potentialities of mass communication media is the recent efforts to establish a television network.

A three-men electronic mission (made up of Frank Holthusen, edu­ cator; William Holstead, engineering consultant; and Dr. Walter

Duschinsky, TV operations designer) is back in the United States fol­ lowing conferences with Turkish officials on the practicability of applying U. S. standards of telecommunications to Turkey.

Discussions were held concerning plans for a network of TV sta­ tions in Turkey based on 52$ lines, 60 fields, 6 MC, which could later

^J. J. Floherty, Television Story. 21b be incorporated into a unified global system. 20 The plans are that for the time being three major stations will be established in three major cities. Of these stations, which are expected to be built and put into operations in lb months and to cost b,000,000 dollars, station Ankara is going to serve an area of 70—80 miles, Station Istanbul to an area of 75-100 miles. The telecasts of these two stations and that of Station Izmir are going to be relayed to each other, thus serving the surroundings of Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir and

Sskisehir. After these stations have been put into operation, new stations in the other parts of the country are to be erected to complete the network. The possibilities are that the radio establishments in

Ankara and Istanbul are to be converted into perfect television sta­ tions with some minor modifications* For a quick development of the country, the prospective programs are going to be devoted, according to reports, to such areas as agri­ culture, health, technology, and education. In addition, entertainment, musical, and news broadcasts will be provided. Nevertheless, this plan has not as yet been put into the stage of execution. The only TV activities at present are undertaken by the m Technical University of Istanbul on an experimental basis, When this project is realized, we may be able to go one step fur­ ther in educating the peasantry, in '^waking him up,11 in "arousing him from his traditional ways of life and thought." The unique effective—

^^News From Turkey, Turkish Information Office, v, 5, no. 15, (April I57-15SZ7 p. H 21$ ner.s of television in this connection is inherent in the concept that the recall impact of sight-sound-motion stimuli is, in general, greater 21 than either oral or visual stimuli alone.

Television can supply this kind of stimuli and may serve as an open window to the possibilities and benefits of civilization and pro­ gress, provided all financial and technical difficulties are overcome and the medium is made available to as many people or canmunities as possible.

We would be well advised, however, to remember that, despite its potentialities for public service, television also depends upon human capacity and skill* As a medium, it is neutral, and its use is always limited by the human equation. 22

2, Integrated Mass Communication Can Contribute to

Deliberately Planned Socio-Econamic Development.

The diagnostic analysis of the major problems of Turkey and the examination of the remedial proposals for their solution, make it quite clear that the whole question of socio-economic development involves an "integrated" connnunic ation. This idea now comes to a clear per­ spective as the underlying therapeutic concept of this study. As long as deficiencies in the field of communication prevail and as long as present canmunication pro grans ronain. unintegrated, it is difficult, if not impossible, to inform the people about programs of socio-econo­ mic development and to enlist their cooperation for their realization.

21C. a . Siepmann, Radio, Television, and Society, p. 228-9. 22K. G. Bartlett, "How Do Vfe Get Started in Educational Televi­ sion," Television, Education's Greatest Challenge, p. 17* 216

Integrated Communlcation,

Thifa concept signifies the examination of problems and their possible solution in terms of ccxnmunication and the designing of a coihimnication strategy integrated with programs of development, in order to initiate more rational, constructive, energetic and intensive action. The designing of such an integrated cannrunic ation strategy is not easy. It will require substantial research and the pooling of the findings, preliminary surveys of the conditions in the country, and an expert analysis of the national and international technical assis­ tance programs.

While the over-all structure of this study may provide the cam— municator with an approach to this problem, the concept of integrated conununication could be illustrated better by examples from current communication projects.

Comraunication Projects in

Current Programs of Socio—Econcmic Development.

Reportedly, of the three major international undertakings in

socio-economic development (i.e., Development Plans in British Colon­ ies, the Point U Program, the United Nations Program) practically only the British Commonwealth and Dependencies have adopted systematic plans regarding the integration of mass ccmmunlcation media into broader economic, social, and educational projects*

Surprisingly enough, the various technical assistance programs

sponsored by the United States through the Point It Program and Marshall

Aid do not include a "single large comnunication project." These pro— 217 grains are devoted almost exclusively to the development of agriculture, industry, public health and education. Activities in the field of coirxiunication have so far been limited to the use of the short films for professional instruction (the so-called "How To Do It Pictures") and to the provision of a few audio—visual experts, without any com­ prehensive training program.

While no other country relies so heavily upon communication and nowhere have communications played so important a part in economic development and public information as the United States, its indiffer­ ence to the need of the underdeveloped countries to expand and improve communication facilities, can hardly be understood.

The United Nations' activities in prom oting communications through its Technical Administration, also, did not as yet go beyond the pro­ vision of experts and fellowships. However, the fundamental education projects of UNESCO did provide for the use of audio-visual aids, as a means of conveying the information for improved daily living and com­ munity action, with the help of specialists in the field.^3

A. Development Flans in British Colonies. With enterprise and vision, the British authorities converted wartime radio services into instruments of mass education. They have also trained natives to handle modern technical equipment and to pro­ duce films aid radio programs. Most important of all, the post-war communication projects were frequently "synchronized" with projects for the expansion of transport facilities with opening up interior

Arno G. Huth, op. ci t ., pp. 8, 17, 18, 21. 218 regions aid with mass education campaigns* For this purpose, special funds were made available under the Colonial Development and Welfare

Acts* The most significant of these projects are those which provide for the creation of new broadcasting services in areas which were not covered at all or at least not sufficiently, e.g., West Africa, Central Africa* The BBC Colonial Service contributes to the development of programs by training program officers and technicians from the colonies in the courses specially designed for them and adapted to the condi­ tions in underdeveloped areas and by participating in adult education experiments. The results achieved are considerable and have significant bear­ ings on the central theme of this study* Experiments in West and Central Africa, which have become a kind of laboratory for the use of mass media, has proved that:

(1) Radio is far and away the best m e d i u m for the rapid and wide­ spread enlightenment of the illiterate African masses* (2) Where formal educational methods — too slow to satisfy the suddenly awakened hunger for knowledge — have failed, radio broadcasts combined with film demonstrations, brought about rapid changes, ^ and aroused the natives to contact with the outside world as opportunity for better living* As an indication of the British effort to integrate communication into the programs of improvement of social aid economic conditions, the Ten—Year Development Flan for Northern Rhodesia, might be mentioned*

Zlilbid., p. 10. 219 This plan includes provision for substantial grants to the Central

African Broadcast Scheme, the Central African Film Unit and the Publication Bureau* But again the principal instrument of the campaign remains to be radio* The most serious obstacle to the realization of the program was the lack of receiving facilities, which is true for all underdeveloped countries. A very practical suggestion could be derived for this study from the way the British handled this situation. The problem, however, was not simply making the receiving facili­ ties available* • First of all a low-cost receiver was necessary; . Secondly, the receiving-set had to be so built as to resist both the tropical cUmate and unskilled handling; . Third, the set had to be able to operate many miles away from electric current, servicing engineers and battery chargers. These requirements were met after an intensive research and effort which resulted in the production of the so-called "Saucepan Special," a simple shortwave four—tube battery receiver. The reason for its be­ ing called so is that the cabinet of the receiver is a large aluminum saucepan without handle, entirely insect—proof and tropically finished. It could be offered at the price of 5 plus 1.5 for supplementary battery. The availability and the success of this special set has been made possible by mass production, the cooperation of the manufacturer and the distributer satisfied with a small margin of profit, a motor transport firm which offered to carry the sets free of charge on all 220 its routes, and the government which agreed to import them ffree of duty and to exanpt them from all license fees.

The introduction of this low-cost receiver (the first 2000 shipped to Northern Rhodesia in 19h9) and group listening, with an average of ten listeners per set, have not only opened the hemes of Africans to radio, but they have also aroused considerable interest in news, in agriculture and health information and in the English language. The people, who never before had any means of listening to educational or agricultural programs aid who, because of almost general illiteracy, could not be reached by printed publications, greatly appreciate the educational value of the receiver, which they call "the Great Teacher."

The role of film in the socio-economic development and education

is also well appreciated. In fact, one of the most ambitious and most carefully planned projects in mass communication is the Colonial Film

Unit. From the early trial and error of this Film Unit, it became

evident that, to make a film for Africa it was essential to shoot the

film in Africa and to secure the cooperation of the African people in

its conception and production. This outcome perhaps holds true for

almost all underdeveloped countries and should be taken into considera­

tion by all concerned.

In accordance with this finding, experts are sent out from the

center in London to teach Africans the techniques of film and filmstrip

production. The Gold Coast Film Unit (started in 19U8) has been so

successful in its experiments that one of its films, the Boy Kumasenu, made with an amateur cast under Mr* Graham's direction, has reached

the British Film Academy's short list for the 1952 award, being listed 221 aiiiong the eight best British and six best American films of the year,

Most important of all, the Boy Kumasenu, which is a propaganda film on juvenile delinquency, fulfilled its purpose and was a great oc success in the Gold Coast,

One important aspect of the British development Plans is the emphasis on research. In conducting research, special attention has been devoted not only to scientific and economic problems but also to social, educational and psychological ones. The help of technical and economic experts, language specialists and social scientists, visiting the territories for extended periods of time, have been se­ cured. Considerable funds have been appropriated for the purpose of carrying out studies, preliminary surveys, and pilot projects. '

The indications are that the research aspect of the communication activities in Turkey is almost totally neglected — a situation which is incompatible with the swift technological development of the coun­ try.

B. The Colombo Flan.

Another important step taken by the British Commonwealth toward strengthening communications in underdeveloped areas Is the Colombo

Plan far Cooperative Economic Development in South and South-East A3ia,

(which include Burma, Ceylon, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan,

Malaya and British Borneo, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. South and South-East Asis is an area where poverty, hunger and

^ Changing Africa, British Information Service, p, 21, ^Data on the communication activities in British Colonies are derived from Arno G. Huth,op, cit., pp, 8-15* 222 disease prevail not only as a local threat but as a potential danger to the peace and prosperity and health of the whole world. It has a population of some 600 million — four times the population of the

United States, three times the population of the Soviet Union. Despite the richness in natural resources and deep-rooted civilization, the area is little touched by the revolution in methods of production which in 150 years has so transformed the face of the Western world, the people have to live hard and many must die young.

The great majority live in villages and depend for livelihood on the land. But not enough land is cultivated to support so many millions and those who cultivate the land are not trained and equipped to get the best out of the soil. As a result, food is scarce and lacking in variety. In the rationed districts of India, for instance, the average daily diet consists of 12 ounces of cereal — mostly rice.

Although a great deal of effort has gone into development of the area, and a great deal of wealth continues to derive from it, indus­ trialization is far behind and the area remains as a whole deplorably under-developed. As against the average annual per capita incane of

200 in Britain and 600 in the U* S., the figure for South and

South-East Asia is roughly 20.

With some eight people out of ten unable to read and write, the population of the area is burdened with high rates of illiteracy. The

unusual birth rates and high child mortality are both real dangers to

the standard of living of the area's population.

This is only an abbreviated description of the situation in South

and South-East Asia. This situation leaves only two alternatives* 223 plan and develop or live in poverty and know the certainty of eventual

starvation.

The Indications are that the people have chosen the first alter­ native, i.e., plan and develop. Already nearly every country in the

area has embarked upon its own development program* Now new techniques

are being tried out, new ways of life are being adopted. Outside aids

in loans, gifts and technical assistance have been forthcoming, and

the correlation of needs and means, of determined self-help and effec­ tive cooperation has become known to the world as the Colombo Flan.

The object of the plan, which now includes nil countries in South

and South-East Asia (with the exception of Thailand, Afghanistan and

the Philippines), is to give encouragement and support to countries of

South and South-East Asia in their efforts to raise the living stand­

ards of their people* Each country in the plan has drawn up its own development program and each is solely responsible far putting it into

effect. The greater part of the cost of each program is met by the

country itself*

But the plan is far more than a mere device for providing addi­

tional capital* Under its scheme for Technical Cooperation it is pro­

viding technical assistance which is often enough harder to come by

than finance*^

The approach of the programs is realistic* Actually they are made up of projects for which detailed plans have already been worked

out* The main emphasis in all programs (except far Singapore) is on

^Progress in Asia, The Colombo Flan in Action, (distributed by) the British Information Service, pp. 5-9? and New Horizons in the East, Br* Inf* Ser*, pp* 6, 7, 16, 17* 22k agricultural rather than industrial development, but the two often proceeds hand in hand.

The total cost of the plan far 1951-7 is 1,868 million. Of this 3h per cent is far transport and comm unications; 32 per cent far agriculture (including river valley development schemes); 18 per cent for housing, health and education; 10 per cent for industry and

A r t mining (excluding coal); and 6 per cent for fuel and power. (See the Figure VIII)

As far as this study is concerned, the most significant point of this plan is that transport and communications will receive a greater share than any other field: 3U per cent, or 627,000,000 of the total 1,868,000,000. For common to nearly every development pro­ ject in the area is the problen of inadequate communications. While the bulk of this sum will be devoted to the building of roads and railways, new ports and the modernization of the old ones, large funds have also been earmarked far telecommunications, postal services and broadcasting activities, for hiring experts from overseas and far training of specialists both at heme and abroad.

For example, India intends to spend 5UO,000,000 Rupees (U.77

Rs 3 U.S. 1) for the development of posts and telegraphs, 200,000,000

Rs for aeronautical radio services, and 50,000,000 Rs far broadcasting.

Also, 81,000,000 Rs will be spent to establish a factory for radio and radar equipment.

Pakistan has reserved 9 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 Rs for the development of tele-

^Ibid., p. 16. ro -o 6 ma.j-j i -, v *** ***** ***** ***** liiti ***** ***** v. v. ,:r C02 DdOCC - t*3 FUEL 4 POWER SOCIAL SERVICES MINING 4 INDUSTRY

»I6I M 6 » » « M666I ****** «6666i »M6«6 - S 9 000 000 Ste'-mg - 253 000 000 P ,;l(. i ■ J i & Ccoo- i . J ■ i - S 000 ,;l(. 9000 Ste'-mg P 000 000 - 253

% £1,868, Guo, wuw Guo, £1,868, AGRICULTURE Bag Bag E»ch E»ch | | 4 COMMUNICATIONS I I TRANSPORT

uo -olcrcbo flan hew Horizons in the Hast, fond on c?r Majesty's ..-tai-ionery office 1 9 Z ? T ~ 226 communications, providing for the extension of telegraph and radio services, the expansion of existing telephone exchanges and installa­ tions of new ones, and the introduction of telephoto services. Malaya has set aside MS 29,600,000 (3*06 MS S U.S. 1) for communications. The emphasis put an training and research in the Colombo Flan is also considerable. In addition to requesting 11 telecommunication ex­ perts for five years from abroad, India intends to send 18 of its telecommunication specialists overseas for one year training. Forty trainees from Pakistan will study abroad the maintenance of automatic telephone exchanges, the operation of radio, telegraph and telephone transmitting and receiving equipment and telegraph handling. Malaya, too, made provisions far the permanent employment of 2k telecommunica­ tions experts from abroad. However, thus far only Pakistan has presented extensive plans and requests for the development of its telecommunication and educational broadcasting facilities. But, measured against the magnitude of the task and the importance and urgency of substantial improvements in communications, the results obtained up to now in the improvement of present communication condi­ tions in underdeveloped areas world-over are very small. In this connection, the Colombo Flan and the British Colonial efforts might serve as an example as to how to tackle the problem of technical assistance in communications, and as to the important role of communi— cations in economic development. 29^

297Amo Q. Hath, op. clt., pp. 6, 7, IS, 16. 227 C. The Healthy Village. Since one of Its major objectives Is to "maintain, increase and diffuse" knowledge, and since mass media have proved to be most valua­ ble instruments in mass communication, UNESCO has shown considerable interest in communication problems* Many of its fundamental education projects provide for the use of audio-visual aids, with the help of specialists in this field. These projects also provide a good example as to how mass communication media and activities can be "integrated" into particular problems of development and as to how they can initiate mare intensive action. Che of such Integrated communication and fundamental education projects of UNESCO is "The Healthy Village," an experiment in visual education in West China, in 19U9. The project was strictly experi­ mental and was to be devoted to educational tools as a means of ful­ filling one of the tasks written in UNESCO's program, i.e.: To prepare sample materials, particularly audio-visual aids, for fundamental education which at the same time will be of use and Interest to Governments, organizations and individuals working on fundamental education in other mem­ ber states of UNESCO . ..-*0 Health problems being more identical throughout China and around the glob than other questions of fundamental education (e.g., langu­ age, agriculture, etc.), "The Healthy Village" was chosen as the theme in order to allow for intensive preparation and valid comparison between the different aids. To put the plan into effect, an arrangement was made between

-^The Healthy y m « p e , (Quoted from "Director's Report" by Hugh W . Hubbard1), UNESCO, p. /• 228

JTvIiiiC0 and the Chinese National Association of the Liass Education movement (liEua). Pehpei was selected as the site of the project, which

Ls located in the western province of Szechuan near the centre of the

...ass Education Experimental Field.

To finance the project, UNESCO allocated a sum of U. 5. S 3 0 , 0 0 0 .

A further sum of 7,500 was assigned for the salary and travel expenses of a specialist in cartoon animation techniques.

Principles of the work.

The theory of the work was allowed to be shaped by experience.

The main directions of the project may be summed up as follows:

(1) Aim at a definite mark, i.e., produce materials which will meet at least one concrete typical situation. (2) A variety of media is most effective. A Multiple impact on trie mind o T ~the subject is more effective than approach along a single line. Studies made by the U. S. Department of Agriculture show that the individual is influenced in pro­ portion to the number of different ways in which the same idea is brought heme to him. Teach the subject through the eye, the ear, and personal contacts; create, if possible, a community consciousness along the line desired. (3) Flay up local leaders and people. So far as possible let them get the credit and feel that it is partly their project. (U) Do not needlessly attack or offend any group. It was found that in dealing with vaccination one obstacle was the priests and certain superstitions. Instead of attacking them through the media, it was decided that it would be better to lay em­ phasis on constructive measures and demonstrate that vaccina­ tion definitely prevents smallpox. In this way, superstition disappears before demonstration of the truth. (5) The c osts of reproducing the audio-visual materials must be within the range of the average rural worker. It is of little use if no one"'buys the finished product! and the project will be sterile. For this reason movies are prohibitive under rural conditions. (6) The artist must understand clearly the health points if he is to get them across correctly to others. (7) The artist should also be kept in touch with conditions in the field, where the materiaTs are usecH (8) The experimental method is best. Materials should be produced, tried out and revised before being produced for general use. (9) Previous works of similar nature should be studied. 229 (10) Probably a basic survey of the socio-economic and health con­ ditionsin tHe~ area should be underFaken at the very outset.31 The subjects chosen were the following: (a) Vaccination and small­ pox; (b) Trachoma; (c) Tetanus neonatorum; (d) Safe drinking water, with a special emphasis on prevention of dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera; (e) Safe food; (f) Home use of DDT (later left out and re­ placed by "dish washing" as related to disease); (g) Health habits for school children. The media. The order of priorities of the media, according to the analysis of materials inthe initial planning, was set up as follows: poster drama connected story posters games flyers animated cartoons filmstrips As the work developed, efforts were concentrated on posters and film­ strips. Self-Evaluation. In view of the absence of an objective study, the following evaluation of the project based on impressions was made. (a) Purpose of the use of the project materials. . Principal purpose was to induce people to take some definite action beneficial to health, e.g., vaccination, trachoma examination and treatments. • Secondary purpose was to educate the people with regard to health problems, or to bring about a change in their thinking and habits from unhealthy to healthy. The

33-Ibid., pp. 13—UU. (Condensed from.) 230 creation of a community consciousness along the line was considered highly desirable so that everyone would be talking about the subject and there would be something in the nature of mass action as a result. (b) General value of audio-visual aids. i_ In making contacts with community leaders, the aids had very great value. The leaders were always glad to have the opportunity of helping put on filmstrip shows and cooperated enthusiastically. ii_ In introducing workers to community at large. The evening shows provided a common ground on which to meet for the field workers and the local residents. iii_ Work made easier. The health workers, doctor and nurse, felt that the audio-visual aids made their work very much easier and more enjoyable than when there were no such

(c) Comparative value of audio—visual aids. i_ Of 1 the audio-visual materials produced, filmstrips and mobile posters are most effective in introducing people to take immediate action toward their health improvement. The order of effectiveness of the aids is as follows: Filmstrips Posters Portfolio Flip books Mobile posters ii The success of using these audio-visual aids as a means

32Ibid., pp. 21-22. 231 of health education depends largely on the way in which they are presented to the people. The audio part of each program is absolutely essential. iii_ Motion pictures will certainly help to arouse the inter­ est of the rural audience and will not necessarily de­ tract from the purpose and function of the filmstrips. iv_ Moral materials, such as dramas, folksongs, radio if possible, picture story books, booklets and printed matter, demonstrations and exhibits, box lanterns, puppet shows should be developed.

(d) Results; 1. People have become aware of the threat of smallpox and have realized the importance of vaccination not only for children but adults as well.

2. Trachoma, usually not considered as a serious disease, has become a great topic of conversation among the rural people — especially through the help of filmstrips which showed the cause, method of transmission, dangers, pre­ vention and care of the disease. 3. In general, a wide consciousness of rural health has been created• U. Audio-visual media have been found most helpful in making

the health facts much clearer and more r e a l . 33 D. Jumna-Far Punarninnan (Gaon-Sathis)

33ibid., pp. 32, 39* 232

As another example of integrated ccmnrunication, the Pilot ft?oject of the Allahabad Agricultural Institute might be mentioned. The principles, objectives, conceptions and also methods of this project have considerable bearing upon the work being carried on in the rural areas of Turkey.

The Ffroject.

The Jumna-Par Punarnirman must be described as a pilot project de­ signed for the extension of scientific techniques in about U00 villages in the Karchana and Iteja Tehsils of the Allahabad District. The Dis­ trict lies in a north-convex loop of the Jumna-river and the total area covered is nearly 250 square miles. Another equally important aspect of the project is the research into methods of extension work.

The Jumna-Par Punarnirman, as a large scale village extension work, is sponsored by the Ford Foundation and is to be carried out by the Allahabad Agricultural Institute. The Institute will become an exchange point for ideas of the villagers and the scientific concep­ tions of the Institute workers. It will also be center of expansion for scientific practices, not only in Agriculture but also in Educa­ tion, Public Health and Cooperation; but only so far as a felt need is created in the villages; and not by any imposition of preconceived ideas of what is good far thou.

The project will operate by means of intensive team-work; only, primarily, the trained Indian staff of the Institute will exchange at a tempo suited to the village, the scientific knowledge developed on the Institute's own farms, orchards, dedry, implement workshops and other facilities with the traditional knowledge of the peasant in the 233 Jumna-Par area*

The methods which will work to achieve this rediscovery of the

resources of the peasants in the an all corner of the Gangetic Plain

are expected to have direct application throughout the subcontinent of

India. Ship ha sis in this project is mainly upon the resources of the

human mind and spirit. It is believed that the material resources of

the yii~lages can only be developed by the peasants themselves when

they have, it may be with the guidance of the scientists, re-created

their own enthusiasm and knowledge of what they can really do with en­

couragement instead of discouragement.

Content of the Project.

The mere extension of scientific knowledge in any field of life

and work and its direct application by persuasion in villages would not be sufficient. Experience suggests that such "imposed” extension, based upon pre—conceived ideas of what is good for the villagers can­ not ever result in the permanent effect of self—actuating progress in

Village-India. Peasants themselves must be the effective force in re— but 1ding their own life aid work. The title of the project, Jumna—par

Punarnirman, which means "reconstruction on (or of) the tract" is in­ tended to convey this idea.

Objectives. Better Farms and Vi n ages. This objective is to be realized

through extension and reconstruction which are the original aspects of

the scheme. The factual material is expected to be mapped on a full

scale by trying out the broad aspects of what is thought to be "im­ provement" from the scientific point of view. 231* Factual Knowledge from Research, This stage is concerned with an accurate determination of the local vili age patterns of life and work, with the essential peasant thinking which supports them.

This is equally important with research into the scientific techniques to be experimentally applied — which also include the depth and ex­ tent to which scientific techniques can be practically carried out by peasants.

The most important of all staff workers on the project will be the Gaon-Sathis, the executive arm of the extension and research.

These are the representatives of the project (single or married coup­ les) who are to live mostly in the villages. They will return for two days every week to the Institute for reporting, refresher train­ ing, and coordination of further work,

3. Training Extension Workers for Other Rural Fields,

This is a separate training scheme which draws much of its material from the Extension Project proper. As soon as possible a regular curriculum for training courses will be set up to shorten the experimental period. The effect of the Extension work with which the

Jumna-Par Project begins will be continuously the subject of evalua­ tion to make it as accurate as possible. Objectives Nos, 1 and 2 are really nothing more than two aspects of the whole problem of breaking chains of custom where they are in­ hibitory of humaa capacities, judged in the context of the field in which these capacities must work,

Pre—determined Points of Departure;

While the project is conceived as experimental, there are two 235 points which are not tentative — since they are based on sufficient

combined experiences

1. "No Hierarchies." Utmost care will be taken to avoid any

conception of ranking as between the members of the administrative

cadres, technicians and gaon-sathis.

The less officer-subordinate pattern with which the work can be managed, the less will gaon-sathis tend to act in a superior manner

toward the villagers. Consequently, more changes will be observed in the villages which are rooted in their own "felt-needs" and revalued capacities.

Using a scientific analogy, the internal policy of the project will be to try and install and maintain the gaon-sathis as if they were the dispersed particles of a catalyst in the new experimental mixture of the Jumna-Far Punarnirman. If the gaon-sathis are really catalysts, then the reaction which converts the unstable mixture into a stable compound of continuing progress with science and tradition thoroughly combined to the greatest extent, will take place around the gaon-sathis.

The whole project will revolve around three categories of work­ ers: The gaon-sathis, the technicians, the administrators.

2. "No Didactics." Instead of the old pattern of "superior teacher" attitude and "lecturing," the attitude of friendship with the v~l 1 lagers and of humility towards the villager in his own field will be adhered to in carrying out the project. This is indicated by the name "Gaon-Sathis" which means "Village Companions."

The same principles are applied to the training and pre-selection 236 training of the gaon-sathis*

3* "No Pre-conceptions*11 There are so many taboos and pre-con­

ceptions born from the habit of generations in a villager's mind -which

have usualiy been disregarded as obstructive factarsj and nobody has yet attempted to chart these systematically. If we begin working in villages with the outsider's picture of how a villager thinks and works j we can never be sufficiently effective*

In general; our knowledge of the basic factors inhibiting the villager's acceptance of the scientific techniques is extremely indi­ vidual and by no means complete > Probably the only generalization which will aiable quick and effective work to be dene is that we must continue to regard and treat the villager as the lard of his own n f« and work*

The villager seems to be satisfied with his unscientific mental groundwork; and it would be manifestly unfair of us to destroy all his satisfactions until we are certain that we can offer him something which be can work and which is demonstrably better to him than his present unscientific knowledge* In going about ttiis task; we shall just have to accept that there are other means of acquiring and ex­ pressing knowledge thsn the means adopted by thB analytical processes of science*

This approach founded upon friendship; love, and humility towards the peasant has been more precisely expressed in a preliminary formula for the approach to villagers, which operates in the following order of action:

(a) Does a villager appreciate that change is happening to him 237 (as to the whole world, at present), whether he likes it or noE, ""whether he feels capable of meeting the cKange or noF7 Until this point is establishecTwith village people Tt is” useless to proceed with any extension work,

(b) Once the villager accepts the fact of change and really agrees beyond a mere verbal assent then constructive suggestions can be introduced. The "next question is: What are the changes which the villager would consider to be improvements from his point of view (his "felt—needs") ? In what priority would he wTsh to see the improvaaeni whicK he~ names come about?

(c) What is the villager1s capacity (not his own assessment, which is always too low) for using new Techniques, Infarma- tion, Equipment, and Supplies Xofmaterials sucFas fertxTi- zers, DDT, drugs Tor self medication, Laubach Primers for "each one teach one" adult literacy)? What, therefore, ar^ the first things and first information io be offered to villagers; to what depth and in what detail should such things be offered; and on what time-plan (priori­ ty, overlap, periodj?

The Project may be considered successful to the extent that it can make the villager independent of exploratory extension work as soon as possible, that it turns the villager into a vociferous enquirer for new information and demonstration of equipment, etc. Once the chain of the past is broken and the peasant asks for extension work, we shall know we are on the highroad to success.

The altered attitude of the villagers during the early years, be­ fore measurable material is assembled, will be the evidence of pro­ gress.^

Another important aspect of the Jumna-Par Punarnirman Project is the method of establishing "targets" for the Gaon-Sathis (extension workers). At present, the project area is divided into four "circles":

^Condensed from T. A, Koshy, Jumna-Par Punarnirman, (Extension Department Pilot Project, Agricultural Institute, Allahabad — in eyelostyled form) 8p. 238 Iradatgani, Jari, Sir sa, and Karchana. Primary emphasis in these cir­

cles is given to approach through Occupation, Literacy, Felt needs,

and the Whole Family respectively. This necessitated the fixing of

targets of varying nature in the four different circles. Such targets form a yardstick to measure the extent of villager's cooperation, effectiveness of method and the quality of the worker concerned. New targets can be added from time to time, primarily to help villagers to take more interest in the general development of their village.

Gaon-Sathis Report on Progress.

The means adopted for reporting on how the work is progressing with a particular target is that of individual reports by the Gaon- Sathi at the weekly meetings.

Literacy being essential to any program, one of the important tasks of the Gaon-Sathis is to teach illiterates. The farm of approach found to be most effective by the Gaon-Sathis is to work with the adult illiterates first. These neo-literates, after receiv­ ing elementary training, begin to teach others, (each one teach one).

Laubach charts anploying pictures associated with letters are relied on heavily. Gaon-Sathis receive their teaching aids from various

Government and private agencies through the project.

As first expe cted, the villagers were convinced that the literacy work which the Project was doing was just another scheme "dreamed up by city folk, starting off with a bang ending rather quickly in a fizzle.11 The Gaon-Sathis started out by explaining to the villagers the advantages of being literate. Once the villagers realized that the Extension Project was not just trying to experiment in literacy 2 39 but had a specific purpose in making them literate, their sceptician gradually changed to interest.

"Jupan" — Use of Film (Cine and Strip)

The important aspect of the Jumna-Par Funarnirman project for

this study is the use of film in association with Extension work.

Considering several purposes for screen presentation in this Project,

a "preliminary study" has been done to determine the acceptability of the media for screen presentation to villagers5 and thereafter the possibilities of exerting influence on village thinking by using only

the acceptable media.

For the purposes of Jupan, the balancing of the following three distinct needs are considered important:

I. Audience-Values (Capacity to gra3p the message behind the

succession of screen images) or fitness-for-purpose.

(1) Villagers. Capacity can be raised a little only if

Gaon-Sathis or others are present to explain. Dis­

cussion on screenings is welcome.

(2) Gaon-Sathis. If slower and repetitive presentations are

required by the villagers then gaon-sathis should became

habituated to those speeds in order not to get impatient

of village showings.

(3) Trainee-Students. When the regular courses in Extension

work are started, any films made on the project would be

natural material for students. If only one speed of

^ Extension Rroject News Letter, vol. 1, No. L, (December, 1953) pp. 1-3. 2U0

film—presentation is to be chosen, it must be that which

is best for villagers (not city—audience speed films). II. Production (or Hire) Cost vs. Audience-Value.

This is considered between the both ends of the scale of possible screening-materiali

Tofcs 35 ram Color Talkies built from one series of picture—takes,

three sound-takes (speech, music, sound-effects)•

Suitability. It is argued that it would take years to edu­

cate village viewers to discount the dazzle of entertainmentj

to disentangle the puzzle of listening to an artificially

mixed sound-track in three elements frcm an artificial visual

world of two dimensions.

Bottom: 35 mm black and white Film Strip; Double—frame 36/2U mm

(about 30 per strip).

Suitability. Since the villager has to learn to "read" two-

dimensional pictures in any case, why not still pictures;

why not black and white. A preponderant answer from Africa

suggests that color makes the villager's reading easier and

motion much easier than still pictures. All agree, however

that still pictures are necessary for educational purposes.

In general, the simple black and white filmstrip is con­

sidered (by the undertaker of the Jupan Film Study) as the

most economical and practical means on the scale of screen­

ing material. Live commentary in screening to villagers, is

described the only sound means of putting over either movie

or a filmstrip. 2Ul

This particular study examines in full detail all media on the scale of possible screening-material. Some of the top and intermedi­ ate classes are ruled out entirely, on the ground of cost and availa­ bility.

A. Movies are classified as (1) Dramatized Story, (2) Documentary,

(3) Instructional, (U) Newsreels, (5) Animated cartoons,

(6) Puppets, (7) Micro-cine-photography. Then, Standard:

35 mm, Sub-standard: 16 mm are examined in terms of picture

process, sound-tracks, availability in India, rated suita­

bility for villagers.

As already suggested, films must be supplemented by other

means of instruction and propaganda. Their effect is much

more than doubled by adding one further means. Movies should

not always be shown automatically in every village. By issu­

ing invitations, associating films with other activities to

which only the people who are going to make use of the know­

ledge are invited, much better results can be secured.

B. Filmstrip. For the purposes of the project, lantern slides,

slide films, aid filmstrip in single-frame (2Aixl8 mm) are

ruled out and attention is concentrated on "Double-Frane

Filmstrip, 36x2U ram.” This can be projected to an audience

of 500 people at the most with 110 V. electric projector.

Considering the facilities in the project area, it will be re­

lied on standardized showings with a kerosene pressure l«np of

about 300 Cp on a screen maximum 9x12. 2U2 III* Effect on Village-Audiences*

As suggested, ultimate standards must be those established by village—audiences* The low—average of villagers' capacity to grasp the message (intention behind the media) and their least inclination to accept and act on the message, must be the guide in determining these standards.

The only methods so far devised are;

(1) To encourage discussion during and after screening.

(2) To plant observers in audience, so as to gather the spon­

taneous reactions.

(3) To check on the effect in the days following the screening:

(a) talk, (b) action promoted by the film.

Gaon-Sathl1S Job at a Film-Show.

The role of the Gaon—Sathi in the process of communication, as operator, organizer, commentator, discussion leader and observer and recorder of audience—reaction, is a unique one. Unless, however, he is aided by another Gaon-Sathi or a trained field worker on the basis of division of labor and unless he establishes himself as a friend of the particular village, he cannot operate efficiently.

Evaluation.

Values have to be built up to denote the effects produced by several media and communication content, accompanied by different methods of presentation.

First, the effectiveness of (a) the available ready-made media, (b) the media produced by or for the Project must be measured as ob­ jectively as possible. 210 Second, "variable factors for elimination by weightage (the assessment of general considerations of the topic) before each show; variable factors far stabilization of technical presentation at every show; variable factors for record at each show,” must be determined*

Measurement of Audience—Reaction*

On the basis of the foregoing principles, the Gaon-Sathi will observe and record at and after each shows

1. Interest-Bffect: (a) spontaneous comment during and after show; discussion arising during and after the show; (b) re­

quests expressed for mare presentation on specific topics or

for more detail*

2. Action-Effect, (Maybe apparent days later): (a) Has every

point been "put across* and understood? (b) If understood,

is the message (may be a new technique) accepted by villagers as worth trying? (c) Is what the media suggest tried out,

with how much enthusiasm?

3* Ripple-Kffect (stone in pool). (a) Do other villages ask to

see the same media and shows? (b) Do effects 2 (c) arise in

other villages without showing the seme films or filmstrip

there?

The above aspects should be checked with and without other media to promote the sane topic. A clearer measuring code will have to be devised from experience.

One point should be remembered that however simplified the media may be, villagers must learn to "read" art work as well. If they do not, they will have great difficulty in grasping pictorial means of 21*U conveying such things as (a) mechanical principles, (b) quantity com­

parisons.

Scales of Values for Audience-Effect.

Since the "percentage scaling" is inclined to add a mental error

of quantity as against only a rough idea of quality, an alternative

scale based on 7 grades and tripolar system issuggested:

0. No effect beyond the entertainment value of a novelty, which offers a distraction. No situation in the film (filmstrip or movie) is fully grasped.

1* indicates that the minimum effect is observed in three (arti­ ficially) separable fields of human response by audience: A. Intellectual» Some of the ideas are grasped, but none need be firmly held. 5. Ebiotional. Seme (pleasurable) interest is expressed to "the show" so as to suggest a demand for more or easier in­ formation on the topic; or a clear antagonism is roused* C. Action. Beyond mere discussion of the film, scxne efforts at action are made after seeing it.

2. indicates slightly more: A. grasp of the ideas presented, B. emotional response, without under standing, C. action resulting*

7* indicates that the film has done a complete job in every respect. A* Every idea presented is grasped by at least 50 per cent of those in the audience who can act on it* B. The majority in the audience is fired by the desire to do something to implement the topic presented on the screen — irrespective of tinderstanding. C. Persistent action by those in a position to take it re­ sults soon after the screening.

Continuing evaluation of effects produced by reinforcing village— improvement topics through Film presentation may be carried out by:

(1) the gaon-sathi as evaluator, (2) the projectionist as trained com­ mentator, (3) a local villager to turn on (by signal) frame from one to the next, when filmstrip is used. 2k$ To this, however, a fourth person, a trained evaluator, working in physical collaboration with the gaon-sathi should be added. Such an evaluator will be measuring many effects of the total Extension effort besides film showings* He may be in ter alia, a specialist in the evaluation of effect among audience at film showings* If several field-evaluators are available, then seme might specialize in radio reactions and might correct each other's personal idiosyncrasies by exchange of experiences and detailed discussion of ratings made.

It should be remembered that the intellectual grasp and action by villagers on the topics provided and presented through the Jupan

Film Project Is not the major objective. It is only through the renewal of enthusiasm in the villager that can we reach — on any topic or combination of topics as felt needs — "the realization by villagers of their own resources, material and spiritual." Every technique of measurement should aim at establishing progress towards this objective.36

36condensed from Evelyn Y/ood, "Jupan" — Use of Film (Cine and and Strip), A Preliminary Study (Carbon copy) 1^2, Id p. VI

Conclusions and Recommendations

in Terms of

Current Trends and jfractices

(Integrated Communication)

The central issue of this study, i.e., "A Causative—Diagnostic

Analysis of Turkey's Problems and A Communicative Approach to Their

Solution," does not, by any means, imply that communication is the

panacea. Nor does it assume that, in socio-economic development,

everything depends on, or is done by, such mass communication media as radio, film, television.

However, the assumption that: deficiencies in one field tend to paralyse developments in other fields, seems a highly tenable one.

Therefore, it might safely be stated that where there are no means of communication, it is difficult, if not impossible, to inform the peo­ ple about the programs for socio-economic development and to enlist their cooperation. A sheer comparison of highly developed and under­ developed countries of the world bears out this point.

The crucial aspect of the field and problems of communication is that it is interrelated to problems in many other fields. Far that reason communication projects need to take into account not only technical and economical factors, but political, social, educational, and psychological factors as well. Consequently, any development and improvement in communication will inevitably influence political, economic, social and educational conditions. This is a fact which should be considered very carefully in planning projects pertaining

21i6 2li7 to these fields — a point which has so far been neglected.

The underlying theme of this study being ccmmunic ation, the writer would like to consider his conclusions and recommendations in

terms of the following five categories and within the framework of

the concept of integrated ccmmunication: I* Communication Situation.

II. Communicator.

III. Communicatee (Audience).

IV. Communication Media.

V. C ommunic ation Content and C ommunic at ion Effects.

I. C ommunic ation Situation.

A. Deliberate socio-economic planning creates new communication

situations.

Deliberate socio-economic planning, which is intended to intro­ duce new ideas, methods, techniques and skills, to replace or modify

the old ones, creates a new communication situation and a need to

c ommunic ate. A new ccmmuxiication situation is created because between the

scientific planner's (a potential communicator) conception and per­ ception of new ways and the habitual practices and thinking of the people (potential communicatees), there appears a discrepancy, in­ stability and tension. Once such a situation arises, along with it a strong need to communicate and to be ccmmunicated to emerges.

As far as both the communicator and communicatee are concerned, the new situation has to be cognitively structured in terms of new ideas, ways and means, and a "felt-need" has to be created. To 2U8 Illustrate it simply:

For example, an agricultural planner may conceive of introducing the metal plow to replace the primitive wooden plow. His plan is

supported by the scientific considerations that: the metal plow pro­

vides one of the best and most universally used methods of breaking or turning and pulverizing the soil; of covering trash, and controlling weeds and insect pests more efficiently* Thus, it enables crop roots

to develop evenly and prevents spotty crop yields.^- These technical-

scientific considerations are supported by economic arguments that the

introduction of this particular method of plowing will result in a production increase which will eventually create a chain reaction in

the socio-economic structure of the country*

However, the scientific—economic considerations and calculations by the agricultural scientist and economist regarding this new method do not necessarily ensure its acceptance and success. For:

1, the new tool and method run counter to a long-established

practice, i.e., the use of the iron—tipped wooden plow and "up-and-down11 farming;

2. the need-value systems and cognitive perceptual structure of

the fanner are synchronized to this traditional way or vice

versa:

3* the situation created, or to be created by the introduction

of the new method is, as far as the traditional farmer is

concerned, cognitively unstructured, and benefits to be de—

^•Better Flowing, with Malboard Plows, International Harvester (Educatlonal Series, Li), p* 3» 2U 9 rived frcm it are viewed sceptically.

Thus, a situation possessing quasi—pi^rsical, quasi—social, quasi— psychological properties is created and a tension is aroused on the part of the potential coroiiiunicators (the planner, the State) and com­ municatees (the farmer, the people). This tension is correlated with the perceived instability between the new and old ways.

B. The new communication situation must be determined and cogni­ tively structured by the produced content of c ommunic ati on, in order to reduce tension and to create new need-value systems or felt—needs*

In the case of the forgoing example, this means that the agricul­ tural planner must perceive the introduction of the metal plow as a new caoimunication situation; that he must diffuse and demonstrate the necessary knowledge and method by means of several media of communica­ tion — ranging from an abstract press release to the first-hand demonstration by an extension worker. This should be done in order to restructure cognitively the new method in terms of its advantages and the old method in terms of its deficiencies*

In other words, the farmer should be able to see and compare both ways and their tangible results so that he can rationally accept the superior method and develop new "felt-needs" to increase his pro­ duction and to better his crop*

Once the communicator (the planner) and the communicatee (the farmer) are brought into dynamic interrelationship — the former try­ ing to prove the superiority of the new method and the latter trying to find out moire about it — the communication may be said to occur*

Its success will be dependent upon the perceptual-need systems of the 2^0

individuals involved and the specific character of the c cmmunic at ion

content*

C* The fact that socio-ec onomic planning creates new c ammunication

situations, necessitates the integration of communication into programs

for socio-ec onomic development*

While an integrated communication imposes itself as a necessity

for the success of programs far socio-economic development, this point

has so far been grossly neglected. The study of the nationally and/or

internationally designed programs for Turkey, provides practically no

indications that the development of communication facilities and acti­ vities are being consciously "synchronized" with the plans for socio­

economic development.

It is true that there are efforts to expand the broadcasting facilities, to introduce television and to develop educational film

activities. But the writer has found practically no data indicating that mass communication activities and mass media are being systemati­ cally related to c ommunication demands in the socio-economic develop­ ment programs; or that projects are being carried out to determine the

extent of the diffusion of new practices and the effects of communica­

tion through various media.

Nevertheless, the whole concept of "integrated communication" is relatively new and is emerging peacemeal from the recent international technical assistance and economic development programs, sponsored by

United Nations, United States, and United Kingdom* A UNESCO document comes closest to the faraulation of the concept of "integrated com­ munication" by pointing out that schemes for economic development can— 251 not afford to ignore the use of such powerful media as the book, the press, the film, the radio and television:

Current information should be conveyed through those media on the varied subjects which are of special interest to the fanner, the worker, and the technician on general or the particular problems, new crafts, new industries, and practi­ cal ways of handling every-day problems that will help them to improve their social and economic conditions,2

IX. Communicator.

A. The planner or planning agency (governmental or non-govern­ mental) assumes, of necessity, the function of the communicator.

Since the idea of change is usually conceived by the scientific planner and incorporated into programs of technical assistance for socio-economic development, it is the task of the planner to "sell" the idea of change and to bring about "felt-needs" and "self-actuation" on the part of the people.

As was explained, a communicator is "a peer*son who produces or controls the production of a body of sign-symbol material with the in­ tent of cognitively structuring the field (or fields) of specific in­ terpreters who are assumed by the ccmmunicator to have specific needs and demands." (p. 167)

By a simple application of this definition to the previous example of the agricultural planner and the introduction of the metal plow, we discover that the planner assumes, almost automatically, the role of a communicator. For he has the possession of the knowledge with regard to social and economic consequences of the introduction of the metal

^Arno G. Huth, op. cit., p. 27. (From UNESCO Doc. 6C/HiG/21,lU June l?5l, p. 23) 252 plow and new plowing methods. He directly or indirectly produces or controls the production of "sign-symbol" material, which, in tte case of our example, may be information, demonstration, and training through several media of communication. Also, he designs his plans and controls c cmmunic ation with the intent of cognitively structuring the field of the interpreters (farmers or peasants) who are assumed by the agricultural planner to have specific needs and demands (e.g., to increase production, to improve the quality of the crop).

B. Broadly speaking, the modern democratic State as a !l social service" state is itself in the position of a communicator. There­ fore, it is the task of the State to determine the c cmmunic ation de— mands in its planning.

The modern democratic state as a "social service" state is active in every sphere of social life. It not only organizes public services but it also takes preventive and pranotive measures by numerous ad­ ministrative, legal, technical and scientific devices. For instance, it not only organizes pub lie-health services to combat existing di­ seases but it seeks to prevent epidemics by several devices.

The "social service democracy" in its preventive and promotive planning, relies upon the following maxims developed by K. Wannheim:

1. Ckily strong central power can carry out planning. Planning cannot become an efficient tool in the hands of weak central authority. The threat to freedom does not come from a govern­ ment which is 'ours1, which we have elected and which we can remove, but fToan oligarchies without public responsibility. Public accountability of administration and rotation in office — the key provisions of the democratic government — must be guarded Jealously. 2. Centralization is necessary because coordination of different measures is essential to planning. Agreement cm certain basic objectives of long-range planning is indispensable. The 253 coordination of basic policies would call for standards of consistency only to be judged by experts. The existence of a coordinating planning body to air the pros and cons of experts will not eliminate the experimental nature of human action but may add valuable controls. 3. Centralization in a planned society is essential only in cer­ tain basic policy it sues. The inherent tendency of centralized institutions to usurp all functions must be opposed. Democracy would seek to encourage self-help and popular initiative wherever compatible with planning. This would foster identi­ fication of the citizens with his government and its plan. U. In a planned society, government and the community are no longer separable entities. Analysis of governmental functions will show that controls in the direction of planning serve freed cm. 5* Lawful state interference in economic life by its machinery and powers of regulation should serve to maintain full pro­ duction and control arbitrary monopolies. Industrial democracy is the most powerful antidote to overcentralization in an in­ dustrial society.3

The modern social service state as the authorized agency far pre­ ventive and premotive planning, is also responsible for combining its socio-economic planning with communicative-educational campaigns. This

_s necessary in order to interpret fundamental issues and changes to various levels of intelligence and educational background. Therefore, it is the task of the State to determine the communicative-educational demands in its planning. In this capacity, the State assumes the role of a communicator and educator. This point of view should even be considered the basis for all planning. For, in the final analysis, in democratic planning it is human beings we are concerned with* Planners, whether they are techni­ cians or administrators, must recognize that they are not dealing with philosophical abstractions or mere statistics or engineering data or

^Karl Uannheim, Freedom, Power and Democratic Planning, pp. 112— 116. (condensed framT) 25U legal principles, and that planning is not an end in itself* Unless

plans show an understanding and recognition of the aspirations of the

people, they will fail* "Those who lack human understanding and can­

not share the emotions of men can hardly forward the objective of

realistic planning.

Turkey, now embarked upon democratic planning based on the idea of "unified resource development," cannot afford to overlook the

c cmmunicative—educational demands in its programs for socio—economic

recovery* This is necessary not only to bring about the desired

changes in the cognitive-perceptual processes and need-value systems

of the people with regard to specific ideas, methods, and skills, but

also, in the wards of D* Lilienthal, to create a concept of "unified

development", an "awakening" and a sense of ccmman moral purpose in

them*^

C* ill order that the State may discharge its responsibilities as a qualified communicator, the establishment of a non-political Com­

munication Strategy Board might be conceived*

The State must be fully aware of the tremendous, even decisive

importance of human relations and of the role of ccmmunications in the

accomplishment of its task* A planned and constructive use of the mass media in coordination with all technical assistance projects or

socio-economic development programs, can provide a firm basis for

popular understanding and support*

^David E. Lilienthal, TV A Democracy On the March, p. 203.

'’ibid., p. 20ii. 255 Therefore, par»l1 el to its preventive and promotive socio-economic

planning, the State must also work out an integrated mass communication

program. However, such a program poses more complications than any

other economic project, because it cannot be based solely on technical

and economic considerations. As already pointed out, it must also take

into account political, social, educational, and psychological factors.

In view of the complexity of the field of communications, the

State is expected to call upon experts from various fields. However,

in order that these experts may work out an integrated communication program, they themselves have to be integrated into an organized body

whose purpose and task are well defined.

In this connection, the writer would like to recommend the

creation of a permanent non-political Mass C ommunic ation Strategy

Board, under the Prime Minister or his associate Minister of State,

whose task it is to coordinate the international technical assistance

programs and to ensure the unification of '‘resource development." The

non-political nature of this board must be stipulated and guaranteed by law. Subject to revision and modification in texms of the changing

conditions and demands, the organization and possible functions of

this proposed Mass Communication Strategy Board might be conceived as

follows:

The Mass C ommunic at i on Strategy Board will be made up of:

1) Spec^aHsts from the several fields of socio-economic develop­

ment — especially from those ministries which actually carry

out mass communication and mass education programs, e.g., 256 Agriculture, Indus-trial Development, Health and Social Wel­

fare, Education, Communications, and Public Works*

The role of these experts will likely to be to assist in

the determination of the communication demands in the programs

pertaining to their respective fields and to make their quali­

fied expert knowledge available in the designing of communica­ tion content.

2) Social Scientists (Sociologists, Psychologists, Cultural An­

thropologists, Linguists). The communication situation is

actually a socio-psychological situation which involves the

role of custom, social structure, leadership patterns in the

community, individual response patterns and reaction predis­

positions. These elements go into every communication situa­

tion and beecme part of the undercurrent of psychological

forces which condition, in varying degrees, the responses of

the communicatee. Therefore, these socio-psychological forces

must be determined to ensure the success of the communicative

process.

The task of the social scientists on the Board will then be

to determine these forces and to help design a communication

strategy which either makes a constructive use of these farces

or, in case they hinder communication, overcome s them intelli­

gently. Briefly, social scientists will help to diagnose

socio-psychological factors in the newly created communication situations and to determine socio-psychological effects of the

communication process or campaigns initiated in coordination 257 with socio-economic programs*

3) Educators* In the long run, the effect of c cmmunic ation will

be measured by the criterion whether or not learning (e.g., an

idea or opinion, attitude, behavior, technique or skill) has

taken place. Furthermore, the whole communicative process,

as far as its ends and means are concerned, is identical with

the educative process* Therefore, the expert assistance of

the educator in determining the education demands in the

socio-economic plans and in combining the communication

strategy with educational approaches, cannot be ignored. U) C ommunic ation Specialists. Since the major concern of UCSB

will be to "synchronize" mass communication activities with

socio-economic development plans, the assistance of communica­

tion specialists is to be needed. Radio, television and film

experts, program specialists can advise as to how the message

can be conveyed best and through what media, to what kind of

consumer*

5) Statisticians* The assistance and advice of statisticians will

be needed in designing preliminary cammunication research and

pilot projects and in the scientific measurement and evaluation

of ccmmunication effects and research findings*

Since the tendency in Turkey is toward non-political democratic planning based upon unified resource developnent, the selection and/or

appointment of these experts to the Board must be strictly non-politi­ cal* Otherwise, there is always the danger of abusing the communica­ tion data far partisan purposes* The Functions of the i-iCSB should be expected to be* (1) To undertake a causative-diagnostic analysis of the problems

involved in socio-economic planning and to determine communi­

cation demands as a basis for a ccirununicative approach (pre­ ventive or prcmotive) *

The procedure followed in this study might provide a sug­

gestive method as to how to go about this problem.

(2) Research. (Communication and Public Opinion) In connection

with communication demands and problems involved in socio­

economic planning, research is necessary. As pointed out

earlier, to integrate ccmmunication into over—all programs

for socio—economic development will require substantial re­

search and pooling of the findings. Experiments in differ­

ent parts of the British Commonwealth have clearly proved

that preliminary research and pilot projects are of vital

importance in linking the technical problans not only to the

economic or financial aspects but also to the sociological,

cultural and psychological factors involved. Such studies

would help the government to formulate their ccrcmiunication demands, to integrate projects in various fields, and even

to standardize technical equipment. The money spent far

socio-economic development would produce much greater re­

sults if part of the appropriations was used for basic re­

search in communications and in « n related fields.

Some suggested areas might bei

a. Ebqjert analysis of the role of communications in the lives 259 of the people of various countries and nations* This

would enable the organizations concerned to guide and

coordinate future planning and to prepare a concerted

action.^

b* The problem of getting contact with the communicatee,

which is conditioned by five possible factors:

1* The aval lability of media and communicators 2. The ec oncmlc availabxXity of media and cocamunicatcrrs 3m The communication habits of individuals relating to their face-to-face and indirect communication con­ tacts U. The extent of reinforcement received by the communi- cator from other interestsof the individual or from other communicators 5. The extent of competition with other media or with other possible uses of the communicator's time.

c* The problem of holding the attention of the communicatee

to the completion of communication situation*

d* The problem of securing the desired response from the

communicatee.

1. The extent to which desired action is or has been part of the customary behavior patterns of the indi­ vidual or group* 2. The extent to which the desired response is blocked by existing attitudes, disbelief in the information presented, lack of prerequisite inforaation on the part of the communicatee, or lack of skills on his part. 3* The extent to which there has been no previous con­ ditioning by information, attitude formation, action goals, or action skills on the particular topic of communication — in other words, is there a frame of reference from which to act? U* The extent to which specific response is related to a more general attitude cluster which blocks, rein­ forces, or facilitates the stimuli used. That, of

A m o G. Huth, op* cit*, p. 3 9 . 260

course, in psychology is the argument between specific and general attitude formations within personalities* 5- The extent to which the community sanctions or opposes the desired response. 6* The extent to which there is prestige attached to the successful execution of the desired response or the extent to which there is authority behind the thing which is suggested.7

(3) Programming and Production. This function would involve the

preparation of the "message" or communication content on the

basis of media and audience characteristics. Programming and production would be expected to be geared to the creation of

a genuine interest in the concept of socio-economic develop­

ment, in the organizations which work for its implementation,

and in the individual projects which may affect the life,

attitude, and thinking of every citizen. Briefly, this

function is to deal with how the message should be presented

to be understood.

(U) Serving as the Central Agency of clearance and issuance far

information materials regarding communications research,

pilot projects, emanating from the Board itself and from the

Departments responsible far carrying out communication pro­

jects designed or suggested by UCSB.

Oh the basis of these considerations, the organization of 1CSB into the following functional units might be practical:

I. Research Unit in charge of conducting preliminary communica-

research and pilot projects in connection with:

1. Communication situations;

7john E. Ivey, Jr., op. cit., p* 153. 261

Educator* t Fundamental and A d u lt Education specialists

MASS ~'N COI-MJIliCATIOK STRATECT BOARD i: c s b

iato*n

RESEARCH The Organization o: DITIT i.Iass Coi:j..unica’.l 'r strategy 3oarci

PROG7UK AITD PRODUCTIONtun

PUBLIC mpora :a tic n 262

2. Audience demands and characteristics*

3* ifedia Characteristics;

U. Communication content;

f>* Communication effects*

II* Program and Production Unit, in charge of programming, media

selection and the message*

III* Public Infarmatlon and Relation Unit, in charge of recording

all data pertaining to communication and of disseminating

them (nationally and internationally). (See the Diagram I) The establishment of such a Communication Strategy Board m i l enable the Government to learn how Turkey is thinking and to dis­ tinguish between dreams and realities.

As communicators, the State and its specialists, in charge of planning and its execution, would achieve more if they were fully aware of the characteristics of the country, the people, and their daily worries. Their work would be further facilitated if they were familiar with the communication media of the country and with their effective use in order to explain their task, ideas and problems to the people and to secure popular understanding and support.

D. Since the ministries that make up the Government are responsi­ ble agencies far planning and for the execution of the programs of development, the organization within the individual ministries of an

Office of Information and Education appears to be necessary.

The establishment of such an Office of Information and Education within the appropriate ministries in Turkey might be patterned, for example, after the U. S. Department of Agriculture's Office of Inf or- 263 mation, one of the agencies most actively engaged in mass communica­ tion activities. This Office serves as the Central Agency of Clearance

and Issuance for Information Materials emanating from the Department

of Agriculture. The following is a brief description of the structural

organization and functions of this agency. It is organized on a media basis and consists of:

1. The Office of the Director.

2. Press Service.

a. Photographic Section, meets requests from writers and edi­

tors for photographs to illustrate articles on various

activities of the Department, both research and regulatory,

and assists both still and newsreel cameramen in taking

pictures in the laboratories and offices of the Department,

distributes picture stories describing the latest research

results and programs.

b. 11 Fanri Letter1*, chief means of communication to the farm

press and State Extension Editors.

c. Clip Sheet, circulated to the editors and writers for the

press and periodicals and extension agents writing for their

local newspaper. Most items report scientific advances and

economic benefits from research far the benefit of urban as

well as rural readers. d. Food and Home Notes, a mimeographed v/eekly service of brief,

non—technical releases an Department-wide activities and

research concerning the home and family.

3* Publications Divisions. a. Editorial Section b. Illustration Section (drawings, charts, maps, lettering,

layouts, engrossing, etc.) c. Printing Section.

Special Reports Division

a. Mobilization Reporting, reporting to the public on agri­

culture's mobilization efforts; (1) to stimulate measures that would help farmers achieve the output needed frcro the

soil, and (2) to inform the nation of what agriculture is

doing to meet its production objectives. b. The Magazine Service, meets the demands for agricultural

information from national and regional magazines and farm

publications; arranges conferences with editors and maga­

zine writers and Department subject matter specialists;

checks manuscripts for accuracy and supplies pictorial

data. c. Agricultural Yearbook.

Radio and Television Service. a. Supplies information for Farm service broadcasters, b • provides recorded programs and "Farm Flashes," c. meets foreign requests for information and assistance re­

garding the radio and television work of the Department and

Land (he*ant Colleges and the development of the foreign

broadcasting service far rural people, d. conducts radio and television research projects, (The in­

crease in radio and television audience, the growing ratio 265 of the rural audience, and the high potential of radio and

television as education and information media make it im­

perative that the Department and the Land Grant Colleges

develop research plans for utilizing them.)

e. cooperates with radio and television stations,

f. takes the leadership in planning and conducting the agri­

cultural workshops and participates in Rac Lo and Television

institutes.

6. Exhibits Service. Exhibits are used in the Department's in­

formation program to help create an interest in improved farm­

ing, hcme-making, and forestry practices. They show these

practices in a vivid easily understood form, employing all

types of visual aids and mechanical devices to aid the observer

in grasping the basic ideas.

a. Exhibition Section, prepares educational exhibits and makes

thorn available for display at major or small fairs, exposi­

tions, conventions and meetings.

b. Preparation Section, prepares exhibits related to farm

problems, e.g., conservation of Farm and Forest; Livestock,

Crops, Farm Machinery; Better Living on the Farm; Dairying

and Pasture, etc•

The service also cooperate in furnishing advice and information on exhibit matters and in the loan of material to governmental agen­ cies, universities, schools, unions and other organizations.

7. Motion Picture Service serves*

a. as an information agency to and of the Department of Agri- 266

culture and performs technical and advisory services of a

motion picture nature to several other agencies of the

Federal Government,

b. It also produces or cooperates in the production of film

projects on agricultural subjects or otherwise.

c* Library Cooperation. The distribution of Department

of Agriculture motion pictures is handled primarily through

the Motion Picture Service's network of cooperating film

libraries in State Agricultural Services and Universities O or secondary network of 16 mm film libraries.

The traditional administrative concept of the functions of govern­ mental agencies has long been out-moded. Today practically each branch of the State emerges as an agency of communication and education. This

is entirely compatible with the modern concept of "social service democracy" which is active in every sphere of social life through its preventive and promotive planning. Since the activities and planning

of the State directly concerns the people by whose consent it governs,

and since the realization of socio-economic development is fundamen­ tally a matter of communication and education, the revision and reor­

ganization of structure and functions of the ministries on the basis

of their communicative and educational responsibilities appear to be

imperative. In this connection the foregoing description of a govern­ mental information unit may provide a practical suggestive pattern

after which to reorganize our ministerial offices of information and

^Based on the Annual Report of the Office of Information, (Fis­ cal Year July 1, 1950-June ^0, T)ep. of Agriculture, 3U p . 267 education.

Ill* Communicatee (or Audience),

A. _In contrast to the communicator1s function of the democratic

State* which plans on behalf of the people* the people make up the corm.Ainicatees or the audience*

As the State assumes the role of the communicator through its socio-economic planning based on the assumed needs and demands of the people* the people take on the position of communicatees. In this position* they constitute the most important element of the communi­ cation situation created by the democratic planning. For it is they who will perceive (or cognitively structure) the message or the stimulus field (the introduction of new ideas* methods, and skills) produced by the communicator (the State). B. The success of democratic planning and communication depends heavily upon the understanding* cooperation and action of the audience.

Therefore* the audience must be built up.

In its role as a communicator* the main ccncem of the State should be to know and determine the communicatees (the people), their needs* interests* demands, expectancies* and levels of understanding.

In fact* this is essential in order fcr the State to convey its 268 message end to create a genuine interest in the concept of socio­

economic development. Briefly, the State in its capacity as a com­ municator, must build-up the audience.

Too often, however, the information (the message) is transnitted without any previous enquiry about the potential audiences (the reader, viewer, listener) and too often it does not reflect anything more than the interest and attitude of the "sender" and thus fails to reach and to influence the "receiver.

As pointed out (p. 169), this sort of communication is communica­

tor-centered and reflects an "ejqpressive behavior" rather than a com­ municative one. Whereas, in order that the message may create a

dynamic relationship between the communicator and communicatee and

furnish the frame of r eference for human action, it must be highly planned and communicatee—centered.

In building up the audience, special attention should be devoted to the problem of reception; How can the message — public information

as well as educational material — be brought to the people (audience)?

In India, for example, the Delhi Rural Broadcasting Scheme

(operated since 1933 by All India Radio) has provided listening facili­

ties far about 111,1*00 inhabitants of 111 villages scattered over an

area of $7h Sq. miles. It has also provided programs, for an hour

every evening, on current affairs, agriculture, animal husbandry,

health, civics, in addition to music, news, weather and market reports broadcast from the main transmitter in Delhi. The promotion of the communication programs also contributes to

9Arno G. Hath, op. cit., p. 26. 269 the building-up the audience. Experience has shown that one medium can be used to promote another. For example, in Western Samoa the itinerary of the visual education instructors and the titles of the films to be shown are broadcast in advance to the villages concerned.^ To implement socio-economic programs and to inform the people about these programs, it is also necessary to find out what a particu­ lar audience, and a particular group in the audience, wants and needs, and how the message should be presented to be understood. This calls for audience and public opinion research, which up to now has been completely neglected in technical assistance projects and socio­ economic programs.

In the process of building-up the audience, the initial approach to the communicatee, the introduction of a new medium of communication, will condition the degree of acceptability. For example, radio, which the Bedouins at first considered an "invention of the devil," became a highly respected instrument as soon as it carried readings from the

Koran. ^

However, the solution of the problem of reception, the promotion of communication programs, audience and public opinion research, do not guarantee the success of the canmunication. The obstacle of illiteracy with regard to listening, looking, speaking and interpreting must also be overcome. A document prepared by the U. N. Secretariat suggests that

^ Ibid., pp. 28-29.

^•Ibid., p. 30. 270

■the definition of illiteracy should be broadened by re­ garding as illiterate not only a person unable to read and "write, but also a person unable to listen, speak, (look), and interpret, i.e., one who lacked the essential means of communicating with his fellow men.^2

Therefore, fundamental education and mass communication activi­ ties should also include education for listening and viewing so that intelligent consumption of information might be rendered possible, especially among the populations which had no, or almost no, previous contact with the media of communication,

C. The peasantry potentially makes up the bulk of the Turkish

Audience, The State, as a communic at or, must take into acc ount the social, psychological and intellectual characteristics of this majori­ ty, in order to be of service to it and to prevail upon it. Public opinion, audience and communications research must be institutional­ ized. Although the recent socio-economic programs of development in

Turkey stress the welfare of the peasantry, the social, psychological and intellectual characteristics of this great majority have not so far been determined scientifically.

Considering the tremendous weight the peasant majority (some 80 per cent of the total population) exerts upon the politico-economic decisions and policies of the country, the cognitive-perceptual pro­ cesses and need—value systems (see pp. 1^1-159 ) of the peasant group must be subject to scientific study and analysis in order to predict its behavior and to enlist its cooperation. Such studies not only

1 2 Ibid., p. 31. (From the UN Doc, kjAC. 35/L. 11, 19 July 1950). 271 help to predict behavior but al30 help to determine the effects of technical assistance and economic development programs.

Although not conducted with specific reference to economic de­ velopment or communication programs, a socio—psychological study by

M. Sherif on the effects of the "Contact with Modern Technology in

Five Turkish Villages” might have seme bearings on the points under consideration. The following are the highlights from thio study:

In 19Uii» a study of the technology and mentality relationship was made in five Turkish villages with varying degrees of isolation from more developed centers and varying degrees of contact with modern technology. All these villages had seme contact with the outside world and, along with the rest of the country, were in a stage of transition. But the contrast be­ tween the most and least isolated villages is sufficient to indicate the striking effects of the relative degree of con­ tact with technology. Two kinds of data were secured: (1) data concerning the ma­ terial conditions and technological level of the village; (2) data concerning the mentality of the villagers. (The for­ mer could be called physical data and the latter psychological data.) The scope of the psychological data had been limited to a few basic phenomena dealing with the units, precision, and scope of space, distance, and time perceptions, the scales and standards consciously or unconsciously regulating the villagers' concep­ tions of the alien or strange, and of wealth. These basic standards and scales and basic attitudes regulating in—group and out-group expectations are more than cognitive phenomena; they act in important way to regulate the boundaries of the Individual's activities and expectations, the scope and limits of his mobility in undertaking the vital concerns of his life. From this study of five Turkish villages (the Village of *.ar— Ilk, Afyon, as the most isolated and the Village of Besikduzu, Trabzon, as the least isolated), some definite conclusions con­ cerning the effects of modern technology tiave been drawn: (1) Before the individuals in a village reach tne stage of de­ velopment in which the internationally stand;irdized units of distance, space, and time are used, certain units ana anchorages do become standardized, chiefly (allowances being made for the influence of norms and values) as determined b y (a) the periodi­ city of their economic and social activities (such as their m a r ­ ket day); (b) the periodicity of certain natural events (such as the sunrise or cycles of the moon) and the compelling features 272 of tlie surroundings (such as a mountain peak). But such standardized units and anchorages lack precision in varying degrees. (2) As one passes from more isolated to less isolated, £rom technologically less-developed to more-developed villages, in­ ternational units of distance, space, and time are used roughly in proportion to the degree of the impact of modern technology, and their use becomes correspondingly more precise. (3) A scale of riches exists for every village, the limits of which are set by the financial levels of the rich and the poor in the village. The standard of riches of the individual varies according to his relative position on the scale. (U) The radius of the world in which the individual lives his daily life widens in proportion to the degree of contact with the products and facilities of modern technology. (5) l&obility (actual and psychological) is increased propor­ tionate to the degree of these contacts and to economic scarcity and pressure. In other words, the greater the pressure of econo­ mic scarcity, the greater is the mobility toward towns and cities for trade aid industry and the greater is the psychological mo­ bility. We must not lose sight of the effects and distortions brought about by the inertia and reaction of the existing superstructure of values and norms. Such effects, indeed, may roughly corres­ pond to the degree of stability and rigidity of this existing superstructure.^

For the systematic study of public opinion and communication, how­ ever, the institutionalization of communication research is necessary.

While the proposed Communication Strategy Board might lay the ground­ work far such an institution, and while the agencies engaged in com­ munication and education might have their own communications and public opinion research divisions, the establishment of an independent Insti­ tute of Public Opinion and Communication is most desirable. This can be done by cooperating with such foreign agencies as the

American Institute of Public Opinion, the International Association of

Public Opinion (Gallup) Institute, and by training communication re­ search specialists both at home and abroad. This need cannot any

!3m . Sherif, op. cit., pp. 37U-385* (Condensed from) 273 longer be ignored in the rapidly growing Turkish democracy because in the countries where public opinion research is practised, it has been found that:

1. Public opinion polls have provided political leaders with a more accurate gauge of public opinion, 2. Public opinion polls have speeded up the process of democracy by providing not only accurate but swift reports of public opinion, 3. Public opinion polls have shown that common people do make good decisions, U. Public opinion polls have helped to focus attention on major issues of the day. 5. Public opinion polls have uncovered many 'areas of ignorance.* o. Public opinion polls have helped administrators of government departments make wiser decisions. Government is learning what business learned years ago ■— that any program designed to influence the public must be based upon accurate knowledge of public attitudes. Millions of dollars can be wasted by following wrong hunches about the public's information and thinking on important policies* 7. Public opinion polls have made it more difficult for politi­ cal bosses to pick presidential candidates in 'smoke filled roans. * 8. ftiblic opinion polls have shown that the people are not moti­ vated in their voting solely by the factor of self-interest, as many politicians have presumed. 9. Public opinion polls constitute almost the only present check on the growing power of pressure groups. 10. Public opinion polls help define the 'mandate' of the people in national elections.

In a democratically planned society, public opinion has an em­ pirical character which is represented by its composition and manner of functioning as a part of a society in operation. It consists of the pattern of the diverse views and positions on the issues.

Public opinion is effective on societal action in so far as it enters into the purview of whoever (e.g., legislators, executives, ad­ ministrators, policy makers and planners) has to act on public opinion*

^♦George Gallup, A Guide to Public Opinion Polls, pp* iv—xv. 27U Public opinion which never came to the attention of those who have to act on it would be impotent and meaningless as far as affecting the it action and operation of society is concerned. It is only through a scientifically organized and efficiently operating Institute of Public

Opinion and Communications Research that those in charge of societal planning and action might be kept in touch with public opinion and their message might be conveyed to the right audience, at a right time, in a right context, and through the right medium.

IV, Ccmmunication Media, A. Technical needs must be fulfilled before any message can be conveyed.

In a modem complex society, communication process, social control and social change are no longer carried out simply through face-to-face contacts. We are more and more depending upon indirect communication, indirect transmission of facts, ideas and even skills, through such technical devices as printing presses, film projectors, radio and television transmitters and receivers, telegraph and telephone equip­ ment.

These technical devices serve as a bloodstream along which flow the thoughts, the knowledge and the information that make it possible for complex industrial societies to function and remain unified. To­ day, the same devices are being called upon to accomplish a greater task, i*e., to '’fertilize" the ancient cultures of underdeveloped countries and to bring them into contact with the benefits of progress.

•^Herbert Blumer, "Public Opinion and Public Opinion Polls,n Reader in Public Opinion and Comarunication, pp. 55*6, $99* 275 This, however, cannot be achieved without fulfilling technical needs. The realization of socio-economic developments being heavily dependent upon an "integrated communication" and communication being dependent upon the availability of the technical communication facili­

ties, it is necessary that the provision of communication facilities be integrated with technical assistance and economic development pro­ grams.

The appreciation and awareness of this point is well illustrated by the Colombo Flan for Cooperative Economic Development in South and

South-East Asia, which allocates the greatest share of the fund to communications. (p.221 )

It cannot be stressed strongly and frequently enough, however, that communication facilities, even the most modern and elaborate, do not constitute any value in themselves. The principal concern should be the positive use of these facilities, e.g.,

1) for the improvement of living conditions through economic de­

velopment;

2) for fundamental education;

3) for the promotion of cultural values and of interest in

civic, national and international affairs, in particular for

the promotion of better international relations.^

B. Radio, film, television offer great possibilities for mass crmmim-i cation and mass education directed to better living and better human relations. Radio stands out as the most powerful and most im-

A m o G. Huth, op» cit., p. 27* 276 portant medium of mass c ommunlc at ion.

Once the subject matter of the communication program anri the na­ ture of the audience to which it is addressed have been determined, and once the audience has been prepared for "intelligent listening," attention can be directed to the media which afford the most suitable vehicles.

For its purposes, this study is mainly concerned with such major media as radio, film, television. Although ehch of these media has its own unique contributions to socio-economic development and mass education, especially in the underdeveloped areas of the world, the evaluation of their effectiveness in the light of the recent experi­ ments and their comparison with printed matter, lead to the following c onclusions:

1) The high rate of illiteracy restricts the impact of printed

publications.

2) Only under exceptional circumstances do the means exist for

spreading information beyond a limited area, generally the

capital city and few urban centers.

3) Daily newspapers reach the hinterland with great delay, and

are limited in number, in size and circulation. Magazines also

reach a an all fraction of the population.

U) Books, in most cases, are reserved for the wealthy and educa­

ted. 5) The same is true for feature films, newsreels and documentar­

ies, except for occasional visits of mobile cinema vans show­

ing educational films. Although frequently appealing to 277 different audiences, films are likewise only an entertainment

for a few or relatively few. Attendance figures clearly in­ dicate that, with the exception of a few countries and big

cities, films do not yet reach the masses. (Turkey's annual

per capita attendance figure of 1.1 can hardly be compared with a per capita figure of 38 in Israel, 29 in Great Britain,

22 in the U. S.)

Only in those countries and territories where authorities

or private organizations have at their disposal special units

and mobile cinema vans, can film serve as effective tools for

education and instruction.

6) Thus, both press and films in general have to be given a

minor role in the underdeveloped areas — temporarily, of

course* 7) Of all the major media of mass communication, radio alone

stands out as the most powerful and most important medium,

because: a. it reaches larger audiences;

b. it appeals to literates as well as illIterates — an

effect which is quite important as long as 1,200,000,000,

half of the world's population, can neither read nor

write, which is also true for Turkeyj

c. radio alone bridges the distances between urban centers

and rural areas, between one country and another, link­

ing the community to the nation and nation to the world.

8) Although radio does not yet cover all areas of the world and 278

seldom completely fulfills the needs of the people for infor­

mation, instruction and entertainment, it offers unique possi­

bilities for rapid expansion. This expansion could be

accomplished through technical assistance and by incorporating

this expansion into the plans far socio—economic development

in such a way as to increase the number and power of trans­

mitters and to multiply the number of receiving sets.

In this respect, the governments can take the lead in co­

ordinating action, in providing guidance in the establishnent

of new transmitters and in promoting the improvement of re­

ception conditions (e.g., Brazil and Turkey).

The most serious problem caused by the shortage of radio

sets may be solved by such practical measures as lowering

trade barriers which hamper the import of receiving equipment,

reducing the annual license fees, which most listeners have

to pay, local manufacture of low—cost receivers and the es­

tablishment of private assembling plants (e.g., the plants

established by American manufacturers in Mexico and Brazil).

9) It has also been found out that radio is the one field where

results can be obtained rapidly, where one country can help

another, and where the cooperation among broadcasters can se­

cure tangible results.

In order to have at least every family own a radio it is

not necessary to wait until a higher percentage of the popu­

lation becomes literate, until social conditions have improved

and standards of living have been raised. By developing and 279

using this medium intelligently, we can promote and accelerate

socio—economic development•

10) Wien and if necessary, it is possible to extend the range of

the broadcasts by using secondary shortwave transmitters

carrying the domestic programs simultaneously with the stand­

ard broadcasting stations, thus ensuring their reception in

distant places; chains of small and inexpensive relay trans­

mitters, acting as super-receivers and amplifiers; wire broad­

casting systems, distributing the programs to the loud

speakers installed in hemes and collective listening centers*

To these might be added the use of simple media of communi­

cation, in particular those which are part of the cultural

environment, e.g., the use of the victrola and records for

spreading information and basic knowledge through public

address systems installed in public places.

11) Television, despite initial obstacles, can be introduced in

underdeveloped areas by means of large-screen receivers for

collective reception and on the basis of community purchase

of the sets. The economic problem could be solved if the

equipment were standardized and the effective demand for 17 sets were created to make mass production possible*

As generally conceded, television is the most effective medium of communication yet devised by man* In the words of Lowei, Director of the Dumont TV Network, it is "the greatest instrument far mass

^Arno G* Huth, op. cit., pp. 31-36. 280 dissemination of information and knowledge since the days of Guten­ berg."18

Because of its technically inherent quality which combines sight- sound -^notion stimuli with a resultant high recall, impact, television may well prove to be the greatest audio-visual aid to fundamental edu­ cation and to the mass education with respect to socio-economic de­ velopment.

Presently known assets of television may be summed up as follows

(l) Large audience can be influenced. If one considers that

never before has education had the opportunity of reaching

simultaneously even a tiny fraction of the potential televi­

sion audience, the revolutionary implications of this medium

for education may be realized better. There are now over 27

million receivers in the U. S. and television's potential

home audience now musters over 100 million people. Manu­

facturers expect to sell five million more receivers yearly

for the next five years. By the end of 1953 it- was estimated

that the U. S. would have 300 television stations on the air

(at the year's beginning there were 123:). In addition, one

out of every ten of all the channels authorized by the Federal

Communication Commission (totalling 2l;5) has been reserved for

l8C. A. Siepmann, Radio, Television and Society, op. cit., p. 33U.

^ Television in Education, Report of Ed. IV program Inst., April 1952, Am. Coun. on Ed., pp. 7-12. 281

non-commercial educational use.^O

(2) Television goes right into the home and makes readily availa­

ble educational, cultural, informational opportunities that

previously have been quite inaccessible. Now it has become

possible for busy housewives, men and women workers, handi­

capped and shut-in children, and for many who could not in

the past continue their educational and cultural interests

to rejoin the learning process in an informal atmosphere.

In Cleveland, for example, it is known that over 200 groups

of neighbors are getting together to listen to educational

broadcasts frcm Western Reserve University and to discuss

the programs afterwards.

(3) People and properties can be utilized better. Television

with its multiple separate outlets frcm a single originating

source, can mean a greater utilization of brilliant indivi­

duals, special talents, and complicated or expensive proper­

ties. For example, programs telecast from the Iowa State

College Station have proved that an agricultural expert can

reach more farmers in a 30 minute demonstration than he

could in weeks of travel around the country-side.

(U) Simultaneity adds effectiveness. Events are viewed while

they are actually happening which help hold attention and

add to the interest and excitement of the medium. This is

one of its advantages over films.

20charles A. Siepmann, "Television, its Past and its Future," Consumer Report, (January l$5k) pp. U2, U$. 282

(5) Television can teach* This is supported by convincing evi­

dence from experiments which asserts that TV is sometimes as

effective as traditional classroom teaching in the amount of

learned and retained, even more so* For close study of sci­

entific demonstrations TV is ideal. This fact is already

being used to advantage in the teaching of medicine by close

circuit TV*

A good example of this can be found in a recent Time report

on medicine* According to this report, Dr* Leo M. Taran, the

medical director of St. Francis Hospital and Sanatorium for

Cardiac Children at suburban Roslyn, N. Y., has recently un­

veiled the operating suite* The description of this opera­

ting suite with respect to TV facilities goes as follows:

Above the operating table, which can be tilted six ways, is a television camera (nested in a battery of lights) with lenses for close-up, normal and wide—view shots. The sur­ geons, anesthesiologist and physiologist wear combination stethoscope—intercoms receivers. Two-Way Traffic. From the patient on the operating table are leads to an electrocardiograph that projects tracings on a wall screen. Also projected are lines showing the pulse, the heart sounds, and the pressure in each side of the heart. Attached to the table is an x-ray machine that will photograph the heart and major blood vessels after opaque dye is injected into the bloodstream. The surgeon can order these projected on a giant screen within minutes after an exposure in order to keep a running check on the effects of the operation* Everything can be seen and heard simultaneously by as many as 75 visitors in the adjacent lecture hall* Seated in the movie—house chairs, they watch the operation in color on TV repeaters, and see the same charts that the surgeon sees. They plug an electric stethoscope into an outlet in the chair arm. Through this they hear the sound of the patient*s heart just as the surgeon does. They also hear whatever the surgeon says to members of his team (picked up by a micro­ phone in his mask) and comments by the leader of the seminar. The surgeon can hear these, too, if he chooses, and ask ad- 283

vice of a guest surgeon — far everyone in the audience also has a throat mike. Finally, there are the permanent records* Everything can be played back so that physicians and surgoons can devise improvements in their methods.^l

With these specific assets, TV presents some major opportunities to education, which are:

Classroom instruction, which implies the use of TV as an

integral part of the curriculum.

(2) Extraclassroom education for students. A commercial survey

in Los Angeles indicated that the average child in home

with TV spent 22^ hours each week at the TV set.

(3) After-classroom education for adults, and

(U) Information and training for citizenship. TV is virtually

"tailormade" for adult education and citizenship training.

It can be a powerful instrument for the furtherance of

fundamental education for democracy and effective self-

government. It can even teach skills, thus facilitating

mass education far economic development*

(5) Cultural and practical benefits. Through limitless range

of programs — informational, cultural, and educational —

TV can enrich the lives of the citizens.

Despite all these actual and potential educational possibilities, television is still an expensive enterprise. Although, in the U. S., it has been able to "kick the radio upstairs" and turned it into a

"background accompaniment to other activities," it might take a long

v. Ixiii, No. 1, (January H, 195U), p. UU. 28U

time for the underdeveloped countries to reach such an extravangancy.

To illustrate the expensive nature of TV, the range of possible

construction and operating costs of educational TV station is repro­

duced below*22

The Facilities

Tran an itter (500 watts), building, equipment, antenna ...... S 125,000-3 150,000 Film projection facility (projectors, accessories, etc.) ...... li;,000 Live program facility (2 cameras, au­ dio and other equipment, 1 studio) . . 93,500 TV recording equipment and developer (principally for purposes of sharing programs)...... 35,000

Total capital costs ..... & 267,000—3> ^^/OoO

Cost of Operating the Basic Educational St.

Transmitter (power, tubes, etc. 3 technicians) ...... 3 27,500 Studio technical staff (2 camera men, 1 audio floor man, 1 floor assistant, 3U,000 each; 1 director, 35,200; 1 audio and video engineer, 35,200 each; 1 projectionist, SU,500; 1 maintenance engineer, 36,000 ...... 1*2,100 Management and supporting staff (manager, 38,000; assistant manager (business), 35,200; 3 directors, 35,200 each, 2 art directors (scenery and props), 35,000 each; 2 writers, 3U,500 each; 1 lighting technician, SU,500; 3 secretaries, 33,600 each). • 63,100 Video recording (1 engineer, 37,000; film)...... 27,000 Programs ...... 60,000

Total 3 219,700

In view of this situation, it would be more practical far sometime

22t V in Education, op. cit., pp. 23,25. (pointed out in an auth­ oritative working document prepared by E. Arthur Hunger ford of General Precision Laboratories, assistant director of the Program Institute) 28$

to stress the expansion of radio facilities and Improvement of re­

ception in the underdeveloped areas.

C. Turkey is now in a position to solve mass media difficulties

and to launch a campaign aimed at providing at least every family with

one radio receiver and every province with one educational film center.

International audio-visual aids sources should be utilized intelli­ gently.

(1) Radio. The survey of the radio facilities in Turkey (pp. 177-

193) indicates that with the completion of the three new middle-wave

stations, the problem of "coverage11 will have been solved by the end of 1955*

Yet, the most Important question still remains unanswered: How can we provide every family unit and especially the peasantry, with radio receivers in order to carry out a comprehensive mass education program geared to the realization of socio-economic development?

In this connection, the study of the population and radio sta­ tistics (1950) discloses same startling figures*2^

In the Provinces In the Subdis- and Districts %_ tricts and Villages %_

The Distribution of Population ...... $,267,69$ 2$*2 1$,666,975 7U.8 The Distribution of Radio S e t s ...... 21*8,9U9 (U.83) 71,901* (0.1*6)

As these figures indicate, the incidence of radio sets among the urban population is 1**83 per cent as against 0.1*6 per cent among the

23Istatistik Yllligi, T. C. Ba^bakanligi Istatistik Genel lid., 1951, pp. 79, 1*65. Total population* 20,93U,670, Total radio sets* 320,8$3, The incidence of radio sets* (0.6$2) per cent. 286 rural population. The disproportionate distribution of the radio re­ ceivers becomes more apparent when one considers the ratio of the rural population (7U.8) to the urban population (25*2)* The total number of the radio sets far the villages alone is 22,397* When com­ pared with the total number of the villages ( UO ,OOO) the discrepancy becomes more striking. Although the number of the radio receivers has doubled since then, the situation still, maintains its problematic character. Before we can narrow down this discrepancy, it would be very naive to assume that we are making an effective use of radio as a tool for mass education and enlightenment*

Some remedies to bridge the gap had already been mentioned*

They may be reiterated as follows:

(1) lowering trade barriers;

(2) reducing the annual license fee;

(3) encouraging local manufacture and assembly of low-cost re­

ceivers;

(!*) organizing collective listening;

(5) speeding up rural electrification; and most important of all,

(6) making the radio ownership a nation-wide issue*

In establishing radio-ownership as a nation-wide issue, we can rely upon a few simple but important facts:

a* As the international experiments have already proved, in the

underdeveloped areas of the world where the rate of illiteracy

is high, radio serves far better than any other medium of com­

munication in contributing to socio-economic development by a swift dissemination of knowledge and information* (see pages 287

276-2 79)

b. Turkey is a rural country with the (71,o) per cent of its

population living in rural districts and villages. Most of

its rural areas might be classified as underdeveloped where

the rate of illiteracy is the highest. This is especially

true fcr the Eastern provinces.

c. In most cases, radio is the only contact of the rural popula­

tion with the dynamian of the national and international life

and civilization. Yet, as stated a while ago, the incidence

of radio receivers among the rural districts and population

is dismally low.

Without trying to establish any direct correlation between the number of radio receivers and the rate of illiteracy, we can illus­ trate the importance and necessity of a more efficient and speedier mass communication by comparing the population, literacy and radio statistics of 13 Eastern provinces of Turkey: 288

A comparison of the rate of literacy and the incidence of radio receivers in 13 Eastern Provinces of Turkey

Percentage of Population Population those who can Number of provinces above (7) that can reaa react and write the radio years of age and write receivers Men Women Total

AgrI 96 900 13 776 23.5 3.6 13.9 606

bingol 55 655 3 970 12.3 2.0 7.1 208

bitlis 56 326 6 015 18.7 2.8 11.1 319

Ooruh 12? 668 61 155 69.9 16.6 32.2 580

diiniusane* Hi 7 752 29 717 32.8 8.9 20.1 397 iakkari 25 957 1 539 10.6 1.2 5.9 87

5.6 17.2 liras% 199 099 36 171 28.6 055 Pardin 175 961 15 205 15.6 2.1 8.6 650

PusH 60 362 5 069 15.6 1.8 8.6 231 diirt 101 600 9 133 15.6 2.1 9.0 663

Tunceli 69 739 16 620 33.3 8.0 20.7 252

Urf a 202 855 21 909 18.9 2.9 10.8 886

Van 96 911 12 958 21.9 3.3 13.6 690

Population and literacy as based on the statistical figures of 1?.

Gh the basis of these statistical figures it would be advisable

to give special consideration to providing the Eastern provinces with

radio receivers* In this respect, the British experiment and experi­

ence in West and Central Africa might provide us with practical sug­

gestions as to how to go about this problem* (see pp.217-221) which might be summed up ass 289

a* mass production of low-cost receiver especially designed for

the area and its population.

b. Cooperation of the manufacturer and the distributer satisfied

with a small margin of profit.

c. Cooperation of the transportation concerns in carrying sets

free of charge.

d. Cooperation of the government in importing or manufacturing

them free of duty or tax and exempting them frcm all license

fees.

The introduction of radio receivers in the underprivileged areas of the country on a mass scale and according to systematically de­ signed plans, might reflect itself in the conscious participation of the given population in the socio-economic reconstruction of Turkey.

(2) Film. On the basis of the survey of the "Film in Turkey,11 it would be reasonable to say that for the first time in the Republic's history, the solution of the problem of educational film has been taken up systematically. The present approach aiming at the establishment of regional film centers, provincial branches and sub-branches, seems to be sound. But here again the most important problem is the ful­ fillment of technical needs as well as the training of personnel.

Another apparent difficulty is production and supply. In this respect, the experiences of the British Colonial Film Unit in Africa should guide our activities. When translated into the Turkish condi­ tions, that means that to^ make a film for Turkey it is essential to shoot the film in Turkey.

Nevertheless, until the national production has become effective 290 and efficient enough, it would be advisable to take advantage of the international educational film resources and make adaptations. In this connection, Simon and Julia Singer (Film specialists at the

UNESCQ-OAS Regional Fundamental Education Center, Fatzcuaro, michoacan, Liexico) have done some interesting adaptations of U. S. films by cutting and adding footage here and there. Reportedly, this ?) procedure proved to be effective and economical.

Since the major argument jf this study is the integration of mass coniinunication with socio-economic development programs, the writer would like to mention the BCA Film Project which was conducted with the same purpose in mind and which might serve as a valuable reference for the Turkish Educational Film Center.

3CA Film Project.

The ECA Film Project at the State College of Washington was the largest mass previewing of films ever attempted in the U. S. in one year's time.

In February 1951 the U. S. Dep. of Commerce, through the Office of Technical Services, had been designated by the ECA to select appro­ priate Agricultural and Industrial films for use in the Technical

Assistance P r o g r a m overseas, and the State College of Washington un­ dertook the project.

The scope of the work was stated as follows:

It is the design and intent of these specifications to provide a visual aid program for the interchange of techni­ cal personnel on the development and extension of better

^Uprcm the letter written by Seth Spaulding of Pan American Union to Mr. Wood of Jupan Film Project, (Jan. 21, 195U) 291

methods in Agriculture and Industry. Only such films shall be furnished as "will meet the specific needs of the coun­ tries participating in the European Recovery Program. The films will be shown before representatives of industry, labor and government in the following countries: Austria, Belgium and Luxemburg, Denmark, Prance, the Federal Repub­ lic of Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, 'Trieste, Turkey, and the United Kingdom,

The type of films to be selected are:

(1) Those dealing with improvement of work methods (far example working processes "before11 and "after"). These films are designed to increase productivity and are applicable to a broad range of industrial and commercial activity, (2) Informational films explaining that high production is necessary to raise the standard of living. (3) Films showing increased productivity brought about by using better material and equipment. (U) Films to train workers in the use of production tools and agricultural machinery.

For previewing and reviewing selected audio-visual experts and subject matter specialists were employed. After the final appraisal and editing, the copies of the digest on individual films which in­ cluded the description, summary description, comment and recommenda­ tion, prepared by these experts, were forwarded to Washington for distribution to cognizant government offices there and abroad.

The Office of Technical Services of the Department of Commerce which was charged by the Mutual Security Agency to carry out this project was also responsible for subsequent procurement of selected films for shipment to Paris. All digests were reviewed and specific titles selected for procurement by the Office of Technical Services.

Final selection was based upon criterion provided initially and sup­ plemented later by the ECA.

An individual procurement order was sent to Movies En Route, New 2?2

York City who had the big job of carrying out the physical process of procurement. V/hen the duplicating material arrived in Paris, a com­ posite of the film was made and screened before a group which was cognizant, in general, of the industrial and agricultural problems of the participating countries. If this group felt that the subject con­ tent of the H i m warranted the expense of translation and duplication, an English version print was made available for final approval to the various countries for which it might be suitable. Upon receipt of this approval, work was started on the translation and subsequent duplication.

The project confirmed once more that the motion picture is a potent medium in the exchange of vital information and can help to increase production and strengthen free world. It was also learned that it takes a considerable viewing and reviewing to develop critical judgments, and that in the final analysis the subject matter expert is the one best qualified to judge the value of the film.

Furthermore, it was found out that in evaluating any material it is very important to have specific criteria to use as a yardstick.

The more specifically the goals and purposes for which the film will be used can be enumerated, the more accurate will be one's judgnent.

The procedure followed through this project may well serve as a guide to the proposed Communication Strategy Board and governmental agencies in selecting audio-visual media and in synchronizing them, with socio-economic development programs.

The writer has no data as to the extent to which the Turkish planners made or are making use of the ECA Film Project. This much 293 is known, however, "that ECA has undertaken the production of a series of films an farm practice specifically designed for local use. What­ ever the case may be, it is obvious that the repertoire of films and filmstrips so carefully selected and screened by experts should well serve as a basic source for those who are concerned with integrated communication and mass education through mass media. 25

Mobile Units

On the subject of Film in Turkey this final comment should be made. In view of the predominantly rural character of the country and of the distribution of the rural population throughout some

■j.0,000 villages, the use of mobile units would have a practical value for a long time to come.

Therefore, it would be advisable to design a program to provide each regional and provincial film center with at least one mobile unit equipped with film projectors, filmstrip projectors, record players, recording instruments, radio receiving sets, microphones and amplifiers, especially in the areas of the country with a high pro­ portion of illiteracy.

The significance of mobile unit is that it is a multipurpose van able to serve areas without theatres and without electric main supply.

Consequently, they have a major contribution to make in the field of fundamental education and mass education for economic development.

Wherever it has been used, the mobile film van has proved the value of the film as an essential aid to fundamental education and

^Information on ECA Film Project is based on EGA Film Project May 2h, 1951-June 1$, 1952, The State College of Washington, 50 p. 29k mass communication. The advantage of the mobile unit is that it is a dual purpose veiiicle: it is an audio-visual production unit as well as an exhibition unit. It should be able to make from local material a great many of its own audio-visual aids* According to the composi­ tion of its crew and its equipment it becomes a mobile health center* a veterinary center* radio receiving center cr school* of value in campaigns for health* agricultural improvement* and illiteracy.

The chassis* engines and superstructure of these units should be so designed as to withstand the conditions of climate and terrain in the area of operation. Crews must be carefully trained to maintain and stow their vehicles*

Film and filmstrip projection equipment must provide:

1. Good viewing to everyone within a defined area and optimum audience size. 2. Good reproduced sound everywhere, both speech and music* whenever sound is used.

Equipment should be selected with the following considerations in mind:

1. Size of the screen to be provided. This is determined pri­ marily by the maximum distance from which the picture can be viewed. 2. T^pes of screen surface, bearing in mind where and under what conditions projection will take place. 3. Projector which provides as nearly as possible the correct light output for the conditions envisaged. U. Sound producing system.2^

Careful attention should be paid to the planning and administra­ tion of each tour in terms of food* accommodations* medical provision, the comfort and welfare of the crews and servicing facilities for ve—

26The Use of Mobile Cinema and Radio Vans in Fundamental Educa­ tion* op'.' c i t .* pp. 99-IoCT 295 hides and. projection equipment.

While using this audio—visual self-contained production and ex­ hibition unit, fundamental scientific research into the techniques of the media it employs, their use in education and effect upon all types of audiences is essential for the realization of its potentialities.

The programs of mobile film units can serve to stimulate, to educate, to encourage and lead forward millions or they can confuse, mislead and poison the thoughts of the population — depending upon how the program or campaign is organized and conducted.

D* There is one big danger with the mass communication media:

It is a “one way street” which might lead to a mass society that can­ not talk back.

So far, only the positive potentialities of the mass media have been considered. Yet, we would be well advised to warn ourselves against the danger which rests with the impersonal, indirect, second­ hand, one-way nature of the mass media. This danger is that of con­ verting millions of people into powerless recipients which may result in a mass society without a public opinion of its own.

As once stated, mass media are neutral in themselves and their use is always limited by the human equation. That means that this danger is actually created by the way we make use of them. The answer to the question of llwhat kind of a world will we make, with our media of mass communications?" may be found in two alternatives stated by

R. J. Blakely:

(l) A world of mass communication can be a very much richer world for the individual. Through these media he can experience things far beyond his narrow confines of time, 296

space and resources. These rich experiences he can ponder and discuss with others who have experienced them also. Tlirough these media he can gain some measures of expression of the meanings he has dis­ covered and judgments he has foirued. Thus he cannot only experience a wider and richer world but he can also play a wider and more active role.

(2) The other alternative is that a world of the mass media can be a very much poorer world for the indivi­ dual ... it may seem to him to be vastly more rich ... But all will be illusion — the shadow of the card­ board figures on the wall of the cave. His will be a vicarious world — made up of other people’s actions, thoughts, words, anuics. He will be lulled by enter­ tainment manipulated by skills, devoid of inner re­ sources, articulate only in that he can repeat what he has been taught to repeat, with the appearance of choice only in that he has been made to want to do what others want him to do.2?

The other two alternatives are the "Community of Fublics" and the

"Liass Society," which are differentiated by the ratio of the givers of opinion to its receivers, the organization of communication and the extent to which opinion is effective in the shaping of decisions of powerful consequences.

So far as the organization of mass communication is concerned, in one extreme lies an absolute monopoly of communication to "pacified media groups" whose members cannot answer back even in "private." At the opposite extreme the conditions may allow and rules may uphold 28 the wide aid symmetrical formation of opinion.

To offset the "one-way" danger of mass communications and to

27r. j. Blakely, "Danger, One Way Street," (Frcm the address by the author to the Dep. of Audio-Visual Instruction National Education Ass., Meeting at St. Louis, Miss., Feb. 2$, 1953) pp* 1—2.

^^Wlright Mills, Mass Society and Liberal Education, (Frcm the New Orleans Conference, 3 April 195>U, Center far the £>tudy of Liberal Education for Adults.) p. 2. 291 prevent the community of publics from turning into an "abstracted collectivity of individuals" who receive impressions from the mass media — thus becoming "media markets" — we must learn how to use the mass media* This we can do:

• first of all by striving to preserve the democratic structure

of society which prevents the absolute monopoly and control

of the mass media by power politics;

. secondly, we can make use of mass media in such a way as

1. to stimulate personal, direct, many-way communication

instead of supplanting it,

2. to restore the primacy of individual communication,

3* to educate instead of manipulate,

U* to elicit critical and purposeful participation instead of feeding vicariousness,

• thirdly, we can draw upon the ideas and talents of the "con­

sumers" in the use of mass media* Our main concern should be­

gin with the individual himself: "What does he do? Is he

passive or active? If active, is he critical and responsi-

ble?"29 The one-way danger of the mass media can, in the long run, be eliminated by producing the disciplined and informed mind which cannot be overwhelmed. In fact, it would be quite reasonable to establish a principle by saying that the major task of mass communication should be to help produce a disciplined and informed mind which constitutes

29 R. J. Blakely, op. cit., p. 5- 298 the core of the socially organized free intelligence.

These considerations are of an utmost importance for the young

Turkish democracy. They are important because democracies, whether they are young or old, are not necessarily immune to the establishment of absolute majority controls which also make for the creation of

"one-way communication’1 — a situation most incompatible with the concept of democracy.

Having considered the issues involved in terms of communication situation, communicator, communicatee and communication media, we now come to the discussion of the most important aspect of the communica­ tive process, i.e., communication content and effect.

V. Communication Content and Communication Effect.

The most Important aspect of communication is the 'intent1* which is "a manifestation of the need—tensional variables in the per­ sonality structure of the c ommunic at or.11 Intent acts as a selector and organizer of material. It i_s manifest in the content of communi­ cation which is an organized stimulus field produced in order to structure the fields of both its producers and interpreters. The preparation and presentation of the content is an interpretative function which require trained personnel.

When considered in terms of socio—economic problems and integrated communication, the foregoing statement means that the State, through its socio-economic planning, creates new communication situations.

Plans are designed with specific considerations of specific needs of specific people. These plans are intended to improve and change the socio-economic living standards of the people, to restructure their 299 cognitive-perceptual fields and need-value systems in terms of new and better ways and means.

Thus, the State assumes the role of the communicator • Its plans constitute the communication content and the people, for whom these plans are intended, make up the communicatees or the audience.

To the extent which these plans are designed with the actual studied needs of the people in mind, they are communicatee-centered#

The State as a communicator is expected to be explicit regarding the effects to be achieved by these plans (content) on particular communi­ catees (people),

This is a quite simplified description of socio-economic planning in terms of the communicative process. When it comes to the actual stage of operation, however, the ccntent of the socio-economic plans must be so selected and organized as to be understood by the specific people for whom it is intended. This raises the question of how the message (content) should be presented to be understood.

That brings us to the discussion of a very critical point which is generally overlooked as a problem of communication. This is the question of how the message should be prepared and by whom.

As now practiced, nearly all attempts to disseminate scientific knowledge (whether integrated or not) to the public follows the old and completely discredited idea that the person who knows a subject best is on that account best able to explain it. The person who knows a subject best may be able, though not always, to explain it to those who are familiar with the subject. When it comes, however, to ex­ plaining whatever aspects of that subject are really useful to the 300 lawman or the public at large the one who knows most about it is gener-

ally not the best person to use. 3 0

The main handicap of subject matter specialists is that they do not believe that interpretation is in itself an intellectual problem

of great subtlety and difficulty. Yeu, in our technological and sci­

entific age the job of interpretation emerges as a specialization in

itself and as a great need of mass communication* The principle is that interpretation ought to be the primary job of someone who is an expert in interpretation rather than subject matter.

The 11 interpreter11 is to serve as a middle man between the socio­

economic planner, the discoverers and accumulators of knowledge and the people who must profit from these plans and who must use that knowledge. Although the idea of middle man is not original, it is nevertheless of crucial importance in our present civilization.31

To be an accomplished interpreter or middleman, one would need to have a breadth of grasp (a grasp of subject, communication situa­ tions, audience characteristics), a skill in language (in the use of appropriate sign—symbol processes and media), a natural flair and a psychological insight which would enable him to make more widely known the scientific knowledge which other men accumulated.

Yet, the importance of the interpretative function as a pro­ fessional task in the communicative process has not yet been appre­ ciated. This is evident in the fact that few, if any, has ever put

■ 3 ° I y m a n Bryson, "The Responsibility far Program Planning," Radio in Health Education, p. 89.

31Ibid., p. 86. 301 enough work trying to learn facts now available about the problems of interpreting difficult subjects in order that he might be a useful in­ terpreter.

If, of necessity, we are compelled to use subject matter special­ ists as mass communicators, we should at least orient them with regard to the problems of interpretation, communication, ccmnunication media, communication effects, and audience characteristics. This is another problem in itself. (it is an urgent problem in business and govern­ ment in the United States, in Turkey, anywhere.)

Training of Personnel

Modern technical systems and socio-economic plans, no matter how efficient, will not achieve their objectives unless they are directed and infused with purpose by a corps of suitably trained personnel.

Therefore, it is necessary to find a body of men who will make this their life-work by specializing in it and by living with the problem, by seeing issues arise out of all levels — sociological, cultural, technological•

To meet the emergency need, until such personnel are found and trained, the technical assistance experts and subject matter special­ ists should be familiarized with the problems and potentialities of the various c ommunic at i on media.

Appreciative of this situation, the United Nation intends to es­ tablish the "Briefing Sessions" or "Briefing School" through which technical assistance experts or subject matter specialists will be oriented. This attempt is in fulfillment of a resolution of the

Economic and Social Council calling attention to the need for adequate 302 preparation of experts before assignments are undertaken.

Cfci the local level, the closest example of what the writer would call trained intermediary communicators, may be found in the Turkish idea of Village Institutes, which train village instructors, health officers, agricultural extension workers, and midwives.

These people are recruited from the problem area and they live with the problem* As stated (p. lUl) these personnel are going to be

"living preceptors" of the sort of basic gradual, minimum change whose immediately demonstrated profits will recommend it to all peasants who see it first hand. They are to elevate the peasant to a view of life where he can work with modern tools and methods and improve his standard of living*

Obviously they have a tremendous role to play in the communica­ tion process. As perscxis committed to living fully in one culture and at the same time trained to introduce innovations that will im­ prove the living conditions among their people, they can exert more influence than any technical assistance expert. In order, however, that they may contribute to the communication process as intermediary communicators, they, too, should be trained with regard to the prob­ lems of communication, and their work — outside the routine — should be synchronized with process of socio-economic development*

Another example of such a corps of intermediary personnel may be the "Gaon-Sathis" of India* (pp. 231-2U5 ) These are, as explained, extension workers working for the Jumna-Par Punamiman extension

32A m o G. Huth, op* cit., pp. 37-38. (from the UNESCO Doc. 28 Ex/ll, 25 October 1951, P- 23.) 303 pilot project sponsored by the Ford Foundation (Allahabad, India).

They operate as the executive body of the project and their function

is identical with that of a "catalyst." Thus "the reaction which con­

verts the unstable mixture into a stable compound of continuing pro­

gress with science and tradition thoroughly combined to the greatest extent, will take place around the gaon-sathis."33

The Gaon—Sathi also is a person who is committed to one culture

and yet acts as a catalyst to accelerate the reaction of progress.

He also takes part in the process of caiiiiiunication by being directly

involved in the operation of the communication media, in commentaries

and discussion, and in observing communication effects.

Studies carried on in underdeveloped areas (e.g., the sociologi­ cal study conducted by the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural

Sciences in Turrialba, Costarica, to orient their agricultural re­

search and better plan their agricultural extension) have produced

evidence to the fact that communication is most easily affected

through "lideres de amistad" (social leaders) than "lideres de pres-

tigio" (prestige leaders),^* which support the Turkish and Indian

approaches. Ckie very important point about such intermediary communicators or

informal leaders is that they can at least modify the "overweaning

dominance" of the structure of power and its mass media. For they rally those who by their informal discussions manufacture opinions

33?. A. Koshy, op. cit.> p. U.

3Upram the letter by Seth Spaulding of Pan American Union to Mr. Wood of Jupan Film Project, Jan. 21, 195 U) 30U They are the radiant points, the foci of the primary public. ... In so far as such circles exist, the effective strength of any formal medium lies in its acoeptance bv these informal circles and their infor­ mal leaders.

B. The final and basic problem of cocununicatian is effect. What does communication of a given kind do to people? How does it affect their opinions? Under what conditions does it lead them to action?

Effect manifests itself in the form of new cr modified ideas, opinions, attitudes, behavior, action an the part of the communicatee.

Considered in terms of socio-economic planning and integrated mass communication, the problem of effect means the realization of the

intended changes and improvements in socio-economic fields, (e.g.,

agriculture, industry, health, education, etc.). These changes and improvements might result in a new outlook on life, new patterns of living, new practices, methods and skills, new cognitive structure and need—value systems.

The State as the communicator "encodes” its plans, that is, it puts the message of its socio-economic programs into a farm that can be transmitted (the stimulus field or communication content). Yet the decoding and transmitting the message does not necessarily ensure

its effect. There is no such thing as a simple and easily predictable relationship between message content and effect.

In order to realize the desired effects it is necessary to pro­ vide proper conditions far c amnunication. These conditions may be

summarized as follows:

*C. Wright Mills, op. cit., p. 22. 305 1) The message must be so designed and delivered as to gain the attention of the intended receiver. It must be timed; placed, and equipped with cues which will appeal to the receiver's Interests. It must, of course, be made availa­ ble. 2) The message must e m p l o y signs which refer to experience common to both sender and receiver so as to get the mean­ ing across. 3) The message must arouse personality needs in the receiver and suggest some ways to meet those needs. The first requisite of an effective message is that it relate itself to one of our personality needs. It must arouse a drive and try to control the resulting action by suggesting what action to take. U) The message must suggest a way to meet these needs which is appropriate to the group in which the receiver finds himself at the time when he is moved to make the desired response.36

The predictability of the effects of the message is also condi­ tioned. One safe statement about the predictability is that a message is much more likely to succeed if it fits the patterns of understand­ ing, attitudes, values and goals of the intended receiver; or if it starts with this pattern and tries to reshape it slightly (canalizing)*

It should not be forgotten that canmunication effects are re­ sultants of a number of forces of which the communicator can really control only one: the message. The other three factors which deter­ mine the acceptance or rejection of the message are:

(a) the situation in which the canraunication is received and in idiich the response, if any, must occur; (b) the personality state of the receiver; and (c) his group relationships and standards.37

These are the factors which make the prediction of canmunicatian effects rather dangerous, if not impossible. The safest statement or

•^Wilbur Shramro, "Procedure and Effects of Mass Communication", Mass Media and Education, pp. 121-12U. (condensed from)•

37ibid., pp. 125-126 306 formulation about the effects of communication is made by Bernard

Berelson:

Some kinds of communications on some kinds of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds of people under seme kinds of condition, have some kinds of effects.

The whole cjiestion of communication effects may eventually be considered in terms of learning and integrating process. Instead of asking whether effects have been realized, we may ask whether learn­ ing has taken place or not.

This could be illustrated by the Mishawaka Health Demonstration which was a study testing the hypothesis that "the educational program accompanying a mass x-ray survey is effective in producing certain concomitant educational effects on the people of the community."

The plan followed in this study consisted of the three following steps: I. Defining the Educational Goals.

This phase involved the specification of the knowledges, prac­ tices and attitudes that are desirable far citizens to possess in a community where tuberculosis is effectively controlled.

A selected list of goals was formulated of which the following are samples: a. Knowledge of the camnunicability of tuberculosis b. Knowledge of symptoms — their absence in early stages c. Attitude toward individuals in whom tuberculosis has been arrested d. Knowledge of the relative merits of home vs. sanatorium care; also the futility of "change of climate" e. The stigma associated with having tuberculosis

^ B . Berelson, "Communication and Public opinion," Communication in Modern Society, p. 172. 307

f. Knowledge oi' the accepted technical aids used in case- finding g. V/illingness to co-operate in a city—wide x-ray survey h. The personal fear of a positive diagnosis i. Knowledge of provisions for individuals to obtain a chest x—ray j. Educational contacts of the previous year k. Personal acquaintance with a tuberculosis patient 1. Attitudes toward community responsibility far a tuber­ culosis control program

II. Constructing A suitable Instrument to Pleasure Attainment of

Specified Educational Objectives.

Ckie or more questions relative to pertinent aspects of each goal in the above list were included in the final farm of an interview schedule used by volunteer interviewers.

The final form included 31 questions which would provide infor­ mation on a representative sample of the areas of subject matter which experienced public health workers believe ought to be included in an educational program far IB control. Those in charge of the edu­ cational program which accompanied the x-ray survey placed strong em­ phasis on activities which were likely to have educational effects.

As judged by the percentage of adults who came for a chest x-ray ex­ amination, their promotional program was successful. The following is a list of the promotional techniques used to encourage a high percen­ tage of adult participation in the Mishawaka chest x-ray survey:

a. The usual heavy concentration of over-all publicity through newspapers, radio, house organs, club and church bulletins as well as talks, movies, and announcement at meetings of the various clubs and organizations. b. Form letters to all organizations and leaders requesting their full co-operation. c. Movie shorts and a brief trailer on the survey at local theatres. d. Rotogravure magazine "four Town Is Having a Chest X-ray" delivered to each home by Boy Scouts and Camp Fire Girls. 308

e* House-to-house canvass by high school civics students, taking house-hold census and distributing schedules of the location of x-ray units. f . Business and industrial canvass requesting managers to allow employees to be x-rayed on company time. g. To encourage x-raying, volunteers telephoned as large a proportion of names listed in phone book as time per­ mitted. h. Information booth at strategic downtown comer, manned by volunteers, and equipped with loud speaker. i. Cruising automobile with loud speaker which traveled in each neighborhood announcing the nearest x-ray location, immediately prior to and during the tine it was to be in that area. j. Street movies on tuberculosis during a downtown shopping night• k. Cfae thousand volunteers helping to sell the x-ray idea or working at x-ray units.

A total of 75 per cent of Mishawakans were x-rayed in the 18- month period*

III* Determining the Extent of changes in the Specified Knowledges,

Practices and Attitudes which Occurred.

To accomplish this end, it was necessary to establish the level

of attainment in the population on each of the items covered by in­

terview questionnaire both prior to and after the x-ray survey had

been made. After these were obtained, calculations were made to de­

termine the extent of the changes and to test their significance*

In studying the effects an a population of 22,000, a random

sample of the households in the city was selected. One adult member

in each selected household was interviewed*

Briefly, the study furnished good evidence of a change in

responses to 5 o£ the 31 questions* In each of these five cases the

difference obtained was of such a nature that it would not have

occurred more than once in hundred samplings frcm population far which 309 the difference in means is zero* These questions together with the per cent of responses given in 1947 and 1948 are as follows:

a. Do you believe that tuberculosis is a "catching11 disease — that people can get it from others who have it? Per Cent 1957 m e Yes TO 77 No 25 17 Don't Know 5 6 b* If a person you knew well were in an early stage of active tuberculosis, do you think you could probably tell he was not all right? (If "No" to this question, why not?) Per Cent i9iT7— W Symptoms not ap­ parent in early stages or doctor must check 72 84 Other replies (in dicating doubt) 28 16 c* If s one one in your family would get tuberculosis, would you rather that people would not find out about it? 19E7Per Cent m e Yes “ET "T8“ No 82 7U Doubtful U 8 d. In seme cities, all adults are having the chance to get chest x-rays either free or at a an all cost. If you had chance, do you think you would have an Per Cent 1 9 4 7 m e Yes “ 85“ 9h No 12 5 Doubtful 2 1 you ever had a chest x-ray? Per Cent 1 9 4 ? 1 94 8 Yes ~vr “ 85“ No 43 15

To formulate the conclusion, the goals in which changes were ob­ served and the activities of the x-ray campaign should be compared*

Such activities emphasized (a) the c ommunic ability of IB, (b) the lack of apparent symptoms in early stages, aid (c) the importance of the 310 x-ray examination for case-finding. In these three areas of knowledge the poll showed definite changes on the part of the people in the com­ munity.

The best estimate of the number of adult residents who actually learned that IB is a communicable disease is 7 per cent (the obtained difference) of 22,000 or approximately 1,500 adults* Similarly, 12 per cent or approximately 2,500 learned that symptoms of TB are not apparent in the early stages of the disease. Furthermore, the increase in number of those who said they would have chest x-ray represents

1,300.

The following conclusions seem warranted fran this study of the concomitant learning occurring in x-ray survey:

1) The educational goals achieved, although few in comparison to

the number desirable, are markedly important.

2) The goals achieved are the ones intimately and directly given

attention in the educational program carried on during the ■50 campaign* ^

It cannot be taken for granted that large and widespread changes in attitudes, knowledges and practices will automatically occur in the people of a community during a mass x-ray campaign. (Indeed we may confidently predict that such large-scale changes will not occur.) We have learned frcm other ajqperiences that the spread of knowledge and spread of conviction, action, or practise are, at least analytically,

The Mishawaka experiment is condensed from Cyril J. Hoyt, "What Does John Q* Public Learn During A Mass X-ray Campaign, " Monthly Bulletin, Indiana State Board of Health (May, 1950)* 311 distinct processes and appears through different complementary channels. Individual and time—consuming self-demonstration may be required even after visible evidence and objective comparison were readily available to all.^°

In other words, a community does not receive gratis the education­

al effects associated with an x—ray or other campaigns* However, in

those specific knowledges and attitudes upon which educational efforts are placed, it is possible to show a marked and significant change in

the people of the community*

In this illustration, the Turkish socio-economic planner and mass

caamunicator may find the necessary principles and suggestions to guide their mass communication and education campaigns integrated with the socio—ecanemic programs. The determination of the communicative-

educational demands in its socio-economic planning by the State Is not

enough. Far every change to be introduced: (1) the establishment of

the educational goals, (2) the procurement of the necessary instru­ ments to attain these goals, (3) the measurement of the extent of

changes in the specified knowledges, practices, attitudes, are neces­

sary in order to establish criteria for modification in present

activities and for future planning.

C. The whole problem of socio-econcmic planning and development may be resolved into the problem of transfarming man, the redirection

of his thought, will and action*

The transition toward a democratically planned society is one of

k^Bryce Ryan and Neal C. Gross, The Diffusion of hybrid Seed Corn in Two Iowa Ccmmuaities* (Reprinted lYSm Kural Sociology V* 8", “No* 1 TiiarcH 1£U3), pp. 19, 21* 312 the keys to the meaning of modem life. This trend is consistent with the historical evolution and transformation of man's thought and behavior from "chance discovery" preceded by trial and error and governed by custom and tradition, to the stage of "inventing" and finally to the era of planning and planned thinking.

At tliis final stage, we find man and society engaged in the de­ liberate regulation and intelligent mastery of the relationships be­ tween the deliberately invented institutions and objects. In the operation of the patterns of thought and institutions a possible chain of causal sequences are foreseen and the interdependency of social institutions are accepted. This new way of thinking is balanced by a new way of acting:

For planning not only changes individual links in the causal chain and adds new ones but also tries to grasp the whole complex of events from the key positions which exists in every situation,^!

The most essential element in the planned approach is that it does not confine itself only to making a machine or organizing an army, it simultaneously tries to find out the most important changes which both can bring about in the whole social process. Those individuals and nations that ignore this socio—historical evolution and tend to remain within the world of "chance discovery" and to abide by the laws of "natural selection" will inevitably and eventually die out. In order to prevent this eventuality, the modern

society must organize human impulses in such a way that they will

^K a r l Mannheim, Man and Soc lety in an Age of Rec on struct ion, p, 153* 313 direct their energy to the right strategic points, steer the total process of development in the desired direction and create the desired socio—economic order*

Obviously, such an order cannot be brought into existence as long as the corresponding human type does not also emerge. This is the very problem of transforming man, his thought, will and action in terms of the exigencies of modern society and m o d e m living.

The transformation of man may be brought about in two ways* The first is the mass transformation of external behavior which directs man's action toward means. These means are likely to lead him fran the status quo to the desired goals and are gradually to transform the person who uses them.

The second strategic method of social transformation would be to begin with the inward transformation of the individual, which can at first create only pioneer types.

Both methods involve some danger. The danger of the external method of transformation consists in the fact that it only outwardly changes society without really transforming man. The result is that formal order and functional rationality exist side by side with an

inner disorganization and lack of direction.

The danger of the internal method consists of the fact that it produces only a few more perfect human types which, when placed in

the middle of practical life quite differently organized from their

own, may break down.

The only alternative then is an interdependent action and thought which makes use of both the internal aid external approaches in such 311* a way as to combine at every step the tr ans format ion of society with the transformatioi of individual personality. The most important point in this connection is that anyone who concerns himself with the transformati on of man, will have to make use of the insight offered by psychology and sociology, without placing the persons to be trans­ formed into jveconceived categories.

Thus, the appreciation of the simultaneous transformation of society and the individual has brought the understanding of those key-points 'rinich connect the psychological with the social mechanisms, the capprehension of "principia media" which govern psychological and social types in a given time and place, into the foreground.^

Modem socio-economic planning is actually an attempt to bring about the desired social transformation and progress. Yet, the plan­ ning experts, generally, tend to ignore the very human element which is bound to determine the success or failure of the plans.

As suggested above, while planning the universal socio-economic transformation of society, the planners would be well advised if they did put equal emphasis upon the transformation of man, if they did figure out, with the same minuteness they figure the establishnent of an industrial plant, the ways and means by which to transform man.

In this connection, the proposed Communication Strategy Board might serve as the proper agency to work out the details of "human engin­ eering" which is the most crucial aspect of all socio-economic plan­ ning and development.

^Ibid., pp. 200-236. 315

Communication enters into the process of socio—economic and

human transformation as, probably, the most important factor. Its

success depends not only upon the fulfillment of technical needs but

also upon its utilization of those key points •which connect the psy­

chological with social mechanisms*

The main objective of ccrununication in the process of trans­ formation of man and society should be not only the dissemination of new ideas, ways and means, but, particularly, the realization an the

part of the people of their own resources so that "they swing into

the wheel of progress without constantly being pulled towards the past*"^

^3t . A. Koshy, op* cit., p* 3. 316

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Huth, Arno G* Communications and Economic Development. (International Conciliation, January, 195?) fJew York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1952*

jstatistlk Yllligl. 1951* Ankara: Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Basbakanllk Istatistik Genel iludurlugu, 1951 •

Ivey, Jr., John E. "Communication as a Social Instrument," Communica­ tions in Modern Society. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, i m r ------

Jackh, Ernest. The Rising Crescent. New York; Toronto: Farrar and Rinehart, Inc., 19hh•

K. Ataturk Diyorki. Istanbul: Varllk Yayinlari, 1951*

Karal, Enver Ziya. Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Tarihi. Istanbul: Milli Egitim Basimevi, 19iU5-

Katz, Leo. "Social and Cultural Aspects of Photography," The Efricy- clopedia of Photography, v. ix, New York: National Educational Alliance,- Inc., 19U3* 32U2-321*7.

Koshy, T. A. MJumna-Par-Punamirman," Extension Dept. Pilot Project, Agricultural Institute Allahabad, India, 1952, (Cyclostyled form.)

Koymen, Nusret. Demokrasiyi Kurtaralim. Istanbul: Turkiye Basimevi, 1952.

Krech, David and Crutchfield, Richard S. Theory and Problems of Social Psychology. New York; Toronto; London: lie Graw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19uo* 320

Le Bon, Gustave. The Psychology of Revolution. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1913•

Leeky, W. E. H. Rationalism in Europe. London: Watts and Co., 19U6.

Lenczowski, George. The kiddle East in World Affairs. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 19^3.

Lewin, Kurt. Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1^5^-.

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Lilienthal, David E* TV A, Democracy on the March. New York: Pocket Books, Inc., 195k.

Lowell, A. Lawrence. "The Nature of Public Opinion," Reader In Public Opinion and Communication. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1953T

Pac Iver, R. L. Social Causation. Boston, New York: Ginn and Com­ pany, 19U2.

Mannheim, Karl. Freedom, Power and Danocratic Planning. New York: Cbcford University Press, lp^oT

______, ____ . Plan and Society in an .Age of Reconstruction. New York; Harcourt, Brace and Company, 19UB7

Lanvell, Roger. Film. Harm ondsworth-kiddle sex: Penguin Books, 1950.

Me Clusky, P. Dean. "The Nature of the Educational Film," Film and Education. New York: Philosophical Library, 19U8. kills, C. Wright. "Mass Society and Liberal Education," An address for New Orleans Conference, 3 April 195k, Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults. (Mimeographed.)

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News Prcci Turkey* New York: Turkish Information Office, v. 5 (April 10, 19^27 p. 2; v. 6 (March 12, 1953), p. 3.; v. 7. (March 18, 1951), p. 3.

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Turkey: Facts and Figures. Ankara: The Turkish Press Department, 19U9.

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Ward, Barbara. Turkey. London; New York; Toronto; Oxford University Press, 19U2.

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APPENDIX I Data On The Radio Programs

Turkish Music Broadcasts on the Radio Ankara

1* Turkish music chorus 1/2 hour 1 a week

2. Oriental orchestra U5 minute s 1

3. Instrumental music 1/2—1 hour 5 (Oriental) lu Music Tor stringed instruments 15 minutes ) ) 5. Dance melodies 15 " ) 2-U it ) 6. Instrumental music ) and dance melodies 20 " )

7. Solos, songs, ballads 15-30 " 30

Folk Music Broadcast

1. Inielodies from the country 20-30 minutes h "

2. Ballads 10-25 " 2-3 " 325

Western Music Broadcast on the Radio Ankara

R ad i o symphony Gtr c he s tr a U5 minutes 1 a week

Radio Salon Orchestra 30 " 1* ■»

The Presidential Harmony Band 1*0 " 1 "

11. Esengin Orchestra 25 " 1 "

I. Gencer - 3. Sevinc 25 n 1 every two week

Dance Music ) ) ratio Classical music ) changes ) every 15-U5 " 12 a week Light Music ) week 15-30 " 20 " 326

Verbal Broadcasts on the Radio Ankara

Greetings frcm the country 5 minutes Every day

Greetings to the country 10 ii It tl

News frcm the Army 15 n Once a week

Flay 3 0 -6 0 11 Twice "

Goon Journal 15 tt Every day

Weather Report 2 II tt it

A Page from History 5 (1 tt it

Radio Journal 15 It it it

Witty 'Fan 15 II Twice a week

Talk on behalf of the Once every Turkish Women's Association 15 II two weeks

The Village Time 15 II Three times a week

Radio Weekly 15 II Once a week

Week-end Chat 15 II it i i ii

United Nations UNESCO 15 It it tt it

Of Football 5 It Twice a week

Book Time 15 It Once a week

Music with c eminent U5 II Once every two weeks

3 Free Talks 3x1^ U5 It 3 (x) a week

United Nations 1 0 It Once a week

Parade of Heroes 1 5 It tt tt tt

Marshall Plan in Turkey 15 II it ii tt

Tourism Talk 1 0 II i i n ti 32?

Grand National Assembly Time 15 minutes Three times a week

Children's Time 60 " Once a week

.Vorkers' Time 15 " Once every 2 weeks

News 15 " U times every day

English by Radio 15 Four times a week

Sunday Chat 15 Cnee a week

Turkish Heroism 15 11 n it

(x) one of these free talks is occupied by the Women's Association once every fifteen days. 328

U Broadcasts by the shortwave Radio Ankara

Broadcasts of news cn ccnunentariei

Language liour

Jrdu 1 7 .3 0 (x)

Persian 18.00 (x)

Arabic 18.30 (x)

Greek 19.15 (x) on Fridays: 17.U0, 18.10, 18.UO

Bulgarian 19. U5

Roumanian 23.00

Hungarian 20 .30

Serbian—Croatian 20.U5

Folish 2 1 .0 0

Italian 2 1 .1 5

German 2 1 . U5

French 22.15

Spanish 0 0 .3 0

English 1*4.30 - Far India, Pakistan Far East

it 23.00 - For Western Europe & England

n 0 1 .1 5 - For the North America

Local News in Turkish 23.Up

Propaganda Talks & Dramatized Programs Language Hour Hay Arabic 18. U5 Monday, Thursday 329 rersian 15.15 Thursday

French 22.20 Sunday, Thursday jerman 22.00 Sunday, Wednesday

Spanish 00. a5 ii u

English 23.30 Every day

11 01. U5 11 11

Koran

Urdu 17.30 Friday

Ar ab ic 143.00 II

Persian 13.30 tl

Music Broadcast

Urdu 17. U5 On Fonday, Wednesday, Saturday Persian 18.15 Turkish music with comment and other days transcribed Turkish Arabic 15.US music and the music oi the countries to which broadcast Greek 15.30 is being made.

Broadcasts of I Jews and Commen taries

Italian 21.30 (x) Monday, Wednesday, Friday, Turkish music with commentary

German 22.00 (x) Saturday, Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday Western music

French 22.30 (xx)

Spanish oo. U5 (x) Sunday and Wednesday (Music broadcast in 5 min.) 330 English lh.!£

" 23*15 (x) Sunday and Thursday (dusic broadcast- in 5 min.)

" 01.30 331

APFENbDC II The Law

Concerning the Educational and Technical Films* (23)

::o. 3122 Accepted: 10/11/1937 Issued: 18/11/1937

Article One: 01 the following items those which are brought (or im­ ported) by the otate offices (or departments) are permitted to enter the country as exempt of all kinds of taxes and tariffs: Technical ana instructional films and the mobile units- equipped with speaker amplifier and sound equipment—far the showing of these pictures; silent motion picture pro­ jectors and other machines and gadgets useful to the making and production of the motion pictures; blank films. Other technical and instructional films that are brought by individuals and all kinds of institutions are also ex­ empted from all kinds of taxes and tariffs-provided they comply with the regulations set forth in the article tiro*

Article Two: 'whether or not these films - that are brought to the custom offices of Istanbul and Ankara by the individuals or instituticns mentioned in the last paragraph of the first article — are educational, are decided upon by the follow­ ing committees after having seen them an the screen. These committees are formed by the inclusion of an official sent by the ministries - in accordance with the nature of the film - to the already existing commissions on the motion picture censorship. These commissions are made up ot five members appointed by the General Staff, and the Ministries of Interior, Education, Economy and Agriculture. Those ministries already represented do not have to assign any official to tne committees in question.

Article Three: The motion picture theaters are obliged to show a technical and/or instructional film along with the feature show. The government is authorized to give any one of these kinds of films — either produced by the State departments within the country or imparted from abroad — to the motion picture theaters free of charge. The motion picture theaters are under the obligation to show these films as substitutes for the technical and/or instructional films mentioned in the first paragraph. 332

Article Four: Those who ao not c amply with the obligation set i'orth in the Article Four are fined — upon the decision of the municipal commissions - ten to fifty Liras. Objections to trie se decisions may be raised within one week in the Courts of Justice of Peace. The court’s decision is final# 333

Autobiography

* ** I, Ilhan Ozdil, was b o m in Turkey, February 10, 1920. I re­ ceived my secondary school education in the public schools of Turkey*

:.!y undergraduate training was obtained at The Gazi Institute of

Pedagogy (Teachers' College) Ankara, Turkey, frcm which I received

:ny Diploma in 19Ul» Between 19Ul and 19U9 I had had military, teach­ ing, and administrative experiences. In 19U9 I came to the United

States on a Turkish Government scholarship and attended The Ohio State

University where I received the degree Bachelor of Science in Educa­ tion in 1951* While in residence there, I acted in the capacity of assistant to Dr. Arch Heck during the Winter Quarter 19SU* I have completed my entire graduate work for the degree Doctor of Philosophy at The Ohio State University.