INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION The Boston College Center for International Higher Education

Number 5 July 1996

The Boston College Center for International Higher Education provides infor- mation and support for international initiatives in higher education. Focusing especially on academic institutions in the Jesuit tradition, the Center is dedi- cated to comparative and international higher education worldwide.

National and Regional Issues in Higher Education

2 Private Research Centers: Changing the Face of Latin American Higher Education and Development By Daniel C. Levy 3 The Emergence of Private Postsecondary Education in the Former Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan By James S. Catterall and Raymond McGhee, Jr. 5 Renewing the Goals of Catholic Higher Education in Asia By Brother Andrew Gonzales, FSC 7 Mexican Higher Education in Transition: From Politically to Financially Driven Public Policies By Imanol Ordorika 9 The Reform of Russian Higher Education: What We Had, What We Lost, What We Gained By Evgenii Kodin 11 Japanese Universities Facing the World By Ruth Hayhoe 13 Funding Crisis for Australian Universities By Grant Harmon 14 Democracy and Higher Education in Paraguay By Vicente Sarubbi Zaldivar

Departments

16 The Cultures of Education: The European Asssociation for International Education By Hans de Wit 16 News of the Center 17 Book Review - The World Bank Higher Education Report By Nelly P. Stromquist 19 New Publications 20 A New Initiative in International Higher Education 2 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

National and Regional Issues in Higher Education

Introduction

This issue features several articles that focus on private higher education. Privatization is one of the slogans of the 1990s, and it is a trend worldwide in higher education. The first two articles here discuss the role of research institutes in Latin America, and private initiatives in Azerbaijan. A third article, on Russia, also deals in part with privatization trends. Not only are new private institutions being established worldwide, but public universities are being partially privatized by making them responsible for an increasing share of their budgets. British higher educa- tion, for example, has slowly been privatized over the past decade. The implications for access, equity, basic research, traditional ideas of autonomy, and academic freedom of these trends have hardly been examined. Privatization may be inevitable, but it also deserves critical analysis and debate. Philip G. Altbach

Private Research Centers: Changing the Face of Latin American Higher Education and Development

Daniel C. Levy Daniel Levy is professor of educational administration and policy stud- and freestanding institutions that do not distribute profits. ies, Latin American studies, and political science, University at Albany. They usually rank high in nongovernment finance and Address: ED 315, SUNY Albany NY 12222. Fax 518 442-5084; e- governance. Alongside PRCs, and covering other research mail: [email protected]. *This article is based on Levy’s Building the Third Sector: Latin America’s Private Research Centers and fields, lie a panoply of kindred international centers, pub- Nonprofit Development, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996. lic centers, centers structurally tied to larger private orga- nizations, and centers located within universities but outside cholarly works and policy discussions on higher edu- the faculties that dominate teaching. Scation systems too often overlook institutions that do not claim to combine teaching and research. They give par- ticularly little attention to institutions that focus on research In Latin America an extraordinary and do little or no teaching. Yet such research institutions breakthrough in research has been con- are a major and rising presence in much of the world. centrated outside the university. Private One root of neglect relates to faith in the research uni- research centers have led a revolution- versity as the ideal type of higher education institution. The ary surge in social and policy research. faith, often enshrined in a nation’s legislation or in assis- tance programs by international agencies, is misplaced: the model makes sense for certain higher education circum- Generally best known by their acronyms (e.g., Brazil’s stances and goals, but not all. In any case, this higher edu- IUPERJ, Chile’s CIEPLAN, Peru’s GRADE), PRCs are cation form is rare, both today and historically, especially often more skilled, prolific, and influential than their pub- if one leaves aside the pretenders: places that claim to do lic university counterparts. They hold a disproportional research but do not (at least by any acceptable standards). share of the best credentials and talent, including the lead- Even in the United States and Germany, von Humboldt ing intellectuals. Beyond picking up the slack for faltering notwithstanding, the research university is only one his- public institutions, PRCs spearhead a surge in the quan- torical form and today shares the research terrain with pri- tity, quality, and relevance of the region’s social research. vate industry, public research centers, and private think And while most PRCs do not engage in graduate educa- tanks. tion, those that do are atypically large and often provide In Latin America an extraordinary breakthrough in the best quality available. research has been concentrated outside the university. Pri- PRCs also epitomize how research institutions can be vate research centers (PRCs) have led a revolutionary surge far more than academic institutions. In socioeconomic in social and policy research. PRCs are juridically private terms, PRCs are instrumental in designing and promoting 3

development alternatives to official policies and, in other The Emergence of Private situations, in designing the official policies themselves. Some PRCs directly serve many business organizations. Postsecondary Education in Many make a vital contribution in knowledge, training, information, and studies for booming nonprofit grassroots the Former Soviet Republic organizations, helping to build the Third Sector (nonprofit) of Azerbaijan and thereby provide development options not restricted to just the public and for-profit private sectors; in fact, many James S. Catterall and Raymond McGhee, Jr nonprofits are simultaneously PRCs and social action in- James S. Catterall is professor and assistant dean, Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California at Los Ange- stitutions. In their policy activities PRCs often function les. Raymond McGhee Jr. is an ESL teaching specialist with interests in politically as think tanks. Furthermore, PRCs’ net political the Middle East and an advanced doctoral student in comparative edu- impact is decidedly democratic, both in opposition to au- cation and sociology of education at UCLA. This article is based on thoritarian regimes and in collaboration with their succes- “The Emergence of Private Postsecondary Education in the Former So- viet Republics: A Case Study from the Caspian,” a paper presented at sors. Many PRCs assume a leadership role that intellectuals the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, and university students have traditionally played in Latin New York, April 1996. Available from Prof. James S. Catterall, De- America: a claim on national consciousness and identity. partment of Education, University of California, Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard The substantial success of PRCs contrasts with the Ave. Los Angeles, CA 90095-1521. emphasis on failure that characterizes much literature on he collapse of the former Soviet Union has propelled comparative higher education, Third World research pro- its former republics along tortuous paths toward self- ductivity, and philanthropy. The positive evaluation T determination. Outside of Russia, less visible sagas are un- emerges as the analysis of PRCs ranges across issues of their folding on the periphery in the Transcaucasian region and definitional boundaries, the reasons for their growth and the Central Asian republics lying east of the Caspian Sea. adaptability, the sources of finance and the control that may These newborn national systems and their people face chal- accompany that finance, the macropolitical questions re- lenges that can only be called daunting. Their Soviet-de- lated to PRCs under different regimes, and micropolitical veloped institutions of higher learning presently lack questions related to intraorganizational governance. Suc- support for basic operations and are literally crumbling cess is qualified, however, by the fragility and dependence apart. Moreover, the very values and orientations their citi- of most PRCs and by a series of academic weaknesses. PRCs zens will need to succeed in a world free-market economy are not adequate substitutes for good research universities; have been systematically denied and denounced over about in some ways they even become obstacles to their develop- four generations of Soviet control. So a change toward a ment. Western and market orientation to the world, the sine qua PRCs do not lead in every nation, much less in every non of economic advancement and even survival in the aspect of social research, but a four-part categorization reasoning of most observers, represents a monumental shows only two nations where PRCs clearly have less weight undertaking—it calls for a reordering at the mindset level. than universities in social research. The main categories This abstract, drawn from a longer work recently completed are where the research is: (1) plentiful and mostly, or al- by the authors, presents a description of the conditions of most exclusively, packed into PRCs, (2) more limited yet change in the higher education system in the former So- impressively expanded and, again, packed mostly into PRCs, viet republic of Azerbaijan, and the emergence of private (3) developed in major part by both PRCs and universities. postsecondary institutions in the present period of social Attention to PRCs is attention to a vital part of higher edu- transformation. cation and provides new perspectives on the universities to which research centers have formed such attractive alter- Higher Education in Azerbaijan natives. The system of higher education in Azerbaijan was a part of a massive system established by the former Soviet Union. The system was characterized by tremendous differentia- tion in types and missions of institutions. Higher educa- tion institutions were centrally financed and controlled 4 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

through the education ministries. They existed to train Student life at the traditional institutions and work citizens for all sorts of skilled roles in economic produc- opportunities were also changing dramatically. Youth or- tion, science, and culture. And the wide variety of higher ganizations that had played an important role in providing education institutions that were established in the Soviet a variety of social and civic activities for students had de- era continues to exist in present-day Azerbaijan: there are creased markedly. The disintegration of central control comprehensive universities in addition to smaller institutes and financing left student life at traditional institutions in a focused on teacher training, foreign languages, technol- state of flux and uncertainty. The increasing need for En- ogy (separate academies for engineering and petroleum glish-speaking graduates to work with the growing num- sciences, for example), agriculture, law, economics, medi- ber of Western enterprises that had established themselves cine, fine arts, and physical education. in Azerbaijan also created a new demand for trained gradu- ates. Traditional institutions were failing and lacked direc- tion; they are unable to pay their faculty regularly or The collapse of the former Soviet Union adequately. The founders of the emerging private colleges has propelled its former republics along and universities are among the few entrepreneurs who vi- tortuous paths toward self-determina- sualized this confluence of demand and supply and orga- tion. nized new institutions to effectively market and deliver a response. Of the over 100 private postsecondary institutions in Although much of the structure and organization of existence in Azerbaijan, 10 have acquired formal legal sta- higher education in Azerbaijan remains from the Soviet tus after being evaluated by an expert commission appointed era, many of the specialized institutes and academies were by the Ministry of Education and receiving approval from reclassified as universities after the adoption of the Law of the government’s Cabinet of Ministers. The proliferation Education of the Azerbaijan Republic in October of 1992, of private educational institutions has raised some concerns promulgated by Azerbaijan’s first post communist govern- over the quality of these institutions and their programs, ment.. This new law defined and legislated the general thus prompting extensive government oversight in the ar- principles and structure of the entire education system in eas of university certification, admissions, and financing. Azerbaijan and in addition permitted the establishment of Many of these universities have carved out a niche offering private educational institutions. a market-oriented curriculum, especially business manage- ment, economics, journalism, English translation, and law. The Emergence of Private Higher Education Students and their families believe these new private uni- No private institutions of higher learning existed within versities offer their children Western contacts and valu- the Soviet system of higher education prior to perestroika able academic and language skills because their faculty have in the latter 1980s. A small explosion of private institu- traveled to the West, and because they are promising West- tions was touched off in 1991, and now more than 100 ern-oriented curricula. private postsecondary institutions have been established in Azerbaijan. Some key conditions collaborated to propel The Future of Private Higher Education these institutions into existence. One factor was the gen- Private higher education in Azerbaijan faces many uncer- eral interest in privatization and the nascent experiments tainties in its environment—unstable monetary systems, and trials with private enterprise pervading former Rus- changes in government policy, shifting terms of public char- sian and Azeri society. Conditions in the public institu- ters, corruption, and influence peddling—not the best of tions of higher education produced extremely fertile conditions for doing business. Nevertheless, private insti- circumstances for the emergence of private universities. tutions of higher education have positioned themselves to Hard times and corrupt practices in the public higher edu- play a key role in the process of nation-building and global cation sector gave rise to many frustrations for young stu- integration as well as meeting the increased demand for dents and their families trying to make their ways in their higher education related to production, trade, and human newly independent world. If it was going to cost uncertain services. This trend of institutional diversification and plu- amounts of money to attend a state university, a private ralism represents a major shift from the uniform way of alternative might look more attractive. operating during the Soviet period. And buoyed by the 5

prospect of future capital infusions into its faltering Renewing the Goals of economy from future petroleum production and Western investment, Azerbaijan is hoping that its economy can be- Catholic Higher Education come more productive with the help of trained graduates from the private sector. Only time will tell whether the in Asia private university sector will gain the kind of credibility Brother Andrew Gonzalez, FSC and stability that will allow these institutions to play an Brother Andrew Gonzalez, FSC, is president of De La Sale University, important role in the advance of civil society in the former 2401 Taft Ave., Manila, Philippines. Fax: 632-526-1403 Soviet republics. hen the first institutions of higher learning were Westablished in Asia, the oldest one being the Uni- versity of Santo Tomas in the Philippines (1611), their goal Private higher education in Azerbaijan was an evangelization-related one, in line with the reality faces many uncertainties in its environ- that their founders were for the most part missionary reli- ment—unstable monetary systems, gious workers. To put it as bluntly as possible, even at the changes in government policy, shifting terms of public charters, corruption, and risk of oversimplification, these institutions were not influence peddling—not the best of con- founded as centers of intellectual excellence where the ditions for doing business. propagation and production of knowledge for its own sake were the primary goals. These institutions were seen as a means of attracting the indigenous population toward the new knowledge of the colonial masters and its benefits and A longer version of this paper includes a case study of in the process maintaining the new links with the institu- a leading private university in Baku, the capital city of tional Church, allowing a period of further internalization Azerbaijan, and is available from the author. As of spring of the new religion in the locals’ minds and in their emo- 1996, this institution is completing its third year of opera- tions as well as attitudes. This primal motivation seems to tion and serves approximately 2,000 students who pay as be imprinted upon those involved in Catholic education much as $1,000 per year in tuition. Most of its faculty for- even today for even now, administrators and faculty, espe- merly served in the state system of higher education and cially religious personnel and concerned laymen and lay- many earned their degrees in Moscow. Almost all instruc- women, worry about the faith and morals of their Catholic tion is conducted in English. The analysis focuses on the students in these universities. nature of English-language teaching at this university, the Like the learning brought by De Nobili to India and attempts of instructors to move away from traditions of by Ricci to China, higher education was a means of evan- direct, didactic teaching, and the overall strategic planning gelization through attracting nonbelievers to what the activities, and efforts to promote faculty governance in this Church had to offer in the field of Western knowledge and institution. especially science, in the process keeping believers in a pro- tected atmosphere where their faith could mature. As uni- versities took on a more pragmatic purpose as institutions of training for the professions, Catholic institutions began to offer professional studies, again to attract converts and to keep believers in the faith. One surmises that the same motivations undergirded Protestant universities in my part of the world, for evange- lization was an all-consuming concern. However, because of many factors present in Protestantism but not in Ca- tholicism, the move toward excellence in knowledge for its own sake and in research began much earlier among Prot- estant institutions. The traditionally intellectually oriented religious—such as the Dominicans and the Jesuits, espe- 6 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

cially the latter—began modernizing their universities ear- versity is the site for the Church in dialogue with the mod- lier, compared to the other religious orders, which were ern world, how many universities are needed in each coun- engaged in primary and secondary education and only much try to carry on this dialogue? Certainly we do not need the later in higher education. multiple institutions in the Philippines. Perhaps only one Today there are many Catholic institutions in the Phil- or at most one per region would meet the need for this ippines, an increasing number in Indonesia, while Thai- dialogue. land has only a few (none in Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore); Japan and South Korea have quite a few, (al- though the Protestant institutions outnumber the Catho- The need for a paradigm shift, to use lic); Taiwan has a smaller number, and before 1949, this apt but by now hackneyed phrase, Mainland China had a few. By and large, these have been becomes more evident as we move into teaching institutions, justifying their existence by the scar- a new century. city of institutions of higher learning to meet the growing demand from more affluent populations and holding their own because of the inefficiency of many state institutions. While Catholic universities do much good, it is doubt- However, because of the need for growth, to survive and to ful if they are really the most effective instruments for evan- compete, the clientele of these institutions is drawn mostly gelizing and keeping the faith; in fact, they become breeding from among non-Catholics; religious thinkers justify this grounds for heretics and liberal theologians! These days, involvement with non-Catholics as the “pre-evangelization” too, with human rights such a live issue, one can no longer phase under the old missiology, as “ecumenism” under more legislate moral practice even in relatively closed systems contemporary thinking in theology. like residential universities. It is doubtful that one can look after young adults, and in so doing, preserve their faith or morals, which was one of the premises for the continuing As universities took on a more prag- existence of a Catholic university in the past. matic purpose as institutions of train- And if Catholic institutions really lack the manpower ing for the professions, Catholic and material resources to be not only propagators but dis- institutions began to offer professional coverers of new knowledge, can they justify themselves studies, again to attract converts and under the modern demands of what a university should be, to keep believers in the faith. in keeping with its distinctive intellectual mission, what John Paul II calls “the apostolate of the mind”? How may apos- tolic institutions are needed in a society for this apostolate The need for a paradigm shift, to use this apt but by of the mind? now hackneyed phrase, becomes more evident as we move These are questions begging for answers. They are into a new century. Asia and the Pacific Rim are the global being asked by someone who believes in the Catholic uni- growth areas for the 21st century; whether or not Catholic versity but for reasons other than those assumed in the past. universities exist, the demand for education will be there. Clearly, the Catholic university in Asia needs to find a rea- It will be an educational seller’s market in some countries, son for existence besides evangelization and must then face but is this enough justification for engaging in “Catholic up to the full practical implications that its new purposes higher education” ( to be implemented by laymen and lay- will entail. women because of the scarcity of religious personnel)? In countries where poverty has ceased to be a problem, main- taining universities under the overall banner of “preferen- tial option for the poor” no longer rings true, since poverty is disappearing. Universities are being opened by industrial firms in Korea and in Japan; with monetary problems no longer a major problem, is the Church presence still needed in these institutions? If one were to respond that the Catholic uni- 7

Mexican Higher Education in Transition: From Politically to Financially Driven Public Policies Imanol Ordorika Imanol Ordorika is on the faculty of the National Autonomous Univer- eign debt payment. sity of Mexico, Merxico City. He is currently completing work on a The era of politically driven public policies toward doctoral degree in the School of Education, Stanford Univeresity, Stanford higher education was over. The economic crisis and struc- CA 94305. tural adjustment policies reduced the flow of financial re- he higher education system in Mexico has undergone sources for public higher education. New government Ta long process of transition since 1982. This transi- policies on public expenditure generated strong shifts in tion is the consequence of major shifts in state policy to- views about public higher education. ward higher education. In very broad terms it is possible to The concern with expansion and coverage was replaced say that public policies have changed from politically driven by concern for quality and efficiency. Enrollment rates de- concerns, mainly addressing issues of equity, to financially creased after 1982. Public and private perceptions about driven concerns, mainly addressing issues of efficiency. postsecondary education also changed. Public higher edu- In this article I will look at this transition in terms of cation institutions were the subject of widespread criticism changes in enrollment and funding policies. I will also ad- and contempt. A new era of financially driven policies dress other efficiency measures that have been pressed upon started. higher education institutions and their consequences for academic life. State policies toward higher education in Mexico, in The era of politically driven public poli- the 1970s and early 1980s, can be explained to a great ex- cies toward higher education was over. tent, by the government’s need to overcome the open breech The economic crisis and structural ad- with the urban middle classes and intellectuals, a conse- justment policies reduced the flow of fi- quence of the violent response to the 1968 student move- nancial resources for public higher education. New government policies on ment. Government higher education policies were shaped, public expenditure generated strong until 1982, by a strong belief in the impact of university shifts in views about public higher edu- and technological education on national development, and cation. by the need to recover state legitimacy by expanding op- portunities for social mobility through higher education. The worldwide massification process in the 1960s and New state policies toward higher education have early 1970s was exacerbated, in the Mexican case, by state stressed the importance of efficiency and accountabilty in policies that focused mainly on increasing enrollments. postsecondary institutions. The diversification of the sys- Public policies during this period can be characterized by tem, the building of alternative financial sources, cuts in the massification of public institutions, rapidly increasing spending, concerns about productivity and the establish- flow of resources, and concerns about political control. ment of multiple levels of evaluation have been the major Enrollment growth and these concerns about political con- issues affecting higher education. Progress in these areas trol over public universities generated a large expansion of has been uneven. university bureaucracies. Government policies promoted institutional diversity. The heavy reliance on the oil trade in the Mexican Many university/technological institutions were created economy and the increase in the foreign debt generated a after 1982. Institutional differentiation, however, was not new economic crisis in 1982. The International Monetary complete. Many technological schools look like universi- Fund (IMF) put forward a “rescue package” with a corre- ties. This is still the case with the National Polytechnic sponding stabilization plan for the Mexican economy. The Institute (IPN), the head of the technological subsystem. conditions imposed by the IMF upon the Mexican policies These institutions have received less funding than equiva- were: reorganization of public finances, control of infla- lent organizations in the university subsystem. In spite of tion, reduction of public expenditure, and guaranteed for- diversification attempts 75 percent of students still demand 8 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

access to universities in what the government has called The transition from a higher education system that “distorted student demand.” was driven by external political demands and concerns to Public universities still rely mainly on public financ- one that responds to financial stimulus and demands is not ing. Internal budgetary cuts have concentrated on tremen- necesarily positive. This transition has not improved many dous faculty and staff salary reductions, with damaging of the predicaments affecting Mexican higher education. effects on academic performance. Diverse universities and Bloated politicized bureaucracies still control most entire disciplines have been regarded as unproductive while public institutions. Resources are scarce. Enrollment lev- the notion of productivity in higher education is still am- els are increasingly insufficient. Faculty are demoralized biguous and ill-defined. and teaching has been downgraded. Higher education is Evaluation has been presented as the most important heavily centralized and institutions receive unequal treat- policy device. Different evaluation processes range from ment. In many cases the curriculum is old and has little the most general institutional evaluation, to school, fac- relevance. Student financial aid is almost nonexistent. ulty- and department-based evaluation, and even at the in- dividual level (students and faculty). Institutional evaluation will allegedly guide public funding allocation. School, fac- Bloated politicized bureaucracies still ulty, and department evaluations will guide institutional control most public institutions. Re- strategies and internal allocation. Finally, faculty evalua- sources are scarce. Enrollment levels are tion guides salary compensation and access to “competi- increasingly insufficient. Faculty are de- tion monies.” moralized and teaching has been down- Evaluation processes and rules have been designed in graded. haste, with inadequate analysis, and disregarding previous experiences. Among the most important unintended effects of academic evaluation we can identify: This is a small sample of the many problems that af- 1. a high consideration for research and low re- fect higher education in Mexico. There is a general con- gard for teaching that is escalating the growing sensus on the need for reform of postsecondary education. imbalance between these activities. This process For the first time in many years, reform processes could be is already affecting preparatory and undergradu- driven by academic concerns. Political demands and finan- ate education and faculty members at the men- cial constraints must obviously be taken into consideration tioned teaching levels. in the development of new academically driven policies. 2. enhanced disparity between the hard sciences Faculty and students must assume their role in the analysis and social and humanistic disciplines through the of higher education institutions and the development of adoption of evaluation methods designed by and new programs and initiatives. Academic considerations must for the hard sciences. now play a major role for once in public policy formation 3. accumulation of administrative responsabilities regarding higher education institutions. for faculty who are subject to diverse to multiple evaluations in their quest for higher status and fi- nancial resources. 4. shift from long-range deeply inquisitive research to short-term inquiry rendering faster results and therefore higher evaluation scores. While higher education started a slow financial recovery after 1990, new external demands, evaluation policies, and low faculty salaries have continued to affect academic per- formance. A thorough analysis of the effects of these pro- cesses on the quality and scope of research and teaching has yet to be produced. Negative effects are now visible, but financially driven policies and reforms are still in place and have not been the object of thorough evaluation. 9

The Reform of Russian Higher Education: What We Had, What We Lost, What We Gained Evgenii Kodin for libraries. The sum of these costs varies from one to Evgenii Kodin is vice rector, Smolensk State Pedagogical Institute, 4, several thousand dollars per year. Education is not free for Przhevalskii St., Smolensk 214000, Russia. He has been a visiting scholar students who have previously received a diploma from any at the Center for International Higher Education, Boston College during institution, or for non-Russian residents. 1996.

igher education in Russia between 1917 and 1991 is Hnow known as the “Soviet system of higher educa- Under the Soviet system, education was tion.” This term refers to a phenomenon with its own his- free for all and state stipends were tory, philosophy, and ideology of development, as well as given to students who excelled. Now, it referring to a widespread network of different institutions is only free for students who have created in response to the needs in all spheres of social, passed their entrance exams and were economic, political, and cultural life of Russian society dur- selected within the number of so-called “budget students”—the government is ing that time period. The U.S.S.R. no longer exists—the willing to provide the university with centralized planned economy is gone, the Communist one- funding for only a certain number of party political system is over, and Russian higher educa- students each year. tion is therefore in a period of massive transformation. To project the future directions of higher education, it is use- ful to understand what we have lost and gained under the In 1991, education was considered a major state prior- current reforms. ity, and roughly 10 percent of the annual budget was allo- cated for a wide variety of purposes. Formerly, higher Private Higher Education education institutions received funds from the government One significant difference is that a new, private sector in for wages and stipends, for construction and maintenance higher education has developed. There are currently 553 of faculty and staff housing, academic buildings and dor- public institutions of higher education, enrolling over 2.6 mitories, and for the development of well-equipped labo- million students. Fifty-seven of these institutions are clas- ratories. Now higher education receives less than 2 percent sical universities, and the rest are training institutes for of the annual government budget, almost all of which goes education (156), agriculture (62), arts and cinematography toward wages and students’ stipends. There are no funds (38), medicine (47), sports and physical culture (10), con- for maintaining buildings, for buying books for libraries or struction (21), and transportation and communication (29). replacement of scientific or other equipment, for paying Perestroika and other reforms have created a need for in- for the electricity, water, central hearing, and other utili- dividuals with proficiency in certain fields of knowledge— ties. Institutions currently receive less than 14 percent of such as economics and humanities. This need has been filled the capital investment funding they require, and the pur- by over 200 private institutions, currently enrolling over chase of equipment for educational needs has come to a 60,000 students. complete stop. New laws allow universities to find or earn extra money Higher Education Finance themselves through different forms of commercial activi- Under the Soviet system, education was free for all and ties (including private investments, the production and sale state stipends were given to students who excelled. Now, it of goods, and the provision of revenue-generating continu- is only free for students who have passed their entrance ing education programs). The most common (and easy) exams and were selected within the number of so-called form of generating extra revenue is through renting build- “budget students”—the government is willing to provide ings. This has become popular among central universities the university with funding for only a certain number of in particular (such as in Moscow and St. Petersburg), where students each year. The “Law On Education” allows uni- several spacious dormitories and academic buildings have versities to take a limited extra number of students who are become vacant due to declining enrollments. However, this supposed to pay tuition and for dormitory space, but not 10 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

has become a significant problem for these institutions. creasingly becoming institutions for residents of their cit- Having rented buildings to virtually any commercial busi- ies—this is not a good trend in the system. ness, the universities are now faced with rising crime and violence on their campuses. To stay in a dormitory which Decisions includes its own bars, restaurants, goods storage facilities— Recent decisions have been made in Russia apparently with- and a growing number of criminal ventures—is not always out much thought for the consequences. One misguided the best and safest place for studying. decision was the blind copying of the Western and Ameri- can structures of higher education. Traditionally, Russian students study for five years to receive a diploma that gives Recent decisions have been made in them the credentials to work in a certain field of knowl- Russia apparently without much thought edge (e.g., teachers, medical doctors, or engineers). A de- for the consequences. One misguided cision was made on the national level earlier this decade to decision was the blind copying of the create a six-year system of higher education and to divide Western and American structures of it into three separate stages: two years general education higher education. with a special certificate; two additional years for the best students who will be awarded a bachelor’s degree, and two years more for the best of the best, ending in a master’s But perhaps the most serious change for many institu- degree. Some universities accepted the idea with great en- tions has been the proposal of the State Committee of thusiasm. Unfortunately, the result has not been favorable Higher Education to put most regional universities on a for their students. Confusion abounds over what a Master’s local budget, leaving state government financing for only a degree means for the Russian workplace—most employers few to create “regional scientific centers.” As regional gov- are comfortable with the traditional diploma as evidence ernments have no funds to support them, many institu- of the appropriate training. tions are predicted to close down. Regional budgets are based on local enterprises’ taxes, which in the current eco- Conclusions nomic environment do not even generate enough funds to In sum, despite enormous political and economic changes, keep high schools, hospitals, kindergartens, or public trans- a Russian system of higher education exists and functions. portation systems in good order. Closing local universities Official ideology has been removed from the curriculum, will mean shutting thousands of high schools seniors out and the existence of political parties inside educational in- of higher education. Where can they go after school? How stitutions is prohibited. Universities continue to employ can they make their living if there are more than 10 mil- quality faculty and staff, and junior faculty do research and lion unemployed? Needless to say, costly private universi- defend dissertations. Russian youth have not lost their taste ties are not an option for most of these students or their for advanced studies—competition for admission to the fin- parents. It is not difficult to predict a further rise in crime est institutions is quite high. Buildings and facilities cre- and violence. ated in decades past remain in acceptable—although not prime—condition, and give universities the chance of sur- Prestige and New Degrees viving and the hope, if not assurance, for a better future. The Moscow and St. Petersburg universities have always And there is a growing perspective in the society after a been regarded as the most prestigious in Russia, with the five-year period of reforms, that instead of trying to adjust best faculty, laboratories, and libraries. While the compe- the system of education to fit the reforms, the reforms them- tition for students at these institutions is still quite high, selves have problems that need to be solved. they are losing increasing numbers of talented students from the provinces who prefer to stay closer to home (who can- not afford the cost of living in the major cities), foreign students (who are no longer supported financially at Rus- sian institutions), and students from the former republics, where the fear is that someday a Russian university diploma will not be honored. So these central universities are in- 11

Japanese Universities Facing the areas where the university should have much to con- tribute. There were, however, at least two barriers to a the World greater role for the university. One lay in the fact that uni- versities have had a strong orientation toward Europe and Ruth Hayhoe North America in their curricula and language teaching, Ruth Hayhoe is professor of higher education and associate dean, Fac- while around 60 percent of the aid budget is directed to ulty of Education, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education and University Asian countries, the rest to other developing countries. An of Toronto, 252 Bloor St. West, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada. In 1996, she was a visiting professor of education at Nagoya Univer- increasing emphasis on the teaching of languages such as sity, Japan. Chinese, Korean, Thai, and Vietnamese, as well as on Asian- oriented research, is thus an important part of the any people are suggesting that the 21st century will university’s adjustment to this new role. Mbe the Asian century, a period when the center of the world economy moves to Asia, with Japan and China as the two economic superpowers. While there may be Japan has been the world’s leading elements of exaggeration and even myth associated with donor of Overseas Development Assis- this perception, I welcomed the opportunity provided by tance (ODA), and has moved from its the Japan Foundation to spend six months on a fellowship initial emphasis on loans and infrastruc- in Japan studying the international role of Japanese uni- ture building to new frontiers in areas versities. The central question of interest in my study was such as population and AIDS, the envi- what sort of cultural role we might expect them to play in ronment, women in development, eco- the coming century. I was also interested in understanding nomic liberalization, and the barriers they were experiencing, in shifting from the democratization—precisely the areas task of absorbing and adapting Western knowledge to the where the university should have much Japanese context, to an active role in introducing Japanese to contribute. and Asian knowledge approaches to the world, and exer- cising global cultural leadership. Why is it that Toyota and Mitsubishi are so well known around the world, while A second barrier lay in the fact that national universi- universities such as Todai and Waseda are not yet house- ties are essentially an arm of the Ministry of Education, hold words? Science and Culture in their administrative arrangements, In order to explore these questions, I decided to carry and are not able to enter into legal contracts with other out a series of interviews with three distinct groups of ac- parts of government, such as the Japan International Co- tors: firstly, representatives of governmental and societal operation Agency (JICA), or the Overseas Economic Co- agencies responsible for higher education, foreign affairs, operation Fund (OECF), to design and carry out and official development assistance; secondly, members of development projects. They have to find their way around university international offices responsible for universi- the bureaucratic restrictions associated with their status. ties’ efforts as institutions; and finally, distinguished pro- One example of how this was done came from the Faculty fessors, both women and men, who could speak to issues of Engineering at the University of Tokyo, which devel- of the internationalization of scholarship. In all, I con- oped a comprehensive cooperation plan with Thailand’s ducted more than 60 interviews, over 20 with each group, University of Chulalongkorn. It is to be funded by a 8.6 and visited 22 universities, including 10 national and pub- billion yen loan from the OECF to the Thai government. lic institutions, and 12 private universities. Private universities have greater flexibility in this regard, The interviews with governmental agencies gave me a as can be seen in a new project being planned by the sense that the time is ripe for Japanese universities to be- Ritsumeikan University in Kyoto. The intention is to es- come much more active in the international arena than tablish an Asia Pacific University in Oita prefecture, Kyshu, they have been. Since 1991, Japan has been the world’s and strong support has already been committed by prefec- leading donor of Overseas Development Assistance (ODA), tural and city authorities. The purpose of the new institu- and has moved from its initial emphasis on loans and in- tion is to spread information from Asia throughout the frastructure building to new frontiers in areas such as popu- world, train personnel to be active in Asia and the world, lation and AIDS, the environment, women in development, and operate as a center for Asia Pacific Research. Negotia- economic liberalization, and democratization—precisely tions are in process for support from JICA or the OECF. 12 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

University international offices are generally enthusi- Two obstacles were perceived as standing in the way of astic about these new opportunities, but they face various this change. One was a sense that in order to project them- dilemmas. One is the problem of language. In order to selves and their society to the world, Japanese scholars had assist Asian students, many of whom wish to follow gradu- to get to know the realities lying beneath the intellectual ate programs, there is a need for good Japanese language language made up of Chinese and European-derived con- programs. Western students also need Japanese language cepts and construct a vocabulary for explaining Japanese programs, but they often come for periods of a year or less, society from the language of ordinary people. They felt and hope for some instruction in English as well. Increas- such an effort would reveal Japan to be a society of great ingly, there is also a demand for bilingual or English-lan- cultural diversity, whose peoples never fully identified with guage courses for students from developing countries the myth of a homogenous Japanese culture or spirit. This coming under specially designed development assistance myth had been couched in the anthropological language programs in areas such as environment, management, and of European enlightenment thought, and had proven a taxation. These demands put tremendous stress on Japa- serious international threat in the prewar period. nese faculty, particularly the need for more and more The second was the need for establishing fundamental courses to be taught in English or bilingually. relations of respect and trust with the rest of Asia. The issue of school history texts was a kind of focus for this concern, and scholars spoke of their dream of an Asian University international offices are gen- history that could be written collaboratively by colleagues erally enthusiastic about these new from various Asian countries. Until Japanese universities opportunities, but they face various di- fully embrace their Asian identity, they will not be ready lemmas. to project themselves to the world. For their social theo- ries to have broad relevance, they must be linked to some commonalities in Asian experience. A second dilemma is the core question of exchange it- There is a kind of paradox here. On one side is the felt self. The Japanese government provides generous support need to reconstruct an understanding of their own society for international students, which has made possible a rise and its particularity that cannot be fully conveyed in con- in numbers from 10,243 in 1983 to 53,780 in 1995, with cepts imported from China or Europe. On the other side nearly 80 percent being from China, Taiwan, and Korea, is an interest in reconnecting their society with the two and fully 90 percent from Asia. Much less support is avail- great universal belief systems that came to them from China able for Japanese students wishing to study abroad, and and Korea, Buddhism and Confucianism, and interpret- most go to North America and Europe at their own ex- ing their social and developmental experience in the broader pense. However, the recent initiative to provide 1,000 regional context. “peace and friendship” scholarships per year to students from the Asia Pacific, initiated on the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II, has encouraged more university- Perhaps the deepest barriers to inter- level agreements with other Asian countries, and opened nationalism for Japanese universities lie up new exchange opportunities for Japanese students in in the character of scholarship itself. Asia. Perhaps the deepest barriers to internationalism for Japa- nese universities lie in the character of scholarship itself, In conclusion, I would say that Japanese universities are and it was this I tried to explore in the intensive interviews clearly moving toward a more active international role, and with scholars. What is being called for is nothing less than that they have much to teach the world that may be ex- a complete about turn, from an approach to scholarship tremely valuable in facilitating broad participation in the that focused on absorbing concepts, knowledge, and tech- “Asian century.” However, this is a new role for them, which nology from more “advanced” civilizations—first China calls for a range of adjustments in their programs and out- from the 7th to the 18th centuries, then Europe and look, as well as a deep rethinking of core issues in Japanese America from the Meiji Restoration of 1868— to one that scholarship. explains and projects Japanese theories, concepts, and achievements to the world. 13

Funding Crisis for Australian 350,000 to 630,000 students. The cuts also came as a surprise as during the recent Universities federal election campaign the then opposition parties, which now constitute the government, promised to maintain the Grant Harman existing level of funding for universities, and to increase Grant Harman is pro vice-chancellor (research) and professor of educa- funding for research and postgraduate scholarships. While tional administration, University of New England, Armidale, New South the new government seems certain to do everything pos- Wales, Australia sible to honor its election promises, it argues that because ustralia’s 37 public universities are in shock at the pros- of the serious financial situation it inherited it will not be Apect of drastic cuts in their funding over the next two able to meet all commitments in the first two years of of- years. fice. After 13 years of Labor Party rule, a conservative Lib- eral Party-National Party government led by John Howard took office immediately following the March 1996 federal The public universities (which constitute general elections. The new government aims to reduce to- 37 of the 39 universities) will certainly tal government outlays by $8 billion annually (or about 6 be badly affected by these cuts, since percent of total annual outlays) over a two-year period to all their regular government funding for address what it claims is a major deficit left by the previous normal operations comes from the fed- Labor government. eral government. The public universities (which constitute 37 of the 39 universities) will certainly be badly affected by these cuts, since all their regular government funding for normal op- Even a uniform cut of about 6 percent across all gov- erations comes from the federal government. Further, by ernment portfolios clearly would have a major effect on legislation passed by the previous Labor government, uni- universities. But it seems likely that the cut will be in the versities are unable to charge tuition fees for Australian vicinity of 10 percent to 12 percent as some areas of federal students studying for initial qualifications (generally, government expenditure, such defence, are unlikely to share bachelor’s degrees). in the cuts to any great extent, while other areas such as The actual size of the cuts to higher education will not public debt repayments cannot be reduced. This then means be known for some months yet, since the overall govern- that areas such as education and training, labor market pro- ment budget will not be announced until August 20, 1996. grams, health, and social security will have to bear more The actual allocations to each university will not be deter- than their share of the proposed cuts. mined until close to the end of the year. But reliable leaks Universities and their related interest groups were slow from the Office of the Minister for Employment, Educa- to organize lobbying efforts against the proposed cuts, but tion, Training and Youth Affairs, Senator Amanda Vanstone, in the last couple of weeks this has changed, and now an predict that the cuts in operating budgets over the 1996 energetic campaign is under way to appeal for community and 1997 calendar years combined will be between 5 per- support and try to change the government’s plan. So far cent and 12 percent. this campaign has attracted considerable media attention, The prospects of cuts on such a major scale have come and various members of the federal Parliament from both as a real surprise to the Australian universities. No cuts of the government and opposition benches have come out in such size have been experienced by the universities since support of their local universities. the early 1930s. Some reductions in funding were applied But it will be difficult to maintain this campaign for in the second half of the 1970s and early 1980s, and in the the next couple of months until the budget is finalized, and late 1980s during a period of rapid expansion there was in the meantime it can be expected that groups represent- some trimming of support per student unit. But substan- ing health and hospital interests, aged pensioners and nu- tial cuts on the scale proposed, which are not dissimilar to merous other interests will be actively seeking community those experienced in the United Kingdom and elsewhere support to save their budgets. in recent years, are foreign to the current Australian uni- Universities may well succeed marginally in persuad- versity leadership. In many respects, Australian higher edu- ing the government to lighten the burden from what has cation experienced very favorable conditions over the past been proposed by the Department of Finance. But since decade when total enrollments almost doubled—from about the government seems strongly committed to its strategy 14 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

of deficit reduction, substantial cuts seem inevitable. Democracy and Higher The universities also suffer from some serious disabili- ties in terms of their lobbying efforts. In an egalitarian so- Education in Paraguay ciety, some of the elitist characteristics of the more traditional Australian universities mean that they often find Vicente Sarubbi Zaldivar difficulty in attracting strong public support for their causes. Vicente Sarubbi is a founding member of the Advisory Council of Edu- Minister Vanstone has put the peak organization rep- cation Reform in Paraguay. He has taught in the Catholic University of Asuncion and has been director of a major newspaper. He is currently resenting heads of universities, the Australian Vice-Chan- the director of a project to improve primary education in Paraguay and cellors’ Committee (AVCC), in a difficult position in that academic vice-president of the Escuela de Altos Estudios de she has twice responded to AVCC lobbying efforts by in- Administración y Negocios. viting the AVCC to work with her officials in advising where the cuts should be made. So far the AVCC has refused, ince 1989 Paraguay has been trying to establish a de- since it has taken the public stance that there should be no Smocracy. Extending this process will require a true edu- cuts at all, although another reason is that representing such cational revolution. To promote an open society, which is a diverse set of universities the AVCC would find it diffi- the foundation of democratic government, it is important cult to provide advice. to invest in basic education, science and technology in a A number of individual vice-chancellors (i.e., execu- serious and selective way. Paraguay would then be able to tive heads or presidents, in American terminology), how- integrate itself with countries in the region and in the rest ever, have not been slow to make suggestions, at least with of the world, thus contributing to the consolidation of a regard to where not to make cuts and on revenue genera- nation based on law. This article highlights the most im- tion possibilties. Some parties representing the big eight portant aspects of the necessary fundamental changes within universities, have been emphasizing the importance of higher education in Paraguay. maintaining funding to the strong research universities, It is appropriate to ponder the role of higher educa- while nonmetropolitan regional universities have been tion at a time of crisis that calls for a deep reform of its pushing for special protection. Others have effectively sug- orientation and of its institutions. This crisis is character- gested strategies for differential treatment by advocating ized by insufficient coverage, low levels of performance, that the cuts should fall more heavily on the universities insufficient and dated ideas about the functions of the uni- that have greater reserves and endowments. Others still versity, highly bureaucratized administration, inadequate have suggested that two or three regional universities will moral and intellectual development of students, lack of pro- have to be closed. fessional teaching standards, and irrelevance of the curricu- But apart from this sectional discussion, some useful lum for the purposes of production, government, and life suggestions have been made. These include revenue gen- in general. eration suggestions as variations in the current HECS (i.e., Higher Education Contribution Scheme—effectively a Analysis and Prospects graduate tax) levy and the rate of HECS liability repay- The points of analysis in this article are related, on the one ment by graduates, charging of tuition fees for nonresearch hand, to the need for up-to-date scientific and technologi- higher degree enrollments, and taxation benefits for pri- cal knowledge—so essential in a modern economy—in a vate investment in higher education. A few have also sug- context of regional integration and globalization of world gested an end to the embargo on the charging of tuitition markets, and on the other, to the need to correct the con- fees for undergraduates. sequences of a history of authoritarianism and corruption If the cuts go ahead the end result will certainly be a in the country. The professional training received is recog- trimmer and probably quite different higher education sys- nized as being of doubtful quality, lacking in the basic sci- tem. entific knowledge and technological know-how that our times require. This means Paraguayan graduates will be at a comparative disadvantage vis à vis those of the other coun- tries of the Southern Regional Common Market (MERCOSUR). This same deficiency in professional training limits the ability of the country—just emerging from a long period of authoritarianism and dictatorship—to produce political leaders, public and private administrators, jour- 15

nalists, intellectuals, artists, a military, and teachers who recognized. The freedom to elect and be elected, the pos- are ethically and critically well trained, with democratic sibility of change in government and complete freedom of attitudes and convictions. speech are necessary components of democracy in Para- Access to higher education is extremely limited—even guay, but they are not sufficient. It is necessary to develop considering the inadequate availability of secondary edu- a democratic culture, based on mutual recognition, accep- cation, there are more people who want to pursue higher tance of differences, respect for others, and a commitment education than spaces available to them. Trends indicate to true equality based on social justice. The main objective this gap between supply and demand will worsen in the of higher education in Paraguay should be to contribute to near future. There is also insufficient research being con- the development of this democratic culture. ducted at the universities. Current levels of funding and Another important mission of the university is to launch the structures of training, recruitment, and remuneration an offensive against authoritarianism and corruption. Au- of university researchers or teacher-researchers do not al- thoritarian rule has a long tradition in Paraguay. Along with low a change in current conditions in this respect. In a glo- selective repression and corruption, structural forms of bal economy—in which, increasingly, the acquisition, control adopted by the government were not so much for creation and application of scientific and technological enriching those close to power, as for staying in power. knowledge for the production of goods and services is a Under the current democratic reforms, Paraguay is exposed strategic resource—this deficiency makes it impossible for to the many external forces of the modern world. It will be Paraguay to participate in the international community and essential to facilitate, through the education system, a in the global markets—not even within the boundaries of change in the attitudes, mindset, and behaviors of the ac- MERCOSUR. The almost complete lack of a scientific culture tors within the education community, beginning with the in our institutions of higher education hinders not just de- teachers, administrators, parents, and leaders in society. velopments in the basic or applied sciences, but even the intelligent acquisition of such knowledge and skills. Conclusion. Public funding for higher education—absurdly insuf- The Paraguayan system of higher education should aim ficient relative to what other countries in the region invest toward academic excellence of research, teaching, and ser- in higher education—must compete with the needs of pre- vice—in keeping with international standards—while at the school, basic, and secondary education. The National Uni- same time expanding coverage. Higher education should versity of Asuncion dominates the public sector. As their be in a position to respond to the priorities of education main source of financing tuition, private institutions have reform and the challenges of democratization and sustain- fees, and a limited number of contracts for services pro- able and ecological development. Higher education should vided to the public or private sectors. become a strategic player in Paraguayan economic devel- opment. Knowledge generated in the universities should The Challenges and Mission of Higher Education in Paraguay help us understand the growing complexities of the In a pluralistic society such as those in Europe or in North economy and of world and regional politics. America, education is vitally important for promoting free- In summary, the evolution of such a system of higher dom of opportunity. In such societies success is not a func- education means massive change. Instead of looking like tion of family social background, but rather of education an ivory tower—protecting the knowledge and the privi- and real potential. In these societies, the emergence of edu- lege of conferring prestige and social status—the univer- cation as an engine of equal opportunity coincided with sity should be an opportunity offered to most of the citizens, the transition from a stratified society to a pluralistic soci- and to the community at large, to support the individual ety—one that is respectful of human dignity and, ultimately, improvement and the quality of life of the whole popula- of ecological needs. tion. This requires a fundamental change in perspective: The fall of dictatorship in 1989 had the immediate ef- to stop seeing the world as a place of scarcity, or of distant fect of unfreezing the social and political situation, in addi- possibilities, and instead see it as abundant and within reach tion to ending the country’s isolation from the rest of the of all. Accepting this change of perspective will mean, for world. But while change in individuals and social systems Paraguay, a move toward economic growth with equity. is possible, it takes time. The case is particularly difficult when, as is the case with Paraguay, what is desired is struc- tural change. Democratization has advanced in Paraguay to the extent that all public and private liberties have been 16 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

Departments

The Cultures of Education: ization and countertendencies toward nationalism and ethnicity, impacts programs for international cooperation The European Association for and exchange. For instance, where in the past the Euro- International Education pean Union was striving to overcome diversity and to stimu- late unification in the rich diversity of educational systems, structures, and cultures in the union, there is now a recog- Hans de Wit nition of educational diversity as the starting point for co- Hans de Wit is vice president for international affairs, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands, and is past president of the European Asso- operation and exchange and as an important aspect of the ciation for International Education. For more information on the EAIE European dimension. Some have expressed the feeling that and the 1996 conference, contact the European Association for Europe lacks the research experience of the United States International Education, Van Diemenstraat 344, 1013 CR on cross-cultural aspects of education, and several confer- Amsterdam, Netherlands. Fax: 31 20 620-9406. E-mail: ence participants expressed the need for placing this higher [email protected] on the agenda in international education in Europe. he creation in 1989 of the European Association for TInternational Education (EAIE), was a reflection of the growing importance of the internationalization of higher The present situation in Europe impacts education in the late 1980s to the European Union, na- programs for international cooperation tional governments, and institutions of higher education. and exchange. In the United States, the Association of International Edu- cators (NAFSA), has a long tradition and large member- ship, including many members from Europe. But in Europe, The next conference of the EAIE will be held in even at the national level, international education associa- Budapest, Hungary, December 4–6, 1996. The theme of tions have been lacking. The newly created ERASMUS pro- that conference will be “On Equal Terms: New Partners in gram and funding from the European Union have promoted International Education.” Among many other issues, it will international cooperation and exchange in higher educa- deal with the way universities in Central and Eastern Eu- tion between the member states of the union, and institu- rope, but also in the developing countries, can transform tions of higher education have been stimulated to develop their one-way dependency relationship with higher educa- strategies and infrastructures for internationalization. The tion in the industrialized world into a more equal exchange creation of the EAIE in 1989 at a founding conference in relationship. Amsterdam was the result of a broadly felt need to exchange ideas and promote professional development in interna- News of the Center and the Higher tional education. In its short period of existence, the EAIE— with 1,500 members, including several Education Program at Boston College non-Europeans—has become a major player in Europe in the field of international cooperation and exchange, spon- The Higher Education Program’s successful Adminis- soring training programs, publications, and an annual con- trative Fellows Program enters its second year in Sep- tember. A dozen new graduate students will participate ference attracting more than 1,250 participants. in the program along with seven continuing students. The most recent conference of the EAIE was held in The Administrative Fellows Program provides finan- October 1995 in Milan, Italy, with around 1,400 partici- cial assistance to students who are placed in adminis- pants from more than 50 countries. A great number of ses- trative and other offices at Boston College. Fellows work sions and workshops were held, on topics such as credit in such settings as the Office of the Vice President for transfer, credential evaluation, study abroad, foreign stu- Academic Affairs, the International Programs Office, dent advising, European research programs, North-South athletic administration, residence halls, the Center for cooperation in higher education, East-West cooperation, International Higher Education, the Office of the Ex- language and education, and international business stud- ecutive Vice President, and others. In addition, students ies. The central theme of the conference was “The Cul- participate in an ongoing seminar that provides an op- tures of Education,” and several sessions dealt with this portunity to link work experience with coursework. Fur- topic. The notion of culture and cultural diversity is im- ther information can be obtained from Professor Karen Arnold, Coordinator of the Higher Education Program, portant in the practice of international education. The Campion Hall. present situation in Europe, with tendencies toward union- 17

BOOK REVIEW

The World Bank’s Higher Education thus should be addressed at those levels. It advises that dur- ing secondary schooling, girls should be exposed to and Report and its Implications for Women provided with career information, flexible models of at- tendance (part-time, short courses), and separate facilities Nelly P. Stromquist appropriate to cultural practices. Two problematic issues Nelly P. Stromquist is professor of comparative education at the Univer- appear at this point. One is that the World Bank policy sity of Southern California. Address: Waite Phillips Hall, University of document dealing with pretertiary practices (Priorities and Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089 Strategies for Education, 1995) actually says very little about how to intervene in school environments. The other is that Higher Education: Lessons of Experience. Washington, D.C.: recommendations proposed for those levels are instances The World Bank, 1994, 173 pp. of accommodation into the existing hierarchical system, in which women occupy the disadvantaged positions. By ask- mong the spaces education offers for social reproduc- ing for part-time programs there is an accommodation to Ation and change, unquestionably that afforded by the demanding traditional roles of women that are so time higher education is the most coveted. Today’s official dis- consuming; by invoking short courses, there is accommo- course has become much more sensitive to issues of equal- dation to low-prestige occupations that will perpetuate ity—in terms of social class, gender, and ethnicity. In this women’s subordinate statuses. twofold context, the recent book by the World Bank on higher education acquires crucial importance as an opinion-setting document. The document focuses on the What does the World Bank propose? It issues of quality, responsiveness, and equity; I would like to correctly notes that many problems af- examine its treatment of equity from a gender perspective. fecting women at the university level The book states that women are underrepresented in originate at earlier stages of schooling higher education, as they constitute 25 percent of the en- and thus should be addressed at those rollment in Africa, 35 percent in Asia, 36 percent in the levels. It advises that during secondary Middle East and North Africa, and 47 percent in Latin schooling, girls should be exposed to America and the Caribbean. It also notes that although and provided with career information, women are enrolled in postsecondary education, they at- flexible models of attendance tend universities in smaller proportions than other (part-time, short courses), and separate postsecondary institutions. It further observes that women facilities appropriate to cultural prac- are concentrated in traditional fields of study such as nurs- tices. Two problematic issues appear at ing, teaching, and clerical professions. On the basis of this this point. diagnosis, the World Bank argues that problems affecting women at higher levels of education are primarily those of access and narrow selections of fields. Several recommendations are made, all of which pro- The World Bank identifies four generic solutions to ceed through the logic of the successful example. Since the the university crisis: (1) creating differentiated examples in the book are few, we present all of them be- postsecondary institutions (to include universities, low: short-term careers, distance education, technical institu- 1. “In India open universities and distance education tions, and polytechnics); (2) cost-sharing, with government have benefited women” (p. 77). The reader may ask, in financing pegged to performance; (3) redefining the role which other countries has distance education been tried? of government in higher education, to include adoption of In what ways have these programs “benefited” women? policies that recognize different types of higher education 2. “Women’s participation in higher education has in- institutions and inform students about these schools; and creased significantly through scholarships in Papua New (4) decentralizing universities to give them more autonomy, Guinea” (p. 78). What was the value of these scholarships? one of the mechanisms for which is to be block grants. How many women were so reached? What was the actual Assuming for a moment that access is the most impor- percentage of enrollment growth? tant concern, what does the World Bank propose? It cor- 3. “Boarding facilities have increased [women’s] access rectly notes that many problems affecting women at the in India and Yemen” (p. 78). Again, how many women were university level originate at earlier stages of schooling and reached and what was the actual enrollment growth? 18 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

4. “Philippines tried relaxing rigorous admission re- match the notion that boarding schools may be a good quirements for poor and rural students, gave them finan- measure? If boarding schools must be paid, would parents cial support and remedial instruction if needed. There was do so for girls? (3) One of the key recommendations calls student failure regardless of assistance” (p. 78). The subtext for differentiated institutions of higher education, with in this example advises against trying affirmative action for greater emphasis on open- and distance education. How it does not work. A further subtext indicates that even re- will women—who are already devalued in society—ben- medial education is not sufficient because some (read: stu- efit from having a devalued education through distance pid) people will fail. education and open university? (4) Another recommenda- 5. “In India, constitutionally mandated efforts to in- tion argues for autonomy for universities via the provision crease representation of scheduled caste and tribal students of block grants. Under conditions of marginality for women, through scholarships and reserved seats schemes have had what assurance is there that local educational administra- a strong impact on higher educational enrollments. None- tors will develop and implement gender equity policies? theless, after four decades of positive discrimination in edu- (5) How is the privatization strategy—where tuition price cation and employment, scheduled caste and tribal groups controls are to be eliminated because they act as “disincen- remain seriously disadvantaged” (p. 78). The argument here tives”—going to promote an egalitarian system of higher is that even if equity in higher education works, equity in education? If higher education is to expand its private, society will fail. The subtle message seems to be not to for-profit side, what mechanisms will be in place to protect waste resources on minorities and women. education as a public good and the existence of interven- Proceeding with the gender-oriented recommenda- tions to ensure women’s access to quality and prestigious tions, the World Bank argues that, “Minor adjustment in education? How will user fees improve women’s participa- admission requirements is unlikely to affect the quality of tion in higher education? How would income-contingent entrants, but while the representation of particular groups loans protect women’s equity when women’s education con- may increase, their distribution across fields of study can- tinues to be seen by others as consumption rather than in- not be changed as easily,” as shown in Uganda (p. 78). This vestment? How would getting loans encourage families to is a confusing statement. What is the point here: women’s enroll daughters in higher education? access or representation in fields of study? The World Bank document says very little about the The World Bank document states that “The most di- role of universities in the process of social transformation rect way to increase representation in higher education of in developing countries. It is silent on the issue of knowl- disadvantaged groups is to use meritocratic criteria, which edge production, yet universities should affect lower levels includes relaxing requirements, awarding bonus points on of education through teacher training and curriculum de- entry examinations, imposing admission quotas, and using velopment. How can the university help to modify gender a combination of these devices” (p. 78). Not only is the ideologies, including the dismantling of the firm belief of specificity of women gone but the reference to meritocratic men’s superiority and almost exclusive right to control? criteria is puzzling. Merit usually means intellectual abil- Under the context of global economy, what roles are left ity, not special support. So it seems that the World Bank is for the universities in the Third World to play? What roles proposing some form of affirmative action. But no. The can the universities create for themselves and what kinds following sentence reads: “These criteria are fraught with of roles can they enable women to create? difficulties. Especially when the quality of higher educa- The document ostensibly reviews World Bank experi- tion is highly variable, they can involve high efficiency ence in higher education, yet it alludes not to a single for- costs.” mal evaluation of projects funded during 30 years and after The document does not analyze the possible incon- an investment of $5.7 billion. Gender is not addressed as a gruence and conflict between its generic recommendations set of asymmetrical power relations but only as women; and those that should be in place to foster women’s partici- moreover, it does not consider women as a separate group pation in higher education. Some of the possible conflicts for equity policies but presents women as embedded in are the following: (1) Since one of the solutions recom- poverty and ethnicity. The failure to address gender issues mends removing government subsidies, how do the subsi- in a profound way unfortunately happens too often in state- dies implicit in the scholarships for girls fit with the ments by both international agencies and governments. The elimination of subsidies? (2) Since the World Bank has also commonality and persistence of these shallow and incon- offered strong recommendations for reliance on sistent analyses reflects the vulnerable condition of women cost-sharing and user fees, how do these recommendations and contributes to sustaining it. 19

Book Series Linked to Center Focuses on Higher Education

Garland Studies in Higher Education, a book series cosponsored by the Center for International Higher Education and the Program in Higher Education at Boston College, and Garland Publishing, Inc., publishes a range of volumes on higher education. Many of the books in the series have an international dimension. The series is one of the most active sources of information and analysis on higher education anywhere. In the past two years, two volumes have been issued. The series, edited by Philip G. Altbach, is dedicated to strengthening the research base in higher education, and to making top- quality analysis of higher education issues available. One recent book will be of special interest to many readers of this publication. Charles J. Beirne, S.J. has just published Jesuit Education and Social Change in El Salvador. This book provides a thorough analysis of the development of the innovative Universidad Centroamericana in El Salvador, against the back- drop of the killing of Jesuit priests there several years ago. The book deals with the role of the university in social change. Among the other 1996 titles in the series are: Science and Technology in Central and Eastern Europe: The Reform of Higher Education, edited by A. D. Tillett and Barry Lesser; China’s Universities, 1895–1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict, by Ruth Hayhoe, Dimensions of the Community College” International, Intercultural and Multicultural Perspectives, edited by Rosalind L. Raby and Norma Tarrow; and The Liberal Arts College Adapting to Change: The Survival of Small Schools, by Gary Bonvillian and Robert Murphy. Information concerning purchasing books in the series can be obtained from Garland Publishing, Inc., 1000A Sherman Ave., Hamden, CT 06514, USA. Fax: (203) 230-1186. The series is also interested in proposals for new books. Please contact Prof. Philip G. Altbach at the Center for International Higher Education.

New Publications

Buying the Best: Cost Escalation in Elite Higher Education in an International Per- The Politics of Collegiality: Retrenchment Higher Education, by Charles T. spective: Critical Issues, edited by Strategies in Canadian Universities, by Clotfelter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Zaghloul Morsy and Philip G. Altbach. Cynthia Hardy. Montreal, Canada: University Press, 1996. 302 pages. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996. McGill-Queens University Press, $29.95 hardback. ISBN 0-691-02642- 212 pages. ISBN 0-8153-2336-0. Ad- 1996. 232 pages. CAN$42.95 hard- 4. Address: Princeton University Press, dress 1000A Sherman Ave., Hamden back. ISBN 0-7735-1362-0. Address: 41 William St., Princeton, NJ 08540, CT 06514 USA. McGill-Queens University Press, 3430 USA. McTavish St. Montreal, H3A 1X9, Cosponsored with UNESCO, this vol- Canada. This U.S.-based study argues that the ume features articles that originally ap- ambitions of America’s most presti- peared in Prospects, UNESCO’s Canada’s universities have been facing gious colleges and universities to be quarterly journal on education. This difficult times, although the situation even better and more famous led to a volume is truly international in scope, varies by province since higher educa- continuing upward spiral of costs—to with chapters focusing on key compara- tion is largely a responsibility of the improve libraries, lure prestigious fac- tive issues such as the privatization of provinces. This volume provides a care- ulty members, and provide scholarship higher education, universities and na- ful discussion of six universities in dif- aid to top students. These constant in- tional development, financing of higher ferent parts of the country in terms of creases were made possible, argues the education and others. In addition, there how they have dealt with cutbacks and author, by the high demand for places are chapters dealing with such coun- other fiscal problems. The author is at these institutions. While this study tries and regions as Southeast Asia, especially interested in how power and is based on a small sample of top Ameri- Russia, Eastern Europe, the Arab faculty interact with institutions in pe- can universities, it has relevance for the states, and the European Community. riods of stress. This volume will be of entire academic system in the United Authors come from all continents, fur- wide interest since academic institu- States and abroad. (PGA) ther strengthening the international tions face similar difficulties worldwide. focus of the book. (PGA) 20 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION

Current Journals North America and $17 in the rest of (March 1966) focuses on trends in the world. Institutional rates are $15 Latin American higher education. The History of Higher Education Annual, now and $17, respectively. authors include distinguished Latin in its 13th year of publication, is con- American researchers and academic cerned with the historical aspects of Higher Education Policy, the quarterly higher education. While most of the leaders. The journal is edited by Guy material in the journal deals with the publication of the International Asso- Neave, research director of the Inter- United States, it has an international ciation of Universities, has changed its national Associaton of Universities, 1 dimension as well. Some of the best his- format and its publisher. The journal rue Miollis, 75732 Paris, France. In- torical scholarship appears in this jour- is now published by Pergamon Press. stitutional subscription rates are $156 nal. Further information can be Higher Education Policy and is in its for the Western Hemisphere, and £98 obtained from Dr. Roger Geiger, Edi- ninth year of publication. It features for the rest of the world. Subscription tor, History of Higher Education Annual, many theme-based issues, and has a information can be obtained from 405 S. Allen St., Pennsylvania State special interest in the policy-related Pergamon Publishers, The Boulevard, University, University Park, PA 16801. topic. For example, the first issue un- Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford Individual subscriptions are $12 in der the new publication arrangement OX5, 1GB, England.

A New Initiative in International Higher Education Introduction he Boston College Center for International Higher Education provides a unique service to colleges and univer- Tsities worldwide. While it has as its primary aim providing information and publications to colleges and universities related to the Jesuit tradition, it also has a broader mission to be a focal point for discussion and thoughtful analysis of higher education. The Center provides information and analysis for those involved in managing the higher education enterprise internationally through publications, conferences, and the maintenance of a database of individuals and institutions. The Center is especially concerned with creating dialogue and cooperation among academic institutions in the industrialized nations and those in the developing countries of the Third World. The Boston College Center for International Higher Education works in a series of concentric circles. At the core of the enter- prise is the Jesuit community of postsecondary institutions—with special emphasis on the issues that affect institutions in developing countries. The next ring of the circle is made up of academic institutions in the Catholic tradition. Finally, other academic institutions as well as governmental agencies concerned with higher education may participate in the activities of the Center. All of the Center’s International Higher Education publications are available to a wide audience.

Programs and Resources ISSN: 1084-0613 The Boston College Center for International Higher Education has as its purpose the Editorial Office stimulation of an international consciousness among Jesuit and other institutions con- cerning issues of higher education and the provision of documentation and analysis relat- Center for International ing to higher education development. The following activities form the core of the Center’s Higher Education activities during its initial period of development: Campion Hall • newsletter; Boston College • publication series; Chestnut Hill, MA 02167 USA • study opportunities; Tel: (617) 552-4236 • conferences; Fax: (617) 552-8422 • bibliographical and document service; and E-Mail: [email protected] • networking and information technology. Editor: Philip G. Altbach The Program in Higher Education Assistant: Editor: James JF Forest The Program in Higher Education offers masters and doctoral degree study in the field of higher education. The Program has been preparing professionals in higher education Material in this newsletter may be repro- for three decades, and features a rigorous social science–based approach to the study of duced. Please cite the original source of publication. higher education. The Administrative Fellows initiative provides financial assistance as well as work experience in a variety of administrative settings. Specializations in higher International Higher Education is published education administration, student affairs, international higher education, and others, are quarterly by the Center for International offered. The Higher Education Program works closely with the Center for International Higher Education. We welcome correspon- dence, ideas for articles, and reports. If you Higher Education. Additional information about the program in Higher Education is would like to be placed on our mailing list, available from Dr. Karen Arnold, Coordinator, Program in Higher Education, Campion please write to the editor on your business Hall, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167. Fax: (617) 552-8422 e-mail: letterhead. [email protected].