Johann Sebastian

This article is about the Baroque composer. For his ently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michael’s grandson of the same name, see School in Lüneburg for two years. After graduating he (painter). For other uses of Bach, see Bach (disambigua- held several musical posts across Germany: he served as tion). Kapellmeister (director of music) to Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, Cantor of the Thomasschule in , and Royal Court Composer to Augustus III.[4][5] Bach’s health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Modern historians believe that his death was caused by a combination of stroke and pneumonia.[6][7][8] Bach’s abilities as an organist were respected throughout Europe during his lifetime, although he was not widely recognised as a great composer until a revival of inter- est and performances of his music in the first half of the 19th century. He is now generally regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time.[9]

1 Life

1.1 Childhood (1685–1703)

See also: Johann Sebastian Bach was born in , Saxe- Eisenach, on 21 March 1685 O.S. (31 March 1685 N.S.). He was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the direc- tor of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Läm- merhirt.[10] He was the eighth child of Johann Ambro- Portrait of Bach, aged 61, Haussmann, 1748 sius, (the eldest son in the family was 14 at the time of Bach’s birth)[11] who probably taught him violin and the basics of music theory.[12] His uncles were all professional Johann Sebastian Bach[1] (31 March [O.S. 21 March] musicians, whose posts included church organists, court 1685 – 28 July 1750) was a German composer and chamber musicians, and composers. One uncle, Johann musician of the Baroque period. He enriched estab- Christoph Bach (1645–93), introduced him to the organ, lished German styles through his skill in counterpoint, and an older second cousin, Johann Ludwig Bach (1677– harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation 1731), was a well-known composer and violinist. Bach of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particu- drafted a genealogy around 1735, titled “Origin of the larly from Italy and France. Bach’s compositions include musical Bach family”.[13] Brandenburg Goldberg Variations the , the , the Bach’s mother died in 1694, and his father died eight Mass in B minor, two Passions, and over three hundred [5] [2] months later. Bach, aged 10, moved in with his old- sacred of which nearly two hundred survive. est brother, (1671–1721), the or- His music is revered for its technical command, artistic ganist at St. Michael’s Church in Ohrdruf, Saxe-Gotha- beauty, and intellectual depth. Altenburg.[14] There he studied, performed, and copied Bach was born in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach, into a great music, including his own brother’s, despite being forbid- musical family. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was den to do so because scores were so valuable and pri- the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles vate and blank ledger paper of that type was costly.[15][16] were professional musicians. His father probably taught He received valuable teaching from his brother, who in- him to play the violin and harpsichord, and his brother, structed him on the clavichord. J.C. Bach exposed him Johann Christoph Bach, taught him the clavichord and to the works of great composers of the day, including exposed him to much contemporary music.[3] Appar- South German composers such as Johann Pachelbel (un-

1 2 1 LIFE

and possibly used the church’s famous organ, built in 1549 by Jasper Johannsen, since it was played by his or- gan teacher Georg Böhm.[19] Given his musical talent, Bach had significant contact with Böhm while a student in Lüneburg, and also took trips to nearby Hamburg where he observed “the great North German organist Johann Adam Reincken".[19][20] Stauffer reports the discovery in 2005 of the organ tablatures that Bach wrote out when still in his teens of works by Reincken and Dieterich Bux- tehude, showing “a disciplined, methodical, well-trained teenager deeply committed to learning his craft”.[19]

1.2 Weimar, Arnstadt, and Mühlhausen (1703–08)

Johann Ambrosius Bach, Bach’s father

St. George’s Church in Eisenach, where Bach was baptised. Por- tal inscription: "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott". St. Boniface’s Church, Arnstadt

In January 1703, shortly after graduating from St. der whom Johann Christoph had studied) and Johann [3] Michael’s and being turned down for the post of or- Jakob Froberger; North German composers; French- ganist at Sangerhausen,[21] Bach was appointed court men, such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Louis Marchand, Marin musician in the chapel of Duke Johann Ernst III in Marais; and the Italian clavierist Girolamo Frescobaldi. Weimar.[22] His role there is unclear, but likely included Also during this time, he was taught theology, Latin, [17] menial, non-musical duties. During his seven-month Greek, French, and Italian at the local gymnasium. tenure at Weimar, his reputation as a keyboardist spread At the age of 14, Bach, along with his older school so much that he was invited to inspect the new organ, friend Georg Erdmann, was awarded a choral scholar- and give the inaugural recital, at St. Boniface’s Church in ship to study at the prestigious St. Michael’s School in Arnstadt, located about 30 kilometres (19 mi) southwest Lüneburg in the Principality of Lüneburg.[18] Although it of Weimar.[23] In August 1703, he became the organist is not known for certain, the trip was likely taken mostly at St. Boniface’s, with light duties, a relatively generous on foot.[17] His two years there were critical in expos- salary, and a fine new organ tuned in the modern tem- ing him to a wider facet of European culture. In addi- pered system that allowed a wide range of keys to be used. tion to singing in the choir he played the School’s three- [17] Despite strong family connections and a musically enthu- manual organ and harpsichords. He came into contact siastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the with sons of noblemen from northern Germany sent to authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dis- the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other satisfied with the standard of singers in the choir, while disciplines. his employer was upset by his unauthorised absence from While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. John’s Church Arnstadt; Bach was gone for several months in 1705–06, 1.3 Return to Weimar (1708–17) 3

St. Mary’s Church, Lübeck

to visit the great organist and composer Dieterich Buxte- hude and his Abendmusiken at St. Mary’s Church in the northern city of Lübeck. The visit to Buxtehude involved a 450-kilometre (280 mi) journey each way, reportedly on foot.[24] In 1706, Bach was offered a post as organist at St. Bla- sius’s Church in Mühlhausen, which he took up the fol- lowing year. It included significantly higher remuner- ation, improved conditions, and a better choir. Four months after arriving at Mühlhausen, Bach married , his second cousin. They had seven children, four of whom survived to adulthood, includ- Portrait of the young Bach (disputed)[25] ing and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach who both became important composers as well. Bach was able to convince the church and town govern- He learned to write dramatic openings and employ the ment at Mühlhausen to fund an expensive renovation of dynamic motor rhythms and harmonic schemes found in the organ at St. Blasius’s Church. Bach, in turn, wrote the music of Italians such as Vivaldi, Corelli, and Torelli. an elaborate, festive —Gott ist mein König (BWV Bach absorbed these stylistic aspects in part by transcrib- 71)—for the inauguration of the new council in 1708. ing Vivaldi’s string and wind concertos for harpsichord The council paid handsomely for its publication, and it and organ; many of these transcribed works are still reg- [17] was a major success. ularly performed. Bach was particularly attracted to the Italian style in which one or more solo instruments alter- nate section-by-section with the full throughout 1.3 Return to Weimar (1708–17) a movement.[26] In Weimar, Bach continued to play and compose for For more details on this topic, see Erschallet, ihr Lieder, the organ, and to perform concert music with the erklinget, ihr Saiten! BWV 172 § Background. [17] duke’s ensemble. He also began to write the preludes and fugues which were later assembled into his mon- In 1708, Bach left Mühlhausen, returning to Weimar this umental work The Well-Tempered Clavier (Das Wohl- time as organist and from 1714 Konzertmeister (director temperierte Clavier—“Clavier” meaning clavichord or of music) at the ducal court, where he had an opportunity harpsichord),[27] consisting of two books, compiled in to work with a large, well-funded contingent of profes- 1722 and 1744,[28] each containing a prelude and fugue sional musicians.[17] Bach moved with his family into an in every major and minor key. apartment very close to the ducal palace. In the following Also in Weimar Bach started work on the Little Organ year, their first child was born and Maria Barbara’s elder, Book, containing traditional Lutheran chorales (hymn unmarried sister joined them. She remained to help run tunes) set in complex textures. In 1713, Bach was offered the household until her death in 1729. a post in Halle when he advised the authorities during a Bach’s time in Weimar was the start of a sustained pe- renovation by Christoph Cuntzius of the main organ in riod of composing keyboard and orchestral works. He the west gallery of the Market Church of Our Dear Lady. attained the proficiency and confidence to extend the pre- Johann Kuhnau and Bach played again when it was inau- vailing structures and to include influences from abroad. gurated in 1716.[29][30] 4 1 LIFE

In the spring of 1714, Bach was promoted to Konzertmeis- posing and performing. The prince was Calvinist and did ter, an honour that entailed performing a not use elaborate music in his worship; accordingly, most monthly in the castle church.[31] The first three cantatas of Bach’s work from this period was secular,[36] including Bach composed in Weimar were Himmelskönig, sei will- the orchestral suites, the cello suites, the sonatas and par- kommen, BWV 182, for Palm Sunday, which coincided titas for solo violin, and the Brandenburg Concertos.[37] with the Annunciation that year, Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Bach also composed secular cantatas for the court such Zagen, BWV 12, for Jubilate Sunday, and Erschallet, ihr as Die Zeit, die Tag und Jahre macht, BWV 134a. A sig- Lieder, erklinget, ihr Saiten! BWV 172 for Pentecost.[32] nificant influence upon Bach’s musical development dur- Bach’s first Christmas cantata Christen, ätzet diesen Tag, ing his years with the Prince is recorded by Stauffer as BWV 63 was premiered in 1714 or 1715.[33][34] Bach’s “complete embrace of dance music, perhaps the most important influence on his mature style other than In 1717, Bach eventually fell out of favour in Weimar and [19] was, according to a translation of the court secretary’s re- his adoption of Vivaldi’s music in Weimar”. port, jailed for almost a month before being unfavourably Despite being born in the same year and only about 130 dismissed: “On November 6, [1717], the quondam con- kilometres (81 mi) apart, Bach and Handel never met. In certmaster and organist Bach was confined to the County 1719, Bach made the 35-kilometre (22 mi) journey from Judge’s place of detention for too stubbornly forcing the Köthen to Halle with the intention of meeting Handel, issue of his dismissal and finally on December 2 was freed however Handel had left the town.[38] In 1730, Bach’s son from arrest with notice of his unfavourable discharge.”[35] Wilhelm Friedemann travelled to Halle to invite Handel to visit the Bach family in Leipzig, but the visit did not come to pass.[39] 1.4 Köthen (1717–23) On 7 July 1720, while Bach was on travel to Carlsbad with Prince Leopold, Bach’s first wife suddenly died.[40] The following year, he met Anna Magdalena Wilcke, a young, highly gifted soprano seventeen years his junior, who performed at the court in Köthen; they married on 3 December 1721.[41] Together they had thirteen more children, six of whom survived into adulthood: Gottfried Heinrich; Elisabeth Juliane Friederica (1726–81), who married Bach’s pupil Johann Christoph Altnickol; Johann Christoph Friedrich and Johann Christian, who both be- came significant musicians; Johanna Carolina (1737– 81); and Regina Susanna (1742–1809).[42]

1.5 Leipzig (1723–50)

For more details on this topic, see Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe, BWV 22 § Audition in Leipzig.

In 1723, Bach was appointed Thomaskantor, Cantor of the Thomasschule at the Thomaskirche (St. Thomas Church) in Leipzig which served four churches in the city, the Thomaskirche, the Nikolaikirche (St. Nicholas Church), the Neue Kirche and the Peterskirche,[43] and musical director of public functions such as city council elections and homages. This was a prestigious post in the mercantile city in the Electorate of Saxony, which he held for twenty-seven years until his death. It brought him into contact with the political machinations of his employer, Leipzig’s city council. The of Bach’s Violin Sonata No. 1 in G minor (BWV Bach was required to instruct the students of the Tho- 1001) masschule in singing and to provide church music for the main churches in Leipzig. Bach was required to teach Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen hired Bach to serve Latin, but he was allowed to employ a deputy to do this as his Kapellmeister (director of music) in 1717. Prince instead. A cantata was required for the church services Leopold, himself a musician, appreciated Bach’s talents, on Sundays and additional church holidays during the paid him well, and gave him considerable latitude in com- liturgical year. He usually performed his own cantatas, 1.5 Leipzig (1723–50) 5

St. Thomas Church, Leipzig

Café Zimmermann, Leipzig, where the Collegium Musicum per- formed

hundred have been lost to posterity.[2] Most of these con- certed works expound on the Gospel readings prescribed for every Sunday and feast day in the Lutheran year. Bach started a second annual cycle the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724, and composed only chorale cantatas, each based on a single church hymn. These include O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 20, Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig, c. 1850 BWV 140, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, and Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern, BWV 1. Bach drew the soprano and alto choristers from the most of which were composed during his first three years School, and the tenors and basses from the School and in Leipzig. The first of these was Die Elenden sollen es- elsewhere in Leipzig. Performing at weddings and fu- sen, BWV 75, first performed in the Nikolaikirche on 30 nerals provided extra income for these groups; it was May 1723, the first Sunday after Trinity. Bach collected probably for this purpose, and for in-school training, that his cantatas in annual cycles. Five are mentioned in obit- he wrote at least six motets.[44] As part of his regu- uaries, three are extant.[32] Of the more than three hun- lar church work, he performed other composers’ motets, dred cantatas which Bach composed in Leipzig, over one which served as formal models for his own.[45] 6 1 LIFE

[17] Lüneburg lin and keyboard concertos. In 1733, Bach composed a mass for the Dresden court ? (Kyrie and Gloria) which he later incorporated in his 0 100 km Mass in B minor. He presented the manuscript to the King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania and Elector of Saxony, Augustus III in an eventually successful bid to persuade the monarch to appoint him as Royal Court Composer.[4] He later extended this work into a full mass, by adding a Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei, the music for Köthen which was partly based on his own cantatas, partly new composed. Bach’s appointment as court composer was part of his long-term struggle to achieve greater bargain- Leipzig ing power with the Leipzig council. Between 1737 and Mühlhausen ? 1739, Bach’s former pupil Carl Gotthelf Gerlach took Eisenach Weimar over the directorship of the Collegium Musicum. Ohrdruf Arnstadt In 1747, Bach visited the court of King Frederick II at Potsdam. The king played a theme for Bach and chal- lenged him to improvise a fugue based on his theme. Places where Bach lived Bach improvised a three-part fugue on one of Frederick’s fortepianos, then a novelty, and later presented the king Musical Offering Bach’s predecessor as Cantor, Johann Kuhnau, had also with a which consists of fugues, canons been music director for the Paulinerkirche, the church of and a trio based on this theme. Its six-part fugue includes Leipzig University. But when Bach was installed as Can- a slightly altered subject more suitable for extensive elab- tor in 1723, he was put in charge only of music for “festal” oration. (church holiday) services at the Paulinerkirche; his pe- In the same year Bach joined the Corresponding Soci- tition to provide music also for regular Sunday services ety of the Musical Sciences (Correspondierende Societät there (for corresponding salary increase) went all the way der musicalischen Wissenschaften) of Lorenz Christoph up to King Augustus II but was denied. After this, in Mizler. On the occasion of his entry into the Society 1725, Bach “lost interest” in working even for festal ser- Bach composed the Canonic Variations on “Vom Him- vices at the Paulinerkirche and appeared there only on mel hoch da komm' ich her” (BWV 769).[50] A portrait [46] “special occasions”. The Paulinerkirche had a much had to be submitted by each member of the Society, so better and newer (1716) organ than did the Thomaskir- in 1746, during the preparation of Bach’s entry, the fa- che or the Nikolaikirche. Bach had been consulted of- mous Bach-portrait was painted by Elias Gottlob Hauss- ficially about the 1716 organ after its completion, came mann.[51] The Canon triplex á 6 Voc. (BWV 1076) on this [47] from Köthen, and submitted a report. Bach was not portrait was dedicated to the Society.[52] Other late works required to play any organ in his official duties, but it is by Bach may also have a connection with the music the- believed he liked to play on the Paulinerkirche organ “for ory based Society.[53] One of those works was The Art of [48] his own pleasure”. Fugue, which consists of 18 complex fugues and canons based on a simple theme.[54] The Art of Fugue was only Bach broadened his composing and performing beyond [55] the liturgy by taking over, in March 1729, the director- published posthumously in 1751. ship of the Collegium Musicum, a secular performance Bach’s last large work was the Mass in B minor (1748– ensemble started by the composer Georg Philipp Tele- 49) which Stauffer describes as “Bach’s most univer- mann. This was one of the dozens of private societies sal church work. Consisting mainly of recycled move- in the major German-speaking cities that was established ments from cantatas written over a thirty-five year pe- by musically active university students; these societies riod, it allowed Bach to survey his vocal pieces one last had become increasingly important in public musical life time and pick select movements for further revision and and were typically led by the most prominent profes- refinement.”[19] Although the complete mass was never sionals in a city. In the words of Christoph Wolff, as- performed during the composer’s lifetime, it is consid- suming the directorship was a shrewd move that “con- ered to be among the greatest choral works of all time.[56] solidated Bach’s firm grip on Leipzig’s principal musi- cal institutions”.[49] Year round, the Leipzig’s Collegium Musicum performed regularly in venues such as the Café 1.6 Death (1750) Zimmermann, a coffeehouse on Catherine Street off the main market square. Many of Bach’s works during the Bach’s health declined in 1749; on 2 June, Heinrich von and 1740s were written for and performed by Brühl wrote to one of the Leipzig burgomasters to re- the Collegium Musicum; among these were parts of his quest that his music director, Johann Gottlob Harrer, fill Clavier-Übung (Keyboard Practice) and many of his vio- the Thomaskantor and Director musices posts “upon the 7

2 Legacy

After his death, Bach’s reputation as a composer at first declined; his work was regarded as old-fashioned com- pared to the emerging galant style.[64] Initially he was re- membered more as a virtuoso player of the organ and as a teacher. Many of Bach’s unpublished manuscripts were dis- tributed among his wife and musician sons at the time of his death. Unfortunately, the poor financial condition of some of the family members led to the sale and subse- quent loss of parts of Bach’s compositions, including over one hundred cantatas and his St Mark Passion, of which no copies are known to survive.[65] During the late 18th and early 19th century, Bach was recognised by several prominent composers for his key- board work. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, and Felix Mendelssohn were among his admirers; they began writing in a more contrapuntal style after being exposed to Bach’s music.[66] Beethoven described him as "Urvater der Harmonie", the “original father of harmony”.[67]

Bach’s grave, St. Thomas Church, Leipzig

eventual ... decease of Mr. Bach”.[57] Bach became in- creasingly blind, so the British eye surgeon John Taylor operated on Bach while visiting Leipzig in March or April 1750.[58] On 28 July 1750 Bach died at the age of 65. A contem- porary newspaper reported “the unhappy consequences of the very unsuccessful eye operation” as the cause of death.[59] Modern historians speculate that the cause of death was a stroke complicated by pneumonia.[6][7][8] His son Carl Philipp Emanuel and his pupil Johann Friedrich Agricola wrote an obituary of Bach.[60] In 1754, it was published by Lorenz Christoph Mizler in the musical periodical Musikalische Bibliothek. This obituary ar- guably remains “the richest and most trustworthy”[61] early source document about Bach. Bach’s estate included five harpsichords, two lute- harpsichords, three violins, three , two cellos, a da gamba, a lute and a spinet, and fifty-two “sa- cred books”, including books by Martin Luther and Statue of Bach, Leipzig Josephus.[62] He was originally buried at Old St. John’s Cemetery in Leipzig. His grave went unmarked for nearly Bach’s reputation among the wider public was enhanced 150 years. In 1894, his remains were located and moved in part by 's 1802 biography of to a vault in St. John’s Church. This building was de- the composer.[68] Felix Mendelssohn significantly con- stroyed by Allied bombing during World War II, so in tributed to the renewed interest in Bach’s work with his 1950 Bach’s remains were taken to their present grave 1829 Berlin performance of the St Matthew Passion.[69] In in St. Thomas Church.[17] Later research has called into 1850, the Bach-Gesellschaft (Bach Society) was founded question whether the remains in the grave are actually to promote the works; in 1899 the Society published a those of Bach.[63] comprehensive edition of the composer’s works with lit- 8 3 WORKS

tle editorial intervention. 3.1 Organ works During the 20th century, the process of recognising the Bach was best known during his lifetime as an organ- musical as well as the pedagogic value of some of the ist, organ consultant, and composer of organ works works continued, perhaps most notably in the promotion in both the traditional German free genres—such as of the cello suites by Pablo Casals, the first major per- [70] preludes, fantasias, and toccatas—and stricter forms, former to record these suites. Another development such as chorale preludes and fugues.[17] At a young age, he has been the growth of the historically informed perfor- established a reputation for his great creativity and ability mance movement, which attempts to take into account to integrate foreign styles into his organ works. A de- the aesthetic criteria and performance practice of the pe- cidedly North German influence was exerted by Georg riod in which the music was conceived. Examples include Böhm, with whom Bach came into contact in Lüneburg, the playing of keyboard works on harpsichord rather than and Dieterich Buxtehude, whom the young organist vis- modern grand piano and the use of small choirs or single ited in Lübeck in 1704 on an extended leave of absence voices instead of the larger forces favoured by 19th- and [71] from his job in Arnstadt. Around this time, Bach copied early 20th-century performers. the works of numerous French and Italian composers to The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church remem- gain insights into their compositional languages, and later bers Bach annually with a feast day on 28 July, together arranged violin concertos by Vivaldi and others for or- with George Frideric Handel and Henry Purcell; the gan and harpsichord. During his most productive period Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church, on the same (1708–14) he composed about a dozen pairs of preludes day remembers Bach and Handel with Heinrich Schütz. and fugues, five toccatas and fugues, and the Little Organ In other circles, Bach’s music is bracketed with the lit- Book, an unfinished collection of forty-six short chorale erature of William Shakespeare and the science of Isaac preludes that demonstrates compositional techniques in [72] Newton. the setting of chorale tunes. After leaving Weimar, Bach During the 20th century, many streets in Germany were wrote less for organ, although some of his best-known named and statues were erected in honour of Bach. A works (the six trio sonatas, the German Organ Mass in Clavier-Übung III large crater in the Bach quadrangle on Mercury is named from 1739, and the Great Eighteen in Bach’s honour[73] as are the main-belt asteroids 1814 chorales, revised late in his life) were composed after his Bach and 1482 Sebastiana.[74] Bach’s music features leaving Weimar. Bach was extensively engaged later in his life in consulting on organ projects, testing newly built three times—more than that of any other composer—on [78][79] the Voyager Golden Record, a gramophone record con- organs, and dedicating organs in afternoon recitals. taining a broad sample of the images, common sounds, languages, and music of Earth, sent into outer space with the two Voyager probes.[75] 3.2 Other keyboard works

3 Works

Main articles: BWV and List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach

In 1950, a thematic catalogue called Bach-Werke- Verzeichnis (Bach Works Catalogue) was compiled by The title page of the third part of the Clavier-Übung, one of the .[76] Schmieder largely followed the few works by Bach that was published during his lifetime Bach-Gesellschaft-Ausgabe, a comprehensive edition of the composer’s works that was produced between 1850 Bach wrote many works for harpsichord, some of which and 1900: BWV 1–224 are cantatas; BWV 225–249, may have been played on the clavichord. Many of his key- large-scale choral works including his Passions; BWV board works are anthologies that encompass whole theo- 250–524, chorales and sacred songs; BWV 525–748, or- retical systems in an encyclopaedic fashion. gan works; BWV 772–994, other keyboard works; BWV • 995–1000, lute music; BWV 1001–40, chamber music; The Well-Tempered Clavier, Books 1 and 2 (BWV BWV 1041–71, orchestral music; and BWV 1072–1126, 846–893). Each book consists of a prelude and canons and fugues.[77] fugue in each of the 24 major and minor keys in 3.3 Orchestral and chamber music 9

chromatic order from C major to B minor (thus, 3.3 Orchestral and chamber music the whole collection is often referred to as “the 48”). “Well-tempered” in the title refers to the Bach wrote for single instruments, duets, and small en- temperament (system of tuning); many tempera- sembles. Many of his solo works, such as his six sonatas ments before Bach’s time were not flexible enough and partitas for violin (BWV 1001–1006), six cello suites to allow compositions to utilise more than just a few (BWV 1007–1012), and partita for solo flute (BWV keys.[80][81] 1013), are widely considered among the most profound works in the repertoire.[87] Bach composed a suite and • The Inventions and Sinfonias (BWV 772–801). several other works which have been claimed (since These short two- and three-part contrapuntal works 1900) for the solo lute, but there is no evidence that he are arranged in the same chromatic order as The wrote for this instrument.[88] He wrote trio sonatas; solo Well-Tempered Clavier, omitting some of the rarer sonatas (accompanied by continuo) for the flute and for keys. These pieces were intended by Bach for in- the viola da gamba; and a large number of canons and structional purposes.[82] ricercars, mostly with unspecified instrumentation. The most significant examples of the latter are contained in • Three collections of dance suites: the English The Art of Fugue and The Musical Offering. Suites (BWV 806–811), the French Suites Bach’s best-known orchestral works are the Brandenburg (BWV 812–817), and the Partitas for keyboard Concertos, so named because he submitted them in the (Clavier-Übung I, BWV 825–830). Each col- hope of gaining employment from Margrave Christian lection contains six suites built on the standard Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt in 1721; his applica- model (Allemande–Courante–Sarabande–(optional tion was unsuccessful.[17] These works are examples of movement)–Gigue). The English Suites closely the grosso genre. Other surviving works in the follow the traditional model, adding a prelude concerto form include two violin concertos (BWV 1041 before the allemande and including a single move- and BWV 1042); a concerto for two violins in D minor ment between the sarabande and the gigue.[83] (BWV 1043), often referred to as Bach’s “double” con- The French Suites omit preludes, but have mul- certo; and concertos for one to four harpsichords. It is tiple movements between the sarabande and the widely accepted that many of the harpsichord concertos gigue.[84] The partitas expand the model further were not original works, but arrangements of his concer- with elaborate introductory movements and miscel- tos for other instruments now lost.[89] A number of vi- laneous movements between the basic elements of olin, , and flute concertos have been reconstructed the model.[85] from these. In addition to concertos, Bach wrote four • orchestral suites, and a series of stylised dances for or- The Goldberg Variations (BWV 988), an aria with [90] chestra, each preceded by a French overture. thirty variations. The collection has a complex and unconventional structure: the variations build on the bass line of the aria, rather than its melody, and mu- sical canons are interpolated according to a grand 3.4 Vocal and choral works plan. There are nine canons within the thirty vari- ations, every third variation is a canon.[86] These 3.4.1 Cantatas variations move in order from canon at the unison to canon at the ninth. The first eight are in pairs Main article: Bach cantata (unison and octave, second and seventh, third and sixth, fourth and fifth). The ninth canon stands on As the Thomaskantor, beginning mid of 1723, Bach per- its own due to compositional dissimilarities. The fi- formed a cantata each Sunday and feast day that corre- nal variation, instead of being the expected canon at sponded to the lectionary readings of the week.[17] Al- the tenth, is a quodlibet. though Bach performed cantatas by other composers, he composed at least three entire annual cycles of cantatas • Miscellaneous pieces such as the Overture in the at Leipzig, in addition to those composed at Mühlhausen French Style (French Overture, BWV 831) and the and Weimar.[17] In total he wrote more than three Italian Concerto (BWV 971) (published together as hundred sacred cantatas, of which nearly two hundred Clavier-Übung II), and the Chromatic Fantasia and survive.[2][91] Fugue (BWV 903). His cantatas vary greatly in form and instrumentation, in- cluding those for solo singers, single choruses, small in- Among Bach’s lesser known keyboard works are seven strumental groups, and grand . Many consist of toccatas (BWV 910–916), four duets (BWV 802–805), a large opening chorus followed by one or more recitative- sonatas for keyboard (BWV 963–967), the Six Little Pre- aria pairs for soloists (or duets) and a concluding chorale. ludes (BWV 933–938), and the Aria variata alla maniera The recitative is part of the corresponding Bible reading italiana (BWV 989). for the week and the aria is a contemporary reflection on 10 4 MUSICAL STYLE

it. The melody of the concluding chorale often appears many movements from his cantatas, such as Weinen, Kla- as a cantus firmus in the opening movement. Among his gen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12, written in 1714, and com- best known cantatas are: posed some new movements. All of these movements have substantial solo parts as well as choruses. It is not • Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4 known what direction of development Bach had intended for his last Mass to take. As Stauffer states, “If Bach • Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 21 had lived longer, it is likely that he would have created a definitive fair copy of the Mass, similar to those of the • Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80 St. John and St. Matthew Passions... As Otto Bettmann once remarked, Bach’s 'music sets in order what life • Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit Actus [19] , BWV 106 ( cannot.'" Tragicus) • Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140 • 4 Musical style Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben, BWV 147

In addition, Bach wrote a number of secular cantatas, usually for civic events such as council inaugurations. These include wedding cantatas, the Wedding Quodlibet, the Peasant Cantata, and the Coffee Cantata.[92]

3.4.2 Motets

Bach’s motets (BWV 225–231) are pieces on sacred Bach’s seal, used throughout his Leipzig years. It contains the themes for choir and basso continuo, with instruments letters JSB superimposed over their mirror image topped with a playing colla parte. Several of them were composed for crown. funerals.[93] The six motets certainly composed by Bach are Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied, Der Geist hilft unser Bach’s musical style arose from his skill in contrapun- Schwachheit auf, Jesu, meine Freude, Fürchte dich nicht, tal invention and motivic control, his flair for improvisa- Komm, Jesu, komm, and Lobet den Herrn, alle Heiden. tion, his exposure to North and South German, Italian and The motet Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren (BWV 231) is French music, and his devotion to the Lutheran liturgy. part of the composite motet Jauchzet dem Herrn, alle Welt His access to musicians, scores and instruments as a child (BWV Anh. 160), other parts of which may be based on and a young man and his emerging talent for writing [94] work by Telemann. tightly woven music of powerful sonority, allowed him to develop an eclectic, energetic musical style in which for- eign influences were combined with an intensified version 3.4.3 Passions, oratorios, Magnificat of the pre-existing German musical language. From the period 1713–14 onward he learned much from the style Bach’s large choral-orchestral works include the grand of the Italians.[100] scale St Matthew Passion and St John Passion, both written for Good Friday vesper services at the Thomaskirche and During the Baroque period, many composers only wrote the Nikolaikirche in alternate years, and the Christmas the framework, and performers embellished this frame- [101] Oratorio (a set of six cantatas for use in the liturgical sea- work with ornaments and other elaboration. This son of Christmas).[95][96][97] Shorter works are the Easter practice varied considerably between the schools of Eu- Oratorio, the Ascension Oratorio, and the Magnificat. ropean music; Bach notated most or all of the details of his melodic lines, leaving little for performers to interpo- late. This accounted for his control over the dense con- 3.4.4 Mass in B minor trapuntal textures that he favoured, and decreased leeway for spontaneous variation of musical lines. At the same Main articles: Mass in B minor and Mass in B minor time, Bach left the instrumentation of major works in- structure cluding The Art of Fugue open.[102] Bach’s devout relationship with the Christian God in the Bach assembled his last large work, the Mass in B mi- Lutheran tradition[103] and the high demand for religious nor, near the end of his life, between 1748 and 1749. music of his times placed sacred music at the centre of The mass was never performed in full during Bach’s his repertory.[104] He taught Luther’s Small Catechism as lifetime.[98][99] He incorporated the Sanctus of 1724 and the Thomaskantor in Leipzig, and some of his pieces rep- the Missa in B minor, composed in 1733. He derived resent it;[105] the Lutheran chorale hymn tune was the ba-