The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: an Empirical Investigation

The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation

By DARON ACEMOGLU,SIMON JOHNSON, AND JAMES A. ROBINSON*

We exploit differences in European mortality rates to estimate the effect of institutions on economic performance. Europeans adopted very different colonization policies in different colonies, with different associated institutions. In places where Europeans faced high mortality rates, they could not settle and were more likely to set up extractive institutions. These institutions persisted to the present. Exploiting differences in European mortality rates as an instrument for current institutions, we estimate large effects of institutions on income per capita. Once the effect of institutions is controlled for, countries in Africa or those closer to the equator do not have lower incomes. (JEL O11, P16, P51)

What are the fundamental causes of the tionary policies will invest more in physical large differences in income per capita across and human capital, and will use these factors countries? Although there is still little con- more efﬁciently to achieve a greater level of sensus on the answer to this question, differ- income (e.g., Douglass C. North and Robert ences in institutions and property rights have P. Thomas, 1973; Eric L. Jones, 1981; North, received considerable attention in recent 1981). This view receives some support from years. Countries with better “institutions,” cross-country correlations between measures more secure property rights, and less distor- of property rights and economic development (e.g., Stephen Knack and Philip Keefer, 1995; Paulo Mauro, 1995; Robert E. Hall and * Acemoglu: Department of Economics, E52-380b, Charles I. Jones, 1999; Dani Rodrik, 1999), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA and from a few micro studies that investigate 02319, and Canadian Institute for Advanced Research the relationship between property rights and (e-mail: [email protected]); Johnson: Sloan School of Man- agement, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam- investment or output (e.g., Timothy Besley, bridge, MA 02319 (e-mail: [email protected]); Robinson: 1995; Christopher Mazingo, 1999; Johnson et Department of Political Science and Department of Eco- al., 1999). nomics, 210 Barrows Hall, University of California, Berke- At some level it is obvious that institutions ley, CA 94720 (e-mail: [email protected]). We thank Joshua Angrist, Abhijit Banerjee, Esther Duﬂo, matter. Witness, for example, the divergent Stan Engerman, John Gallup, Claudia Goldin, Robert paths of North and South Korea, or East and Hall, Chad Jones, Larry Katz, Richard Locke, Andrei West Germany, where one part of the country Shleifer, Ken Sokoloff, Judith Tendler, three anonymous stagnated under central planning and collec- referees, and seminar participants at the University of tive ownership, while the other prospered California-Berkeley, Brown University, Canadian Insti- tute for Advanced Research, Columbia University, Har- with private property and a market economy. vard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Nevertheless, we lack reliable estimates of National Bureau of Economic Research, Northwestern the effect of institutions on economic perfor- University, New York University, Princeton University, mance. It is quite likely that rich economies University of Rochester, Stanford University, Toulouse University, University of California-Los Angeles, and the choose or can afford better institutions. Per- World Bank for useful comments. We also thank Robert haps more important, economies that are dif- McCaa for guiding us to the data on bishops’ mortality. ferent for a variety of reasons will differ both

1369 1370 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001 in their institutions and in their income per current institutions in these countries.2 More capita. speciﬁcally, our theory can be schematically To estimate the impact of institutions on eco- summarized as nomic performance, we need a source of exogenous variation in institutions. In this paper, we ͑potential͒ settler f settlements propose a theory of institutional differences mortality among countries colonized by Europeans,1 and exploit this theory to derive a possible source of early current exogenous variation. Our theory rests on three f f premises: institutions institutions

1. There were different types of colonization f current policies which created different sets of insti- performance. tutions. At one extreme, European powers set up “extractive states,” exemplified by the Bel- We use data on the mortality rates of soldiers, gian colonization of the Congo. These institu- bishops, and sailors stationed in the colonies be- tions did not introduce much protection for tween the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, private property, nor did they provide checks largely based on the work of the historian Philip and balances against government expropria- D. Curtin. These give a good indication of the tion. In fact, the main purpose of the extractive mortality rates faced by settlers. Europeans were state was to transfer as much of the resources well informed about these mortality rates at the of the colony to the colonizer. time, even though they did not know how to At the other extreme, many Europeans mi- control the diseases that caused these high mor- grated and settled in a number of colonies, tality rates. creating what the historian Alfred Crosby Figure 1 plots the logarithm of GDP per (1986) calls “Neo-Europes.” The settlers tried capita today against the logarithm of the settler to replicate European institutions, with strong mortality rates per thousand for a sample of 75 emphasis on private property and checks countries (see below for data details). It shows a against government power. Primary examples strong negative relationship. Colonies where of this include Australia, New Zealand, Can- Europeans faced higher mortality rates are to- ada, and the United States. day substantially poorer than colonies that were 2. The colonization strategy was influenced by healthy for Europeans. Our theory is that this the feasibility of settlements. In places where relationship reflects the effect of settler mortal- the disease environment was not favorable to ity working through the institutions brought by European settlement, the cards were stacked Europeans. To substantiate this, we regress cur- against the creation of Neo-Europes, and the rent performance on current institutions, and formation of the extractive state was more instrument the latter by settler mortality rates. likely. Since our focus is on property rights and checks 3. The colonial state and institutions persisted against government power, we use the protec- even after independence. tion against “risk of expropriation” index from Political Risk Services as a proxy for institu- Based on these three premises, we use the tions. This variable measures differences in in- mortality rates expected by the first European stitutions originating from different types of settlers in the colonies as an instrument for states and state policies.3 There is a strong

1 By “colonial experience” we do not only mean the 2 Note that although only some countries were colonized, direct control of the colonies by European powers, but more there is no selection bias here. This is because the question generally, European inﬂuence on the rest of the world. So we are interested in is the effect of colonization policy according to this deﬁnition, Sub-Saharan Africa was conditional on being colonized. strongly affected by “colonialism” between the sixteenth 3 Government expropriation is not the only institutional and nineteenth centuries because of the Atlantic slave trade. feature that matters. Our view is that there is a “cluster of VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1371

FIGURE 1. REDUCED-FORM RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INCOME AND SETTLER MORTALITY

(first-stage) relationship between settler mortal- institutions to the level of Chile could, in the ity rates and current institutions, which is inter- long run, lead to as much as a 7-fold increase in esting in its own right. The regression shows Nigeria’s income (in practice Chile is over 11 that mortality rates faced by the settlers more times as rich as Nigeria). than 100 years ago explains over 25 percent The exclusion restriction implied by our in- of the variation in current institutions.4 We also strumental variable regression is that, condi- document that this relationship works through tional on the controls included in the regression, the channels we hypothesize: (potential) settler the mortality rates of European settlers more mortality rates were a major determinant of than 100 years ago have no effect on GDP per settlements; settlements were a major determi- capita today, other than their effect through nant of early institutions (in practice, institu- institutional development. The major concern tions in 1900); and there is a strong correlation with this exclusion restriction is that the mor- between early institutions and institutions to- tality rates of settlers could be correlated with day. Our two-stage least-squares estimate of the the current disease environment, which may effect of institutions on performance is rela- have a direct effect on economic performance. tively precisely estimated and large. For ex- In this case, our instrumental-variables esti- ample, it implies that improving Nigeria’s mates may be assigning the effect of diseases on income to institutions. We believe that this is unlikely to be the case and that our exclusion restriction is plausible. The great majority of institutions,” including constraints on government expropri- European deaths in the colonies were caused by ation, independent judiciary, property rights enforcement, malaria and yellow fever. Although these dis- and institutions providing equal access to education and ensuring civil liberties, that are important to encourage eases were fatal to Europeans who had no im- investment and growth. Expropriation risk is related to all munity, they had limited effect on indigenous these institutional features. In Acemoglu et al. (2000), we adults who had developed various types of im- reported similar results with other institutions variables. munities. These diseases are therefore unlikely 4 Differences in mortality rates are not the only, or even the main, cause of variation in institutions. For our empir- to be the reason why many countries in Africa ical approach to work, all we need is that they are a source and Asia are very poor today (see the discussion of exogenous variation. in Section III, subsection A). This notion is 1372 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001 supported by the mortality rates of local people mortality) and the current fraction of the popu- in these areas. For example, Curtin (1968 Table lation of European descent. 2) reports that the annual mortality rates of local Naturally, it is impossible to control for all troops serving with the British army in Bengal possible variables that might be correlated with and Madras were respectively 11 and 13 in settler mortality and economic outcomes. Fur- 1,000. These numbers are quite comparable to, thermore, our empirical approach might capture in fact lower than, the annual mortality rates of the effect of settler mortality on economic per- British troops serving in Britain, which were formance, but working through other channels. approximately 15 in 1,000. In contrast, the mor- We deal with these problems by using a simple tality rates of British troops serving in these overidentification test using measures of Euro- colonies were much higher because of their lack pean migration to the colonies and early insti- of immunity. For example, mortality rates in tutions as additional instruments. We then use Bengal and Madras for British troops were be- overidentification tests to detect whether settler tween 70 and 170 in 1,000. The view that the mortality has a direct effect on current perfor- disease burden for indigenous adults was not mance. The results are encouraging for our unusual in places like Africa or India is also approach; they generate no evidence for a direct supported by the relatively high population den- effect of settler mortality on economic sities in these places before Europeans arrived outcomes. (Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, 1975). We are not aware of others who have pointed We document that our estimates of the effect out the link between settler mortality and insti- of institutions on performance are not driven by tutions, though scholars such as William H. outliers. For example, excluding Australia, New McNeill (1976), Crosby (1986), and Jared M. Zealand, Canada, and the United States does not Diamond (1997) have discussed the influence of change the results, nor does excluding Africa. diseases on human history. Diamond (1997), in Interestingly, we show that once the effect of particular, emphasizes comparative develop- institutions on economic performance is con- ment, but his theory is based on the geograph- trolled for, neither distance from the equator nor ical determinants of the incidence of the the dummy for Africa is significant. These re- neolithic revolution. He ignores both the impor- sults suggest that Africa is poorer than the rest tance of institutions and the potential causes of of the world not because of pure geographic divergence in more recent development, which or cultural factors, but because of worse are the main focus of our paper. Work by Ro- institutions. nald E. Robinson and John Gallagher (1961), The validity of our approach—i.e., our exclu- Lewis H. Gann and Peter Duignan (1962), sion restriction—is threatened if other factors Donald Denoon (1983), and Philip J. Cain and correlated with the estimates of settler mortality Anthony G. Hopkins (1993) emphasizes that affect income per capita. We adopt two strate- settler colonies such as the United States and gies to substantiate that our results are not New Zealand are different from other colonies, driven by omitted factors. First, we investigate and point out that these differences were impor- whether institutions have a comparable effect tant for their economic success. Nevertheless, on income once we control for a number of this literature does not develop the link between variables potentially correlated with settler mor- mortality, settlements, and institutions. tality and economic outcomes. We find that Our argument is most closely related to work none of these overturn our results; the estimates on the influence of colonial experience on insti- change remarkably little when we include con- tutions. Frederich A. von Hayek (1960) argued trols for the identity of the main colonizer, legal that the British common law tradition was su- origin, climate, religion, geography, natural re- perior to the French civil law, which was devel- sources, soil quality, and measures of ethnolin- oped during the Napoleonic era to restrain guistic fragmentation. Furthermore, the results judges’ interference with state policies (see also are also robust to the inclusion of controls for Seymour M. Lipset, 1994). More recently, the current disease environment (e.g., the prev- Rafael La Porta et al. (1998, 1999) emphasize alence of malaria, life expectancy, and infant the importance of colonial origin (the identity of VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1373 the colonizer) and legal origin on current insti- direct effect on performance. For example, Wil- tutions, and show that the common-law coun- liiam Easterly and Ross Levine (1997) argue tries and former British colonies have better that ethnolinguistic fragmentation can affect property rights and more developed financial performance by creating political instability, markets. Similarly, David Landes (1998 Chap- while Charles de Montesquieu [1748] (1989) ters 19 and 20) and North et al. (1998) argue and more recently David E. Bloom and Jeffrey that former British colonies prospered relative D. Sachs (1998) and John Gallup et al. (1998) to former French, Spanish, and Portuguese col- argue for a direct effect of climate on perfor- onies because of the good economic and polit- mance. If, indeed, these variables have a direct ical institutions and culture they inherited from effect, they are invalid instruments and do not Britain. In contrast to this approach which establish that it is institutions that matter. The focuses on the identity of the colonizer, we advantage of our approach is that conditional on emphasize the conditions in the colonies. Spe- the variables we already control for, settler mor- cifically, in our theory—and in the data—it is tality more than 100 years ago should have no not the identity of the colonizer or legal origin effect on output today, other than through its that matters, but whether European colonialists effect on institutions. Interestingly, our results could safely settle in a particular location: show that distance from the equator does not where they could not settle, they created worse have an independent effect on economic perfor- institutions. In this respect, our argument is mance, validating the use of this variable as an closely related to that of Stanley L. Engerman instrument in the work by Hall and Jones and Kenneth L. Sokoloff (1997) who also em- (1999). phasize institutions, but link them to factor en- The next section outlines our hypothesis and dowments and inequality. provides supporting historical evidence. Section Empirically, our work is related to a number II presents OLS regressions of GDP per capita of other attempts to uncover the link between on our index of institutions. Section III de- institutions and development, as well as to scribes our key instrument for institutions, the Graziella Bertocchi and Fabio Canova (1996) mortality rates faced by potential settlers at the and Robin M. Grier (1999), who investigate the time of colonization. Section IV presents our effect of being a colony on postwar growth. main results. Section V investigates the robust- Two papers deal with the endogeneity of in- ness of our results, and Section VI concludes. stitutions by using an instrumental variables approach as we do here. Mauro (1995) instru- I. The Hypothesis and Historical Background ments for corruption using ethnolinguistic fragmentation. Hall and Jones (1999), in turn, use We hypothesize that settler mortality affected distance from the equator as an instrument for settlements; settlements affected early institu- social infrastructure because, they argue, lati- tions; and early institutions persisted and tude is correlated with “Western influence,” formed the basis of current institutions. In this which leads to good institutions. The theoretical section, we discuss and substantiate this hypoth- reasoning for these instruments is not entirely esis. The next subsection discusses the link be- convincing. It is not easy to argue that the tween mortality rates of settlers and settlement Belgian influence in the Congo, or Western decisions, then we discuss differences in colo- influence in the Gold Coast during the era of nization policies, and finally, we turn to the slavery promoted good institutions. Ethnolin- causes of institutional persistence. guistic fragmentation, on the other hand, seems endogenous, especially since such fragmenta- A. Mortality and Settlements tion almost completely disappeared in Europe during the era of growth when a centralized There is little doubt that mortality rates were state and market emerged (see, e.g., Eugen a key determinant of European settlements. J. Weber, 1976; Benedict Anderson, 1983). Curtin (1964, 1998) documents how both the Econometrically, the problem with both studies British and French press informed the public of is that their instruments can plausibly have a mortality rates in the colonies. Curtin (1964) 1374 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001 also documents how early British expectations including Robinson and Gallagher (1961), Gann for settlement in West Africa were dashed by and Duignan (1962), Denoon (1983), and Cain very high mortality among early settlers, about and Hopkins (1993), have documented the de- half of whom could be expected to die in the velopment of “settler colonies,” where Europe- first year. In the “Province of Freedom” (Sierra ans settled in large numbers, and life was Leone), European mortality in the first year was modeled after the home country. Denoon (1983) 46 percent, in Bulama (April 1792–April 1793) emphasizes that settler colonies had representa- there was 61-percent mortality among Europe- tive institutions which promoted what the set- ans. In the first year of the Sierra Leone Com- tlers wanted and that what they wanted was pany (1792–1793), 72 percent of the European freedom and the ability to get rich by engaging settlers died. On Mungo Park’s Second Expedi- in trade. He argues that “there was undeniably tion (May–November 1805), 87 percent of Eu- something capitalist in the structure of these ropeans died during the overland trip from colonies. Private ownership of land and live- Gambia to the Niger, and all the Europeans died stock was well established very early ...” (p. before completing the expedition. 35). An interesting example of the awareness of When the establishment of European-like in- the disease environment comes from the Pil- stitutions did not arise naturally, the settlers grim fathers. They decided to migrate to the were ready to fight for them against the wishes United States rather than Guyana because of the of the home country. Australia is an interesting high mortality rates in Guyana (see Crosby, example here. Most of the early settlers in Aus- 1986 pp. 143–44). Another example comes tralia were ex-convicts, but the land was owned from the Beauchamp Committee in 1795, set up largely by ex-jailors, and there was no legal to decide where to send British convicts who protection against the arbitrary power of land- had previously been sent to the United States. owners. The settlers wanted institutions and po- One of the leading proposals was the island of litical rights like those prevailing in England at Lemane, up the Gambia River. The committee the time. They demanded jury trials, freedom rejected this possibility because they decided from arbitrary arrest, and electoral representa- mortality rates would be too high even for the tion. Although the British government resisted convicts. Southwest Africa was also rejected for at first, the settlers argued that they were British health reasons. The final decision was to send and deserved the same rights as in the home convicts to Australia. country (see Robert Hughes, 1987). Cain and The eventual expansion of many of the col- Hopkins write (1993 p. 237) “from the late onies was also related to the living conditions 1840s the British bowed to local pressures and, there. In places where the early settlers faced in line with observed constitutional changes high mortality rates, there would be less incen- taking place in Britain herself, accepted the idea tive for new settlers to come.5 that, in mature colonies, governors should in future form ministries from the majority ele- B. Types of Colonization and Settlements ments in elected legislatures.” They also suggest that “the enormous boom in public The historical evidence supports both the no- investment after 1870 [in New Zealand] ... was tion that there was a wide range of different an attempt to build up an infrastructure ... to types of colonization and that the presence or maintain high living standards in a country absence of European settlers was a key deter- where voters expected politicians actively to minant of the form colonialism took. Historians, promote their economic welfare.” (p. 225).6

5 Naturally, other factors also inﬂuenced settlements. For 6 Robert H. Bates (1983 Chapter 3) gives a nice example example, despite the relatively high mortality rates, many of the inﬂuence of settlers on policy in Africa. The British Europeans migrated to the Caribbean because of the very colonial government pursued many policies that depressed high incomes there at the time (see, e.g., Richard S. Dunn, the price of cocoa, the main produce of the farmers in 1972; David W. Galenson, 1996; Engerman and Sokoloff, Ghana. In contrast, the British government supported the 1997; David Eltis, 2000). prices faced by the commercial cereal farmers in Kenya. VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1375

This is in sharp contrast to the colonial expe- tuned to the interests of business and willing to rience in Latin America during the seventeenth divert resources to ends that the business com- and eighteenth centuries, and in Asia and Africa munity would have found profitable.” They find during the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- that before 1885 investment in the British em- turies. The main objective of the Spanish and pire had a return 25 percent higher than that on the Portuguese colonization was to obtain gold domestic investment, though afterwards the two and other valuables from America. Soon after converged. Andrew Roberts (1976 p. 193) the conquest, the Spanish crown granted rights writes: “[from] ... 1930 to 1940 Britain had kept to land and labor (the encomienda) and set up a for itself 2,400,000 pounds in taxes from the complex mercantilist system of monopolies and Copperbelt, while Northern Rhodesia received trade regulations to extract resources from the from Britain only 136,000 pounds in grants colonies.7 for development.” Similarly, Patrick Manning Europeans developed the slave trade in Af- (1982) estimates that between 1905 and 1914, rica for similar reasons. Before the mid-nine- 50 percent of GDP in Dahomey was extracted teenth century, colonial powers were mostly by the French, and Crawford Young (1994 p. restricted to the African coast and concentrated 125) notes that tax rates in Tunisia were four on monopolizing trade in slaves, gold, and other times as high as in France. valuable commodities—witness the names used Probably the most extreme case of extraction to describe West African countries: the Gold was that of King Leopold of Belgium in the Coast, the Ivory Coast. Thereafter, colonial pol- Congo. Gann and Duignan (1979 p. 30) argue icy was driven in part by an element of super- that following the example of the Dutch in power rivalry, but mostly by economic motives. Indonesia, Leopold’s philosophy was that “the Michael Crowder (1968 p. 50), for example, colonies should be exploited, not by the opera- notes “it is significant that Britain’s largest col- tion of a market economy, but by state interven- ony on the West Coast [Nigeria] should have tion and compulsory cultivation of cash crops to been the one where her traders were most active be sold to and distributed by the state at con- and bears out the contention that, for Britain trolled prices.” Jean-Philippe Peemans (1975) ... flag followed trade.”8 Lance E. Davis and calculates that tax rates on Africans in the Robert A. Huttenback (1987 p. 307) conclude Congo approached 60 percent of their income that “the colonial Empire provides strong evi- during the 1920’s and 1930’s. Bogumil Jew- dence for the belief that government was at- siewicki (1983) writes that during the period when Leopold was directly in charge, policy was “based on the violent exploitation of natural and human resources,” with a consequent “destruction of economic and social life ... [and] Bates shows that this was mainly because in Kenya, but not in Ghana, there were a significant number of European ... dismemberment of political structures.” settler farmers, who exerted considerable pressure on Overall, there were few constraints on state policy. power in the nonsettler colonies. The colonial 7 See James Lang (1975) and James Lockhart and powers set up authoritarian and absolutist states Stuart B. Schwartz (1983). Migration to Spanish America was limited by the Spanish Crown, in part because of a with the purpose of solidifying their control and desire to keep control of the colonists and limit their facilitating the extraction of resources. Young independence (see, for example, John H. Coatsworth, (1994 p. 101) quotes a French official in Africa: 1982). This also gives further support to our notion that “the European commandant is not posted to settlers were able to influence the type of institutions set observe nature, ... He has a mission ... to impose up in the colonies, even against the wishes of the home country government. regulations, to limit individual liberties ... , to 8 Although in almost all cases the main objective of collect taxes.” Manning (1988 p. 84) summa- colonial policies was to protect economic interests and rizes this as: “In Europe the theories of repre- obtain profits, the recipients of these profits varied. In the sentative democracy won out over the theorists Portuguese case, it was the state; in the Belgian case, it was King Leopold; and in the British case, it was often private of absolutism ... . But in Africa, the European enterprises who obtained concessions or monopoly trading conquerors set up absolutist governments, based rights in Africa (Crowder, 1968 Part III). on reasoning similar to that of Louis XIV.” 1376 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

C. Institutional Persistence There are a number of economic mechanisms that will lead to institutional persistence of this There is a variety of historical evidence, as well type. Here, we discuss three possibilities. as our regressions in Table 3 below, suggesting that the control structures set up in the nonsettler (1) Setting up institutions that place restrictions colonies during the colonial era persisted, while on government power and enforce property there is little doubt that the institutions of law and rights is costly (see, e.g., Acemoglu and order and private property established during the Thierry Verdier, 1998). If the costs of cre- early phases of colonialism in Australia, Canada, ating these institutions have been sunk by New Zealand, the United States, Hong Kong, and the colonial powers, then it may not pay the Singapore have formed the basis of the current- elites at independence to switch to extrac- day institutions of these countries.9 tive institutions. In contrast, when the new Young emphasizes that the extractive institu- elites inherit extractive institutions, they tions set up by the colonialists persisted long may not want to incur the costs of introduc- after the colonial regime ended. He writes “al- ing better institutions, and may instead though we commonly described the indepen- prefer to exploit the existing extractive in- dent polities as ‘new states,’ in reality they were stitutions for their own beneﬁts. successors to the colonial regime, inheriting its (2) The gains to an extractive strategy may structures, its quotidian routines and practices, depend on the size of the ruling elite. When and its more hidden normative theories of gov- this elite is small, each member would have ernance” (1994 p. 283). An example of the a larger share of the revenues, so the elite persistence of extractive state institutions into may have a greater incentive to be extrac- the independence era is provided by the persis- tive. In many cases where European powers tence of the most prominent extractive policies. set up authoritarian institutions, they dele- In Latin America, the full panoply of monopo- gated the day-to-day running of the state to lies and regulations, which had been created by a small domestic elite. This narrow group Spain, remained intact after independence, for often was the one to control the state most of the nineteenth century. Forced labor after independence and favored extractive policies persisted and were even intensiﬁed or institutions.10 reintroduced with the expansion of export agri- (3) If agents make irreversible investments that culture in the latter part of the nineteenth cen- are complementary to a particular set of tury. Slavery persisted in Brazil until 1886, and institutions, they will be more willing to during the sisal boom in Mexico, forced labor support them, making these institutions per- was reintroduced and persisted up to the start of sist (see, e.g., Acemoglu, 1995). For exam- the revolution in 1910. Forced labor was also ple, agents who have invested in human and reintroduced in Guatemala and El Salvador to physical capital will be in favor of spending provide labor for coffee growing. In the Guate- malan case, forced labor lasted until the creation of democracy in 1945. Similarly, forced labor 10 William Reno (1995), for example, argues that the governments of postindependence Sierra Leone adopted the was reinstated in many independent African tactics and institutions of the British colonizers to cement countries, for example, by Mobutu in Zaire. their political power and extract resources from the rest of society. Catherine Boone (1992) provides a similar analysis of the evolution of the modern state in Senegal. Most scholars also view the roots of authoritarianism under 9 The thesis that institutions persist for a long time goes Mobutu in the colonial state practices in the Belgian Congo back at least to Karl A. Wittfogel (1957), who argued that the (e.g., Thomas M. Callaghy, 1984, or Thomas Turner and control structures set up by the large “hydraulic” empires such Young, 1985, especially p. 43). The situation in Latin as China, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire persisted for more America is similar. Independence of most Latin American than 500 years to the twentieth century. Engerman and countries came in the early nineteenth century as domestic Sokoloff (1997), La Porta et al. (1998, 1999), North et al. elites took advantage of the invasion of Spain by Napoleon (1998), and Coatsworth (1999) also argue that colonial insti- to capture the control of the state. But, the only thing that tutions persisted. Engerman et al. (1998) provide further evi- changed was the identity of the recipients of the rents (see, dence supporting this view. for example, Coatsworth, 1978, or John Lynch, 1986). VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1377

TABLE 1—DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

By quartiles of mortality Whole world Base sample (1) (2) (3) (4) Log GDP per capita (PPP) in 1995 8.3 8.05 8.9 8.4 7.73 7.2 (1.1) (1.1) Log output per worker in 1988 Ϫ1.70 Ϫ1.93 Ϫ1.03 Ϫ1.46 Ϫ2.20 Ϫ3.03 (with level of United States (1.1) (1.0) normalized to 1) Average protection against 7 6.5 7.9 6.5 6 5.9 expropriation risk, 1985–1995 (1.8) (1.5) Constraint on executive in 1990 3.6 4 5.3 5.1 3.3 2.3 (2.3) (2.3) Constraint on executive in 1900 1.9 2.3 3.7 3.4 1.1 1 (1.8) (2.1) Constraint on executive in ﬁrst year 3.6 3.3 4.8 2.4 3.1 3.4 of independence (2.4) (2.4) Democracy in 1900 1.1 1.6 3.9 2.8 0.19 0 (2.6) (3.0) European settlements in 1900 0.31 0.16 0.32 0.26 0.08 0.005 (0.4) (0.3) Log European settler mortality n.a. 4.7 3.0 4.3 4.9 6.3 (1.1) Number of observations 163 64 14 18 17 15

Notes: Standard deviations are in parentheses. Mortality is potential settler mortality, measured in terms of deaths per annum per 1,000 “mean strength” (raw mortality numbers are adjusted to what they would be if a force of 1,000 living people were kept in place for a whole year, e.g., it is possible for this number to exceed 1,000 in episodes of extreme mortality as those who die are replaced with new arrivals). Sources and methods for mortality are described in Section III, subsection B, and in the unpublished Appendix (available from the authors; or see Acemoglu et al., 2000). Quartiles of mortality are for our base sample of 64 observations. These are: (1) less than 65.4; (2) greater than or equal to 65.4 and less than 78.1; (3) greater than or equal to 78.1 and less than 280; (4) greater than or equal to 280. The number of observations differs by variable; see Appendix Table A1 for details.

money to enforce property rights, while and our basic sample, and the standard devia- those who have less to lose may not be. tion of log income per capita in both cases is 1.1. In row 3, we also give output per worker in II. Institutions and Performance: 1988 from Hall and Jones (1999) as an alterna- OLS Estimates tive measure of income today. Hall and Jones (1999) prefer this measure since it explicitly A. Data and Descriptive Statistics refers to worker productivity. On the other hand, given the difficulty of measuring the for- Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for the mal labor force, it may be a more noisy measure key variables of interest. The first column is for of economic performance than income per the whole world, and column (2) is for our base capita. sample, limited to the 64 countries that were We use a variety of variables to capture in- ex-colonies and for which we have settler mor- stitutional differences. Our main variable, re- tality, protection against expropriation risk, and ported in the second row, is an index of GDP data (this is smaller than the sample in protection against expropriation. These data are Figure 1). The GDP per capita in 1995 is PPP from Political Risk Services (see, e.g., William adjusted (a more detailed discussion of all data D. Coplin et al., 1991), and were first used in the sources is provided in Appendix Table A1). economics and political science literatures by Income (GDP) per capita will be our measure of Knack and Keefer (1995). Political Risk Ser- economic outcome. There are large differences vices reports a value between 0 and 10 for each in income per capita in both the world sample country and year, with 0 corresponding to the 1378 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

lowest protection against expropriation. We use useful since settler mortality is our instrument the average value for each country between for institutions (this variable is described in 1985 and 1995 (values are missing for many more detail in the next section). countries before 1985). This measure is appropriate for our purposes since the focus here is on B. Ordinary Least-Squares Regressions differences in institutions originating from different types of states and state policies. We Table 2 reports ordinary least-squares (OLS) expect our notion of extractive state to corre- regressions of log per capita income on the spond to a low value of this index, while the protection against expropriation variable in a tradition of rule of law and well-enforced prop- variety of samples. The linear regressions are erty rights should correspond to high values.11 for the equation The next row gives an alternative measure, con- ϭ ␮ ϩ ␣ ϩ Ј␥ ϩ␧ straints on the executive in 1990, coded from (1) log yi Ri Xi i , the Polity III data set of Ted Robert Gurr and associates (an update of Gurr, 1997). Results where yi is income per capita in country i, Ri is using the constraints on the executive and other the protection against expropriation measure, Xi ␧ measures are reported in Acemoglu et al. (2000) is a vector of other covariates, and i is a and are not repeated here. random error term. The coefficient of interest The next three rows give measures of early throughout the paper is ␣, the effect of institu- institutions from the same Gurr data set. The tions on income per capita. first is a measure of constraints on the executive Column (1) shows that in the whole world in 1900 and the second is an index of democ- sample there is a strong correlation between our racy in 1900. This information is not available measure of institutions and income per capita. for countries that were still colonies in 1900, so Column (2) shows that the impact of the insti- we assign these countries the lowest possible tutions variable on income per capita in our base score. In the following row, we report the mean sample is quite similar to that in the whole and standard deviation of constraints on the world, and Figure 2 shows this relationship di- executive in the first year of independence (i.e., agrammatically for our base sample consisting the first year a country enters the Gurr data set) of 64 countries. The R2 of the regression in as an alternative measure of institutions. The column (1) indicates that over 50 percent of the second-to-last row gives the fraction of the pop- variation in income per capita is associated with ulation of European descent in 1900, which is variation in this index of institutions. To get a our measure of European settlement in the col- sense of the magnitude of the effect of institu- onies, constructed from McEvedy and Jones tions on performance, let us compare two coun- (1975) and Curtin et al. (1995). The final row tries, Nigeria, which has approximately the 25th gives the logarithm of the baseline settler mor- percentile of the institutional measure in this tality estimates; the raw data are in Appendix sample, 5.6, and Chile, which has approxi- Table A2. mately the 75th percentile of the institutions The remaining columns give descriptive sta- index, 7.8. The estimate in column (1), 0.52, tistics for groups of countries at different quar- indicates that there should be on average a 1.14- tiles of the settler mortality distribution. This is log-point difference between the log GDPs of the corresponding countries (or approximately a 2-fold difference—e1.14 Ϫ 1 Ϸ 2.1). In prac- 11 The protection against expropriation variable is spe- tice, this GDP gap is 253 log points (approxi- cifically for foreign investment, since Political and Risk Services construct these data for foreign investors. How- mately 11-fold). Therefore, if the effect ever, as noted by Knack and Keefer (1995), risk of expro- estimated in Table 2 were causal, it would im- priation of foreign and domestic investments are very highly ply a fairly large effect of institutions on per- correlated, and risk of expropriation of foreign investment formance, but still much less than the actual may be more comparable across countries. In any case, all our results hold also with a variety of other measures of income gap between Nigeria and Chile. institutions (see Tables 4a, b, c, d, and e in Acemoglu et al., Many social scientists, including Monte- 2000, available from the authors). squieu [1784] (1989), Diamond (1997), and VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1379

TABLE 2—OLS REGRESSIONS

Whole Base Whole Whole Base Base Whole Base world sample world world sample sample world sample (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Dependent variable is log output per Dependent variable is log GDP per capita in 1995 worker in 1988

Average protection 0.54 0.52 0.47 0.43 0.47 0.41 0.45 0.46 against expropriation (0.04) (0.06) (0.06) (0.05) (0.06) (0.06) (0.04) (0.06) risk, 1985–1995 Latitude 0.89 0.37 1.60 0.92 (0.49) (0.51) (0.70) (0.63) Asia dummy Ϫ0.62 Ϫ0.60 (0.19) (0.23) Africa dummy Ϫ1.00 Ϫ0.90 (0.15) (0.17) “Other” continent dummy Ϫ0.25 Ϫ0.04 (0.20) (0.32) R2 0.62 0.54 0.63 0.73 0.56 0.69 0.55 0.49 Number of observations 110 64 110 110 64 64 108 61

Notes: Dependent variable: columns (1)–(6), log GDP per capita (PPP basis) in 1995, current prices (from the World Bank’s World Development Indicators 1999); columns (7)–(8), log output per worker in 1988 from Hall and Jones (1999). Average protection against expropriation risk is measured on a scale from 0 to 10, where a higher score means more protection against expropriation, averaged over 1985 to 1995, from Political Risk Services. Standard errors are in parentheses. In regressions with continent dummies, the dummy for America is omitted. See Appendix Table A1 for more detailed variable deﬁnitions and sources. Of the countries in our base sample, Hall and Jones do not report output per worker in the Bahamas, Ethiopia, and Vietnam.

Sachs and coauthors, have argued for a direct and (8), we repeat our basic regressions using effect of climate on performance, and Gallup et the log of output per worker from Hall and al. (1998) and Hall and Jones (1999) document Jones (1999), with very similar results. the correlation between distance from the equa- Overall, the results in Table 2 show a strong tor and economic performance. To control for correlation between institutions and economic this, in columns (3)–(6), we add latitude as a performance. Nevertheless, there are a number regressor (we follow the literature in using the of important reasons for not interpreting this absolute value measure of latitude, i.e., distance relationship as causal. First, rich economies from the equator, scaled between 0 and 1). This may be able to afford, or perhaps prefer, better changes the coefficient of the index of institu- institutions. Arguably more important than this tions little. Latitude itself is also significant and reverse causality problem, there are many omit- has the sign found by the previous studies. In ted determinants of income differences that will columns (4) and (6), we also add dummies for naturally be correlated with institutions. Finally, Africa, Asia, and other continents, with Amer- the measures of institutions are constructed ex ica as the omitted group. Although protection post, and the analysts may have had a natural against expropriation risk remains significant, bias in seeing better institutions in richer places. the continent dummies are also statistically and As well as these problems introducing positive quantitatively significant. The Africa dummy in bias in the OLS estimates, the fact that the column (6) indicates that in our sample African institutions variable is measured with consider- countries are 90 log points (approximately 145 able error and corresponds poorly to the “cluster percent) poorer even after taking the effect of of institutions” that matter in practice creates institutions into account. Finally, in columns (7) attenuation and may bias the OLS estimates 1380 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

FIGURE 2. OLS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPROPRIATION RISK AND INCOME downwards. All of these problems could be Both malaria and yellow fever are transmit- solved if we had an instrument for institutions. ted by mosquito vectors. In the case of malaria, Such an instrument must be an important factor the main transmitter is the Anopheles gambiae in accounting for the institutional variation that complex and the mosquito Anopheles funestus, we observe, but have no direct effect on perfor- while the main carrier of yellow fever is Aedes mance. Our discussion in Section I suggests that aegypti. Both malaria and yellow fever vectors settler mortality during the time of colonization tend to live close to human habitation. is a plausible instrument. In places where the malaria vector is present, such as the West African savanna or forest, an III. Mortality of Early Settlers individual can get as many as several hundred infectious mosquito bites a year. For a person A. Sources of European Mortality without immunity, malaria (particularly Plas- in the Colonies modium falciporum) is often fatal, so Europe- ans in Africa, India, or the Caribbean faced very In this subsection, we give a brief overview high death rates. In contrast, death rates for the of the sources of mortality facing potential set- adult local population were much lower (see tlers. Malaria (particularly Plasmodium falcipo- Curtin [1964] and the discussion in our intro- rum) and yellow fever were the major sources duction above). Curtin (1998 pp. 7–8) describes of European mortality in the colonies. In the this as follows: tropics, these two diseases accounted for 80 percent of European deaths, while gastrointes- Children in West Africa ... would be in- tinal diseases accounted for another 15 percent fected with malaria parasites shortly after (Curtin, 1989 p. 30). Throughout the nineteenth birth and were frequently reinfected after- century, areas without malaria and yellow fever, wards; if they lived beyond the age of about ﬁve, they acquired an apparent im- such as New Zealand, were more healthy than munity. The parasite remained with them, Europe because the major causes of death in normally in the liver, but clinical symp- Europe—tuberculosis, pneumonia, and small- toms were rare so long as they continued pox—were rare in these places (Curtin, 1989 to be infected with the same species of P. p. 13). falciporum. VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1381

The more recent books on malariology confirm (1998 p. 10) writes: “Because most Africans this conclusion. For example, “In stable en- had passed through a light case early in life, demic areas a heavy toll of morbidity and mor- yellow fever in West Africa was a strangers’ tality falls on young children but malaria is a disease, attacking those who grew up else- relatively mild condition in adults” (Herbert M. where.” Similarly, Michael B. A. Oldstone Gilles and David A. Warrell, 1993 p. 64; see (1998 p. 49) writes: also the classic reference on this topic, Leonard J. Bruce-Chwatt, 1980 Chapter 4; Roy Porter, Most Black Africans and their descen- 1996).12 Similarly, the World Health Organiza- dants respond to yellow fever infection tion (WHO) points out that in endemic malaria with mild to moderate symptoms such as areas of Africa and the Western Pacific today headache, fever, nausea, and vomiting, “... the risk of malaria severity and death is and then recover in a few days. This out- almost exclusively limited to non-immunes, become reflects the long relationship between the virus and its indigenous hosts, ing most serious for young children over six who through generations of exposure to months of age ... surviving children develop their the virus have evolved resistance. own immunity between the age of 3–5 years” (Jose A. Najera and Joahim Hempel, 1996). In contrast, fatality rates among nonimmune People in areas where malaria is endemic are adults, such as Europeans, could be as high as also more likely to have genetic immunity 90 percent. against malaria. For example, they tend to have Advances in medical science have reduced the sickle-cell trait, which discourages the mul- the danger posed by malaria and yellow fever. tiplication of parasites in the blood, or deficien- Yellow fever is mostly eradicated (Oldstone, cies in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 1998 Chapter 5), and malaria has been eradi- thalassaemia traits, which also protect against cated in many areas. Europeans developed malaria. Porter (1996 p. 34) writes: “In such a methods of dealing with these diseases that process, ... , close to 100 percent of Africans gradually became more effective in the second acquired a genetic trait that protects them half of the nineteenth century. For example, against vivax malaria and probably against fal- they came to understand that high doses of ciporum malaria as well.” Overall, the WHO es- quinine, derived from the cinchona bark, acted timates that malaria kills about 1 million people as a prophylactic and prevented infection or per year, most of them children. It does not, how- reduced the severity of malaria. They also ever, generally kill adults who grew up in malaria- started to undertake serious mosquito eradica- endemic areas (see Najera and Hempel, 1996). tion efforts and protect themselves against mos- Although yellow fever’s epidemiology is quito bites. Further, Europeans also learned that quite different from malaria, it was also much an often effective method of reducing mortality more fatal to Europeans than to non-Europeans from yellow fever is flight from the area, since who grew up in areas where yellow fever com- the transmitter mosquito, Aedes aegypti, has only 13 monly occurred. Yellow fever leaves its sur- a short range. Nevertheless, during much of the viving victims with a lifelong immunity, which nineteenth century, there was almost a complete also explains its epidemic pattern, relying on a misunderstanding of the nature of both diseases. concentrated nonimmune population. Curtin For example, the leading theory for malaria was that it was caused by “miasma” from swamps, and quinine was not used widely. The role of small 12 Because malaria species are quite local, a person may collections of water to breed mosquitoes and have immunity to the local version of malaria, but be highly transmit these diseases was not understood. It was vulnerable to malaria a short distance away. This is proba- only in the late nineteenth century that Europeans bly the explanation for why Africans had such high mortal- started to control these diseases.14 ity when they were forced to move by colonial powers. (Curtin et al., 1995 p. 463). 13 Because yellow fever struck Europeans as an epidemic, many of the very high death rates we report below 14 Even during the early twentieth century, there was for European troops are from yellow fever. much confusion about the causes of malaria and yellow 1382 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

These considerations, together with the data rates faced by Europeans are unlikely to be a we have on the mortality of local people and proxy for some simple geographic or climac- population densities before the arrival of Euro- tic feature of the country. peans, make us believe that settler mortality is a plausible instrument for institutional develop- B. Data on Potential Settler Mortality ment: these diseases affected European settlement patterns and the type of institutions they Our data on the mortality of European set- set up, but had little effect on the health and tlers come largely from the work of Philip economy of indigenous people.15 Curtin. Systematic military medical record A final noteworthy feature, helpful in in- keeping began only after 1815, as an attempt terpreting our results below, is that malaria to understand why so many soldiers were prevalence depends as much on the microcli- dying in some places. The first detailed stud- mate of an area as on its temperature and ies were retrospective and dealt with British humidity, or on whether it is in the tropics; forces between 1817 and 1836. The United high altitudes reduce the risk of infection, so States and French governments quickly in areas of high altitude, where “hill stations” adopted similar methods (Curtin, 1989 pp. 3, could be set up, such as Bogota in Colombia, 5). Some early data are also available for the mortality rates were typically lower than in Dutch East Indies. By the 1870’s, most Euro- wet coastal areas. However, malaria could pean countries published regular reports on sometimes be more serious in high-altitude the health of their soldiers. areas. For example, Curtin (1989 p. 47) points The standard measure is annualized deaths out that in Ceylon mortality was lower in the per thousand mean strength. This measure coast than the highlands because rains in the reports the death rate among 1,000 soldiers coast washed away the larvae of the transmit- where each death is replaced with a new soldier. ter mosquitoes. Similarly, in Madras many Curtin (1989, 1998) reviews in detail the con- coastal regions were free of malaria, while struction of these estimates for particular places northern India had high rates of infection. and campaigns, and assesses which data should Curtin (1998 Chapter 7) also illustrates how be considered reliable. there were marked differences in the preva- Curtin (1989), Death by Migration, deals lence of malaria within small regions of primarily with the mortality of European Madagascar. This suggests that mortality troops from 1817 to 1848. At this time modern medicine was still in its infancy, and the European militaries did not yet understand fever. The Washington Post on Nov. 2, 1900 wrote: “Of all how to control malaria and yellow fever. the silly and nonsensical rigmarole of yellow fever that has These mortality rates can therefore be inter- yet found its way into print ... the silliest beyond compare is to be found in the arguments and theories generated by a preted as reasonable estimates of settler mor- mosquito hypothesis” (quoted in Oldstone, 1998 pp. tality. They are consistent with substantial 64–65). evidence from other sources (see, for exam- Many campaigns during the nineteenth century had very ple, Curtin [1964, 1968]). Curtin (1998), Dis- high mortality rates. For example, the French campaign in Madagascar during the 1890’s and French attempts to build ease and Empire, adds similar data on the the Panama Canal during the 1880’s were mortality disas- mortality of soldiers in the second half of the ters, the first due to malaria, the second due to yellow fever nineteenth century.16 In all cases, we use the (see Curtin, 1998, and David McCullogh, 1977). In Panama, to stop ants the French used water pots under the legs of beds in barracks and hospitals. These pots provided an ideal milieu for the breeding of Aedes aegypti, causing very high 16 These numbers have to be used with more care be- rates of mortality (Oldstone, 1998 p. 66). cause there was a growing awareness of how to avoid 15 In Acemoglu et al. (2001), we document that many of epidemics of the worst tropical diseases, at least during these areas in the tropical zone were richer and more short military campaigns. For example, the campaign in densely settled in 1500 than the temperate areas later settled Ethiopia at the end of the nineteenth century had very low by the Europeans. This also supports the notion that the mortality rates because it was short and well managed (see disease environment did not create an absolute disadvantage Figure 1). Although the mortality rates from this successful for these countries. campaign certainly underestimate the mortality rates faced VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1383

earliest available number for each country, where R is the measure of current institutions reasoning that this is the best estimate of the (protection against expropriation between 1985 mortality rates that settlers would have faced, and 1995), C is our measure of early (circa at least until the twentieth century. 1900) institutions, S is the measure of European The main gap in the Curtin data is for South settlements in the colony (fraction of the popu- America since the Spanish and Portuguese lation with European descent in 1900), and M is militaries did not keep good records of mor- mortality rates faced by settlers. X is a vector of tality. Hector Gutierrez (1986) used Vatican covariates that affect all variables. records to construct estimates for the mortal- The simplest identification strategy might be ity rates of bishops in Latin America from to use Si (or Ci) as an instrument for Ri in 1604 to 1876. Because these data overlap equation (1), and we report some of these re- with the Curtin estimates for several coun- gressions in Table 8. However, to the extent that tries, we are able to construct a data series for settlers are more likely to migrate to richer areas South America.17 Curtin (1964) also provides and early institutions reflect other characteris- estimates of mortality in naval squadrons for tics that are important for income today, this different regions which we can use to gener- identification strategy would be invalid (i.e., Ci ␧ ate alternative estimates of mortality in South and Si could be correlated with i). Instead, we America. Appendix B in Acemoglu et al. use the mortality rates faced by the settlers, log (2000), which is available from the authors, Mi , as an instrument for Ri. This identification gives a detailed discussion of how these data strategy will be valid as long as log Mi is ␧ are constructed, and Appendix Table A5 uncorrelated with i—that is, if mortality rates (available from the authors), shows that these of settlers between the seventeenth and nine- alternative methods produce remarkably sim- teenth centuries have no effect on income today ilar results. Appendix Table A2 lists our main other than through their influence on institu- estimates, and Table A1 gives information tional development. We argued above that this about sources. exclusion restriction is plausible. Figure 3 illustrates the relationship between the IV. Institutions and Performance: IV Results (potential) settler mortality rates and the index of institutions. We use the logarithm of the settler A. Determinants of Current Institutions mortality rates, since there are no theoretical reasons to prefer the level as a determinant of insti- Equation (1) describes the relationship be- tutions rather than the log, and using the log tween current institutions and log GDP. In ad- ensures that the extreme African mortality rates do dition we have not play a disproportionate role. As it happens, there is an almost linear relationship between the ϭ ␭ ϩ ␤ ϩ Ј␥ ϩ ␯ (2) Ri R R Ci X i R Ri , log settler mortality and our measure of institutions. This relationship shows that ex-colonies ϭ ␭ ϩ ␤ ϩ Ј␥ ϩ ␯ (3) Ci C C Si X i C Ci , where Europeans faced higher mortality rates have substantially worse institutions today. ϭ ␭ ϩ ␤ ϩ Ј␥ ϩ ␯ (4) Si S Slog Mi Xi S Si , In Table 3, we document that this relationship works through the channels hypothesized in Sec- tion I. In particular, we present OLS regressions of equations (2), (3), and (4). In the top panel, we regress the protection against expropriation vari- by potential settlers in Ethiopia, we did not exclude this country because excluding it would have helped our hy- able on the other variables. Column (1) uses con- pothesis. straints faced by the executive in 1900 as the 17 Combining data from a variety of sources will in- regressor, and shows a close association between troduce measurement error in our estimates of settler early institutions and institutions today. For exam- mortality. Nevertheless, since we are using settler mortality as an instrument, this measurement error does not ple, past institutions alone explain 20 percent of lead to inconsistent estimates of the effect of institutions the variation in the index of current institutions. on performance. The second column adds the latitude variable, 1384 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

FIGURE 3. FIRST-STAGE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SETTLER MORTALITY AND EXPROPRIATION RISK

with little effect on the estimate. Columns (3) and support of the hypothesis that early institutions (4) use the democracy index, and confirm the were shaped, at least in part, by settlements, and results in columns (1) and (2). that settlements were affected by mortality. Col- Both constraints on the executive and democ- umns (1)–(2) and (5)–(6) relate our measure of racy indices assign low scores to countries that constraint on the executive and democracy in were colonies in 1900, and do not use the ear- 1900 to the measure of European settlements in liest postindependence information for Latin 1900 (fraction of the population of European American countries and the Neo-Europes. In decent). Columns (3)–(4) and (7)–(8) relate the columns (5) and (6), we adopt an alternative same variables to settler mortality. These regres- approach and use the constraints on the execu- sions show that settlement patterns explain around tive in the first year of independence and also 50 percent of the variation in early institutions. control separately for time since independence. Finally, columns (9) and (10) show the relation- The results are similar, and indicate that early ship between settlements and mortality rates. institutions tend to persist. Columns (7) and (8) show the association be- B. Institutions and Economic Performance tween protection against expropriation and Euro- pean settlements. The fraction of Europeans in Two-stage least-squares estimates of equa- 1900 alone explains approximately 30 percent of tion (1) are presented in Table 4. Protection the variation in our institutions variable today. against expropriation variable, Ri , is treated as Columns (9) and (10) show the relationship be- endogenous, and modeled as tween the protection against expropriation variable and the mortality rates faced by settlers. This (5) R ϭ ␨ ϩ ␤ log M ϩ XЈ␦ ϩ , specification will be the first stage for our main i i i vi two-stage least-squares estimates (2SLS). It shows that settler mortality alone explains 27 percent of where Mi is the settler mortality rate in 1,000 the differences in institutions we observe today. mean strength. The exclusion restriction is that Panel B of Table 3 provides evidence in this variable does not appear in (1). VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1385

TABLE 3—DETERMINANTS OF INSTITUTIONS

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Panel A Dependent Variable Is Average Protection Against Expropriation Risk in 1985–1995

Constraint on executive in 0.32 0.26 1900 (0.08) (0.09) Democracy in 1900 0.24 0.21 (0.06) (0.07) Constraint on executive in ﬁrst 0.25 0.22 year of independence (0.08) (0.08) European settlements in 1900 3.20 3.00 (0.61) (0.78) Log European settler mortality Ϫ0.61 Ϫ0.51 (0.13) (0.14) Latitude 2.20 1.60 2.70 0.58 2.00 (1.40) (1.50) (1.40) (1.51) (1.34) R2 0.2 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.19 0.24 0.3 0.3 0.27 0.3 Number of observations 63 63 62 62 63 63 66 66 64 64

Dependent Variable Is European Dependent Variable Is Constraint Dependent Variable Is Settlements in Panel B on Executive in 1900 Democracy in 1900 1900

European settlements in 1900 5.50 5.40 8.60 8.10 (0.73) (0.93) (0.90) (1.20) Log European settler mortality Ϫ0.82 Ϫ0.65 Ϫ1.22 Ϫ0.88 Ϫ0.11 Ϫ0.07 (0.17) (0.18) (0.24) (0.25) (0.02) (0.02) Latitude 0.33 3.60 1.60 7.60 0.87 (1.80) (1.70) (2.30) (2.40) (0.19) R2 0.46 0.46 0.25 0.29 0.57 0.57 0.28 0.37 0.31 0.47 Number of observations 70 70 75 75 67 67 68 68 73 73

Notes: All regressions are OLS. Standard errors are in parentheses. Regressions with constraint on executive in ﬁrst year of independence also include years since independence as a regressor. Average protection against expropriation risk is on a scale from 0 to 10, where a higher score means more protection against expropriation of private investment by government, averaged over 1985 to 1995. Constraint on executive in 1900 is on a scale from 1 to 7, with a higher score indicating more constraints. Democracy in 1900 is on a scale from 0 to 10, with a higher score indicating more democracy. European settlements is percent of population that was European or of European descent in 1900. See Appendix Table A1 for more detailed variable deﬁnitions and sources.

Panel A of Table 4 reports 2SLS estimates estimate of the impact of institutions on income of the coefficient of interest, ␣ from equation per capita is 0.94. This estimate is highly sig- (1) and Panel B gives the corresponding first nificant with a standard error of 0.16, and in fact stages.18 Column (1) displays the strong first- larger than the OLS estimates reported in stage relationship between (log) settler mortal- Table 2. This suggests that measurement error ity and current institutions in our base sample, in the institutions variables that creates attenu- also shown in Table 3. The corresponding 2SLS ation bias is likely to be more important than reverse causality and omitted variables biases. Here we are referring to “measurement error” 18 We have also run these regressions with standard broadly construed. In reality the set of institu- errors corrected for possible clustering of the mortality rates assigned to countries in the same disease environment. This tions that matter for economic performance is clustering has little effect on the standard errors, and does very complex, and any single measure is bound not change our results. to capture only part of the “true institutions,” 1386 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

TABLE 4—IV REGRESSIONS OF LOG GDP PER CAPITA

Base Base Base sample, Base Base sample sample dependent Base sample Base sample sample sample with with variable is Base Base without without without without continent continent log output sample sample Neo-Europes Neo-Europes Africa Africa dummies dummies per worker (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Panel A: Two-Stage Least Squares Average protection against 0.94 1.00 1.28 1.21 0.58 0.58 0.98 1.10 0.98 expropriation risk 1985–1995 (0.16) (0.22) (0.36) (0.35) (0.10) (0.12) (0.30) (0.46) (0.17) Latitude Ϫ0.65 0.94 0.04 Ϫ1.20 (1.34) (1.46) (0.84) (1.8) Asia dummy Ϫ0.92 Ϫ1.10 (0.40) (0.52) Africa dummy Ϫ0.46 Ϫ0.44 (0.36) (0.42) “Other” continent dummy Ϫ0.94 Ϫ0.99 (0.85) (1.0)

Panel B: First Stage for Average Protection Against Expropriation Risk in 1985–1995 Log European settler mortality Ϫ0.61 Ϫ0.51 Ϫ0.39 Ϫ0.39 Ϫ1.20 Ϫ1.10 Ϫ0.43 Ϫ0.34 Ϫ0.63 (0.13) (0.14) (0.13) (0.14) (0.22) (0.24) (0.17) (0.18) (0.13) Latitude 2.00 Ϫ0.11 0.99 2.00 (1.34) (1.50) (1.43) (1.40) Asia dummy 0.33 0.47 (0.49) (0.50) Africa dummy Ϫ0.27 Ϫ0.26 (0.41) (0.41) “Other” continent dummy 1.24 1.1 (0.84) (0.84) R2 0.27 0.30 0.13 0.13 0.47 0.47 0.30 0.33 0.28

Panel C: Ordinary Least Squares Average protection against 0.52 0.47 0.49 0.47 0.48 0.47 0.42 0.40 0.46 expropriation risk 1985–1995 (0.06) (0.06) (0.08) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Number of observations 64 64 60 60 37 37 64 64 61

Notes: The dependent variable in columns (1)–(8) is log GDP per capita in 1995, PPP basis. The dependent variable in column (9) is log output per worker, from Hall and Jones (1999). “Average protection against expropriation risk 1985–1995” is measured on a scale from 0 to 10, where a higher score means more protection against risk of expropriation of investment by the government, from Political Risk Services. Panel A reports the two-stage least-squares estimates, instrumenting for protection against expropriation risk using log settler mortality; Panel B reports the corresponding first stage. Panel C reports the coefficient from an OLS regression of the dependent variable against average protection against expropriation risk. Standard errors are in parentheses. In regressions with continent dummies, the dummy for America is omitted. See Appendix Table A1 for more detailed variable descriptions and sources. creating a typical measurement error problem. Does the 2SLS estimate make quantitative Moreover, what matters for current income is sense? Does it imply that institutional differences presumably not only institutions today, but also can explain a significant fraction of income dif- institutions in the past. Our measure of institutions which refers to 1985–1995 will not be perfectly correlated with these.19 sure as an instrument for the protection against expropriation index would solve the measurement error, but not the endogeneity problem. This exercise leads to an estimate of the effect of protection against expropriation equal to 0.87 19 We can ascertain, to some degree, whether the differ- (with standard error 0.16). This suggests that “measurement ence between OLS and 2SLS estimates could be due to error” in the institutions variables (or the “signal-to-noise measurement error in the institutions variable by making ratio” in the institutions variable) is of the right order of use of an alternative measure of institutions, for example, magnitude to explain the difference between the OLS and the constraints on the executive measure. Using this mea- 2SLS estimates. VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1387 ferences across countries? Let us once again com- In columns (7) and (8), we add continent dum- pare two “typical” countries with high and low mies to the regressions (for Africa, Asia, and expropriation risk, Nigeria and Chile (these coun- other, with America as the omitted group). The tries are typical for the IV regression in the sense addition of these dummies does not change the that they are practically on the regression line). estimated effect of institutions, and the dummies Our 2SLS estimate, 0.94, implies that the 2.24 are jointly insignificant at the 5-percent level, differences in expropriation risk between these though the dummy for Asia is significantly differ- two countries should translate into 206 log point ent from that of America. The fact that the African (approximately 7-fold) difference. In practice, the dummy is insignificant suggests that the reason presence of measurement error complicates this why African countries are poorer is not due to interpretation, because some of the difference be- cultural or geographic factors, but mostly ac- tween Nigeria and Chile’s expropriation index counted for by the existence of worse institutions may reflect measurement error. Therefore, the in Africa. Finally, in column (9) we repeat our 7-fold difference is an upper bound. In any case, basic regression using log of output per worker as the estimates in Table 4 imply a substantial, but calculated by Hall and Jones (1999). The result is not implausibly large, effect of institutional differ- very close to our baseline result. The 2SLS coef- ences on income per capita. ficient is 0.98 instead of 0.94 as in column (1).22 Column (2) shows that adding latitude does This shows that whether we use income per capita not change the relationship; the institutions or output per worker has little effect on our results. coefficient is now 1.00 with a standard error of Overall, the results in Table 4 show a large effect 0.22.20 Remarkably, the latitude variable now of institutions on economic performance. In the has the “wrong” sign and is insignificant. This rest of the paper, we investigate the robustness of result suggests that many previous studies may these results.23 have found latitude to be a significant determinant of economic performance because it is correlated with institutions (or with the exogenous component of institutions caused by early the protection against expropriation variable becomes con- colonial experience). siderably weaker, and the 2SLS effect of institutions is no Columns (3) and (4) document that our results longer significant. The 2SLS effect of institutions continue are not driven by the Neo-Europes. When we to be significant when we use some (but not all) measures of institutions. Therefore, we conclude that the relationship exclude the United States, Canada, Australia, and between settler mortality and institutions is weaker within New Zealand, the estimates remain highly signif- Africa. icant, and in fact increase a little. For example, the 22 The results with other covariates are also very similar. coefficient for institutions is now 1.28 (s.e. ϭ We repeated the same regressions using a variety of alter- 0.36) without the latitude control, and 1.21 (s.e. ϭ native measures of institutions, including constraints on the executive from the Polity III data set, an index of law and 0.35) when we control for latitude. Columns (5) order tradition from Political Risk Services, a measure of and (6) show that our results are also robust to property rights from the Heritage Foundation, a measure of dropping all the African countries from our sam- rule of law from the Fraser Institute, and the efficiency ple. The estimates without Africa are somewhat of the judiciary from Business International. The results and the magnitudes are very similar to those reported in smaller, but also more precise. For example, the Table 4. We also obtained very similar results with the 1970 coefficient for institutions is 0.58 (s.e. ϭ 0.1) values for the constraints on the executive and income per without the latitude control, and still 0.58 (s.e. ϭ capita in 1970, which show that the relationship between 0.12) when we control for latitude.21 institutional measures and income per capita holds across time periods. These results are reported in the Appendix of the working paper version, and are also available from the authors. 20 In 2SLS estimation, all covariates that are included in 23 In the working paper version, we also investigated the the second stage, such as latitude, are also included in the robustness of our results in different subsamples with vary- first stage. When these first-stage effects are of no major ing degrees of data quality and different methods of con- significance for our argument, we do not report them in the structing the mortality estimates. The results change very tables to save space. little, for example, when we use data only from Curtin 21 We should note at this point that if we limit the sample (1989), Death by Migration, when we do not assign mor- to African countries only, the first-stage relationship using tality rates from neighboring disease environments, when 1388 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

V. Robustness pears that British colonies are found to perform substantially better in other studies in large part A. Additional Controls because Britain colonized places where settlements were possible, and this made British col- The validity of our 2SLS results in Table 4 onies inherit better institutions. To further depends on the assumption that settler mortality in investigate this issue, columns (3) and (4) esti- the past has no direct effect on current economic mate our basic regression for British colonies performance. Although this presumption appears only. They show that both the relationship be- reasonable (at least to us), here we substantiate it tween settler mortality and institutions and that further by directly controlling for many of the between institutions and income in this sample variables that could plausibly be correlated with of 25 British colonies are very similar to those both settler mortality and economic outcomes, and in our base sample. For example, the 2SLS checking whether the addition of these variables estimate of the effect of institutions on income affects our estimates.24 Overall, we find that our is now 1.07 (s.e. ϭ 0.24) without controlling for results change remarkably little with the inclusion latitude and 1.00 (s.e. ϭ 0.22) with latitude. of these variables, and many variables emphasized These results suggest that the identity of the in previous work become insignificant once the colonizer is not an important determinant of effect of institutions is controlled for. colonization patterns and subsequent institu- La Porta et al. (1999) argue for the impor- tional development. tance of colonial origin (identity of the main von Hayek (1960) and La Porta et al. (1999) colonizing country) as a determinant of current also emphasize the importance of legal origin. In institutions. The identity of the colonial power columns (5) and (6), we control for legal origin. In could also matter because it might have an our sample, all countries have either French or effect through culture, as argued by David British legal origins, so we simply add a dummy S. Landes (1998). In columns (1) and (2) of for French legal origin (many countries that are Table 5, we add dummies for British and French not French colonies nonetheless have French legal colonies (colonies of other nations are the omit- origin). Our estimate of the effect of institutions ted group). This has little affect on our results. on income per capita is unaffected.26 Moreover, the French dummy in the first An argument dating back to Max Weber stage is estimated to be zero, while the British views religion as a key determinant of economic dummy is positive, and marginally significant. performance. To control for this, in columns (7) Therefore, as suggested by La Porta et al. and (8), we add the fraction of the populations (1998), British colonies appear to have better that are Catholic, Muslim, and of other reli- institutions, but this effect is much smaller and gions, with Protestants as the omitted group. In weaker than in a specification that does not the table we report the joint significance level control for the effect of settler mortality on ( p-value) of the corresponding F-statistic for institutional development.25 Therefore, it ap- these dummies as well as the 2SLS estimate of

the use data for Latin America from naval stations instead of ically, British colonies have, on average, an index of institution bishops, and when we do not use data from small African that is 0.63 points lower. Given the 2SLS estimate of 1.10, samples. These results are available in Appendix Table A5 this translates into 69 log points higher income per capita available from the authors, or in Acemoglu et al. (2000). for British colonies (1.10 ϫ 63 Ϸ 69). The second-stage 24 Joseph N. Altonji et al. (2000) develop an econometric effect of being a British colony is Ϫ78 log points, im- methodology to assess the importance of omitted variable plying Ϫ9 log point (approximately 10 percent) negative bias. The basic idea is that if the estimate of the coefficient net effect of being a British colony. A possible explana- of interest does not change as additional covariates are tion for this pattern is that (Anglo-Saxon?) researchers included in the regression, it is less likely to change if we are overestimating how “bad” French institutions are, and were able to add some of the missing omitted variables. Our the second-stage regression is correcting for this. methodology here is an informal version of this approach. 26 The first stage shows that French legal origin is asso- 25 Moreover, the British colonial dummy is negative and ciated with worse institutions, but similarly, the net effect of significant in the second stage. The net effect of being a British having French legal origin is actually positive: Ϫ67 ϫ colony on income per capita is in fact negative. More specif- 1.1 ϩ 89 ϭ 15 log points (approximately 15 percent). VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1389

TABLE 5—IV REGRESSIONS OF LOG GDP PER CAPITA WITH ADDITIONAL CONTROLS

British British Base Base colonies colonies Base Base Base Base Base sample sample only only sample sample sample sample sample (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Panel A: Two-Stage Least Squares Average protection against 1.10 1.16 1.07 1.00 1.10 1.20 0.92 1.00 1.10 expropriation risk, 1985–1995 (0.22) (0.34) (0.24) (0.22) (0.19) (0.29) (0.15) (0.25) (0.29) Latitude Ϫ0.75 Ϫ1.10 Ϫ0.94 Ϫ1.70 (1.70) (1.56) (1.50) (1.6) British colonial dummy Ϫ0.78 Ϫ0.80 (0.35) (0.39) French colonial dummy Ϫ0.12 Ϫ0.06 0.02 (0.35) (0.42) (0.69) French legal origin dummy 0.89 0.96 0.51 (0.32) (0.39) (0.69) p-value for religion variables [0.001] [0.004] [0.42]

Panel B: First Stage for Average Protection Against Expropriation Risk in 1985–1995 Log European settler mortality Ϫ0.53 Ϫ0.43 Ϫ0.59 Ϫ0.51 Ϫ0.54 Ϫ0.44 Ϫ0.58 Ϫ0.44 Ϫ0.48 (0.14) (0.16) (0.19) (0.14) (0.13) (0.14) (0.13) (0.15) (0.18) Latitude 1.97 2.10 2.50 2.30 (1.40) (1.30) (1.50) (1.60) British colonial dummy 0.63 0.55 (0.37) (0.37) French colonial dummy 0.05 Ϫ0.12 Ϫ0.25 (0.43) (0.44) (0.89) French legal origin Ϫ0.67 Ϫ0.7 Ϫ0.05 (0.33) (0.32) (0.91) R2 0.31 0.33 0.30 0.30 0.32 0.35 0.32 0.35 0.45

Panel C: Ordinary Least Squares Average protection against 0.53 0.47 0.61 0.47 0.56 0.56 0.53 0.47 0.47 expropriation risk, 1985–1995 (0.19) (0.07) (0.09) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Number of observations 64 64 25 25 64 64 64 64 64

Notes: Panel A reports the two-stage least-squares estimates with log GDP per capita (PPP basis) in 1995 as dependent variable, and Panel B reports the corresponding first stage. The base case in columns (1) and (2) is all colonies that were neither French nor British. The religion variables are included in the first stage of columns (7) and (8) but not reported here (to save space). Panel C reports the OLS coefficient from regressing log GDP per capita on average protection against expropriation risk, with the other control variables indicated in that column (full results not reported to save space). Standard errors are in parentheses and p-values for joint significance tests are in brackets. The religion variables are percentage of population that are Catholics, Muslims, and “other” religions; Protestant is the base case. Our sample is all either French or British legal origin (as defined by La Porta et al., 1999). the effect of institutions.27 Finally, column (9) correlated with climate and other geographic adds all the variables in this table simulta- characteristics. Our instrument may therefore neously. Again, these controls have very little be picking up the direct effect of these vari- effect on our main estimate. ables. We investigate this issue in Table 6. In Another concern is that settler mortality is columns (1) and (2), we add a set of temperature and humidity variables (all data from

27 Philip M. Parker, 1997). In the table we The religion dummies are significant in the first stage, report joint significance levels for these vari- but once again they are estimated to have offsetting effects in the second stage, implying little net effect of religion on ables. Again, they have little effect on our income. estimates. 1390 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

TABLE 6—ROBUSTNESS CHECKS FOR IV REGRESSIONS OF LOG GDP PER CAPITA

Base Base Base Base Base Base Base Base Base sample sample sample sample sample sample sample sample sample (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Panel A: Two-Stage Least Squares Average protection against 0.84 0.83 0.96 0.99 1.10 1.30 0.74 0.79 0.71 expropriation risk, 1985–1995 (0.19) (0.21) (0.28) (0.30) (0.33) (0.51) (0.13) (0.17) (0.20) Latitude 0.07 Ϫ0.67 Ϫ1.30 Ϫ0.89 Ϫ2.5 (1.60) (1.30) (2.30) (1.00) (1.60) p-value for temperature variables [0.96] [0.97] [0.77] p-value for humidity variables [0.54] [0.54] [0.62] Percent of European descent in 1975 Ϫ0.08 0.03 0.3 (0.82) (0.84) (0.7) p-value for soil quality [0.79] [0.85] [0.46] p-value for natural resources [0.82] [0.87] [0.82] Dummy for being landlocked 0.64 0.79 0.75 (0.63) (0.83) (0.47) Ethnolinguistic fragmentation Ϫ1.00 Ϫ1.10 Ϫ1.60 (0.32) (0.34) (0.47)

Panel B: First Stage for Average Protection Against Expropriation Risk in 1985–1995 Log European settler mortality Ϫ0.64 Ϫ0.59 Ϫ0.41 Ϫ0.4 Ϫ0.44 Ϫ0.34 Ϫ0.64 Ϫ0.56 Ϫ0.59 (0.17) (0.17) (0.14) (0.15) (0.16) (0.17) (0.15) (0.15) (0.21) Latitude 2.70 0.48 2.20 2.30 4.20 (2.00) (1.50) (1.50) (1.40) (2.60) R2 0.39 0.41 0.34 0.34 0.41 0.43 0.27 0.30 0.59

Panel C: Ordinary Least Squares Average protection against 0.41 0.38 0.39 0.38 0.46 0.42 0.46 0.45 0.38 expropriation risk, 1985–1995 (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.07) (0.07) (0.05) (0.06) (0.06)

Notes: Panel A reports the two-stage least-squares estimates with log GDP per capita (PPP basis) in 1995, and Panel B reports the corresponding first stages. Panel C reports the OLS coefficient from regressing log GDP per capita on average protection against expropriation risk, with the other control variables indicated in that column (full results not reported to save space). Standard errors are in parentheses and p-values for joint significance tests are in brackets. All regressions have 64 observations, except those including natural resources, which have 63 observations. The temperature and humidity variables are: average, minimum, and maximum monthly high temperatures, and minimum and maximum monthly low temperatures, and morning minimum and maximum humidity, and afternoon minimum and maximum humidity (from Parker, 1997). Measures of natural resources are: percent of world gold reserves today, percent of world iron reserves today, percent of world zinc reserves today, number of minerals present in country, and oil resources (thousands of barrels per capita). Measures of soil quality/climate are steppe (low latitude), desert (low latitude), steppe (middle latitude), desert (middle latitude), dry steppe wasteland, desert dry winter, and highland. See Appendix Table A1 for more detailed variable definitions and sources.

A related concern is that in colonies where nificant, with a coefficient of 0.96 (s.e. ϭ Europeans settled, the current population con- 0.28). In columns (5) and (6), we control for sists of a higher fraction of Europeans. One measures of natural resources, soil quality (in might be worried that we are capturing the practice soil types), and for whether the coun- direct effect of having more Europeans (who try is landlocked. All these controls are insig- perhaps brought a “European culture” or spe- nificant, and have little effect on our 2SLS cial relations with Europe). To control for estimate of the effect of institutions on in- this, we add the fraction of the population of come per capita. European descent in columns (3) and (4) of In columns (7) and (8), we include ethno- Table 6. This variable is insignificant, while linguistic fragmentation as another control the effect of institutions remains highly sig- and treat it as exogenous. Now the coefficient VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1391 of protection against expropriation is 0.74 areas have developed some immunity to the (s.e. ϭ 0.13), which is only slightly smaller disease (see the discussion in Section III, sub- than our baseline estimate. In Appendix A, we section A). Malaria should therefore have little show that the inclusion of an endogenous direct effect on economic performance (though, variable positively correlated with income or obviously, it will have very high social costs). institutions will bias the coefficient on insti- In contrast, for Europeans, or anyone else who tutions downwards. Since ethnolinguistic has not been exposed to malaria as a young fragmentation is likely to be endogenous with child, malaria is usually fatal, making malaria respect to development (i.e., ethnolinguistic prevalence a key determinant of European set- fragmentation tends to disappear after the for- tlements and institutional development. mation of centralized markets; see Weber In any case, controlling for malaria does not [1976] or Andersen [1983]) and is correlated change our results. We do this in columns (1) with settler mortality, the estimate of 0.74 and (2) by controlling for the fraction of the likely understates the effect of institutions on population who live in an area where falcipo- income. In column (9) of Table 6, we include rum malaria is endemic in 1994 (as constructed all these variables together. Despite the large and used by Gallup et al., 1998). Since malaria number of controls, protection against expro- prevalence in 1994 is highly endogenous, the priation on income per capita is still highly argument in Appendix A implies that control- significant, with a somewhat smaller coeffi- ling for it directly will underestimate the effect cient of 0.71 (s.e. ϭ 0.20), which is again of institutions on performance. In fact, the co- likely to understate the effect of institutions efficient on protection against expropriation is on income because ethnolinguistic fragmen- now estimated to be somewhat smaller, 0.69 tation is treated as exogenous. instead of 0.94 as in Table 4. Nevertheless, Finally, in Table 7, we investigate whether the effect remains highly significant with a stan- our instrument could be capturing the general dard error of 0.25, while malaria itself is effect of disease on development. Sachs and a insignificant. series of coauthors have argued for the impor- In a comment on the working paper version tance of malaria and other diseases in explain- of our study, John W. McArthur and Sachs ing African poverty (see, for example, Bloom (2001) discuss the role of geography and insti- and Sachs, 1998; Gallup and Sachs, 1998; tutions in determining economic performance. Gallup et al., 1998). Since malaria was one of They accept our case for the importance of the main causes of settler mortality, our esti- institutions, but argue that more general speci- mate may be capturing the direct effect of ma- fications show that the disease environment and laria on economic performance. We are health characteristics of countries (their “geog- skeptical of this argument since malaria preva- raphy”) matter for economic performance. In lence is highly endogenous; it is the poorer particular, they extend our work by controlling countries with worse institutions that have been for life expectancy and infant mortality, and unable to eradicate malaria.28 While Sachs and they also instrument for these health variables coauthors argue that malaria reduces output using geographic variables such as latitude and through poor health, high mortality, and absen- mean temperature. Table 7 also expands upon teeism, most people who live in high malaria the specifications that McArthur and Sachs suggest. Columns (3)–(6) include life expectancy and infant mortality as exogenous controls. The 28 For example, the United States eliminated malaria from estimates show a significant effect of institu- the Panama Canal Zone, and Australia eliminated it from Queensland (see Crosby, 1986 pp. 141–42). Even in Africa, tions on income, similar to, but smaller than, there have been very successful campaigns against malaria, our baseline estimates. Infant mortality is also including those in Algeria and that conducted by the Rio-Tinto marginally significant. Since health is highly Zinc mining company in Zambia (then Northern Rhodesia). endogenous, the coefficient on these variables The WHO’s Roll Back Malaria program contains a number of effective recommendations for controlling malaria that are will be biased up, while the coefficient of insti- relatively straightforward to implement if families have tutions will be biased down (see Appendix A). enough money (e.g., insecticide-treated bed nets). These estimates are therefore consistent with 1392 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

TABLE 7—GEOGRAPHY AND HEALTH VARIABLES

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) Yellow fever instrument for average Instrumenting only for average Instrumenting for all protection against protection against expropriation risk right-hand-side variables expropriation risk

Panel A: Two-Stage Least Squares Average protection against 0.69 0.72 0.63 0.68 0.55 0.56 0.69 0.74 0.68 0.91 0.90 expropriation risk, 1985–1995 (0.25) (0.30) (0.28) (0.34) (0.24) (0.31) (0.26) (0.24) (0.23) (0.24) (0.32) Latitude Ϫ0.57 Ϫ0.53 Ϫ0.1 (1.04) (0.97) (0.95) Malaria in 1994 Ϫ0.57 Ϫ0.60 Ϫ0.62 (0.47) (0.47) (0.68) Life expectancy 0.03 0.03 0.02 (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) Infant mortality Ϫ0.01 Ϫ0.01 Ϫ0.01 (0.005) (0.006) (0.01)

Panel B: First Stage for Average Protection Against Expropriation Risk in 1985–1995 Log European settler mortality Ϫ0.42 Ϫ0.38 Ϫ0.34 Ϫ0.30 Ϫ0.36 Ϫ0.29 Ϫ0.41 Ϫ0.40 Ϫ0.40 (0.19) (0.19) (0.17) (0.18) (0.18) (0.19) (0.17) (0.17) (0.17) Latitude 1.70 1.10 1.60 Ϫ0.81 Ϫ0.84 Ϫ0.84 (1.40) (1.40) (1.40) (1.80) (1.80) (1.80) Malaria in 1994 Ϫ0.79 Ϫ0.65 (0.54) (0.55) Life expectancy 0.05 0.04 (0.02) (0.02) Infant mortality Ϫ0.01 Ϫ0.01 (0.01) (0.01) Mean temperature Ϫ0.12 Ϫ0.12 Ϫ0.12 (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) Distance from coast 0.57 0.55 0.55 (0.51) (0.52) (0.52) Yellow fever dummy Ϫ1.10 Ϫ0.81 (0.41) (0.38) R2 0.3 0.31 0.34 0.35 0.32 0.34 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.10 0.32

Panel C: Ordinary Least Squares Average protection against 0.35 0.35 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.28 0.35 0.29 0.29 0.48 0.39 expropriation risk, 1985–1995 (0.06) (0.06) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.06) (0.05) (0.05) (0.06) (0.06) Number of observations 62 62 60 60 60 60 60 59 59 64 64

Notes: Panel A reports the two-stage least-squares estimates with log GDP per capita (PPP basis) in 1995, and Panel B reports the corresponding first stages. Panel C reports the coefficient from an OLS regression with log GDP per capita as the dependent variable and average protection against expropriation risk and the other control variables indicated in each column as independent variables (full results not reported to save space). Standard errors are in parentheses. Columns (1)–(6) instrument for average protection against expropriation risk using log mortality and assume that the other regressors are exogenous. Columns (7)–(9) include as instruments average temperature, amount of territory within 100 km of the coast, and latitude (from McArthur and Sachs, 2001). Columns (10) and (11) use a dummy variable for whether or not a country was subject to yellow fever epidemics before 1900 as an instrument for average protection against expropriation. See Appendix Table A1 for more detailed variable definitions and sources. institutions being the major determinant of in- temperature, and distance from the coast as income per capita differences, with little effect struments in addition to our instrument, settler from geography/health variables. mortality. McArthur and Sachs (2001) report Columns (7)–(9) report estimates from mod- that in these regressions the institution variable els that treat both health and institutions as is still significant, but geography/health are also endogenous, and following McArthur and significant. In contrast to McArthur and Sachs’ Sachs, instrument for them using latitude, mean results, we find that only institutions are signif- VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1393 icant. This difference is due to the fact that B. Overidentification Tests McArthur and Sachs include Britain and France in their sample. Britain and France are not in We can also investigate the validity of our our sample, which consists of only ex-colonies approach by using overidentification tests. Ac- (there is no reason for variation in the mortality cording to our theory, settler mortality (M) af- rates of British and French troops at home to be fected settlements (S); settlements affected related to their institutional development). It early institutions (C); and early institutions af- turns out that once Britain and France are left fected current institutions (R)—cf., equations out, the McArthur and Sachs’ specification gen- (2), (3), and (4). We can test whether any of erates no evidence that geography/health vari- these variables, C, S, and M, has a direct effect ables have an important effect on economic on income per capita, log y, by using measures performance.29 of C and S as additional instruments. The overi- As a final strategy to see whether settler mor- dentification test presumes that one of these tality could be proxying for the current disease instruments, say S, is truly exogenous, and tests environment, we estimated models using a for the exogeneity of the others, such as settler yellow fever instrument. This is a dummy vari- mortality. This approach is useful since it is a able indicating whether the area was ever af- direct test of our exclusion restriction. However, fected by yellow fever (from Oldstone, 1998; such tests may not lead to a rejection if all see Appendix Table A1). This is an attractive instruments are invalid, but still highly corre- alternative strategy because yellow fever is lated with each other. Therefore, the results mostly eradicated today, so this dummy should have to be interpreted with caution. not be correlated with the current disease envi- Overall, the overidentification test will reject ronment. The disadvantage of this approach is the validity of our approach if either (i) the that there is less variation in this instrument than equation of interest, (1), does not have a con- ϭ ␮ ϩ ␣ ϩ ␧ our settler mortality variable. Despite this, the stant coefficient, i.e., log yi i Ri i , yellow fever results, reported in columns (10) where i denotes country, or (ii) C or S has a and (11) of Table 7, are encouraging. The esti- direct effect on income per capita, log yi (i.e., ϭ ␧ mate in our base sample is 0.91 (s.e. 0.24) either S or C is correlated with i), or (iii) comparable to our baseline estimate of 0.95 settler mortality, M, has an effect on log yi that reported in Table 4. Adding continent dummies works through another variable, such as culture. in column (11) reduces this estimate slightly to The data support the overidentifying restric- 0.90 (s.e. ϭ 0.32).30 tions implied by our approach.31 This implies that, subject to the usual problems of power associated with overidentification tests, we can rule out all three of the above possibilities. This 29 McArthur and Sachs (2001) also report specifications with more instruments. However, using six or seven instru- gives us additional confidence that settler mor- ments with only 64 observations leads to the “too-many- tality is a valid instrument and that we are instruments” problem, typically biasing the IV estimate estimating the effect of institutions on current towards the OLS estimate (see John Bound et al., 1995). We performance with our instrumental-variable therefore did not pursue these estimates further. Finally, McArthur and Sachs also argue that our ex- strategy (i.e., not capturing the effect of omitted colonies sample may not have enough geographic variation. variables). In their view, this may be why we do not find a role for geographic variables. Nonetheless, there is substantial variation in the geography variables in our sample which in- cludes countries such as Canada, the United States, New 31 In some specifications, the overidentification tests us- Zealand, and Australia. The standard deviation of distance ing measures of early institutions reject at that 10-percent from the equator in the world is 1.89, greater than 1.33 in level (but not at the 5-percent level). There are in fact good our sample. This is mainly because there are a large number reasons to expect institutions circa 1900 to have a direct of European countries with high latitudes in the world effect on income today (and hence the overidentifying tests sample, but not in our sample. to reject our restrictions): these institutions should affect 30 If we drop the Neo-Europes (not reported here), the physical and human capital investments at the beginning of estimate is still similar and highly significant, 1.05 (s.e. ϭ the century, and have some effect on current income levels 0.35). through this channel. 1394 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

TABLE 8—OVERIDENTIFICATION TESTS

Base Base Base Base Base Base Base Base Base Base sample sample sample sample sample sample sample sample sample sample (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Panel A: Two-Stage Least Squares Average protection against expropriation 0.87 0.92 0.71 0.68 0.72 0.69 0.60 0.61 0.55 0.56 risk, 1985–1995 (0.14) (0.20) (0.15) (0.20) (0.14) (0.19) (0.14) (0.17) (0.12) (0.14) Latitude Ϫ0.47 Ϫ0.34 0.31 Ϫ0.41 Ϫ0.16 (1.20) (1.10) (1.05) (0.92) (0.81)

Panel B: First Stage for Average Protection Against Expropriation Risk European settlements in 1900 3.20 2.90 (0.62) (0.83) Constraint on executive in 1900 0.32 0.26 (0.08) (0.09) Democracy in 1900 0.24 0.20 (0.06) (0.07) Constraint on executive in ﬁrst year of 0.25 0.22 independence (0.08) (0.08) Democracy in ﬁrst year of independence 0.19 0.17 (0.05) (0.05) R2 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.24 0.24 0.26 0.19 0.25 0.26 0.30

Panel C: Results from Overidentiﬁcation Test p-value (from chi-squared test) [0.67] [0.96] [0.09] [0.20] [0.11] [0.28] [0.67] [0.79] [0.22] [0.26]

Panel D: Second Stage with Log Mortality as Exogenous Variable Average protection against expropriation 0.81 0.88 0.45 0.42 0.52 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.4 0.41 risk, 1985–1995 (0.23) (0.30) (0.25) (0.30) (0.23) (0.28) (0.23) (0.25) (0.18) (0.19) Log European settler mortality Ϫ0.07 Ϫ0.05 Ϫ0.25 Ϫ0.26 Ϫ0.21 Ϫ0.22 Ϫ0.14 Ϫ0.14 Ϫ0.19 Ϫ0.19 (0.17) (0.18) (0.16) (0.17) (0.15) (0.16) (0.16) (0.15) (0.13) (0.12) Latitude Ϫ0.52 0.38 0.28 Ϫ0.38 Ϫ0.17 (1.15) (0.89) (0.86) (0.84) (0.73)

Notes: Panel A reports the two-stage least-squares estimates with log GDP per capita (PPP basis) in 1995 as the dependent variable, and Panel B reports the corresponding first stage (latitude is included in even-numbered columns but is never significant and not reported here to save space). Panel C reports the p-value for the null hypothesis that the coefficient on average protection against expropriation risk in the second-stage regression (i.e., Panel A) is the same as when instrumented using log mortality of settlers in addition to the indicated instruments. Panel D reports results from the regression in which log mortality is included as an exogenous variable and current institutions are instrumented using the alternative instrument indicated. Standard errors are in parentheses. All regressions with constraint on executive and democracy in first year of independence also include years since independence as a regressor. All regressions have 60 observations, except those with democracy in 1900 which have 59 observations and those with European settlements in 1900 which have 63 observations.

The results of the overidentification tests, add latitude, and use other instruments such and related results, are reported in Table 8. In as constraint on the executive in 1900 and in the top panel, Panel A, we report the 2SLS the first year of independence, and democracy estimates of the effect of protection against in 1900. expropriation on GDP per capita using a va- Panel D reports an easy-to-interpret version riety of instruments other than mortality rates, of the overidentification test. It adds the log of while Panel B gives the corresponding first mortality as an exogenous regressor. If mor- stages. These estimates are always quite close tality rates faced by settlers had a direct effect to those reported in Table 4. For example, in on income per capita, we would expect this column (1), we use European settlements in variable to come in negative and significant. 1900 as the only instrument for institutions. In all cases, it is small and statistically insig- This results in an estimated effect of 0.87 nificant. For example, in column (1), log mor- (with standard error 0.14), as compared to our tality has a coefficient of Ϫ0.07 (with baseline estimate of 0.94. The other columns standard error 0.17). This confirms that the VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1395 impact of mortality rates faced by settlers not go and settle, and they were more likely to likely works through their effect on set up extractive states. (3) Finally, we argue institutions. that these early institutions persisted to the Finally, for completeness, in Panel C we re- present. Determinants of whether Europeans port the p-value from the appropriate ␹2 overi- could go and settle in the colonies, therefore, dentification test. This tests whether the 2SLS have an important effect on institutions today. coefficients estimated with the instruments in- We exploit these differences as a source of dicated in Panels A and B versus the coeffi- exogenous variation to estimate the impact of cients estimated using (log) settler mortality in institutions on economic performance. addition to the “true” instruments are signifi- There is a high correlation between mortality cantly different (e.g., in the first column, the rates faced by soldiers, bishops, and sailors in coefficient using European settlements alone is the colonies and European settlements; between compared to the estimate using European set- European settlements and early measures of in- tlements and log mortality as instruments). We stitutions; and between early institutions and never reject the hypothesis that they are equal at institutions today. We estimate large effects of the 5-percent significance level. So these results institutions on income per capita using this also show no evidence that mortality rates faced source of variation. We also document that this by settlers have a direct effect—or an effect relationship is not driven by outliers, and is working through a variable other than institu- robust to controlling for latitude, climate, cur- tions—on income per capita. rent disease environment, religion, natural resources, soil quality, ethnolinguistic fragmen- VI. Concluding Remarks tation, and current racial composition. It is useful to point out that our findings do Many economists and social scientists be- not imply that institutions today are predeter- lieve that differences in institutions and state mined by colonial policies and cannot be policies are at the root of large differences in changed. We emphasize colonial experience as income per capita across countries. There is one of the many factors affecting institutions. little agreement, however, about what deter- Since mortality rates faced by settlers are argu- mines institutions and government attitudes to- ably exogenous, they are useful as an instru- wards economic progress, making it difficult to ment to isolate the effect of institutions on isolate exogenous sources of variation in insti- performance. In fact, our reading is that these tutions to estimate their effect on performance. results suggest substantial economic gains from In this paper we argued that differences in co- improving institutions, for example as in the lonial experience could be a source of exoge- case of Japan during the Meiji Restoration or nous differences in institutions. South Korea during the 1960’s. Our argument rests on the following pre- There are many questions that our analysis mises: (1) Europeans adopted very different col- does not address. Institutions are treated largely onization strategies, with different associated as a “black box”: The results indicate that re- institutions. In one extreme, as in the case of the ducing expropriation risk (or improving other United States, Australia, and New Zealand, they aspects of the “cluster of institutions”) would went and settled in the colonies and set up result in significant gains in income per capita, institutions that enforced the rule of law and but do not point out what concrete steps would encouraged investment. In the other extreme, as lead to an improvement in these institutions. in the Congo or the Gold Coast, they set up Institutional features, such as expropriation risk, extractive states with the intention of transfer- property rights enforcement, or rule of law, ring resources rapidly to the metropole. These should probably be interpreted as an equilib- institutions were detrimental to investment and rium outcome, related to some more funda- economic progress. (2) The colonization strat- mental “institutions,” e.g., presidential versus egy was in part determined by the feasibility of parliamentary system, which can be changed European settlement. In places where Europe- directly. A more detailed analysis of the effect ans faced very high mortality rates, they could of more fundamental institutions on property 1396 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

ϭ ␬ ϩ rights and expropriation risk is an important residual from the auxiliary equation, Ri 0 ␬ ϩ ˜ ␬ ϭ Ͻ area for future study. zi Ri , and so cov( zi , Ri)/var( zi) 0, which is negative due to the fact that cov(Ri , Ͻ APPENDIX A: BIAS IN THE EFFECT OF zi) 0. The reduced form for zi is: INSTITUTIONS WHEN OTHER ENDOGENOUS VARIABLES ARE INCLUDED 1 (A1) z ϭ ͑͑␮ ϩ ␾␲͒ i 1 Ϫ ␾␲ To simplify notation, suppose that Ri is ex- ϩ ␾␣ ϩ ␾␧ ϩ ␩ ͒ ogenous, and another variable that is endoge- Ri i i . nous, zi , such as prevalence of malaria or ethnolinguistic fragmentation, is added to the We impose the regularity condition ␾ ⅐ ␲ Ͻ 1, regression. Then, the simultaneous equations so that an increase in the disturbance to the ␩ model becomes z-equation, i , actually increases zi. Now using this reduced form, we can write ϭ ␮ ϩ ␣ ϩ ␲ ϩ␧ Yi 0 Ri zi i ͑ ␧ ͒ cov zi , i ϭ ␮ ϩ ␾ ϩ ␩ (A2) plim ␣ˆ ϭ ␣ Ϫ ␬ ⅐ zi 1 Yi i , ͑ ͒ var R˜ i

2 ͑␴␧␩ ϩ ␾␴␧͒ ϭ ␣ Ն ␾ Ͻ ϭ ␣ Ϫ ␬ ⅐ where Yi log yi. We presume that 0, ͑ Ϫ ␾␲͒ ⅐ ͑ ˜ ͒ ␲ Ͻ 1 var Ri 0, and 0, which implies that we interpret zi as a negative influence on income. Moreover, ␩ ␧ Ͻ ␴2 ␧ ␴ this naturally implies that cov( i , i) 0 and where ␧ is the variance of , and ␧␩ is the Ͻ ␧ ␩ cov( zi , Ri) 0, that is, the factor zi is likely to covariance of and . be negatively correlated with positive influ- Substituting for ␬ in (A2), we obtain: ences on income. plim ␣ˆ Standard arguments imply that 2 ͑␴␧␩ ϩ ␾␴␧͒ cov͑z , R ͒ ϭ ␣ Ϫ ⅐ i i ͑ ͒ . cov͑R˜ , ␧ ͒ ͑1 Ϫ ␾␲͒ ⅐ var͑R˜ ͒ var zi ␣ ϭ ␣ ϩ i i i plim ˆ ͑ ͒ var R˜ i ␾ Ͻ ␴ Ͻ Ͻ ͑ ␧ ͒ Recall that 0, ␧␩ 0, and cov( zi , Ri) cov zi , i ϭ ␣ Ϫ ␬ ⅐ , 0. Therefore, plim ␣ˆ Ͻ ␣, and when we control var͑R˜ ͒ i for the endogenous variable zi , the coefficient on our institution variable will be biased ␬ ˜ where and Ri are the coefficient and the downwards. VOL. 91 NO. 5 ACEMOGLU ET AL.: THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF DEVELOPMENT 1397

APPENDIX TABLE A1: DATA DESCRIPTIONS AND SOURCES

Log GDP per capita, 1975 and 1995: Purchasing Power Parity Basis, from World Bank, World Development Indicators, CD-Rom, 1999. Log output per worker, 1988: As used in Hall and Jones (1999), from www.stanford.edu/ϳchadj. Average protection against expropriation risk, 1985–1995: Risk of expropriation of private foreign investment by government, from 0 to 10, where a higher score means less risk. Mean value for all years from 1985 to 1995. This data was previously used by Knack and Keefer (1995) and was organized in electronic form by the IRIS Center (University of Maryland); originally Political Risk Services. Constraint on executive in 1900, 1970, 1990 and in first year of independence: Seven-category scale, from 1 to 7, with a higher score indicating more constraints. Score of 1 indicates unlimited authority; score of 3 indicates slight to moderate limitations; score of 5 indicates substantial limitations; score of 7 indicates executive parity or subordination. Equal to 1 if country was not independent at that date. Date of independence is the first year that the country appears in the Polity III data set. From the Polity III data set, downloaded from Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research. See Gurr (1997). Democracy in 1900 and first year of independence: An 11-category scale, from 0 to 10, with a higher score indicating more democracy. Points from three dimensions: Competitiveness of Political Participation (from 1 to 3); Competitiveness of Executive Recruitment (from 1 to 2, with a bonus of 1 point if there is an election); and Constraints on Chief Executive (from 1 to 4). Equal to 1 if country not independent at that date. From the Polity III data set. See Gurr (1997). European settlements in 1900 and percent of European descent 1975: Percent of population European or of European descent in 1900 and 1975. From McEvedy and Jones (1975) and other sources listed in Appendix Table A6 (available from the authors). Ethnolinguistic fragmentation: Average of five different indices of ethnolinguistic fragmentation. Easterly and Levine (1997), as used in La Porta et al. (1999). Religion variables: Percent of population that belonged to the three most widely spread religions of the world in 1980 (or for 1990–1995 for countries formed more recently). The four classifications are: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, and “other.” From La Porta et al. (1999). French legal origin dummy: Legal origin of the company law or commercial code of each country. Our base sample is all French Commercial Code or English Common Law Origin. From La Porta et al. (1999). Colonial dummies: Dummy indicating whether country was a British, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Belgian, Dutch, or Portuguese colony. From La Porta et al. (1999). Temperature variables: Average temperature, minimum monthly high, maximum monthly high, minimum monthly low, and maximum monthly low, all in centigrade. From Parker (1997). Mean temperature: 1987 mean annual temperature in degrees Celsius. From McArthur and Sachs (2001). Humidity variables: Morning minimum, morning maximum, afternoon minimum, and afternoon maximum, all in percent. From Parker (1997). Soil quality: Dummies for steppe (low latitude), desert (low latitude), steppe (middle latitude), desert (middle latitude), dry steppe wasteland, desert dry winter, and highland. From Parker (1997). Natural resources: Percent of world gold reserves today, percent of world iron reserves today, percent of world zinc reserves today, number of minerals present in country, and oil resources (thousands of barrels per capita.) From Parker (1997). Dummy for landlocked: Equal to 1 if country does not adjoin the sea. From Parker (1997). Malaria in 1994: Population living where falciporum malaria is endemic (percent). Gallup and Sachs (1998). Latitude: Absolute value of the latitude of the country (i.e., a measure of distance from the equator), scaled to take values between 0 and 1, where 0 is the equator. From La Porta et al. (1999). Log European settler mortality: See Appendix Table A2, reproduced below, and Appendix B (available from the authors). Yellow fever: Dummy equal to 1 if yellow fever epidemics before 1900 and 0 otherwise. Oldstone (1998 p. 69) shows current habitat of the mosquito vector; these countries are coded equal to 1. In addition, countries in which there were epidemics in the nineteenth century, according to Curtin (1989, 1998) are also coded equal to 1. Infant mortality: Infant mortality rate (deaths per 1,000 live births). From McArthur and Sachs (2001). Life expectancy: Life expectancy at birth in 1995. From McArthur and Sachs (2001). Distance from the coast: Proportion of land area within 100 km of the seacoast. From McArthur and Sachs (2001). 1398 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW DECEMBER 2001

APPENDIX TABLE A2—DATA ON MORTALITY

Average Average protection protection Log GDP against Log GDP against Abbreviated per capita expropriation Main Abbreviated per capita expropriation Main name used (PPP) in risk mortality name used (PPP) in risk mortality Former colonies in graphs 1995 1985–1995 estimate Former colonies in graphs 1995 1985–1995 estimate Algeria DZA 8.39 6.50 78.2 Jamaica JAM 8.19 7.09 130 Angola AGO 7.77 5.36 280 Kenya KEN 7.06 6.05 145 Argentina ARG 9.13 6.39 68.9 Madagascar MDG 6.84 4.45 536.04 Australia AUS 9.90 9.32 8.55 Malaysia MYS 8.89 7.95 17.7 Bahamas BHS 9.29 7.50 85 Mali MLI 6.57 4.00 2940 Bangladesh BGD 6.88 5.14 71.41 Malta MLT 9.43 7.23 16.3 Bolivia BOL 7.93 5.64 71 Mexico MEX 8.94 7.50 71 Brazil BRA 8.73 7.91 71 Morocco MAR 8.04 7.09 78.2 Burkina Faso BFA 6.85 4.45 280 New Zealand NZL 9.76 9.73 8.55 Cameroon CMR 7.50 6.45 280 Nicaragua NIC 7.54 5.23 163.3 Canada CAN 9.99 9.73 16.1 Niger NER 6.73 5.00 400 Chile CHL 9.34 7.82 68.9 Nigeria NGA 6.81 5.55 2004 Colombia COL 8.81 7.32 71 Pakistan PAK 7.35 6.05 36.99 Congo (Brazzaville) COG 7.42 4.68 240 Panama PAN 8.84 5.91 163.3 Costa Rica CRI 8.79 7.05 78.1 Paraguay PRY 8.21 6.95 78.1 Coˆte d’Ivoire CIV 7.44 7.00 668 Peru PER 8.40 5.77 71 Dominican Republic DOM 8.36 6.18 130 Senegal SEN 7.40 6.00 164.66 Ecuador ECU 8.47 6.55 71 Sierra Leone SLE 6.25 5.82 483 Egypt EGY 7.95 6.77 67.8 Singapore SGP 10.15 9.32 17.7 El Salvador SLV 7.95 5.00 78.1 South Africa ZAF 8.89 6.86 15.5 Ethiopia ETH 6.11 5.73 26 Sri Lanka LKA 7.73 6.05 69.8 Gabon GAB 8.90 7.82 280 Sudan SDN 7.31 4.00 88.2 Gambia GMB 7.27 8.27 1470 Tanzania TZA 6.25 6.64 145 Ghana GHA 7.37 6.27 668 Togo TGO 7.22 6.91 668 Guatemala GTM 8.29 5.14 71 Trinidad and Tobago TTO 8.77 7.45 85 Guinea GIN 7.49 6.55 483 Tunisia TUN 8.48 6.45 63 Guyana GUY 7.90 5.89 32.18 Uganda UGA 6.97 4.45 280 Haiti HTI 7.15 3.73 130 Uruguay URY 9.03 7.00 71 Honduras HND 7.69 5.32 78.1 USA USA 10.22 10.00 15 Hong Kong HKG 10.05 8.14 14.9 Venezuela VEN 9.07 7.14 78.1 India IND 7.33 8.27 48.63 Vietnam VNM 7.28 6.41 140 Indonesia IDN 8.07 7.59 170 Zaire ZAR 6.87 3.50 240

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Wendy Wolford. Development 575-587. [Crossref] 2734. Abdoul' Ganiou Mijiyawa. 2011. Fighting Inflation in Developing Countries: Does Democracy Help? An Empirical Investigation. Journal of International Development 23:5, 656-696. [Crossref] 2735. Konstantinos Angelopoulos, George Economides, Vanghelis Vassilatos. 2011. Do institutions matter for economic fluctuations? Weak property rights in a business cycle model for Mexico. Review of Economic Dynamics 14:3, 511-531. [Crossref] 2736. Erik Gartzke, Dominic Rohner. 2011. The Political Economy of Imperialism, Decolonization and Development. British Journal of Political Science 41:3, 525-556. [Crossref] 2737. Kristopher W. Ramsay. 2011. Revisiting the Resource Curse: Natural Disasters, the Price of Oil, and Democracy. International Organization 65:3, 507-529. [Crossref] 2738. José Antonio Alonso. 2011. Colonisation, Institutions and Development: New Evidence. Journal of Development Studies 47:7, 937-958. [Crossref] 2739. 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Liesbet Vranken, Karen Macours, Nivelin Noev, Johan Swinnen. 2011. Property rights imperfections and asset allocation: Co-ownership in Bulgaria. Journal of Comparative Economics 39:2, 159-175. [Crossref] 2752. Jon Jellema, Gerard Roland. 2011. Institutional clusters and economic performance. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 79:1-2, 108-132. [Crossref] 2753. Santiago M. López, José Molero, Francisco J. Santos-Arteaga. 2011. Poverty traps in a frictionless world: The effects of learning and technology assimilation. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 22:2, 106-115. [Crossref] 2754. Fabio Manca, Rosina Moreno, Jordi Suriñach. 2011. The Role of the EU Internal Market in the Adoption of Innovation. European Planning Studies 19:6, 1091-1116. [Crossref] 2755. Fikret Adaman. 2011. Is Corruption a Drawback to Turkey's Accession to the European Union?. South European Society and Politics 16:2, 309-321. [Crossref] 2756. Urvashi Narain, Sergio Margulis, Timothy Essam. 2011. Estimating costs of adaptation to climate change. Climate Policy 11:3, 1001-1019. [Crossref] 2757. Berhanu Nega, Geoffrey Schneider. 2011. International Financial Institutions and Democracy in Africa: The Case for Political Conditionality and Economic Unconditionality. Journal of Economic Issues 45:2, 421-430. [Crossref] 2758. Nita Rudra. 2011. Openness and the Politics of Potable Water. Comparative Political Studies 44:6, 771-803. [Crossref] 2759. Warren Whatley,, Rob Gillezeau. 2011. The Impact of the Transatlantic Slave Trade on Ethnic Stratification in Africa. American Economic Review 101:3, 571-576. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 2760. Bruce A. Weinberg. 2011. Developing science: Scientific performance and brain drains in the developing world. Journal of Development Economics 95:1, 95-104. [Crossref] 2761. Damian Tobin. 2011. Austerity and Moral Compromise: Lessons from the Development of China’s Banking System. World Development 39:5, 700-711. [Crossref] 2762. Stephan Haggard, Lydia Tiede. 2011. The Rule of Law and Economic Growth: Where are We?. World Development 39:5, 673-685. [Crossref] 2763. N. Nunn, N. Qian. 2011. The Potato's Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence From A Historical Experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126:2, 593-650. [Crossref] 2764. Mark Aguiar, Manuel Amador. 2011. Growth in the Shadow of Expropriation *. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126:2, 651-697. [Crossref] 2765. Luis Angeles. 2011. Institutions, Property Rights, and Economic Development in Historical Perspective. Kyklos 64:2, 157-177. [Crossref] 2766. Rachel L. Mathers, Claudia R. Williamson. 2011. Cultural Context: Explaining the Productivity of Capitalism. Kyklos 64:2, 231-252. [Crossref] 2767. OLIVIER ACCOMINOTTI, MARC FLANDREAU, RIAD REZZIK. 2011. The spread of empire: Clio and the measurement of colonial borrowing costs1. The Economic History Review 64:2, 385-407. [Crossref] 2768. Jeffrey A. Edwards, Jennis J. Biser. 2011. The interactive effect of remittances and civil liberties on investment and consumption. International Journal of Development Issues 10:1, 20-33. [Crossref] 2769. Charles I. Jones. 2011. Intermediate Goods and Weak Links in the Theory of Economic Development. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics 3:2, 1-28. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 2770. Eiji Yamamura. 2011. The role of social trust in reducing long-term truancy and forming human capital in Japan. Economics of Education Review 30:2, 380-389. [Crossref] 2771. Jorge Álvarez, Ennio Bilancini, Simone D'Alessandro, Gabriel Porcile. 2011. Agricultural institutions, industrialization and growth: The case of New Zealand and Uruguay in 1870–1940. Explorations in Economic History 48:2, 151-168. [Crossref] 2772. Mahmut Yasar, Catherine J. Morrison Paul, Michael R. Ward. 2011. Property Rights Institutions and Firm Performance: A Cross-Country Analysis. World Development 39:4, 648-661. [Crossref] 2773. L. F. Costa, M. M. Rocha, T. Araujo. 2011. Social capital and economic performance: trust and distrust in eighteenth-century gold shipments from Brazil. European Review of Economic History 15:1, 1-27. [Crossref] 2774. Robert Cull, Stephen Haber, Masami Imai. 2011. Related lending and banking development. Journal of International Business Studies 42:3, 406-426. [Crossref] 2775. Andreas P Kyriacou, Oriol Roca-Sagalés. 2011. Fiscal and Political Decentralization and Government Quality. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 29:2, 204-223. [Crossref] 2776. Roberto Alvarez. 2011. Export transitions. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development 20:2, 221-250. [Crossref] 2777. Nejat Anbarci, Mehmet A. Ulubaşoğlu. 2011. Intersectoral size differences and migration: Kuznets revisited. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development 20:2, 251-292. [Crossref] 2778. Peerayuth Charoensukmongkol, Shaun Sexton. 2011. The Effect of Corruption on Exports and Imports in Latin America and the Caribbean. Latin American Business Review 12:2, 83-98. [Crossref] 2779. John M Carey, Simon Hix. 2011. The Electoral Sweet Spot: Low-Magnitude Proportional Electoral Systems. American Journal of Political Science 55:2, 383-397. [Crossref] 2780. Alberto Alesina, William Easterly, Janina Matuszeski. 2011. ARTIFICIAL STATES. Journal of the European Economic Association 9:2, 246-277. [Crossref] 2781. Johannes Urpelainen. 2011. The origins of social institutions. Journal of Theoretical Politics 23:2, 215-240. [Crossref] 2782. Carl Henrik Knutsen, Asmund Rygh, Helge Hveem. 2011. Does State Ownership Matter? Institutions' Effect on Foreign Direct Investment Revisited. Business and Politics 13:1, 1-31. [Crossref] 2783. Morten Jerven. 2011. The quest for the African dummy: explaining African post-colonial economic performance revisited. Journal of International Development 23:2, 288-307. [Crossref] 2784. Saul Estrin, Martha Prevezer. 2011. The role of informal institutions in corporate governance: Brazil, Russia, India, and China compared. Asia Pacific Journal of Management 28:1, 41-67. [Crossref] 2785. Thomas Barnebeck Andersen, Carl-Johan Dalgaard. 2011. Flows of people, flows of ideas, and the inequality of nations. Journal of Economic Growth 16:1, 1-32. [Crossref] 2786. Moritz Schularick, Solomos Solomou. 2011. Tariffs and economic growth in the first era of globalization. Journal of Economic Growth 16:1, 33-70. [Crossref] 2787. Qin Tu, Erwin Bulte, Shuhao Tan. 2011. Religiosity and economic performance: Micro-econometric evidence from Tibetan area. China Economic Review 22:1, 55-63. [Crossref] 2788. Pin Ng, Xiaobing Zhao. 2011. No matter how it is measured, income declines with global warming. Ecological Economics 70:5, 963-970. [Crossref] 2789. Carl Henrik Knutsen. 2011. Which democracies prosper? Electoral rules, form of government and economic growth. Electoral Studies 30:1, 83-90. [Crossref] 2790. Pauline Grosjean. 2011. The institutional legacy of the Ottoman Empire: Islamic rule and financial development in South Eastern Europe. Journal of Comparative Economics 39:1, 1-16. [Crossref] 2791. Levon Barseghyan, Ani Guerdjikova. 2011. Institutions and growth in limited access societies. Journal of Economic Theory 146:2, 528-568. [Crossref] 2792. TADE O. OKEDIJI. 2011. Social fragmentation and economic growth: evidence from developing countries. Journal of Institutional Economics 7:1, 77-104. [Crossref] 2793. Fabrizio Carmignani, Abdur Chowdhury. 2011. Four Scenarios of Development and the Role of Economic Policy. Journal of Development Studies 47:3, 519-532. [Crossref] 2794. C. B. Kerekes. 2011. Government Takings: Determinants of Eminent Domain. American Law and Economics Review 13:1, 201-219. [Crossref] 2795. P. Campa, A. Casarico, P. Profeta. 2011. Gender Culture and Gender Gap in Employment. CESifo Economic Studies 57:1, 156-182. [Crossref] 2796. E. Huillery. 2011. The Impact of European Settlement within French West Africa: Did Pre-colonial Prosperous Areas Fall Behind?. Journal of African Economies 20:2, 263-311. [Crossref] 2797. R. J. Singh, M. Haacker, K.-w. Lee, M. Le Goff. 2011. Determinants and Macroeconomic Impact of Remittances in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Economies 20:2, 312-340. [Crossref] 2798. M. M. Cinyabuguma, L. Putterman. 2011. Sub-Saharan Growth Surprises: Being Heterogeneous, Inland and Close to the Equator Does not Slow Growth Within Africa. Journal of African Economies 20:2, 217-262. [Crossref] 2799. Rinaldo Brau, Adriana Di Liberto, Francesco Pigliaru. 2011. Tourism and Development: A Recent Phenomenon Built on Old (Institutional) Roots?. The World Economy 34:3, 444-472. [Crossref] 2800. Branko Milanovic, Peter H. Lindert, Jeffrey G. Williamson. 2011. Pre‐Industrial Inequality. The Economic Journal 121:551, 255-272. [Crossref] 2801. Adriana Di Liberto, Francesco Pigliaru, Piergiorgio Chelucci. 2011. INTERNATIONAL TFP DYNAMICS AND HUMAN CAPITAL STOCKS: A PANEL DATA ANALYSIS, 1960-2003. Review of Income and Wealth 57:1, 156-182. [Crossref] 2802. Xinxiang Chen. 2011. Tolerance and Economic Performance in American Metropolitan Areas: An Empirical Investigation1. Sociological Forum 26:1, 71-97. [Crossref] 2803. Hatra Voghouei, M. Azali, Siong Hook Law. 2011. Does the Political Institution Matter for Financial Development?. Economic Papers: A journal of applied economics and policy 30:1, 77-98. [Crossref] 2804. Marcos Álvarez-Díaz, Gonzalo Caballero-Miguez, Mario Soliño. 2011. The institutional determinants of CO2 emissions: a computational modeling approach using Artificial Neural Networks and Genetic Programming. Environmetrics 22:1, 42-49. [Crossref] 2805. Alan M. Taylor, Janine L.F. Wilson. 2011. International trade and finance: Complementaries in the United Kingdom 1870–1913 and the United States 1920–1930. Journal of International Money and Finance 30:1, 268-288. [Crossref] 2806. Russell S. Sobel, Christopher J. Coyne. 2011. Cointegrating Institutions: The Time-Series Properties of Country Institutional Measures. The Journal of Law and Economics 54:1, 111-134. [Crossref] 2807. Alan Green. 2011. Institutions Matter, but in Surprising Ways: New Evidence on Institutions in Africa. Kyklos 64:1, 87-105. [Crossref] 2808. Angelos A. Antzoulatos, Ekaterini Panopoulou, Chris Tsoumas. 2011. Do Financial Systems Converge?. Review of International Economics 19:1, 122-136. [Crossref] 2809. TIRTHANKAR ROY. 2011. Indigo and law in colonial India. The Economic History Review 64, 60-75. [Crossref] 2810. Stephen Broadberry, Steve Hindle. 2011. Editors’ introduction. The Economic History Review 64, 1-7. [Crossref] 2811. Roy Kwon. 2011. How the Legacy of French Colonization has Shaped Divergent Levels of Economic Development in East Asia: A Time-Series Cross-National Analysis. The Sociological Quarterly 52:1, 56-82. [Crossref] 2812. Pauline Grosjean, Claudia Senik. 2011. Democracy, Market Liberalization, and Political Preferences. Review of Economics and Statistics 93:1, 365-381. [Crossref] 2813. Stephen Weymouth. 2011. Political Institutions and Property Rights: Veto Players and Foreign Exchange Commitments in 127 Countries. Comparative Political Studies 44:2, 211-240. [Crossref] 2814. Ariel I. Ahram. 2011. The theory and method of comparative area studies. Qualitative Research 11:1, 69-90. [Crossref] 2815. Richard S. J. Tol. Climate Change, Economic Costs of 42-51. [Crossref] 2816. Laura Carsten, Gitta Lauster, Philipp Schink, Regina Kreide, Serhat Karakayali. Ökonomisch-soziale Kontroversen 225-255. [Crossref] 2817. Ioanna Glykou, Christos N. Pitelis. European Competition and Industrial Policy: An Assessment and a New Framework 343-380. [Crossref] 2818. Norman Schofield, Gonzalo Caballero. Introduction 1-10. [Crossref] 2819. Avner Greif, Christopher Kingston. Institutions: Rules or Equilibria? 13-43. [Crossref] 2820. Yi Lin, Xiaoman Chen. Review of Institutions and Economic Growth Empirical Research 563-569. [Crossref] 2821. Christian Dreger, Teymur Rahmani. Income convergence in Iranian regions 179-194. [Crossref] 2822. Lorenzo Pellegrini. Causes of Corruption: A Survey of Cross-Country Analyses and Extended Results 29-51. [Crossref] 2823. Lorenzo Pellegrini. The Effect of Corruption on Growth and Its Transmission Channels 53-74. [Crossref] 2824. Lorenzo Pellegrini. Conclusions and Future Research 149-156. [Crossref] 2825. Stefan Voigt. 2011. Positive constitutional economics II—a survey of recent developments. Public Choice 146:1-2, 205-256. [Crossref] 2826. Alberto Bisin, Thierry Verdier. The Economics of Cultural Transmission and Socialization 339-416. [Crossref] 2827. Luigi Guiso, Paola Sapienza, Luigi Zingales. Civic Capital as the Missing Link 417-480. [Crossref] 2828. . Referências 329-336. 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SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 2881. Pippa Norris. 2011. Making Democratic-Governance Work: The Consequences for Prosperity. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 2882. Alexandre Belloni, Victor Chernozhukov, Christian Hansen. 2011. Lasso Methods for Gaussian Instrumental Variables Models. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 2883. Holger Strulik, Ines Lindner. 2011. From Tradition to Modernity: Economic Growth in a Small World. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 2884. Pauline Grosjean. 2011. A History of Violence: The Culture of Honor as a Determinant of Homicide in the US South. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 2885. Fang-Chin Cheng, Ferdinand A. Gul. 2011. Stock Markets, Banks and Economic Growth: Some Evidence on the Role of Stock Price Informativeness. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 2886. Susan Ariel Aaronson. 2011. Does the WTO Help Member States Clean Up?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 2887. Subhayu Bandyopadhyay, Sajal Lahiri, Javed Younas. 2011. 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Kazim Kazimov, Kirk Hamilton, Rabah Arezki. 2011. Resource Windfalls, Macroeconomic Stability and Growth: The Role of Political Institutions. IMF Working Papers 11:142, 1. [Crossref] 2913. Gilles Dufrénot, Philippe Frouté, Christophe Schalck. 2011. Les comportements d'emprunt des régions françaises. Revue économique 62:5, 919. [Crossref] 2914. Yann Algan,, Pierre Cahuc. 2010. Inherited Trust and Growth. American Economic Review 100:5, 2060-2092. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 2915. Pedro Dal Bó,, Andrew Foster,, Louis Putterman. 2010. Institutions and Behavior: Experimental Evidence on the Effects of Democracy. American Economic Review 100:5, 2205-2229. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 2916. Marc Suhrcke, Dieter Urban. 2010. Are cardiovascular diseases bad for economic growth?. Health Economics 19:12, 1478-1496. [Crossref] 2917. Otmar E. Varela, Ronald S. Landis. 2010. A General Structure of Job Performance: Evidence from Two Studies. 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Antonella Fazio Vargas, Fabio Sánchez Torres. 2010. The educational effects of 19 th century disentailment of Catholic Church land in Colombia. Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 28:3, 441-467. [Crossref] 2925. W. H. Boshoff, J. Fourie. 2010. The significance of the Cape trade route to economic activity in the Cape Colony: a medium-term business cycle analysis. European Review of Economic History 14:3, 469-503. [Crossref] 2926. George Emm Halkos, Nickolaos G. Tzeremes. 2010. Corruption and Economic Efficiency: Panel Data Evidence. Global Economic Review 39:4, 441-454. [Crossref] 2927. Mark Beeson. 2010. Asian Antinomies: East Asia's Continuing Engagement with the Global Political Economy. Globalizations 7:4, 451-454. [Crossref] 2928. Morten Jerven. 2010. AFRICAN GROWTH RECURRING: AN ECONOMIC HISTORY PERSPECTIVE ON AFRICAN GROWTH EPISODES, 1690–2010. Economic History of Developing Regions 25:2, 127-154. [Crossref] 2929. James Fenske. 2010. THE CAUSAL HISTORY OF AFRICA: A RESPONSE TO HOPKINS. Economic History of Developing Regions 25:2, 177-212. [Crossref] 2930. Leigh A. Gardner. 2010. DECENTRALIZATION AND CORRUPTION IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: EVIDENCE FROM TAX COLLECTION IN BRITISH COLONIAL AFRICA. Economic History of Developing Regions 25:2, 213-236. [Crossref] 2931. Saibal Ghosh. 2010. Does Political Competition Matter for Economic Performance? Evidence from Sub-National Data. Political Studies 58:5, 1030-1048. [Crossref] 2932. Jacopo A. BAGGIO, Elissaios PAPYRAKIS. 2010. ETHNIC DIVERSITY, PROPERTY RIGHTS, AND NATURAL RESOURCES. The Developing Economies 48:4, 473-495. [Crossref] 2933. CASSEY LEE. 2010. AN INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF NATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS. The Singapore Economic Review 55:04, 671-683. [Crossref] 2934. Nak Nyeon Kim. 2010. Japan’s Colonial Legacy to Korea with Special Reference to Economic Institutions. Korean Studies Quarterly 33:4, 359-393. [Crossref] 2935. Chih Ming Tan. 2010. 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[Crossref] 2947. Simeon Djankov, Marta Reynal‐Querol. 2010. Poverty and Civil War: Revisiting the Evidence. Review of Economics and Statistics 92:4, 1035-1041. [Crossref] 2948. Otmar E. Varela, Elvira I. Salgado, Maria V. Lasio. 2010. The meaning of job performance in collectivistic and high power distance cultures. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal 17:4, 407-426. [Crossref] 2949. Rabah Arezki, Frederick van der Ploeg. 2010. Trade policies, institutions and the natural resource curse. Applied Economics Letters 17:15, 1443-1451. [Crossref] 2950. Nathan Nunn,, Daniel Trefler. 2010. The Structure of Tariffs and Long-Term Growth. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics 2:4, 158-194. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 2951. Antonio C. David, Carmen A. Li. 2010. Exploring the links between HIV/AIDS, social capital and development. Journal of International Development 22:7, 941-961. [Crossref] 2952. Dana Schüler, Julian Weisbrod. 2010. Ethnic fractionalisation, migration and growth. Empirical Economics 39:2, 457-486. [Crossref] 2953. Johan Fourie, Dieter von Fintel. 2010. The dynamics of inequality in a newly settled, pre-industrial society: the case of the Cape Colony. Cliometrica 4:3, 229-267. [Crossref] 2954. Marta Felis-Rota. 2010. Social Capital and Climate A First Statistical Approach. Cuadernos de Economía 33:93, 19-34. [Crossref] 2955. David Greasley, Les Oxley. 2010. Knowledge, natural resource abundance and economic development: Lessons from New Zealand 1861–1939. Explorations in Economic History 47:4, 443-459. [Crossref] 2956. Karine van der Beek. 2010. The effects of political fragmentation on investments: A case study of watermill construction in medieval Ponthieu, France. Explorations in Economic History 47:4, 369-380. [Crossref] 2957. Sebastian Galiani, Ernesto Schargrodsky. 2010. Property rights for the poor: Effects of land titling. Journal of Public Economics 94:9-10, 700-729. [Crossref] 2958. A. 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[Crossref] 2964. Hoyt Bleakley. 2010. Health, Human Capital, and Development. Annual Review of Economics 2:1, 283-310. [Crossref] 2965. Roberto Dell’Anno. 2010. Institutions and human development in the Latin American informal economy. Constitutional Political Economy 21:3, 207-230. [Crossref] 2966. Fabian Bornhorst, Andrea Ichino, Oliver Kirchkamp, Karl H. Schlag, Eyal Winter. 2010. Similarities and differences when building trust: the role of cultures. Experimental Economics 13:3, 260-283. [Crossref] 2967. Alexandra Leitão. 2010. Corruption and the environmental Kuznets Curve: Empirical evidence for sulfur. Ecological Economics 69:11, 2191-2201. [Crossref] 2968. Mehmet Eris. 2010. Population heterogeneity and growth. Economic Modelling 27:5, 1211-1222. [Crossref] 2969. W.N.W. Azman-Saini, Ahmad Zubaidi Baharumshah, Siong Hook Law. 2010. Foreign direct investment, economic freedom and economic growth: International evidence. Economic Modelling 27:5, 1079-1089. [Crossref] 2970. Saul Estrin, Martha Prevezer. 2010. A survey on institutions and new firm entry: How and why do entry rates differ in emerging markets?. Economic Systems 34:3, 289-308. [Crossref] 2971. Lewis S. Davis. 2010. Institutional flexibility and economic growth. Journal of Comparative Economics 38:3, 306-320. [Crossref] 2972. Bernd Hayo, Stefan Voigt. 2010. Determinants of constitutional change: Why do countries change their form of government?. Journal of Comparative Economics 38:3, 283-305. [Crossref] 2973. Gordon Hughes, Paul Chinowsky, Ken Strzepek. 2010. The costs of adaptation to climate change for water infrastructure in OECD countries. Utilities Policy 18:3, 142-153. [Crossref] 2974. Pernilla Johansson. 2010. Debt Relief, Investment and Growth. World Development 38:9, 1204-1216. [Crossref] 2975. Jeffrey G. Williamson. 2010. Five centuries of Latin American income inequality. Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 28:2, 227-252. [Crossref] 2976. MARK DINCECCO. 2010. Fragmented authority from Ancien Régime to modernity: a quantitative analysis. Journal of Institutional Economics 6:3, 305-328. [Crossref] 2977. Srdjan Vucetic. 2010. Anglobal governance?. Cambridge Review of International Affairs 23:3, 455-474. [Crossref] 2978. Katsushi S. Imai, Raghav Gaiha, Ganesh Thapa. 2010. Is the Millennium Development Goal on Poverty Still Achievable? The Role of Institutions, Finance and Openness. Oxford Development Studies 38:3, 309-337. [Crossref] 2979. Mihasonirina Andrianaivo, Charles Amo Yartey. 2010. Understanding the Growth of African Financial Markets*. African Development Review 22:3, 394-418. [Crossref] 2980. Debraj Ray,. 2010. Uneven Growth: A Framework for Research in Development Economics. Journal of Economic Perspectives 24:3, 45-60. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 2981. Edward B. Barbier. 2010. 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Does democracy produce quality of government?. European Journal of Political Research 49:4, 443-470. [Crossref] 3008. EFRAIM BENMELECH, TOBIAS J. MOSKOWITZ. 2010. The Political Economy of Financial Regulation: Evidence from U.S. State Usury Laws in the 19th Century. The Journal of Finance 65:3, 1029-1073. [Crossref] 3009. Guido Tabellini. 2010. Culture and Institutions: Economic Development in the Regions of Europe. Journal of the European Economic Association 8:4, 677-716. [Crossref] 3010. Rock-Antoine Mehanna, Yousef Yazbeck, Leyla Sarieddine. 2010. Governance and Economic Development in MENA Countries: Does Oil Affect the Presence of a Virtuous Circle?. Journal of Transnational Management 15:2, 117-150. [Crossref] 3011. Nathan Nunn,, Nancy Qian,. 2010. The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas. Journal of Economic Perspectives 24:2, 163-188. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3012. Joshua D. Angrist,, Jörn-Steffen Pischke,. 2010. The Credibility Revolution in Empirical Economics: How Better Research Design is Taking the Con out of Econometrics. Journal of Economic Perspectives 24:2, 3-30. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3013. Sambit Bhattacharyya, Roland Hodler. 2010. Natural resources, democracy and corruption. European Economic Review 54:4, 608-621. [Crossref] 3014. Keith Head, Thierry Mayer, John Ries. 2010. The erosion of colonial trade linkages after independence. Journal of International Economics 81:1, 1-14. [Crossref] 3015. John L. Worrall, Tomislav V. Kovandzic. 2010. Police levels and crime rates: An instrumental variables approach. Social Science Research 39:3, 506-516. [Crossref] 3016. Jay Squalli, Kenneth Wilson, Sarah Hugo. 2010. An analysis of market access. Applied Economics 42:14, 1833-1844. [Crossref] 3017. Robert MacCulloch, Silvia Pezzini. 2010. The Roles of Freedom, Growth, and Religion in the Taste for Revolution. The Journal of Law and Economics 53:2, 329-358. [Crossref] 3018. Chul-In Lee. 2010. CAN SEARCH-MATCHING MODELS EXPLAIN MIGRATION AND WAGE AND UNEMPLOYMENT GAPS IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES? A CALIBRATION APPROACH*. Journal of Regional Science 50:2, 635-654. [Crossref] 3019. EWOUT FRANKEMA. 2010. The colonial roots of land inequality: geography, factor endowments, or institutions?. The Economic History Review 63:2, 418-451. [Crossref] 3020. Richard S. J. Tol. 2010. The Economic Impact of Climate Change. Perspektiven der Wirtschaftspolitik 11, 13-37. [Crossref] 3021. Francisco A Gallego. 2010. Historical Origins of Schooling: The Role of Democracy and Political Decentralization. Review of Economics and Statistics 92:2, 228-243. [Crossref] 3022. Cullen S Hendrix. 2010. Measuring state capacity: Theoretical and empirical implications for the study of civil conflict. Journal of Peace Research 47:3, 273-285. [Crossref] 3023. Parmendra Sharma, Duc-Tho Nguyen. 2010. 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Democratization 17:1, 143-174. [Crossref] 3051. Graziella Bertocchi, Chiara Strozzi. 2010. The Evolution of Citizenship: Economic and Institutional Determinants. The Journal of Law and Economics 53:1, 95-136. [Crossref] 3052. Julan Du. 2010. Institutional Quality and Economic Crises: Legal Origin Theory versus Colonial Strategy Theory. Review of Economics and Statistics 92:1, 173-179. [Crossref] 3053. Ya. Kuzminov, M. Yudkevich. 2010. Beyond Market: Institutions of Governance in the Complex World (Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics 2009 - Oliver Williamson and Elinor Ostrom). Voprosy Ekonomiki :1, 82-98. [Crossref] 3054. Matthew Lange. States and Economic Development 263-277. [Crossref] 3055. Stephan Klasen, Heiko Faust, Michael Grimm, Stefan Schwarze. Demography, development, and deforestation at the rainforest margin in Indonesia 213-236. [Crossref] 3056. John Dobson, Richard Duncombe, Brian Nicholson. 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[Crossref] 3065. Giuseppe Arbia, Michele Battisti, Gianfranco Di Vaio. 2010. Institutions and geography: Empirical test of spatial growth models for European regions. Economic Modelling 27:1, 12-21. [Crossref] 3066. Wan-Jiun Paul Chiou, Alice C. Lee, Cheng-Few Lee. 2010. Stock return, risk, and legal environment around the world. International Review of Economics & Finance 19:1, 95-105. [Crossref] 3067. Theo S. Eicher, Till Schreiber. 2010. Structural policies and growth: Time series evidence from a natural experiment. Journal of Development Economics 91:1, 169-179. [Crossref] 3068. Hun-Chang Lee. 2010. How Geography and International Relations Shaped Economic Development in the Republic of Korea. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 2:5, 7208-7217. [Crossref] 3069. Sebastian Dellepiane-Avellaneda. 2010. Review Article: Good Governance, Institutions and Economic Development: Beyond the Conventional Wisdom. British Journal of Political Science 40:1, 195-224. [Crossref] 3070. Lorenzo Veracini. The Imagined Geographies of Settler Colonialism 179-197. [Crossref] 3071. Daron Acemoglu. growth and institutions 107-115. [Crossref] 3072. Steven N. Durlauf, Paul A. Johnson. convergence 16-23. [Crossref] 3073. Daniel Kaufmann. Good Governance for Sustained Growth and Development 167-182. [Crossref] 3074. Chiara Guglielmetti. Context and Proximity in Competitiveness and Cohesion: Theoretical and Empirical Challenges 15-42. [Crossref] 3075. Jaime Reis. Institutions and Economic Growth in the Atlantic Periphery: The Efficiency of the Portuguese Machinery of Justice, 1870–1910 73-101. [Crossref] 3076. Marc Schiffbauer, Ling Shen. 2010. Democracy vs. dictatorship. Economics of Transition 18:1, 59-90. [Crossref] 3077. Fabrice Lehoucq. 2010. Political Competition, Constitutional Arrangements, and the Quality of Public Policies in Costa Rica. Latin American Politics and Society 52:4, 53-77. [Crossref] 3078. Lilyan E. Fulginiti. 2010. 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SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3085. Janice Boucher Breuer, John H. McDermott. 2010. Respect, Responsibility, and Development. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3086. Brian Kelleher Richter. 2010. The Role Political Connections Play in Access to Finance: Evidence from Cross-Listing. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3087. Art Carden, Robert A. Lawson. 2010. Human Rights and Economic Liberalization. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3088. Johannes Wolfgang Fedderke, Nicola Viegi, Julius Agbor. 2010. 'How Does Colonial Origin Matter for Economic Performance in Sub-Saharan Africa'. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3089. Julius Agbor, Johannes Wolfgang Fedderke, Nicola Viegi. 2010. A Theory of Colonial Governance. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3090. Marc F. Bellemare. 2010. The Productivity Impacts of Formal and Informal Land Rights. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3091. Mehmet Caner, Turanay Caner, Thomas J. Grennes. 2010. Determinants of Investment by the Norwegian Sovereign Wealth Fund: GDP Versus Institutions. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3092. Randall K. Morck, Masao Nakamura. 2010. A Frog in a Well Knows Nothing of the Ocean: A History of Corporate Ownership in Japan. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3093. Ernesto Schargrodsky, Sebastian Galiani. 2010. Property Rights for the Poor: Effects of Land Titling. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3094. Arthur van Benthem, Johannes Stroebel. 2010. Resource Extraction Contracts Under Threat of Expropriation: Theory and Evidence. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3095. Samy Ben Naceur, Mondher Cherif, Magda Kandil. 2010. What Drives Financial Sector Development in the MENA Region?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3096. Ari Aisen, Francisco José Veiga. 2010. How Does Political Instability Affect Economic Growth?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3097. Bernd Hayo, Stefan Voigt. 2010. Determinants of Constitutional Change: Why do Countries Change Their Form of Government?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3098. Jeffrey A. Frankel. 2010. The Natural Resource Curse: A Survey. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3099. Francesco Pigliaru, Adriana Di Liberto, Rinaldo Brau. 2010. Tourism and Development: A Recent Phenomenon Built on Old (Institutional) Roots?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3100. Luigi Guiso, Paola Sapienza, Luigi Zingales. 2010. Civic Capital as the Missing Link. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3101. Sadia Mariam Malik, Yasin Janjua. 2010. Geography, Institutions and Human Development: A Cross- Country Investigation Using Bayesian Model Averaging. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3102. Vivien Kappel. 2010. The Effects of Financial Development on Income Inequality and Poverty. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3103. William Summerhill. 2010. Colonial Institutions, Slavery, Inequality, and Development: Evidence from São Paulo, Brazil. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3104. Prabir De. 2010. Governance, Institutions, and Regional Infrastructure in Asia. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3105. Sudip Ranjan Basu, Victor A. Ognivtsev, Miho Shirotori. 2010. Building Trade-Relating Institutions and WTO Accession. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3106. Sudip Ranjan Basu, Monica Das. 2010. Institution and Development Revisited: A Nonparametric Approach. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3107. Mina Baliamoune-Lutz. 2010. Financial Development and Income in Developing Countries. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3108. Juzhong Zhuang, Emmanuel de Dios, Anneli Lagman Martin. 2010. Governance and Institutional Quality and the Links with Economic Growth and Income Inequality: With Special Reference to Developing Asia. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3109. Mary Hallward-Driemeier, Gita Khun Jush, Lant Pritchett. 2010. Deals Versus Rules: Policy Implementation Uncertainty and Why Firms Hate it. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3110. Svetlana Andrianova, Panicos O. Demetriades, Anja Shortland. 2010. Is Government Ownership of Banks Really Harmful to Growth?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3111. Lixin Colin Xu. 2010. The Effects of Business Environments on Development: Surveying New Firm- Level Evidence. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3112. Eleonora E. Nillesen, Philip Verwimp. 2010. A Phoenix in Flames? Portfolio Choice and Violence in Civil War in Rural Burundi. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3113. Vincenzo Galasso, Paola Profeta. 2010. When the State Mirrors the Family: The Design of Pension Systems. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3114. Philippe Froute, Christophe Schalck, Gilles Dufrénot. 2010. The French Regions’ Borrowing Behaviours: How Heterogeneous are They?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3115. Abu Shonchoy. 2010. The Dynamics of Spending and Absorption of Aid: Panel Data Analysis. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3116. Janice Boucher Breuer, John H. McDermott. 2010. Culture, Caution, and Trust. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3117. Terra Lawson-Remer. 2010. Security of Property Rights for Whom?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3118. Andreas Steinhauer, Tobias Wuergler. 2010. Leverage and Covariance Matrix Estimation in Finite- Sample IV Regressions. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3119. Douglas Brooks, Rana Hasan, Jong-Wha Lee, Hyun H. Son. 2010. Closing Development Gaps: Challenges and Policy Options. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3120. Anna Persson, Martin Sjostedt. 2010. Development or Decay? How Threats During Formative Moments of State Development Affect Institutional Quality Today. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3121. Kunle Patrick Owolabi. 2010. Forced Settlement, Colonial Occupation and Divergent Political Regime Outcomes in the Developing World, 1946-2004. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3122. Ryan S. Jablonski, Steven Oliver. 2010. The Political Economy of Plunder: Economic Opportunity and Modern Piracy. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3123. Thorsten Beck, Chen Lin, Yue Ma. 2010. Why Do Firms Evade Taxes? The Role of Information Sharing and Financial Sector Outreach. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3124. Peter Frank Nardulli, Buddy Peyton, Joseph W. Bajjalieh. 2010. Institutions and Economic Growth: An Empirical Assessment of the Post WW II Era. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3125. Thorsten Beck. 2010. Legal Institutions and Economic Development. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3126. Randall K. Morck, Bernard Yin Yeung. 2010. Agency Problems and the Fate of Capitalism. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3127. Onur Ulas Ince. 2010. 'Progress' Revisited: A Historical Materialist Reappraisal. 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Marek Hlavac. 2010. Economic Development in Pre-Independence Botswana, 1820-1966: Historical Trends, Contributing and Countervailing Factors. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3136. David S. Brown, Andrew B. Whitford, Jeff L. Yates. 2010. Perceptions of the Rule of Law: Evidence About the Impact of Judicial Insulation. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3137. Aleksandar Zaklan, Georg Zachmann, Anne Neumann. 2010. The Dynamics of Global Crude Oil Production. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3138. Randall K. Morck, Bernard Yin Yeung. 2010. Corporatism and the Ghost of the Third Way. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3139. Philipp Harms, Philipp an de Meulen. 2010. Demographic Structure and the Security of Property Rights in Developing Countries – An Empirical Exploration. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3140. Petrik Runst. 2010. De Gustibus Est Disputandum – Behavioral Foundations of Constitutional Political Economy. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3141. Drew Conway. 2010. Networks, Collective Action, and State Formation. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3142. Randall K. Morck, Bernard Yin Yeung. 2010. Economics, History, and Causation. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3143. Oleg Badunenko, Daniel J. Henderson, Romain Houssa. 2010. Explaining African Growth Performance: A Production-Frontier Approach. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3144. Lewis S. Davis, M. Fuat Sener. 2010. Private Patent Protection in the Theory of Schumpeterian Growth. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3145. Johannes W. Fedderke, Chandana Kularatne. 2010. Elites Behaving Badly. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3146. Eldar Madumarov. 2010. The Two-Decade Process of Institutional Adjustment in the Transition Economies of the Former Soviet Union: Overachievers, Mediocre Performers, and Underdogs. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3147. Georgios Georgiadis, Francisco R. Rodriguez, Jose Pineda. 2010. Has the Preston Curve Broken Down?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3148. Parmendra Sharma, Tom Nguyen. 2010. Law and Banking Development in a South Pacific Island Economy: The Case of Fiji, 1970-2006. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3149. Mehmet Ugur. 2010. Institutions and Economic Performance: A Review of the Theory and Evidence. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3150. Valentin Seidler. 2010. Why Did Botswana End Up with Good Institutions: The Role of Culture and Colonial Rule. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3151. Lewis S. Davis. 2010. Institutional Flexibility and Economic Growth. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3152. Florin Peci, Mario Holzner, Enver Kutllovci. 2010. Determinants of Kosovo Trade: A Gravity Model Approach. South East European Journal of Economics and Business 5:2. . [Crossref] 3153. Zoltan J. Acs. 2010. Entrepreneurship and economic development: the valley of backwardness. Annals of Innovation & Entrepreneurship 1:1, 5641. [Crossref] 3154. Michel Fouquin. 2010. La crise mondiale accélère la montée en puissance de l'Asie. Mondes en développement n° 150:2, 103. [Crossref] 3155. Markus Bruckner, Rabah Arezki. 2010. International Commodity Price Shocks, Democracy, and External Debt. IMF Working Papers 10:53, 1. [Crossref] 3156. Reda Cherif, Rabah Arezki. 2010. Development Accounting and the Rise of TFP. IMF Working Papers 10:101, 1. [Crossref] 3157. Raul Razo-Garcia. Estimating the effect of exchange rate flexibility on financial account openness 199-251. [Crossref] 3158. Peter J. Boettke, Christopher J. Coyne, Peter T. Leeson. Land Grab 173-186. [Crossref] 3159. James A. Robinson. 2010. Politique industrielle et développement : analyse en termes d'économie politique. Revue d'économie du développement 18:4, 21. [Crossref] 3160. Malmendier Ulrike. 2009. Law and Finance “at the Origin”. Journal of Economic Literature 47:4, 1076-1108. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3161. John K. Horowitz. 2009. The Income–Temperature Relationship in a Cross-Section of Countries and its Implications for Predicting the Effects of Global Warming. Environmental and Resource Economics 44:4, 475-493. [Crossref] 3162. Ann L. Owen, Julio Videras, Lewis Davis. 2009. Do all countries follow the same growth process?. Journal of Economic Growth 14:4, 265-286. [Crossref] 3163. Manuel Oechslin. 2009. Creditor protection and the dynamics of the distribution in oligarchic societies. Journal of Economic Growth 14:4, 313-344. [Crossref] 3164. Nobuhiro Mizuno, Ryosuke Okazawa. 2009. Colonial experience and postcolonial underdevelopment in Africa. Public Choice 141:3-4, 405-419. [Crossref] 3165. Jonathan H. Conning, James A. Robinson. 2009. Enclaves and Development: An Empirical Assessment. Studies in Comparative International Development 44:4, 359-385. [Crossref] 3166. Yi Lu, Zhigang Tao. 2009. Contract enforcement and family control of business: Evidence from China. Journal of Comparative Economics 37:4, 597-609. [Crossref] 3167. Ola Olsson. 2009. On the democratic legacy of colonialism. Journal of Comparative Economics 37:4, 534-551. [Crossref] 3168. Ivar Kolstad, Tina Søreide. 2009. Corruption in natural resource management: Implications for policy makers. Resources Policy 34:4, 214-226. [Crossref] 3169. Xavier Tafunell. 2009. Capital Formation in Machinery in Latin America, 1890-1930. The Journal of Economic History 69:4, 928-950. [Crossref] 3170. MARCO H. D. VAN LEEUWEN. 2009. The next generation of historical studies on social mobility: some remarks. Continuity and Change 24:3, 547-560. [Crossref] 3171. Dawood Mamoon, S. Mansoob Murshed. 2009. Want economic growth with good quality institutions? Spend on education. Education Economics 17:4, 445-468. [Crossref] 3172. Terry Haverluk. 2009. The Biomes of Power and Stability. Focus on Geography 52:3-4, 66-72. [Crossref] 3173. Gema Fabro, José Aixalá. 2009. Economic Growth and Institutional Quality: Global and Income- Level Analyses. Journal of Economic Issues 43:4, 997-1023. [Crossref] 3174. Adeel Malik, Jonathan R.W. Temple. 2009. The geography of output volatility. Journal of Development Economics 90:2, 163-178. [Crossref] 3175. Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, James A. Robinson, Pierre Yared. 2009. Reevaluating the modernization hypothesis. Journal of Monetary Economics 56:8, 1043-1058. [Crossref] 3176. Charalambos Tsangarides, Pierre Ewenczyk, Michal Hulej, Mahvash Saeed Qureshi. 2009. Are Africa's Currency Unions Good for Trade?. IMF Staff Papers 56:4, 876-918. [Crossref] 3177. S. Bhattacharyya. 2009. Root Causes of African Underdevelopment. Journal of African Economies 18:5, 745-780. [Crossref] 3178. BERNARDO MUELLER. 2009. The Fiscal Imperative and the Role of Public Prosecutors in Brazilian Environmental Policy. Law & Policy 91. . [Crossref] 3179. Yann Algan. 2009. Two Book Reviews of Institutions and Economic Performance. The Economic Journal 119:541, F536-F541. [Crossref] 3180. Kai Carstensen, Erich Gundlach, Susanne Hartmann. 2009. The Augmented Solow Model with Mincerian Schooling and Externalities. German Economic Review 10:4, 448-463. [Crossref] 3181. David T. Mitchell, Noel D. Campbell. 2009. Corruption's Effect on Business Venturing Within the United States. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 68:5, 1135-1152. [Crossref] 3182. Jaejoon Woo. 2009. Why Do More Polarized Countries Run More Procyclical Fiscal Policy?. Review of Economics and Statistics 91:4, 850-870. [Crossref] 3183. Avner Greif. 2009. Qu’est-ce que l’analyse institutionnelle ?. Tracés :17, 181-210. [Crossref] 3184. Katharina Wick, Erwin Bulte. 2009. The Curse of Natural Resources. Annual Review of Resource Economics 1:1, 139-156. [Crossref] 3185. Sharmistha Self, Richard Grabowski. 2009. Relative gender differentials and Islam in non‐Arabic nations: a regional analysis. International Journal of Development Issues 8:2, 102-118. [Crossref] 3186. Hugo J. Faria, Hugo M. Montesinos. 2009. Does economic freedom cause prosperity? An IV approach. Public Choice 141:1-2, 103-127. [Crossref] 3187. Kam Ki Tang, Dennis Petrie, D.S. Prasada Rao. 2009. The income-climate trap of health development: A comparative analysis of African and Non-African countries. Social Science & Medicine 69:7, 1099-1106. [Crossref] 3188. Tiago Neves Sequeira, Margarida Rodrigues. 2009. Social or human infrastructure? Re-examining essential determinants of output per worker among countries. Applied Economics Letters 16:14, 1455-1459. [Crossref] 3189. Nathan Nunn. 2009. The Importance of History for Economic Development. Annual Review of Economics 1:1, 65-92. [Crossref] 3190. Saul Estrin,, Jan Hanousek,, Evžen Kočenda,, Jan Svejnar. 2009. The Effects of Privatization and Ownership in Transition Economies. Journal of Economic Literature 47:3, 699-728. 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Journal of Development Economics 90:1, 120-134. [Crossref] 3196. Eliana Balla, Noel D. Johnson. 2009. Fiscal Crisis and Institutional Change in the Ottoman Empire and France. The Journal of Economic History 69:3, 809-845. [Crossref] 3197. Kunal Sen, Dirk Willem Te Velde. 2009. State Business Relations and Economic Growth in Sub- Saharan Africa. Journal of Development Studies 45:8, 1267-1283. [Crossref] 3198. Thanh Le. 2009. Trade, Remittances, Institutions, and Economic Growth. International Economic Journal 23:3, 391-408. [Crossref] 3199. Alex Mandilaras, Helen Popper. 2009. Capital Flows, Capitalization, and Openness in Emerging East Asian Economies. Review of International Economics 17:4, 734-750. [Crossref] 3200. SAMBIT BHATTACHARYYA, STEVE DOWRICK, JANE GOLLEY. 2009. Institutions and Trade: Competitors or Complements in Economic Development?. Economic Record 85:270, 318-330. [Crossref] 3201. JERE R. FRANCIS, SHAWN HUANG, INDER K. KHURANA, RAYNOLDE PEREIRA. 2009. Does Corporate Transparency Contribute to Efficient Resource Allocation?. Journal of Accounting Research 47:4, 943-989. [Crossref] 3202. Newton Paulo Bueno. 2009. Institutions and Natural Resources Sustainability in Poor Socio- Ecological Systems: Closing some Dynamical Loops. Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics 21:3, 233-253. [Crossref] 3203. Taekyoon Kim. 2009. External-Internal Nexus for the Sources of Insecurity in the Third World. International Area Review 12:2, 61-84. [Crossref] 3204. Timothy Besley,, Torsten Persson. 2009. The Origins of State Capacity: Property Rights, Taxation, and Politics. American Economic Review 99:4, 1218-1244. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3205. Jacob Dearmon, Kevin Grier. 2009. Trust and development. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 71:2, 210-220. [Crossref] 3206. Wonik Kim. 2009. Rethinking Colonialism and the Origins of the Developmental State in East Asia. Journal of Contemporary Asia 39:3, 382-399. [Crossref] 3207. Gustav Hansson. 2009. What Determines Rule of Law? An Empirical Investigation of Rival Models. Kyklos 62:3, 371-393. [Crossref] 3208. Mina Baliamoune-Lutz, George Mavrotas. 2009. Aid Effectiveness: Looking at the Aid-Social Capital-Growth Nexus. Review of Development Economics 13:3, 510-525. [Crossref] 3209. Michael Alexeev, Robert Conrad. 2009. The Elusive Curse of Oil. Review of Economics and Statistics 91:3, 586-598. [Crossref] 3210. Frederic S. Mishkin. 2009. Globalization and financial development. Journal of Development Economics 89:2, 164-169. [Crossref] 3211. D. S. Bieri. 2009. Financial stability, the Basel Process and the new geography of regulation. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society 2:2, 303-331. [Crossref] 3212. C. Mónica Capra, Tomomi Tanaka, Colin F. Camerer, Lauren Feiler, Veronica Sovero, Charles N. Noussair. 2009. The Impact of Simple Institutions in Experimental Economies with Poverty Traps. The Economic Journal 119:539, 977-1009. [Crossref] 3213. 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Informal institutions rule: institutional arrangements and economic performance. Public Choice 139:3-4, 371-387. [Crossref] 3219. Ali Burak Güven. 2009. Reforming Sticky Institutions: Persistence and Change in Turkish Agriculture. Studies in Comparative International Development 44:2, 162-187. [Crossref] 3220. Matthieu Chemin. 2009. Do judiciaries matter for development? Evidence from India. Journal of Comparative Economics 37:2, 230-250. [Crossref] 3221. Jorge Balat, Irene Brambilla, Guido Porto. 2009. Realizing the gains from trade: Export crops, marketing costs, and poverty. Journal of International Economics 78:1, 21-31. [Crossref] 3222. Tomasz Iwanow, Colin Kirkpatrick. 2009. Trade Facilitation and Manufactured Exports: Is Africa Different?. World Development 37:6, 1039-1050. [Crossref] 3223. Nathan J Ashby. 2009. Institutions and Human Progress: An Analysis of International Pooled Data. Eastern Economic Journal 35:3, 396-414. [Crossref] 3224. R. Torvik. 2009. 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Nauro F. Campos, Francesco Giovannoni. 2008. Lobbying, Corruption and Other Banes. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3568. Sudip Ranjan Basu. 2008. A New Way to Link Development to Institutions, Policies and Geography. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3569. Shiyuan Pan. 2008. Competition among the Elites, Property Rights Protection and Economic Performance. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3570. Martin Paldam, Erich Gundlach. 2008. The Democratic Transition: A Study of the Causality Between Income and the Gastil Democracy Index. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3571. Ayub Khan Mehar. 2008. Is There a Vicious Circle in Muslim World? Trade Competitiveness and Investment. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3572. Louis G. Putterman, David N. Weil. 2008. Post-1500 Population Flows and the Long Run Determinants of Economic Growth and Inequality. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3573. C. A. Bayly. 2008. 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[Crossref] 3592. Joseph Gbewopo Attila. 2008. How Do African Populations Perceive Corruption: Microeconomic Evidence from Afrobarometer Data in Twelve Countries. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3593. Mariassunta Giannetti, Yrjo Koskinen. 2008. Investor Protection, Equity Returns and Financial Globalization. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3594. Saumitra Jha. 2008. Trade, Institutions and Religious Tolerance: Evidence from India. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3595. Anna L. Paulson, Una Okonkwo Okonkwo Osili. 2008. What Can We Learn about Financial Access from U.S. Immigrants?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3596. Michael Walton. 2008. La culture a un impact sur la pauvreté ; mais pas à cause d'une culture de la pauvreté. Afrique contemporaine 226:2, 133. [Crossref] 3597. Jihad Dagher, Ralph Chami, Peter Montiel, Yasser Abdih. 2008. Remittances and Institutions: Are Remittances a Curse?. IMF Working Papers 08:29, 1. [Crossref] 3598. Jonathan David Ostry, Andrew Berg, Jeromin Zettelmeyer. 2008. What Makes Growth Sustained?. IMF Working Papers 08:59, 1. [Crossref] 3599. Chris Papageorgiou, Christian Henn, Theo S. Eicher. 2008. Trade Creation and Diversion Revisited: Accounting for Model Uncertainty and Natural Trading Partner Effects. IMF Working Papers 08:66, 1. [Crossref] 3600. Abebe Aemro Selassie. 2008. Beyond Macroeconomic Stability: The Quest for Industrialization in Uganda. IMF Working Papers 08:231, 1. [Crossref] 3601. Rupa Duttagupta, Montfort Mlachila. 2008. What is Really Good for Long-Term Growth? Lessons from a Binary ClassificationTree (BCT) Approach. IMF Working Papers 08:263, 1. [Crossref] 3602. Gonzalo Salinas, Patrick A. Imam. 2008. Explaining Episodes of Growth Accelerations, Decelerations, and Collapses in Western Africa. IMF Working Papers 08:287, 1. [Crossref] 3603. Pierre Malgrange, Patrick Plane. 2008. Économie du développement et de la transition : présentation générale. 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Public Choice 133:3-4, 343-358. [Crossref] 3628. P. Collier. 2007. Poverty reduction in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:43, 16763-16768. [Crossref] 3629. Richard Grabowski. 2007. Political Development and Growth: Japan until World War II. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 12:4, 522-547. [Crossref] 3630. Mehmet A. Ulubaşoğlu, Buly A. Cardak. 2007. International comparisons of rural–urban educational attainment: Data and determinants. European Economic Review 51:7, 1828-1857. [Crossref] 3631. Jan Fagerberg, Martin Srholec, Mark Knell. 2007. The Competitiveness of Nations: Why Some Countries Prosper While Others Fall Behind. World Development 35:10, 1595-1620. [Crossref] 3632. NICOLAAS GROENEWOLD, SAM HAK KAN TANG. 2007. KILLING THE GOOSE THAT LAYS THE GOLDEN EGG: INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN HONG KONG. Economic Inquiry 45:4, 787-799. [Crossref] 3633. Frederic L. Pryor. 2007. Culture and Economic Systems. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 66:4, 817-855. [Crossref] 3634. Patrick Ziltener, Hans-Peter Mueller. 2007. The Weight of the Past. International Journal of Comparative Sociology 48:5, 371-415. [Crossref] 3635. R. Quentin Grafton, Tom Kompas, P. Dorian Owen. 2007. Bridging the barriers: knowledge connections, productivity and capital accumulation. Journal of Productivity Analysis 28:3, 219-231. [Crossref] 3636. MICHAEL GRAFF. 2007. Law and Finance: Common Law and Civil Law Countries Compared?An Empirical Critique. Economica, ahead of print070924100058003-???. [Crossref] 3637. James Levinsohn, Juan Carlos Hallak. Fooling ourselves 209-223. [Crossref] 3638. Mary Hallward-Driemeier, Taye Mengistae, David Dollar. Investment climate and international integration in Asian developing economies 85-104. [Crossref] 3639. Nicola Gennaioli, Ilia Rainer. 2007. The modern impact of precolonial centralization in Africa. Journal of Economic Growth 12:3, 185-234. [Crossref] 3640. Axel Dreher, Christos Kotsogiannis, Steve McCorriston. 2007. Corruption around the world: Evidence from a structural model. Journal of Comparative Economics 35:3, 443-466. [Crossref] 3641. Kevin Grier, Robin Grier. 2007. Only income diverges: A neoclassical anomaly. Journal of Development Economics 84:1, 25-45. [Crossref] 3642. Andros Kourtellos, Chih Ming Tan, Xiaobo Zhang. 2007. Is the relationship between aid and economic growth nonlinear?. Journal of Macroeconomics 29:3, 515-540. [Crossref] 3643. Jenny Minier. 2007. Institutions and parameter heterogeneity. Journal of Macroeconomics 29:3, 595-611. [Crossref] 3644. Roy Maconachie, Tony Binns. 2007. Beyond the resource curse? Diamond mining, development and post-conflict reconstruction in Sierra Leone. Resources Policy 32:3, 104-115. [Crossref] 3645. Noel Maurer, Stephen Haber. 2007. Related Lending and Economic Performance: Evidence from Mexico. The Journal of Economic History 67:3, 551-581. [Crossref] 3646. Randall Morck, Masao Nakamura. 2007. Business Groups and the Big Push: Meiji Japan's Mass Privatization and Subsequent Growth. Enterprise & Society 8:3, 543-601. [Crossref] 3647. Sophia Du Plessis. 2007. Property rights as an institution in Zambia. South African Journal of Economic History 22:1-2, 1-21. [Crossref] 3648. Eduardo T. Gonzalez. 2007. Historical Origins of the Present Crisis in the Philippines: The Consequences of a Late Institutional Start. The Journal of Comparative Asian Development 6:2, 363-408. [Crossref] 3649. Nancy Birdsall. 2007. Do No Harm: Aid, Weak Institutions and the Missing Middle in Africa. Development Policy Review 25:5, 575-598. [Crossref] 3650. Ahmet Faruk AYSAN, Mustapha Kamel NABLI, Marie-Ange VÉGANZONÈS-VAROUDAKIS. 2007. GOVERNANCE INSTITUTIONS AND PRIVATE INVESTMENT: AN APPLICATION TO THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA. The Developing Economies 45:3, 339-377. [Crossref] 3651. Roland Hodler. 2007. Rent seeking and aid effectiveness. International Tax and Public Finance 14:5, 525-541. [Crossref] 3652. Stephen P. Keef, Melvin L. Roush. 2007. A meta‐analysis of the international evidence of cloud cover on stock returns. Review of Accounting and Finance 6:3, 324-338. [Crossref] 3653. Carol H. Shiue, Wolfgang Keller. 2007. Markets in China and Europe on the Eve of the Industrial Revolution. American Economic Review 97:4, 1189-1216. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3654. Tomasz Iwanow, Colin Kirkpatrick. 2007. Trade facilitation, regulatory quality and export performance. Journal of International Development 19:6, 735-753. [Crossref] 3655. Cullen S. Hendrix, Sarah M. Glaser. 2007. Trends and triggers: Climate, climate change and civil conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa. Political Geography 26:6, 695-715. [Crossref] 3656. JOHN C. BROWN, TIMOTHY W. GUINNANE. 2007. Regions and time in the European fertility transition: problems in the Princeton Project’s statistical methodology. 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Luis Angeles. 2007. Income inequality and colonialism. European Economic Review 51:5, 1155-1176. [Crossref] 3663. Shanker Satyanath, Arvind Subramanian. 2007. The Political Economy of Nominal Macroeconomic Pathologies. IMF Staff Papers 54:3, 419-453. [Crossref] 3664. Axel Borrmann, Matthias Busse. 2007. The Institutional Challenge of the ACP/EU Economic Partnership Agreements. Development Policy Review 25:4, 403-416. [Crossref] 3665. Andrei A. Levchenko. 2007. Institutional Quality and International Trade. The Review of Economic Studies 74:3, 791-819. [Crossref] 3666. PRIYA RANJAN, JAE YOUNG LEE. 2007. CONTRACT ENFORCEMENT AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE. Economics & Politics 19:2, 191-218. [Crossref] 3667. Ernesto Dal Bó, Martín A. Rossi. 2007. Corruption and inefficiency: Theory and evidence from electric utilities. Journal of Public Economics 91:5-6, 939-962. [Crossref] 3668. W. A. Naudé, W. F. Krugell. 2007. Investigating geography and institutions as determinants of foreign direct investment in Africa using panel data. Applied Economics 39:10, 1223-1233. [Crossref] 3669. Edward N. Gamber, Amy K. S. Scott. 2007. A Threshold Analysis of the Relationship Between Governance and Growth. International Economic Journal 21:2, 255-278. [Crossref] 3670. A. Subramanian. 2007. The evolution of institutions in India and its relationship with economic growth. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 23:2, 196-220. [Crossref] 3671. Areendam Chanda, Louis Putterman. 2007. Early Starts, Reversals and Catch-up in the Process of Economic Development. Scandinavian Journal of Economics 109:2, 387-413. [Crossref] 3672. EDWYNA HARRIS. 2007. INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH: THE EVOLUTION OF WATER RIGHTS IN VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA 1850-1886. Economic Papers: A journal of applied economics and policy 26:2, 118-127. [Crossref] 3673. Daniel Treisman. 2007. What Have We Learned About the Causes of Corruption from Ten Years of Cross-National Empirical Research?. Annual Review of Political Science 10:1, 211-244. [Crossref] 3674. Laura Marsiliani, Thomas I. Renström. 2007. Political institutions and economic growth. Economics of Governance 8:3, 233-261. [Crossref] 3675. Nathan Nunn. 2007. Historical legacies: A model linking Africa's past to its current underdevelopment. Journal of Development Economics 83:1, 157-175. [Crossref] 3676. Tao Kong. 2007. A Selective Review of Recent Developments in the Economic Growth Literature. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 21:1, 1-33. [Crossref] 3677. Stijn Claessens, Daniela Klingebiel, Sergio L. Schmukler. 2007. Government Bonds in Domestic and Foreign Currency: the Role of Institutional and Macroeconomic Factors. Review of International Economics 15:2, 370-413. [Crossref] 3678. Agnès Bénassy-Quéré, Maylis Coupet, Thierry Mayer. 2007. Institutional Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment. The World Economy 30:5, 764-782. [Crossref] 3679. ANNE BOOTH. 2007. Night watchman, extractive, or developmental states? Some evidence from late colonial south-east Asia. The Economic History Review 60:2, 241-266. [Crossref] 3680. Marcus J. Kurtz, Andrew Schrank. 2007. Growth and Governance: Models, Measures, and Mechanisms. The Journal of Politics 69:2, 538-554. [Crossref] 3681. Daniel Kaufmann, Aart Kraay, Massimo Mastruzzi. 2007. Growth and Governance: A Reply. The Journal of Politics 69:2, 555-562. [Crossref] 3682. Sharmistha Self, Richard Grabowski. 2007. Economic development and the role of agricultural technology. Agricultural Economics 36:3, 395-404. [Crossref] 3683. Siong Hook Law. 2007. Openness and Financial Development. Journal of Emerging Market Finance 6:2, 145-165. [Crossref] 3684. Edward Anderson. 2007. Travel and communication and international differences in GDP per capita. Journal of International Development 19:3, 315-332. [Crossref] 3685. Jonathan Vogel. 2007. Institutions and moral hazard in open economies. Journal of International Economics 71:2, 495-514. [Crossref] 3686. Maria L. Di Tommaso, Martin Raiser, Melvyn Weeks. 2007. Home Grown or Imported? Initial Conditions, External Anchors and the Determinants of Institutional Reform in the Transition Economies. The Economic Journal 117:520, 858-881. [Crossref] 3687. Angela Cheptea. 2007. Trade liberalization and institutional reforms. The Economics of Transition 15:2, 211-255. [Crossref] 3688. ARTHUR A. GOLDSMITH. 2007. Is Governance Reform a Catalyst for Development?. Governance 20:2, 165-186. [Crossref] 3689. JONATHAN HOPKIN, ANDRÉS RODRÍGUEZ-POSE. 2007. "Grabbing Hand" or "Helping Hand"?: Corruption and the Economic Role of the State. Governance 20:2, 187-208. [Crossref] 3690. Stan Wong. 2007. Juries, Judges, and Corruption: A Cross-National Analysis. Public Integrity 9:2, 133-153. [Crossref] 3691. François Bourguignon, Francisco H. G. Ferreira, Michael Walton. 2007. Equity, efficiency and inequality traps: A research agenda. The Journal of Economic Inequality 5:2, 235-256. [Crossref] 3692. Daniel Berkowitz, Gérard Roland. 2007. Editorial Statement from Daniel Berkowitz and Gérard Roland. Journal of Comparative Economics 35:1, 1-2. [Crossref] 3693. Ernesto Stein, Christian Daude. 2007. Longitude matters: Time zones and the location of foreign direct investment. Journal of International Economics 71:1, 96-112. [Crossref] 3694. Bruce G. Carruthers. 2007. Rules, institutions, and North's institutionalism: state and market in early modern England. European Management Review 4:1, 40-53. [Crossref] 3695. FREDERIC S. MISHKIN. 2007. Is Financial Globalization Beneficial?. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 39:2-3, 259-294. [Crossref] 3696. AZAM CHAUDHRY, PHILLIP GARNER. 2007. DO GOVERNMENTS SUPPRESS GROWTH? INSTITUTIONS, RENT-SEEKING, AND INNOVATION BLOCKING IN A MODEL OF SCHUMPETERIAN GROWTH. Economics & Politics 19:1, 35-52. [Crossref] 3697. SCOTT GEHLBACH. 2007. REVENUE TRAPS. Economics & Politics 19:1, 73-96. [Crossref] 3698. Colin Rowat, Jayasri Dutta. 2007. The Commons with Capital Markets. Economic Theory 31:2, 225-254. [Crossref] 3699. David L. Pearson, Fabio Cassola. 2007. Are we doomed to repeat history? A model of the past using tiger beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) and conservation biology to anticipate the future. Journal of Insect Conservation 11:1, 47-59. [Crossref] 3700. Douglas B. Reynolds, Marek Kolodziej. 2007. Institutions and the supply of oil: A case study of Russia. Energy Policy 35:2, 939-949. [Crossref] 3701. Christoph A. Schaltegger, Benno Torgler. 2007. Government accountability and fiscal discipline: A panel analysis using Swiss data. Journal of Public Economics 91:1-2, 117-140. [Crossref] 3702. Bruno S. Frey, Simon Luechinger, Alois Stutzer. 2007. CALCULATING TRAGEDY: ASSESSING THE COSTS OF TERRORISM. Journal of Economic Surveys 21:1, 1-24. [Crossref] 3703. Paul Mosley, Abrar Suleiman. 2007. Aid, Agriculture and Poverty in Developing Countries. Review of Development Economics 11:1, 139-158. [Crossref] 3704. Wai-Man Liu, Xiaokai Yang. 2007. EFFECTS OF POLITICAL MONOPOLY ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. Pacific Economic Review 12:1, 69-78. [Crossref] 3705. Edward L. Glaeser. 2007. Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. The Economic Journal 117:517, F179-F183. [Crossref] 3706. R. Di Tella, S. Galiant, E. Schargrodsky. 2007. The Formation of Beliefs: Evidence from the Allocation of Land Titles to Squatters. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 122:1, 209-241. [Crossref] 3707. James Feyrer. 2007. Demographics and Productivity. Review of Economics and Statistics 89:1, 100-109. [Crossref] 3708. Jose G. Montalvo, Marta Reynal-Querol. 2007. Fighting against Malaria: Prevent Wars while Waiting for the “Miraculous” Vaccine. Review of Economics and Statistics 89:1, 165-177. [Crossref] 3709. Christian Bjørnskov. 2007. Determinants of generalized trust: A cross-country comparison. Public Choice 130:1-2, 1-21. [Crossref] 3710. Mustapha Kamel Nabli, Marie-Ange Véganzonès-Varoudakis. 2007. Reform complementarities and economic growth in the Middle East and North Africa. Journal of International Development 19:1, 17-54. [Crossref] 3711. Abhijit Banerjee, Lakshmi Iyer, Rohini Somanathan. Chapter 49 Public Action for Public Goods 3117-3154. [Crossref] 3712. William H. Kaempfer, Anton D. Lowenberg. Chapter 27 The Political Economy of Economic Sanctions 867-911. [Crossref] 3713. Wallace E. Huffman, Peter F. Orazem. Chapter 43 Agriculture and Human Capital in Economic Growth: Farmers, Schooling and Nutrition 2281-2341. [Crossref] 3714. Sugata Marjit, Vivekananda Mukherjee. Chapter 2 Poverty, Utilization of Foreign Aid and Corruption: The Role of Redistributive Politics 17-29. [Crossref] 3715. Arne Bigsten. Chapter 15 Aid and Economic Development in Africa 289-311. [Crossref] 3716. Scott Gilbert, Kevin Sylwester. Chapter 20 Foreign Aid, History, and Growth 403-420. [Crossref] 3717. Nikolaus Wolf. 2007. Endowments vs. market potential: What explains the relocation of industry after the Polish reunification in 1918?. Explorations in Economic History 44:1, 22-42. [Crossref] 3718. Hossein Jalilian, Colin Kirkpatrick, David Parker. 2007. The Impact of Regulation on Economic Growth in Developing Countries: A Cross-Country Analysis. World Development 35:1, 87-103. [Crossref] 3719. Henry Willebald. 2007. Desigualdad y especialización en el crecimiento de las economías templadas de nuevo asentamiento, 1870–1940. Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 25:2, 293-347. [Crossref] 3720. Jaime Bonet, Adolfo Meisel Roca. 2007. El legado colonial y el desarrollo regional en Colombia. Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 25:3, 367-394. [Crossref] 3721. W. R. Garside. Introduction: Economic Growth and Development — An Institutional Perspective 1-13. [Crossref] 3722. Graham Brownlow. A ‘Tiresome Complexity’? Rent-seeking, Devolution and Economic Performance in Northern Ireland, 1945–72 39-64. [Crossref] 3723. P. Dorian Owen, Clayton R. Weatherston. The Deep Determinants of Long-run Growth and Economic Development 137-166. [Crossref] 3724. Michael Jones, Stephen Knowles, P. Dorian Owen. The Deep Determinants of Health and Education: Institutions versus Geography 167-185. [Crossref] 3725. Aaron Batten, Alan Martina. Diseases Dominate 186-221. [Crossref] 3726. Greg Bankoff, Peter Boomgaard. Introduction: Natural Resources and the Shape of Asian History, 1500–2000 1-17. [Crossref] 3727. Dani Rodrik. What Produces Economic Success? 27-43. [Crossref] 3728. William Easterly. Development Success: May History Breed Humility 44-60. [Crossref] 3729. François Bourguignon, Michael Walton. Is Greater Equity Necessary for Higher Long-Term Growth in Latin America? 95-125. [Crossref] 3730. Erik Thorbecke. The Evolution of the Development Doctrine, 1950–2005 3-36. [Crossref] 3731. Stephen Knowles. Is Social Capital Part of the Institutions Continuum and is it a Deep Determinant of Development? 197-223. [Crossref] 3732. Mark Blackden, Sudharshan Canagarajah, Stephan Klasen, David Lawson. Gender and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and Evidence 349-370. [Crossref] 3733. E. Wayne Nafziger. From Seers to Sen: The Meaning of Economic Development 50-62. [Crossref] 3734. David Roodman. 2007. The Anarchy of Numbers: Aid, Development, and Cross-Country Empirics. The World Bank Economic Review 21:2, 255-277. [Crossref] 3735. Raul V. Fabella. 2007. What Happens When Institutions Do Not Work: Jueteng , Crises of Presidential Legitimacy, and Electoral Failures in the Philippines *. Asian Economic Papers 5:3, 104-125. [Crossref] 3736. Tao Li. 2007. Banking Regulation around the World. Journal of Emerging Market Finance 6:1, 61-122. [Crossref] 3737. Roy Maconachie, Tony Binns. 2007. Beyond greed and grievance in Sierra Leone. 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Valerie Cerra, Sweta C. Saxena. 2007. Growth Dynamics: The Myth of Economic Recovery. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3746. Md. Abul Basher. 2007. Prying into the Shadows: A General Equilibrium Model to Analyze the Effects of the Emerging Institutions on the Structure of Production and Welfare in Developing Countries. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3747. Matthieu Chemin. 2007. Does Judicial Quality Shape Economic Activity? Evidence from a Judicial Reform in India. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3748. Matthieu Chemin. 2007. Decoding the Code of Civil Procedure: Do Judiciaries Matter for Growth?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3749. Matthieu Chemin. 2007. The Impact of the Judiciary on Entrepreneurship: Evaluation of Pakistan's Access to Justice Programme. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3750. Guido Tabellini. 2007. The Scope of Cooperation: Values and Incentives. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3751. Pushan Dutt, Ahmed Mushfiq Mobarak. 2007. 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Aldo Musacchio. 2007. Can Civil Law Countries Get Good Institutions? Lessons from the History of Creditor Rights and Bond Markets in Brazil. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3759. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Philip Osafo-Kwaako. 2007. Nigeria's Economic Reforms: Progress and Challenges. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3760. Thomas Edward Flores, Irfan Nooruddin. 2007. Democracy under the Gun: Understanding Post- Conflict Economic Recovery. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3761. Roland Hodler. 2007. Institutions, Trade and the Political Economy of Financial Development. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3762. Nils Herger, Roland Hodler, Michael Lobsiger. 2007. What Determines Financial Development? Culture, Institutions, or Trade. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3763. Liesbet Vranken, Karen Macours, Nivelin Noev, Johan F. M. Swinnen. 2007. Property Rights Imperfections, Asset Allocation, and Welfare: Co-Ownership in Bulgaria. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3764. David Roodman. 2007. The Anarchy of Numbers: Aid, Development, and Cross-Country Empirics. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3765. Jaroslaw Beldowski, Katarzyna Metelska-Szaniawska. 2007. Law & Economics: Origins and Characteristics of the Economic Analysis of Law. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3766. Garett Jones, Tim J. Kane. 2007. U.S. Troops and Economic Growth. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3767. Franklin Allen, Rajesh Chakrabarti, Sankar De, Jun Qian, Meijun Qian. 2007. The Financial System Capacities in China and India. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3768. Lakshmi Iyer. 2007. Direct versus Indirect Colonial Rule in India: Long-Term Consequences. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3769. Patricia Funk. 2007. Does Direct Democracy Reduce the Size of Government? New Evidence from Historical Data, 1890-2000. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3770. Theo S. Eicher, Andreas Leukert. 2007. 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Institutions and Bank Performance: A Stochastic Frontier Analysis. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3784. Steven N. Durlauf, Andros Kourtellos, Chih Ming Tan. 2007. Are Any Growth Theories Robust?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3785. José Luis Groizard, Matthias Busse. 2007. Does Africa Really Benefit from Trade?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3786. Ann L. Owen, Julio Videras. 2007. Trust, Cooperation, and Implementation of Sustainability Programs: The Case of Local Agenda 21. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3787. Martin Wittenberg. 2007. Testing for a Common Latent Variable in a Linear Regression. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3788. Emek Basker. 2007. When Good Instruments Go Bad: A Reply to Neumark, Zhang, and Ciccarella. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3789. Laura Alfaro, Andrew Charlton. 2007. Growth and the Quality of Foreign Direct Investment: Is All FDI Equal. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3790. Art Carden. 2007. Inputs and Institutions as Conservative Elements. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3791. Barbara G. Katz, Joel Owen. 2007. Political Uncertainty and Crime in Transition Economies. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3792. Subhayu Bandyopadhyay, Suryadipta Roy. 2007. Corruption and Trade Protection: Evidence from Panel Data. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3793. Masao Nakamura, Randall K. Morck. 2007. Business Groups and the Big Push: Meiji Japan's Mass Privatization and Subsequent Growth. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3794. Voxi Heinrich S. Amavilah. 2007. The Effects of Technology-as-Knowledge on the Economic Performance of Developing Countries: An Econometric Analysis using Annual Publications Data for Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa, 1976-2004. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3795. Daniel Berkowitz, Karen B. Clay. 2007. Legal Origins and the Evolution of Institutions: Evidence from American State Courts. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3796. Tomas Kögel. 2007. Youth Dependency, Institutions, and Economic Growth. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3797. William R. Hauk, Romain T. Wacziarg. 2007. A Monte Carlo Study of Growth Regressions. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3798. Michael DaCosta. 2007. Colonial Origins, Institutions and Economic Performance in the Caribbean: Guyana and Barbados. IMF Working Papers 07:43, 1. [Crossref] 3799. Arvind Subramanian, Jonathan David Ostry, Simon Johnson. 2007. The Prospects for Sustained Growth in Africa: Benchmarking the Constraints. IMF Working Papers 07:52, 1. [Crossref] 3800. Rabah Arezki, Frederik van der Ploeg. 2007. Can the Natural Resource Curse Be Turned Into a Blessing? T+L3479he Role of Trade Policies and Institutions. IMF Working Papers 07:55, 1. [Crossref] 3801. Dietrich Vollrath, Lennart Erickson. 2007. Land Distribution and Financial System Development. IMF Working Papers 07:83, 1. [Crossref] 3802. Daehaeng Kim, Chul-In Lee. 2007. 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Empirics of hills, plateaus, mountains and plains: A Markov-switching approach to growth. Journal of Development Economics 81:2, 357-385. [Crossref] 3809. Shang-Jin Wei. 2006. Connecting two views on financial globalization: Can we make further progress?. Journal of the Japanese and International Economies 20:4, 459-481. [Crossref] 3810. Tony Addison, Mina Baliamoune-Lutz. 2006. Economic reform when institutional quality is weak: The case of the Maghreb. Journal of Policy Modeling 28:9, 1029-1043. [Crossref] 3811. David Dollar, Victoria Levin. 2006. The Increasing Selectivity of Foreign Aid, 1984–2003. World Development 34:12, 2034-2046. [Crossref] 3812. Solomon Tadesse. 2006. Innovation, Information, and Financial Architecture. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis 41:4, 753-786. [Crossref] 3813. Inder K. Khurana, Xiumin Martin, Raynolde Pereira. 2006. Financial Development and the Cash Flow Sensitivity of Cash. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis 41:4, 787-808. [Crossref] 3814. Dani Rodrik. 2006. Goodbye Washington Consensus, Hello Washington Confusion? A Review of the World Bank's Economic Growth in the 1990s: Learning from a Decade of Reform. Journal of Economic Literature 44:4, 973-987. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3815. Beng-Soon Chong, Ming-Hua Liu, Kok-Hui Tan. 2006. The wealth effect of forced bank mergers and cronyism. Journal of Banking & Finance 30:11, 3215-3233. [Crossref] 3816. Thorsten Beck, Aslı Demirgüç-Kunt, Ross Levine. 2006. Bank supervision and corruption in lending. Journal of Monetary Economics 53:8, 2131-2163. [Crossref] 3817. Daniel Treisman. 2006. Explaining Fiscal Decentralisation: Geography, Colonial History, Economic Development and Political Institutions. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 44:3, 289-325. [Crossref] 3818. Horst Feldmann. 2006. Credit Market Regulation and Labor Market Performance Around the World. Kyklos 59:4, 497-525. [Crossref] 3819. S. BROCK BLOMBERG, GREGORY D. 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Environmental and Ecological Justice 329-360. [Crossref] 3881. Jeffrey B. Nugent. The New Institutional Economics: Can It Deliver for Change and Development? 161-176. [Crossref] 3882. Bruce Kogut, Charles Ragin. 2006. Exploring complexity when diversity is limited: institutional complementarity in theories of rule of law and national systems revisited. European Management Review 3:1, 44-59. [Crossref] 3883. Craig S. Galbraith, Carlos L. Rodriguez, Curt S. Stiles. 2006. False Myths and Indigenous Entrepreneurial Strategies. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship 19:1, 1-20. [Crossref] 3884. Kai Carstensen, Erich Gundlach. 2006. The Primacy of Institutions Reconsidered: Direct Income Effects of Malaria Prevalence. The World Bank Economic Review 20:3, 309-339. [Crossref] 3885. Halvor Mehlum, Karl Moene, Ragnar Torvik. 2006. Institutions and the Resource Curse. The Economic Journal 116:508, 1-20. [Crossref] 3886. Charles I. Jones. 2006. 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Axel Borrmann, Matthias Busse, Silke Neuhaus. 2006. Institutional Quality and the Gains from Trade. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3901. Matthias Busse, José Luis Groizard. 2006. FDI, Regulations and Growth. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3902. Francois Bourguignon, Francisco H. G. Ferreira, Michael Walton. 2006. Equity, Efficient and Inequality Traps: A Research Agenda. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3903. Surajeet Chakravarty, W. Bentley MacLeod. 2006. Construction Contracts (or: How to Get the Right Building at the Right Price?). SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3904. Daniel Berkowitz, Mehmet Caner, Ying Fang. 2006. Are 'Nearly Exogenous' Instruments Reliable?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3905. Gustavo Suarez, Rony Pshisva. 2006. 'Captive Markets': The Impact of Kidnappings on Corporate Investment in Colombia. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3906. Voxi Heinrich S. Amavilah. 2006. 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SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3920. Ruben Segura-Cayuela. 2006. Inefficient Policies, Inefficient Institutions and Trade. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3921. Christa N. Brunnschweiler, Erwin H. Bulte. 2006. The Resource Curse Revisited and Revised: A Tale of Paradoxes and Red Herrings. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3922. Abhijit V. Banerjee, Lakshmi Iyer, Rohini Somanathan. 2006. Public Action for Public Goods. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3923. Qiao Liu, Alan Siu. 2006. Institutions, Financial Development, and Corporate Investment: Evidence from an Implied Return on Capital in China. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3924. Masayuki Kudamatsu. 2006. Has Democratization Reduced Infant Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa? Evidence from Micro Data. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 3925. Enrica Detragiache, Poonam Gupta, Thierry Tressel. 2006. Foreign Banks in Poor Countries: Theory and Evidence. IMF Working Papers 06:18, 1. [Crossref] 3926. Michal Hulej, Charalambos G. Tsangarides, Pierre Ewenczyk. 2006. Stylized Factson Bilateral Trade and Currency Unions: Implications for Africa. IMF Working Papers 06:31, 1. [Crossref] 3927. Rodney Ramcharan. 2006. Does Economic Diversification Lead to Financial Development? Evidence From topography. IMF Working Papers 06:35, 1. [Crossref] 3928. Andrew Tiffin. 2006. Ukraine: The Cost of Weak Institutions. IMF Working Papers 06:167, 1. [Crossref] 3929. Shang-Jin Wei, Jiandong Ju. 2006. A Solution to Two Paradoxes of International Capital Flow. IMF Working Papers 06:178, 1. [Crossref] 3930. M. Ayhan Kose, Eswar Prasad, Kenneth Rogoff, Shang-Jin Wei. 2006. Financial Globalization: A Reappraisal. IMF Working Papers 06:189, 1. [Crossref] 3931. Aleksandar Zaklan, Paolo Mauro, Martín Minnoni, André Faria. 2006. The External Financing of Emerging Market Countries: Evidence From Two Waves of Financial Globalization. IMF Working Papers 06:205, 1. [Crossref] 3932. Jean-Claude Nachega, Thomson Fontaine. 2006. Economic Growth and total Factor Productivity in Niger. IMF Working Papers 06:208, 1. [Crossref] 3933. Jeromin Zettelmeyer. 2006. Growth and Reforms in Latin America: A Survey of Facts and Arguments. IMF Working Papers 06:210, 1. [Crossref] 3934. Uma Ramakrishnan, Alun H. Thomas. 2006. The Incidence and Effectiveness of Prior Actions in IMF-Supported Programs. IMF Working Papers 06:213, 1. [Crossref] 3935. Leandro Prados De La Escosura. The Economic Consequences of Independence in Latin America 461-504. [Crossref] 3936. Ola Olsson. 2005. Geography and institutions: Plausible and implausible linkages. Journal of Economics 86:S1, 167-194. [Crossref] 3937. Gabriel J. Felbermayr. 2005. Dynamic Panel Data Evidence on the Trade-Income Relation. Review of World Economics 141:4, 583-611. [Crossref] 3938. Ricardo Hausmann, Lant Pritchett, Dani Rodrik. 2005. Growth Accelerations. Journal of Economic Growth 10:4, 303-329. [Crossref] 3939. Peter J. 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Robert Lensink, Niels Hermes. Does Aid Work? New Evidence from Recent Empirical Studies . [Crossref] 3947. Edward B. Barbier. Natural Resources and Economic Development 80, . [Crossref] 3948. Daron Acemoglu. 2005. Constitutions, Politics, and Economics: A Review Essay on Persson and Tabellini’s The Economic Effects of Constitutions. Journal of Economic Literature 43:4, 1025-1048. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3949. Dino Falaschetti. 2005. AGGREGATE HEALTH EXPENDITURES, NATIONAL INCOME, AND INSTITUTIONS FOR PRIVATE PROPERTY. Economics and Politics 17:3, 393-431. [Crossref] 3950. Jeffrey Frankel, Shang-Jin Wei. Managing Macroeconomic Crises: Policy Lessons 315-405. [Crossref] 3951. Erich Gundlach. 2005. Solow vs. Solow: Notes on Identification and Interpretation in the Empirics of Growth and Development. Review of World Economics 141:3, 541-556. [Crossref] 3952. Davin Chor. 2005. Institutions, wages, and inequality: The case of Europe and its periphery (1500– 1899). Explorations in Economic History 42:4, 547-566. [Crossref] 3953. Daron Acemoglu. 2005. Politics and economics in weak and strong states. Journal of Monetary Economics 52:7, 1199-1226. [Crossref] 3954. David Dollar, Mary Hallward‐Driemeier, Taye Mengistae. 2005. Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing Economies. Economic Development and Cultural Change 54:1, 1-31. [Crossref] 3955. Thorsten Beck, Asli Demirguc-Kunt, Ross Levine. 2005. SMEs, Growth, and Poverty: Cross- Country Evidence. Journal of Economic Growth 10:3, 199-229. [Crossref] 3956. Josef Falkinger, Volker Grossmann. 2005. Institutions and Development: The Interaction Between Trade Regime and Political System. Journal of Economic Growth 10:3, 231-272. [Crossref] 3957. Brian McCaig, Thanasis Stengos. 2005. Financial intermediation and growth: Some robustness results. Economics Letters 88:3, 306-312. [Crossref] 3958. Daniel Waldenström. 2005. 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Jakob Svensson. 2005. Eight Questions about Corruption. Journal of Economic Perspectives 19:3, 19-42. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3965. Richard Paap, Philip Hans Franses, Dick van Dijk. 2005. Does Africa grow slower than Asia, Latin America and the Middle East? Evidence from a new data-based classification method. Journal of Development Economics 77:2, 553-570. [Crossref] 3966. Marcus Noland. 2005. Religion and economic performance. World Development 33:8, 1215-1232. [Crossref] 3967. Bryant Allen, R. Michael Bourke, John Gibson. 2005. Poor rural places in Papua New Guinea. Asia Pacific Viewpoint 46:2, 201-217. [Crossref] 3968. Graham A. Davis, John E. Tilton. 2005. The resource curse. Natural Resources Forum 29:3, 233-242. [Crossref] 3969. RENÉ M. STULZ. 2005. The Limits of Financial Globalization. The Journal of Finance 60:4, 1595-1638. [Crossref] 3970. Gerald F. Davis. 2005. New Directions in Corporate Governance. Annual Review of Sociology 31:1, 143-162. [Crossref] 3971. James D. Fearon. 2005. Primary Commodity Exports and Civil War. Journal of Conflict Resolution 49:4, 483-507. [Crossref] 3972. Rainer Schweickert. 2005. Vor der nächsten Erweiterung – Herausforderungen und Reformbedarf der EU. Die Weltwirtschaft 56:2, 222-248. [Crossref] 3973. Peter Temin, Hans-Joachim Voth. 2005. Credit rationing and crowding out during the industrial revolution: evidence from Hoare’s Bank, 1702–1862. Explorations in Economic History 42:3, 325-348. [Crossref] 3974. Erwin H. Bulte, Richard Damania, Robert T. Deacon. 2005. Resource intensity, institutions, and development. World Development 33:7, 1029-1044. [Crossref] 3975. Mario Polèse. 2005. Cities and National Economic Growth: A Reappraisal. Urban Studies 42:8, 1429-1451. [Crossref] 3976. Rajeev H. Dehejia, Roberta Gatti. 2005. Child Labor: The Role of Financial Development and Income Variability across Countries. Economic Development and Cultural Change 53:4, 913-932. [Crossref] 3977. Francisco M. Gonzalez. 2005. Insecure Property and Technological Backwardness. The Economic Journal 115:505, 703-721. [Crossref] 3978. 2005. Book Review. The Economics of Transition 13:3, 565-569. [Crossref] 3979. Roberto Rigobon, Dani Rodrik. 2005. Rule of law, democracy, openness, and income. Estimating the interrelationships1. The Economics of Transition 13:3, 533-564. [Crossref] 3980. Pranab Bardhan. 2005. Institutions matter, but which ones?. The Economics of Transition 13:3, 499-532. [Crossref] 3981. Abhijit V. Banerjee, Maitreesh Ghatak. 2005. Symposium on. Institutions and economic performance. The Economics of Transition 13:3, 421-425. [Crossref] 3982. Charles H. Feinstein. An Economic History of South Africa 51, . [Crossref] 3983. Frank Baumgärtner, Ansgar Belke. 2005. Zu den Kosten und Nutzen der Integration der Türkei in die Europäische Union. List Forum für Wirtschafts- und Finanzpolitik 31:2, 179-190. [Crossref] 3984. Young Lee, Roger H. Gordon. 2005. Tax structure and economic growth. Journal of Public Economics 89:5-6, 1027-1043. [Crossref] 3985. Rudolf Richter. 2005. The New Institutional Economics: Its Start, its Meaning, its Prospects. European Business Organization Law Review 6:2, 161-200. [Crossref] 3986. SHAWN D. KNABB, CHRISTIANA STODDARD. 2005. The Quality of Education, Educational Institutions, and Cross-Country Differences in Human Capital Accumulation. Growth and Change 36:3, 354-373. [Crossref] 3987. MATÍAS BRAUN, BORJA LARRAIN. 2005. Finance and the Business Cycle: International, Inter- Industry Evidence. The Journal of Finance 60:3, 1097-1128. [Crossref] 3988. James E. Rauch. 2005. Getting the Properties Right to Secure Property Rights: Dixit's Lawlessness and Economics. Journal of Economic Literature 43:2, 480-487. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 3989. Ola Olsson, Douglas A. Hibbs. 2005. Biogeography and long-run economic development. European Economic Review 49:4, 909-938. [Crossref] 3990. Christopher Kilby. 2005. Aid and regulation. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 45:2-3, 325-345. [Crossref] 3991. Cassey Lee. 2005. Legal traditions and competition policy. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 45:2-3, 236-257. [Crossref] 3992. Guido Tabellini. 2005. The Role of the State in Economic Development. Kyklos 58:2, 283-303. [Crossref] 3993. Robin Grier. 2005. The Interaction of Human and Physical Capital Accumulation: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa*. Kyklos 58:2, 195-211. [Crossref] 3994. 2005. References. International Social Science Journal 57, 143-151. [Crossref] 3995. Ahmed Mushfiq Mobarak. 2005. Democracy, Volatility, and Economic Development. Review of Economics and Statistics 87:2, 348-361. [Crossref] 3996. Matthew E. Kahn. 2005. The Death Toll from Natural Disasters: The Role of Income, Geography, and Institutions. Review of Economics and Statistics 87:2, 271-284. [Crossref] 3997. Aaron Katz, Matthias vom Hau, James Mahoney. 2005. 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[Crossref] 4031. Colin Rowat, Jayasri Dutta. 2005. The Commons with Capital Markets. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4032. Andrei A. Levchenko. 2005. Institutional Quality and International Trade. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4033. Richard M. Bird, Jorge Martinez-Vazquez, Benno Torgler. 2005. Societal Institutions and Tax Effort in Developing Countries. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4034. David Dollar, Victoria Levin. 2005. Sowing and Reaping: Institutional Quality and Project Outcomes in Developing Countries. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4035. Meghana Ayyagari, Asli Demirguc-Kunt, Vojislav Maksimovic. 2005. How well do Institutional Theories Explain Firms' Perceptions of Property Rights?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4036. Bruno Biais, Robert Bates, Jean-Paul Azam. 2005. Political Predation and Economic Development. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4037. Marina D Azzimonti Renzo. 2005. On the Dynamic Inefficiency of Governments. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4038. Pol Antras. 2005. Incomplete Contracts and the Product Cycle. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4039. C. Monica Capra, Tomomi Tanaka, Colin F. Camerer, Lauren Munyan, Veronica Sovero, Lisa wang, Charles N. Noussair. 2005. The Impact of Simple Institutions in Experimental Economies with Poverty Traps. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4040. Daniel Kaufmann, Aart Kraay, Massimo Mastruzzi. 2005. Governance Matters IV: Governance Indicators for 1996-2004. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4041. Robert K. Fleck, F. Andrew Andrew Hanssen. 2005. How Bad Can a Government Be? Neighborhood Constraints and the Quality of National Governments. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4042. Omar Azfar, Tugrul Gurgur. 2005. Government Effectiveness, Crime Rates and Crime Reporting. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4043. Omar Azfar, Tugrul Gurgur. 2005. Does Corruption Affect Health and Education Outcomes in the Philippines?. 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Evolutionary Trade and Structural Transformation: The Dynamics of Real Competitiveness in Asia. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4052. Peter L. Rousseau, Paul Wachtel. 2005. Economic Growth and Financial Depth: Is the Relationship Extinct Already?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4053. Daniel Kaufmann. 2005. Myths and Realities of Governance and Corruption. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4054. Edward L. Glaeser. 2005. Inequality. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4055. Valerie Cerra, Meenakshi Rishi, Sweta C. Saxena. 2005. Robbing the Riches: Capital Flight, Institutions, and Instability. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4056. Phillip Garner. 2005. Reversal in Africa. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4057. Elissaios Papyrakis, Reyer Gerlagh. 2005. Institutional Explanations of Economic Development: The Role of Precious Metals. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4058. Pushan Dutt. 2005. Trade Protection and Bureaucratic Corruption: An Empirical Investigation. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4059. Oleksandr Shepotylo. 2005. Regional Governance Infrastructure: The Positive Externality on the Inflow of Foreign Direct Investment. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4060. Peter Murrell, Omar Azfar. 2005. Identifying Reticent Respondents: Assessing the Quality of Survey Data on Corruption and Values. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4061. Kathy Fogel, Randall K. Morck, Minyuan Zhao, Bernard Yin Yeung. 2005. Trade Liberalization and Institutional Change. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4062. Inder K. Khurana, Xiumin Martin, Raynolde Pereira. 2005. Financial Development and the Cash Flow Sensitivity of Cash. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4063. Daron Acemoglu. 2005. Modeling Inefficient Institutions. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4064. Milan Zak. 2005. Evolution of Institutions and Economic Performance. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4065. Pedro C. Ferreira, Samuel D. Pessoa, Fernando Veloso. 2005. The Evolution of International Output Differences (1960-2000): From Factors to Productivity. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4066. Silvia Marchesi, Laura Sabani. 2005. Imf Concern for Reputation and Conditional Lending Failure: Theory and Empirics. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4067. Timothy Frye. 2005. Original Sin, Good Works, and Property Rights in Russia: Evidence From a Survey Experiment. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4068. Yongfu Huang. 2005. What Determines Financial Development?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4069. Chowdhury Irad Ahmed Siddiky. 2005. Mahatma Gandhi and the Prisoner's Dilemma: Strategic Civil Disobedience and Great Britain's Great Loss of Empire in India. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4070. Victor Chernozhukov, Christian Hansen. 2005. The Reduced Form: A Simple Approach to Inference with Weak Instruments. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4071. Philip Keefer. 2005. 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D. A. Hibbs, O. Olsson. 2004. Geography, biogeography, and why some countries are rich and others are poor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101:10, 3715-3720. [Crossref] 4110. Elissaios Papyrakis, Reyer Gerlagh. 2004. The resource curse hypothesis and its transmission channels. Journal of Comparative Economics 32:1, 181-193. [Crossref] 4111. Theodore R Breton. 2004. Can institutions or education explain world poverty? An augmented Solow model provides some insights. The Journal of Socio-Economics 33:1, 45-69. [Crossref] 4112. Torsten Persson, Guido Tabellini. 2004. Constitutional Rules and Fiscal Policy Outcomes. American Economic Review 94:1, 25-45. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 4113. Torsten Persson, Guido Tabellini. 2004. Constitutions and Economic Policy. Journal of Economic Perspectives 18:1, 75-98. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 4114. L Alan Winters. 2004. Trade Liberalisation and Economic Performance: An Overview. 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Institutional Profiles: Analysis of Original Data on the Institutional Characteristics of Developing, in Transition and Developed Countries. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4122. Lant Pritchett. 2004. Boom Towns and Ghost Countries: Geography, Agglomeration, and Population Mobility. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4123. Daron Acemoglu, Simon H. Johnson. 2004. Unbundling Institutions. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4124. Mathias Risse. 2004. Do We Live in an Unjust World?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4125. Gerard J. Charreaux. 2004. Corporate Governance Theories: From Micro Theories to National Systems Theories. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4126. Jong-sung You, Sanjeev Khagram. 2004. Inequality and Corruption. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4127. Donato Masciandaro, Alessandro Portolano. 2004. Terrorism and Organised Crime, Financial Regulation and Non-Cooperative Countries: Inside the Black (List) Box. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4128. Hans-Joachim Voth, Peter Temin. 2004. Credit Rationing and Crowding Out During the Industrial Revolution: Evidence from Hoare's Bank, 1702-1862. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4129. Joshua Lerner, Antoinette Schoar. 2004. Transaction Structures in the Developing World: Evidence from Private Equity. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4130. Azam Chaudhry, Phillip Garner. 2004. Do Governments Suppress Growth?: Institutions, Rent- Seeking, and Innovation Blocking in a Model of Schumpeterian Growth. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4131. Daniel Kaufmann. 2004. Governance Redux: The Empirical Challenge. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4132. Erich Gundlach. 2004. The Primacy of Institutions Reconsidered: The Effects of Malaria Prevalence in the Empirics of Development. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4133. Robert Cull, Lixin Colin Xu. 2004. Institutions, Ownership, and Finance: The Determinants of Profit Reinvestment Among Chinese Firms. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4134. Axel Dreher, Christos Kotsogiannis, Steve McCorriston. 2004. Corruption Around the World: Evidence from a Structural Model. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4135. Enrico C. Perotti, Paolo F. Volpin. 2004. Lobbying on Entry. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4136. José García Montalvo, Marta Reynal-Querol. 2004. Fighting against Malaria: Prevent Wars While Waiting for the Miraculous Vaccine. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4137. Elias Papaioannou, Gregorios Siourounis. 2004. Economic and Social Factors Driving the Third Wave of Democratization. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4138. Angus S. Deaton. 2004. Health in an Age of Globalization. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4139. Ricardo Hausmann, Lant Pritchett, Dani Rodrik. 2004. Growth Accelerations. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4140. Craig Andrew Doidge, George Andrew Karolyi, Ren� M. Stulz. 2004. Why do Countries Matter so Much for Corporate Governance?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4141. Philipp Harms, Matthias Lutz. 2004. The Macroeconomic Effects of Foreign Aid: A Survey. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4142. Ernesto Dal Bo, Pedro Dal Bo. 2004. Workers, Warriors and Criminals: Social Conflict in General Equilibrium. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4143. Dennis Coates, Bonnie Wilson. 2004. Interest Group Activity and Long-Run Stock Market Performance. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4144. Graziella Bertocchi, Chiara Strozzi. 2004. Citizenship Laws and International Migration in Historical Perspective. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4145. Eduardo A. Lora. 2004. Should Latin America Fear China?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4146. Andrea Filippo Presbitero. 2004. The Determinants of Economic Development: Institutions or Geography?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4147. Maria Abreu, Henri L. F. de Groot, Raymond J.G.M. Florax. 2004. Space and Growth: A Survey of Empirical Evidence and Methods. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4148. Noel Maurer, Stephen H. Haber. 2004. Related Lending and Economic Performance: Evidence from Mexico. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4149. Abhijit V. Banerjee, Esther Duflo. 2004. Growth Theory through the Lens of Development Economics. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4150. Davin Chor. 2004. Institutions, Wages and Inequality: The Case of Europe and its Periphery (1500-1899). SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4151. Niels Hermes, Robert Lensink. 2004. Does Aid Work? New Evidence from Recent Empirical Studies. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4152. Romain T. Wacziarg, William R. Hauk. 2004. A Monte Carlo Study of Regressions. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4153. Marion Jansen, Hildegunn Kyvik Nordås. 2004. Institutions, Trade Policy and Trade Flows. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4154. Dani Rodrik, Arvind Subramanian. 2004. From "Hindu Growth" to Productivity Surge: The Mystery of the Indian Growth Transition. IMF Working Papers 04:77, 1. 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Distance, skill deepening and development: will peripheral countries ever get rich?. Journal of Development Economics 72:2, 515-541. [Crossref] 4162. Giovanni Facchini, Maria Luigia Segnana. 2003. Growth at the EU periphery: the next enlargement. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 43:5, 827-862. [Crossref] 4163. Thorsten Beck, Asli Demirgüç-Kunt, Ross Levine. 2003. Law and finance: why does legal origin matter?. Journal of Comparative Economics 31:4, 653-675. [Crossref] 4164. Simeon Djankov, Edward Glaeser, Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes, Andrei Shleifer. 2003. The new comparative economics. Journal of Comparative Economics 31:4, 595-619. [Crossref] 4165. Daron Acemoglu. 2003. Why not a political Coase theorem? Social conflict, commitment, and politics. Journal of Comparative Economics 31:4, 620-652. [Crossref] 4166. Stephen Redding, Anthony J Venables. 2003. South-East Asian export performance: external market access and internal supply capacity. Journal of the Japanese and International Economies 17:4, 404-431. [Crossref] 4167. Stijn Claessens, Luc Laeven. 2003. Financial Development, Property Rights, and Growth. The Journal of Finance 58:6, 2401-2436. [Crossref] 4168. Thorsten Beck, Asli Demirgüç-Kunt, Ross Levine. 2003. Law, endowments, and finance. Journal of Financial Economics 70:2, 137-181. [Crossref] 4169. Alan M. Taylor. 2003. Transferring Wealth and Power from the Old to the New World: Monetary and Fiscal Institutions in the 17th through the 19th Centuries. Journal of International Economics 61:1, 253-259. [Crossref] 4170. António R Antunes, Tiago V Cavalcanti. 2003. Corruption, credit market imperfections, and economic development. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 43:4, 627-642. [Crossref] 4171. Dwayne Woods. 2003. Bringing Geography Back In: Civilizations, Wealth, and Poverty1. International Studies Review 5:3, 343-354. [Crossref] 4172. Nils-Petter Lagerlof. 2003. Mortality and Early Growth in England, France and Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Economics 105:3, 419-440. [Crossref] 4173. Stephan Klasen. 2003. What Can Africa Learn from Asian Development Successes and Failures?. Review of Income and Wealth 49:3, 441-451. [Crossref] 4174. Timothy Besley, Robin Burgess. 2003. Halving Global Poverty. Journal of Economic Perspectives 17:3, 3-22. [Abstract] [View PDF article] [PDF with links] 4175. Stanley L. Engerman, Philip T. Hoffman, Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, Kenneth L. Sokoloff. Introduction 1-8. [Crossref] 4176. Raghuram G Rajan, Luigi Zingales. 2003. The great reversals: the politics of financial development in the twentieth century. Journal of Financial Economics 69:1, 5-50. [Crossref] 4177. James Mahoney. 2003. Long‐Run Development and the Legacy of Colonialism in Spanish America. American Journal of Sociology 109:1, 50-106. [Crossref] 4178. Carles Boix, Susan C. Stokes. 2003. Endogenous Democratization. World Politics 55:4, 517-549. 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Why Doesn't Capitalism Flow to Poor Countries?. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4191. Mariassunta Giannetti, Andrei Simonov. 2003. Social Interactions and Entrepreurial Activity. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4192. Margaret S. McMillan, William A. Masters. 2003. An African Growth Trap: Production Technology and the Time-Consistency of Agricultural Taxation, R&D and Investment. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4193. Daniel Kaufmann. 2003. Rethinking Governance: Empirical Lessons Challenge Orthodoxy. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4194. Matthew E. Kahn. 2003. The Death Toll from Natural Disasters: The Role of Income, Geography and Institutions. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4195. Jeffrey A. Frankel. 2003. National Institutions and the Role of the IMF. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4196. Areendam Chanda, Carl-Johan Lars Dalgaard. 2003. Dual Economies and International Total Factor Productivity Differences. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4197. 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Tropics, Germs, and Crops: How Endowments Influence Economic Development. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4229. David Mayer-Foulkes. 2002. Global Divergence. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4230. Erica Field. 2002. Entitled to Work: Urban Property Rights and Labor Supply in Peru. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4231. Daron Acemoglu. 2002. Why Not a Political Coase Theorem? Social Conflict, Commitment and Politics. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4232. Daron Acemoglu, Philippe Aghion, Fabrizio Zilibotti. 2002. Distance to Frontier, Selection, and Economic Growth. SSRN Electronic Journal . [Crossref] 4233. Torsten Sløk, Hali J. Edison, Luca Antonio Ricci, Ross Levine. 2002. International Financial Integration and Economic Growth. IMF Working Papers 02:145, 1. [Crossref] 4234. Arvind Subramanian, Francesco Trebbi, Dani Rodrik. 2002. Institutions Rule: The Primacy of Institutions Over Integration and Geography in Economic Development. IMF Working Papers 02:189, 1. 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