Parrhesia E Injusticias Epistémicas

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Parrhesia E Injusticias Epistémicas Parrhesia and epistemic injustices Parrhesia e injusticias epistémicas Gonzalo Lucas Gallego Universidad de Murcia [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.15366/bp2017.17.015 Bajo Palabra. II Época. Nº17. 2017. Pgs: 309-328 Recibido: 15/01/2016 Aprobado: 26/10/2017 Resumen Abstract El presente trabajo acomete el aná- The present paper attempts to analyse lisis de las complejas relaciones entre the complex relationship between truth verdad y democracia a partir de la no- and democracy from the notion of pa- ción de parrhesia, tal y como esta fue rrhesia, as Foucault treated it during his rescatada por Michel Foucault durante last works. The Foucauldian approach sus últimos trabajos. La propuesta fou- establishes a stressing linkage on one caultiana predica una vinculación cons- another: there can be no democracy wi- titutiva, no exenta de tensiones, entre thout appealing to certain idea of truth, ambas: no puede haber democracia sin but the emergence of such truth invol- referencia a una cierta idea de verdad, ves the existence of a democratic space. pero la emergencia de tal verdad presu- Such space is constructed through the pone la existencia de un espacio demo- critic of every attempt to monopolize crático. La construcción de ese espacio the capacity of saying the truth. In this se realiza sobre la crítica a todo intento sense, the concept of epistemic injusti- de monopolizar la capacidad de decir la ce helps us to understand how political verdad. En este sentido, el concepto de and epistemic dimensions are interwo- injusticia epistémica nos ayuda a enten- ven in the democratic process. der cómo se imbrican lo político y lo epistémico en el proceso democrático. Palabras clave: parrhesia, democracia, Keywords: parrhesia, democracy, tru- verdad, Foucault, injusticia epistémica. th, Foucault, epistemic injustice. 310 — 1. Verdad y democracia: notas sobre un desencuentro Michel Foucault finaliza la clase del 8 de febrero de 1984 del que sería, a la postre, su último curso en el Collège de France 1 con una idea poderosa que algunos han considerado su “principal testamento filosófico” 2. En el marco de su análisis acerca de las transformaciones sufridas por la noción de parrhesia, al describir su desplazamiento desde el horizonte institucional de la democracia ateniense hasta su incursión en la práctica individual de la formación del ethos, Foucault busca seña- lar la especificidad del discurso filosófico. En este momento, Foucault afirma que la filosofía, desde sus orígenes hasta el momento presente, es aquel discurso que se esfuerza por pensar, evitando el reduccionismo, el juego de remisiones mutuas que se establece entre tres polos específicos: alétheia, politeia y ethos. La existencia del discurso filosófico, desde Grecia hasta la actualidad, radica precisamen- te en la posibilidad o, mejor, la necesidad de este juego: no plantear jamás la cuestión de la alethéia sin reavivar a la vez, con referencia a esa misma verdad, la cuestión de la politeia y el ethos. Otro tanto para la politeia. Otro tanto para el ethos 3. No se trata entonces de concebir el poder como determinado por el saber, ni tampoco de ver en este un mero medio al servicio del primero pues entre ellos no se da una relación de exterioridad, sino de atender a las formas históricas que adoptan los modos como se imbrican estos tres órdenes irreductibles pero ineluctablemente interferidos entre sí. La complejidad de las relaciones impide aprehenderlas desde una óptica mecanicista. El planteamiento foucaultinano puede servirnos para reelaborar una idea de la democracia que haga frente a una de las principales críticas de la que fue objeto desde el momento mismo de su nacimiento. La contestación de la democracia ha procedido, casi siempre, predicando una suerte de antagonismo entre verdad y de- mocracia: podremos regirnos democráticamente siempre y cuando mantengamos a la verdad lejos del espacio político; a su vez, si pensamos que la legitimidad de cual- quier opción política se ve obligada a recurrir a cierta noción de verdad, entonces 1 Foucault, M. El coraje de la verdad. El gobierno de sí y de los otros, II. Madrid, Akal, 2014. 2 Campillo, A. El testamento filosófico de Foucault. En R. Castro Orellana y A. Salinas Araya (eds.). La actualidad de Michel Foucault (pp. 291-317). Madrid, Escolar y Mayo Editores, 2016. 3 Foucault, M. El coraje de la verdad. El gobierno de sí y de los otros, II. op. cit., p. 71. — 311 mejor haríamos en abandonar toda pretensión democrática. Hacia finales del siglo V a. n. e., cuando la democracia ateniense se encontraba en pleno apogeo, el desco- nocido autor (“Viejo Oligarca”) del opúsculo antidemocrático El sistema político de los atenienses 4, denunciaba la incompatibilidad estructural entre democracia y buen gobierno. Aquella privaba a los excelentes de la oportunidad de distinguir- se de los menos capaces e instruidos, obstaculizando la emergencia pública de la verdad. Todavía hoy permanece viva tal sospecha 5. Ya en el siglo siguiente, Platón continúa y profundiza esta tradición antidemocrática. Es sabido que su oposición a la democracia obedece, en gran medida, a razones epistémicas. Este y no otro es el debate al que asistimos cuando leemos el Protágoras. En él, Sócrates muestra estupefacción ante la lógica dual que articula el régimen político ateniense: cuan- do la asamblea se enfrenta a problemas de índole técnica, la participación en el proceso deliberativo queda restringida a quienes pueden acreditar su competencia sobre el asunto a tratar; sin embargo, cuando de lo que se trata es de decidir acerca de asuntos políticos, entonces no hay especialización que valga y la palabra queda al servicio de cualquiera. ¿Qué razón puede haber, se pregunta, para admitir tal desdoblamiento? Si la intromisión del profano se juzgaba intolerable en el primer caso, ¿por qué debía ser bienvenida en el segundo?. La justicia será factible, nos dice Platón 6, en la medida en que el orden político se acompase con la lógica que rige la división técnica del trabajo: “la imagen de la justicia es la división del trabajo que ya regía la ciudad sana” 7. De igual manera que el zapatero se dedica a elaborar zapatos y no a construir casas, así hay quien, en virtud de su competencia, está legi- timado para gobernar y quien, careciendo de tal saber, debe asumir su lugar como gobernado en aras del bien común. Paradójicamente, aquello que la democracia ateniense siempre observó con recelo, y ante lo que intentó protegerse por medio de instituciones tales como el sorteo o la rotación de cargos 8, esto es, la conformación y estabilización de un cuerpo especializado en el gobierno político, es la alternati- va que Platón vislumbra ante el problema de la justa ordenación de la ciudad. La existencia de un sujeto, el filósofo, epistémicamente privilegiado, dotado de unas habilidades que quedan fuera del alcance de la mayoría sella la dispensabilidad de la democracia. Hannah Arendt 9 ha mostrado cómo la privatización del acceso a la 4 Anónimo o “Viejo Oligarca”. El sistema político de los atenienses. Sevilla, Editorial Doble J-Efialtes, 2017. 5 Brennan, J. Against Democracy, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2016. 6 Platón. República, 443b. 7 Rancière, J. El filósofo y sus pobres. Buenos Aires, Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento–Instituto Nacio- nal contra la Discriminación, la Xenofobia y el Racismo (INADI), 2013, p. 43. 8 Manin, B. Los principios del gobierno representativo. Madrid, Alianza, 2015, p. 47. 9 Arendt, H. Entre el pasado y el futuro. Ocho ejercicios sobre la reflexión política. Barcelona, Península, 1996, pp. 101-153; Arendt, H. La promesa de la política. Barcelona, Austral, 2015b, pp. 43-75. 312 — verdad resuelve el conflicto entre filosofía y política. Rancière también lo ha subra- yado: “el encuentro primero de la política y la filosofía es el de una alternativa: o la política de los políticos o la de los filósofos” 10. Ambos coinciden en afirmar que la maniobra platónica comporta la desaparición de la política, o, de manera análoga, la naturalización de las jerarquías en el campo político. 2. Parresía y democracia La atención prestada por Foucault al concepto de parrhesia durante los últi- mos años de su vida puede brindarnos, nos parece, la oportunidad de enriquecer el debate al que acabamos de referirnos. Aunque la noción de parrhesia ya había sido aludida durante el curso La hermenéutica del sujeto 11, es en el siguiente, El gobierno de sí y de los otros 12, cuando su investigación lo conduce hasta el contexto de la democracia ateniense del siglo V a. n e. Más allá de vincular el origen de la parrhesia al campo político, el movimiento llevado a cabo por Foucault descubre dos aspectos que merecen destacarse. En primer lugar, la proyección de la catego- ría de parrhesia sobre la democracia antigua habilita su problematización, esto es, contribuye a revelar su complejidad evitando los juicios absolutos, tanto el sordo elogio tanto como la repulsa ciega 13. A su vez, discutir los problemas asociados a la democracia clásica supuso siempre para Foucault una forma de intervenir en la realidad política de su tiempo 14. Antes de nada, ¿qué es la parrhesia?, ¿dónde reside el interés de su estudio a la hora de abordar el funcionamiento de la democracia? Veamos las implicaciones y afinidades implícitas en el concepto que Foucault subraya. En primer lugar, existe una íntima relación entre parrhesia y franqueza, no en vano aquella es comúnmente traducida como “hablar franco”. El discurso del parresiasta refleja, sin dobleces, sin disimulo, todo cuanto piensa, de forma tal que el oyente jamás pone en duda que aquello que dice quien habla con parrhesia es su opinión, que habla por boca 10 Rancière, J. El desacuerdo. Política y filosofía. Buenos Aires, Nueva Visión, 2012, p.
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