2, 2016 Issn 1829-3824 2, 2016 Issn 1829-3824

ISSN 1829-3824

2, 2016 EDITORIAL BOARD

Honorary Chief of Ruben MIRZAKHANYAN - Rector of Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, the Editorial Board Honorary Member of Armenian Philosophical Academy, Doctor of Sciences (in History), Professor Editor-in-Chief Hasmik HOVHANNISYAN - Full Member of the Armenian Philosophical Academy, Chairperson of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Armenian State Pedagogical University after Khachatur Abovyan, Scientific General Secretary of the International Academy for Philosophy, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Phone: +374 10 597 065 E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Associate Editor Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN - Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University and the Yerevan State University, Scientific Secretary of the Armenian Philosophical Academy, Head of the Chair of Humanities and Social Sciences at French University of Armenia, Chairman of the Committee of Civil Society Development of Public Council of RA, PhD in philosophy Advisory Editors Georgia APOSTOLOPOULOU - Professor (Em.) of Philosophy at the Department of Philosophy at the University of Ioannina (Greece), Member of the International Academy for Philosophy Eduard DANIELYAN - Head of the Ancient History Department at the Institute of History and Archeology of NAS RA, Doctor of Sciences (in History), Professor Srbuhi GEVORGYAN - Vice-Rector for Education and Research of Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, Full Member of the Armenian Philosophical Academy, Doctor of Sciences (in Psychology), Professor Hasmik HOVHANNISYAN - Full Member of the Armenian Philosophical Academy, Chairperson of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Armenian State Pedagogical University after Khachatur Abovyan, Scientific General Secretary of the International Academy for Philosophy, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Peter KEMP - Professor of the Department of Education at the University of Aarhus (Denmark), Head of the Centre of Ethics and Law, Member of the International Academy for Philosophy Hans KÖCHLER - Professor (Em.) of Philosophy at the University of Innsbruck (Austria), President of the International Progress Organization, Co-President of the International Academy for Philosophy Armen T. MARSOOBIAN - Professor and Chairperson of the Philosophy Department at Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven (USA), Editor-in-Chief of the journal Metaphilosophy Karen MOMJYAN - Head of the Chair of Social Philosophy at Moscow State University, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy), Professor Yevangelos MOUTSOPOULOS - Honorary Rector of the University of Athens, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy), Co-President of the International Academy for Philosophy Kadzhik OHANYAN - Professor of the Chair of Sociology at the Saint Petersburg State University of Economics and of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, Foreign Member of the Armenian Philosophical Academy, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Barry STROUD - Willis S. and Marion Slusser Professor of Philosophy, University of California (USA), Berkeley, Co-President of the International Academy for Philosophy Vyacheslav STYOPIN - Full Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Honorary Director of the Institute of Philosophy, Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy), Professor Arkadiy URSUL - Director of the Center of Global Studies, Professor of the Faculty of Global Processes at the Russian State University after Mikhail Lomonosov, Founder and Honorary President of the Russian Academy of Cosmonautics after Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, President of the International Academy of Noosphere - MANUR, Member of the International Academy for Philosophy, Head of the Department of Ecology and Environmental Management Branch, Russian Academy of Public Administration under the President of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Igor ZASLAVSKI - Corresponding Member of NAS RA, Full Member of Armenian Philosophical Academy, Doctor of Sciences (in Physics and Mathematics) Managing Editor Ashot GEVORGYAN - Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, PhD in Philosophy Book Review Editor Robert DJIDJIAN - Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, Academician of the International Academy for Philosophy, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Literary Editors John MASON - Professor of Hollins University (USA) Tigran MIKAELYAN - PhD in Philology, Dean of the Faculty of Foreign Languages of Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University Marie-Luisa FRICK - Professor of the Department of Philosophy at the University of Innsbruck, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Editorial Assistant Satenik KUZANYAN - PhD student of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, Specialist of the same department

S C I E N T I F I C J O U R N A L Published by the Decision of the Scientific Board of

Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University

Department of Philosophy and Logic Named after Academician Georg Brutian

W I S D O M

2, 2 0 1 6

YEREVAN – 2016

1 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

CONTENT

EDITORS’ FOREWORD 4

EPISTEMOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, METAPHILOSOPHY, ARGUMENTATION

Ana BAZAC 9 The Three-Tier Corrective Reasoning Lilit BRUTIAN 28 Compliment to a Compliment: an Analysis of the Speech Act of a Compliment Karine DANIELYAN, Tatevik POGHOSYAN, Sirine KOSYAN 35 On Moral Aspect of Sustainable Development Theory and Practice Susanna DAVTYAN, Tatevik PIRUMYAN 44 Tolerance as a Constructive Mechanism of Dialogue in the Field of Healthcare Robert DJIDJIAN 49 Paradoxes of Human Cognition Armenuhi MANUKYAN, Mnatsakan MANUKYAN 59 Philosophical Wisdom as a Method of Formation the Worldview of an Individual Balázs M. MEZEI 63 The Methodological Importance of the Notion of Divine Revelation in a Historical Perspective

SOCIAL, POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Hans KÖCHLER 78 Normative Contradictions in International Law: Implications for Legal Philosophy Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN 95 Idea and Models of Civil Society: Development Tendencies, Arguments Pro and Con Will POGHOSYAN 103 The Alliance Between Politics and Philosophy with Regard to the Threats of the XXI Century Ashot VOSKANIAN 111 On Two Factors of National Identity: Orientation and Social Structure of Society

HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

Georgia APOSTOLOPOULOU 118 From Ancient Greek Logos to European Rationality

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CONTENT Anna ASATRYAN 131 Georg Brutian and NAS RA Institute of Arts EDITORS’ FOREWORD 4 Aelita DOLUKHANYAN 136 The Main Theses of the Armenian Translation of the Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus EPISTEMOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, METAPHILOSOPHY, Armen T. MARSOOBIAN 142 ARGUMENTATION The Eclipse and Rebirth of American Philosophical Pluralism: a History Lesson about History Ana BAZAC 9 Silva PETROSYAN 148 The Three-Tier Corrective Reasoning David the Invincible: Philosophy as a Lifestyle Lilit BRUTIAN 28 Compliment to a Compliment: an Analysis of the Speech Act of a Compliment PSYCHOLOGY Karine DANIELYAN, Tatevik POGHOSYAN, Sirine KOSYAN 35 On Moral Aspect of Sustainable Development Theory and Practice Armenuhi AVAGYAN, Lilith BAGHDASARYAN, Karine SARGSYAN 156 Susanna DAVTYAN, Tatevik PIRUMYAN 44 Changing Stereotypes With Regard to Special Needs Through Children’s Literature Tolerance as a Constructive Mechanism of Dialogue in the Field of Healthcare Vazgen POGHOSYAN 162 Robert DJIDJIAN 49 Psychological-Pedagogical Criteria for New Generation Textbooks Paradoxes of Human Cognition Armenuhi MANUKYAN, Mnatsakan MANUKYAN 59 CHAIR OF YOUNG SCIENTIST Philosophical Wisdom as a Method of Formation the Worldview of an Individual Balázs M. MEZEI 63 Marianna AMIRAGHYAN 168 The Methodological Importance of the Notion of Divine Revelation in a Historical The Methodical Principles of Child's Speech Development Curriculum Perspective Anahit GHARIBYAN 174 The Essential Features of Electoral Process of Armenia in the Context of Current Changes SOCIAL, POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY in the Electoral Code Mane KHACHIBABYAN 187 Hans KÖCHLER 78 The Concept of Time in the Works of Modernists Normative Contradictions in International Law: Implications for Legal Philosophy Nelli MELKONYAN 191 Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN 95 Mechanisms of Overcoming Ethical Dilemmas in Nowadays Social Work Idea and Models of Civil Society: Development Tendencies, Arguments Pro and Con Gohar MKOYAN 197 Will POGHOSYAN 103 The Role and Meaning of the Free Time in Context of Formation of Socio-Cultural The Alliance Between Politics and Philosophy with Regard to the Threats of the XXI Values in Modern Armenian Society Century Astghik PETROSYAN 205 Ashot VOSKANIAN 111 Methodological Analysis of Political Participation Indicator Evaluation Tools On Two Factors of National Identity: Orientation and Social Structure of Society Nelli PETROSYAN 211 Cultural Characteristic of Early Christianity HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY Kristine TANAJYAN 216 Civil Society as an Area of a Personality Self-Realization Georgia APOSTOLOPOULOU 118 NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS 222 From Ancient Greek Logos to European Rationality AUTHORS 225

2 3 3 2(7), 2016 EDITORS’ FOREWORD

EDITORS’ FOREWORD

Official Opening of the Conference, 22 November, 2016

geographical coverage and participation. Bru- supporting and helping his students, col- tian disliked birthday celebrations and honor- leagues, young scientists, once more creating ing ceremonies and he would havenever al- a platform for demonstrating their scientific lowed celebration of his anniversary. Thus, it achievements, acquiring international recog- was a kind of predestination, even after his nition, and raising the level of academic con- death he stays still true to his motto – always fidence.

4 2(7), 2016 4 5 2(7), 2016 EDITORS' FOREWORD

EDITORS’ FOREWORD

The seventh issue of the journal “Wis- national Academy for Philosophy (IAPh) and dom” – the second volume of 2016 – is ready Armenian Philosophical Academy (APA) to be presented to the scientific community. were the organizers of the conference. The distinctiveness of the volume re- The first two issues of “Wisdom” includ- minds us the days of its establishment and ened the texts of the selected talks of the confer- try to the world of scientific periodicals. The ence from two main perspectives – Philoso- publication of the first issue in 2013 by Acad- phy and Psychology – in accordance with the Plenary Session, 22 November, 2016 emician Georg Brutian was remarkable since sections of the conference. it was compiled from the results of the inter- After four years, on November 22-23, The authors of the articles were not only foreign participants of the Conference were national conference Theoretical and Practical 2016, the aforementioned institutions orga- the representatives of Armenia and prestig- well-known philosophers Professor Hans Issues of Transforming Society Development: nized a new international conference Life and ious foreign universities and academic institu- Köchler (Austria), Professor Armen T. Mar- Philosophical and Psychological Aspects Philosophy, unfortunately, this time without tions – philosophers and psychologists well- soobian (USA), Professor Georgia Apos- (April 16-17, 2012, Yerevan) organized under Academician Georg Brutian, therefore dedi- known within international scientific commu- tolopoulou (Greece), Professor Ana Bazac his presidency. Khachatur Abovian Armenian cated to his memory and 90th anniversary. nity – but also young researchers who were (Romania), Professor Balázs M. Mezei (Hun- State Pedagogical University (ASPU), Inter- The conference was likewise large in its making their first steps in science. Among the gary), Professor Kadzhik Ohanyan (Russia).

Hans Armen T. Georgia Balázs M.MEZEI KÖCHLER MARSOOBIAN APOSTOLOPOULOU & Ana BAZAC

Among other events on the Conference ferent generations who keep alive and vi- agenda, the Department of Philosophy and brant the scientific-organizational and edu- Logic of Khachatur Abovian Armenian State cational-methodological traditions inherit- Pedagogical University was renamed in honor ed from their Teacher, Official Opening of the Conference, 22 November, 2016 of Academician Georg Brutian. A number of x the focuses of scientific research work as- factors served as a ground for this decision, sumed by the department are mainly geographical coverage and participation. Bru- supporting and helping his students, col- particularly: formed within the scope of Georg Bru- tian disliked birthday celebrations and honor- leagues, young scientists, once more creating x Georg Brutian’s role and contribution in tian’s conceptions that received their cer- ing ceremonies and he would havenever al- a platform for demonstrating their scientific the establishment of the department, tain place in the process of development lowed celebration of his anniversary. Thus, it achievements, acquiring international recog- x the professorial staff of the department of philosophical thought worldwide, name- was a kind of predestination, even after his nition, and raising the level of academic con- comprises Georg Brutian’s students of dif- ly: Transformational Logic, Polylogic, the death he stays still true to his motto – always fidence.

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Principle of Linguistic Complementarity, The renaming ceremony was accompa- Argumentation Theory, History of Philos- nied by the exhibition of the world-renowned ophy, Metaphilosophy, etc. Scholar’s awards.

The Renaming Ceremony of the Department of Philosophy and Logic in honor of academician Georg Brutian

The articles included in the present vol- conference sections. The articles involved dis- ume are the talks introduced at the conference cuss the current problems of epistemology, Life and Philosophy, the discussion of which philosophy of science, methodology, meta- in the conference sections is considered as an philosophy, argumentation, socio-political actual substitute for review procedure, neces- philosophy, philosophy of history and psy- sary for publication. The content of the issue chology. Like all previous issues, this one al- and its sections are formed according to the so contains the Chair of Young Scientist this

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Principle of Linguistic Complementarity, The renaming ceremony was accompa- time including 8 articles. and Social Sciences (ERIH PLUS), Advanced Argumentation Theory, History of Philos- nied by the exhibition of the world-renowned The journal “Wisdom” is broadening the Scientific Index (ASI), eLIBRARY, EBSCO ophy, Metaphilosophy, etc. Scholar’s awards. indexes of its availability within the scientific and CYBERLENINKA International Scien- community and representation in international tometric Databases. electronic platforms. It is included in the list Given the significance of the underlying of the scientific journals recognized by the principle of pluralism over scientific issues Higher Attestation Commission of the Repub- and freedom of speech, we should remind that lic of Armenia among other rated periodicals the authors carry primary responsibility for that address fundamental results and theses of the viewpoints introduced in their articles dissertations. “Wisdom” is registered in Sci- which may not always coincide with those of entific Indexing Services (SIS), Journal Im- the Editorial Board. pact Factor (JIF), Eurasian Scientific Journal The Editorial Board extends its gratitude Index (ESJI), Scientific Journal Impact Factor to all the authors, reviewers, professional crit- (SJIF), International Scientific Indexing (ISI), ics and assessors of the articles for their assis- European Reference Index for the Humanities tance in preparing the papers submitted.

The Renaming Ceremony of the Department of Philosophy and Logic in honor of academician Georg Brutian

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EPISTEMOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE,

METAPHILOSOPHY, ARGUMENTATION

8 2(7), 2016 8 9 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

UDC 16 Ana BAZAC

THE THREE-TIER CORRECTIVE REASONING

Abstract

Written in honour of the late Academician Georg Brutian, the paper draws attention on one of the most special means of the transformative logic, the corrective argumentation, called here reasoning, that better emphasises the specific of arguments as such: that to inform semantically about the intention to arrive to certain conclusions. The corrective reasoning is that which reviews not only the validity of inferences, but also of the different types of premises lying at the basis of the theories people erect about every moment and aspect of life and reality. The corrective reasoning is the form of the capacity to critique the former judgements and has three tiers: the first – concluding that the former/existing theory was proven to be wrong; the second – gathering the arguments of alternative theories, and the third – focusing on the best/or even only in present the more economical alter- EPISTEMOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, native theory. Every tier has more strata of reasoning whose result is the correction: the conclusion that 1) the METAPHILOSOPHY, ARGUMENTATION old results (and focus on examples/situations), so the old theories require/directly send to their refutation, and 2) the conclusion suggests just some arguments of alternative theories. The corrective argumentation is not reduced to propositions, neither to syllogisms, but is constituted of the many

relationships between statements. From all the domains the corrective argumentation does manifest within and about, the scientific one was chose just because here the corrective approach is compulsory and its pattern – the most obvious. An epistemological analysis was deployed and it was demonstrated that the goal of the corrective reasoning is truth (in a certain concrete temporal interval) and the way to it involves the better understanding of the semantic level of language and its dependence on the real world. Because the corrective reasoning is a question of daring and imagining new theories, the mechanism of this process was sketched by showing that consciousness has not only a passive face (that of representations) but always an active one too (the intention toward the external world), and by focusing on the logical forms as structures of thinking and their relationships with the external world “through the medium of” their internal consistence and coherence. In its turn, argumentation has in view both the formal model and substantial model of situations. The specific of the corrective reasoning in science shows the difficulty of this endeavour and some deviations from this specific. The conclusion is that, indeed, the corrective reasoning is revolutionary.

Keywords: corrective reasoning/argumentation, science, scientific theories, truth, imagination, logical forms, conditions of validity, incorrect knowledge.

8 9 9 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

1. Introduction The corrective argumentation constitutes in the diachrony or process of confrontation I intend to present a reasoning that is of theories with reality, including with the within the core of transformational logic: the theoretical refutations of their tenets, and ac- corrective reasoning. In fact, it is about ar- cumulation of proofs of their falsity or incon- gumentation, considering not only the validity gruence. of inferences, but also the (changing) types of Every tier has more strata of reasoning premises and the questioning/reviewing of whose result is the correction: the conclusion their arguments/proofs; as a result of this re- that 1) the old results (and focus on exam- viewing, new premises are constituted and the ples/situations), so the old theories re- old ones are no longer true, but only true in quire/directly send to their refutation, and 2) their temporal frame: and thus they became the conclusion suggests/brings just some ar- (historical) hypotheses whose conclusions are, guments of alternative theories (theories op- obviously, no longer true. posed to the old ones, and constructing sys- Indeed, if logic contributes to the trans- tematically – with the theoretical instruments formations within and of the world, it does of scientific theories: arguments, verification, this through its capacity to review and cri- falsification, demonstration, experiments, all tique its former manifestations. And do not of them both real and virtual – the best or forget: logic is always propositional, “men- most economical alternative theory). Actual- tal” or “explicit” (as Brutian has pointed, Bru- ly, every tier is like a Matrioshka doll, con- tian, 1998, p. 96), and not a question of unar- taining more propositions, different levels of ticulated proof of the empirical facts. On the arguments and their valuation: the biggest contrary, these empirical facts are viewed/ doll being that where the final conclusion of sensed and thus they have “corresponding im- the correction, after the intermediary assess- ages” – specific synapses leading to units of ments, is constituted. The corrective argumen- more or less coherent information – in the tation is not reduced to propositions, neither human mind. These units of information, their to syllogisms, but is constituted of the many deployment and linking must be, however, relationships between statements: it supposes expressed in words and judgements. The cor- the connecting of “simple” truths of pro- rective reasoning/argumentation is the form of positions and syllogisms in order to configure the capacity to critique the former judgements a new truth/viewpoint about reality. and has three tiers: It’s obvious that the pattern of corrective x the first – concluding that the for- reasoning is realised in – and may be deduced mer/existing theory was proven to be from – both the common thinking and the sci- wrong, entific endeavour. In the first it is experienced x the second – gathering the arguments in the practical process of learning through of alternative theories, trial and error, or of falsification of prejudic- x and the third – focusing on the best/or es, or of experiences in doing and thinking. even only in present the more eco- And sometimes the correction arrives too late, nomical alternative theory. when the better solution does no longer

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1. Introduction The corrective argumentation constitutes change the implacable course of things fol- temology as conscious and systematic ap- in the diachrony or process of confrontation lowing the former decisions: then if people proach of the constitution and development of I intend to present a reasoning that is of theories with reality, including with the say aloud “I regret” (Bazac, 2016) – but many rational/scientific theories which represent within the core of transformational logic: the theoretical refutations of their tenets, and ac- are not educated to think this, let alone to the best understanding of the world in a corrective reasoning. In fact, it is about ar- cumulation of proofs of their falsity or incon- say – they can at least be happy that finally, space-temporal framework. This epistemolo- gumentation, considering not only the validity gruence. though often in the final moment, they under- gy has developed in the 20th century, after the of inferences, but also the (changing) types of Every tier has more strata of reasoning stood the right alternative as well as the ne- agglomeration of scientific theories with cer- premises and the questioning/reviewing of whose result is the correction: the conclusion cessity to correct one’s position; but not this tain and fruitful results. The analysis of these their arguments/proofs; as a result of this re- that 1) the old results (and focus on exam- ethical analysis is intended here. Anyway, the theories has put also the problem of their con- viewing, new premises are constituted and the ples/situations), so the old theories re- regret shows that a corrective reasoning al- stitution, evolution and superseding. As we old ones are no longer true, but only true in quire/directly send to their refutation, and 2) ready has occurred. know, Thomas Kuhn with his theory of dis- their temporal frame: and thus they became the conclusion suggests/brings just some ar- Concerning the scientific endeavour, just continuous scientific revolutions (1962) was (historical) hypotheses whose conclusions are, guments of alternative theories (theories op- its realm is where the pattern of corrective one of the leading representatives of the evo- obviously, no longer true. posed to the old ones, and constructing sys- reasoning arises in the most obvious way. It lutionary/historical epistemology: where the Indeed, if logic contributes to the trans- tematically – with the theoretical instruments does it through the epistemological analysis new paradigms correct/substitute the old ones formations within and of the world, it does of scientific theories: arguments, verification, of the developed, sophisticated movement of grounding the “normal science”, being thus this through its capacity to review and cri- falsification, demonstration, experiments, all thinking – illustrated in the best way by scien- the result and the sign of a deep corrective tique its former manifestations. And do not of them both real and virtual – the best or tific theories. reasoning. Another representative was Karl forget: logic is always propositional, “men- most economical alternative theory). Actual- Popper, whose process of falsification, being tal” or “explicit” (as Brutian has pointed, Bru- ly, every tier is like a Matrioshka doll, con- 2. Epistemology of the corrective essence of permanent, transforms the evolution of sci- tian, 1998, p. 96), and not a question of unar- taining more propositions, different levels of scientific theories ence into a continuous revision of theories (as ticulated proof of the empirical facts. On the arguments and their valuation: the biggest in Toulmin, 1972) following the data/experi- contrary, these empirical facts are viewed/ doll being that where the final conclusion of How does this pattern constitute? The ments falsifying their tenets. In fact, both the- sensed and thus they have “corresponding im- the correction, after the intermediary assess- ground is that the former theories prove to be se great thinkers have completed each other, ages” – specific synapses leading to units of ments, is constituted. The corrective argumen- more and more uncomfortable (denied by coming into notice the different temporal and more or less coherent information – in the tation is not reduced to propositions, neither their consequences, falsified by experiences). psychological aspects of the corrective rea- human mind. These units of information, their to syllogisms, but is constituted of the many Actually, the corrective argumentation is the soning. deployment and linking must be, however, relationships between statements: it supposes result of and is doubling both the doubts con- expressed in words and judgements. The cor- the connecting of “simple” truths of pro- cerning the old theories and the tensions be- 3. What is it at stake in the corrective reason- rective reasoning/argumentation is the form of positions and syllogisms in order to configure tween the tendency to keep them or to con- ing: the way to truth the capacity to critique the former judgements a new truth/viewpoint about reality. ceive of alternative theories: at the beginning, and has three tiers: It’s obvious that the pattern of corrective it advances only the possibility of these alter- The corrective argumentation is the gate x the first – concluding that the for- reasoning is realised in – and may be deduced native theories. Consequently, the corrective toward imagination1, i.e. openness toward a mer/existing theory was proven to be from – both the common thinking and the sci- argumentation is the sign of a crisis of wrong, entific endeavour. In the first it is experienced knowledge and more, of the possibility of 1 At the historical level, we can remember one x the second – gathering the arguments in the practical process of learning through emergence of the novelty that ends the former of the first signs of corrective reasoning: that of alternative theories, trial and error, or of falsification of prejudic- crisis. of the making of tools from stones or branches – whose first appearance did not suggest x and the third – focusing on the best/or es, or of experiences in doing and thinking. As we see, the problem of the pattern of their functions as extension of man’s abilities even only in present the more eco- And sometimes the correction arrives too late, corrective reasoning is one of epistemology but only their external objectivity of eventually when the better solution does no longer (and one of the more important): and of epis- nomical alternative theory. desired things – but imagined by humans as 10 11 11 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

plurality of alternatives. Firstly, it only over- in view their informative value: the signifi- turns the first theory and thus it seems that cances being true or false corresponding to only one alternative would be possible: the the information the phrases provide. Certain- negative form of the first theory. But then, ly, it is always about the conditions – among during the first tier – the process of falsifica- whom the syntactic means too – when the tion of the former arguments – multiple paths significances are true: i.e. the significances are opening pushing people to reflect on chal- are taken into account as true when they pre- lenging alternatives. sent the information in the enounced condi- Indeed, in the corrective process one tions. In other words, this is the illocutionary learns and arrives to the methodological con- meaning, and phrases have their illocutionary clusion that there are never only two alterna- potential resulted from the illocutionary rule tives (the former theory and its negation), but of correspondence between the reality they always multiple negations or, respecting the have in view and their transparent intention to sides and nuances of the real problems, multi- articulate this reality (Alston, 2000, pp. 58- ple paths to understand and solve them. The- 64). refore, if logic is which “get you from A to B” The reasoning is a logical inference, – as Einstein said, while “imagination will where the inference is valid: according to the take you everywhere”, he added – the logic informative/semantic/illocutionary rule and itself favours this overtaking, since it plays value. The reasoning is that which develops with possibilities: and I do not speak about the meanings of the words, and the words the modals, but about the formula of reason- themselves: only by experimenting the logical ing, the mandatory consequences of the prem- inferences and their critique/confrontation ises taking place in different times/realities. with other inferences and the real state of The corrective reasoning once more em- things, one creates and becomes aware of new phasises the semantic level of language (Mor- meanings, words and new aspects of reality. ris, 1938, pp. 21-28), drawing attention on the But in this process, the difference be- relations between the signs/phrases and their tween logical inferences and arguments does denotation/referent. Only from this standpoint appear. The simple statement of a fact, as log- of the relations between phrases and their ref- ical as it is/ as logically it is expressed, is not erent do we speak about truth and false: or the an argument: or, if we use a metaphorical sy- criteria according to which we consider the nonymy, it is only an implicit argumentation. phrases as true or false refer just to the rela- “It’s winter and it’s cold” or “Peter doubts tions between the phrases and their denota- Mary is there” have informative meaning tions. The truth value of a phrase is just the about some facts and use the logical inferring, denotation / that what the phrase refers to / the but they do not inform about the intention to significances of the phrase. Consequently, the use these phrases as support of certain con- reasoning – relationships between phrases – clusions. The arguments are just those infer- and especially the corrective reasoning, have ences that inform semantically about the intention to arrive to certain conclusions. The protraction of their hands. Imagination itself words for, because, but, nevertheless, howev- was the result of a corrective reasoning. 12 2(7), 2016 12 13 2(7), 2016 WISDOM plurality of alternatives. Firstly, it only over- in view their informative value: the signifi- er, at the same time, even though, almost, as logos as such and the human action – creating turns the first theory and thus it seems that cances being true or false corresponding to much as etc. signal just this intention. Actual- tools of action and transforming both the en- only one alternative would be possible: the the information the phrases provide. Certain- ly, these words cooperate to give the meaning vironment and the human being – intertwine negative form of the first theory. But then, ly, it is always about the conditions – among of a phrase, meaning “claiming to give the and are interdependent, but the “banal” pat- during the first tier – the process of falsifica- whom the syntactic means too – when the orientation of the further dialogue” (Anscom- tern of logic is the basis of the human charac- tion of the former arguments – multiple paths significances are true: i.e. the significances bre et Ducrot, 1976, p. 14). To argument is ter of all reactions. are opening pushing people to reflect on chal- are taken into account as true when they pre- just to give the orientation toward a certain As we know, the Greeks, Plato and Aris- lenging alternatives. sent the information in the enounced condi- conclusion. totle were somehow naïve: they seemed to Indeed, in the corrective process one tions. In other words, this is the illocutionary If in arguments the premises are consid- presuppose that, since the logos and the abil- learns and arrives to the methodological con- meaning, and phrases have their illocutionary ered true – even if they are presented as hy- ity to articulate it were/are the condition of clusion that there are never only two alterna- potential resulted from the illocutionary rule potheses (Anscombre et Ducrot, 1983) – it humanity and since the logos meant/means to tives (the former theory and its negation), but of correspondence between the reality they results that the conclusions must be true too: discern the truth from the false and to arrive always multiple negations or, respecting the have in view and their transparent intention to although the phrases – and more, the chains of to/choose the truth because only the truth is sides and nuances of the real problems, multi- articulate this reality (Alston, 2000, pp. 58- phrases – are polyphonic, the arguments are the sign of logos, if something is known ple paths to understand and solve them. The- 64). blocks of phrases and significances which di- (therefore, people have arrived to the truth) it refore, if logic is which “get you from A to B” The reasoning is a logical inference, rect the results. is already (or at least virtually) realised as – as Einstein said, while “imagination will where the inference is valid: according to the If so, then the understanding of the world such and the positive consequences of this take you everywhere”, he added – the logic informative/semantic/illocutionary rule and follows an unceasing dialogue and confronta- fact follow and are to shape the course of itself favours this overtaking, since it plays value. The reasoning is that which develops tion between arguments. Each of them start- things: simply, people will assume the truth2, with possibilities: and I do not speak about the meanings of the words, and the words ing from different premises and orienting to has thought Plato, while Aristotle has pointed the modals, but about the formula of reason- themselves: only by experimenting the logical different conclusions. The permanent revision that the incorrect statements and behaviour ing, the mandatory consequences of the prem- inferences and their critique/confrontation of arguments is then normal: because there is would be the result of opinions. Actually, this ises taking place in different times/realities. with other inferences and the real state of not only about the confrontation of formal course is more complicated, and unfortunately The corrective reasoning once more em- things, one creates and becomes aware of new expressions, but also – and when all is told – it is not the result of the truth only (and nor phasises the semantic level of language (Mor- meanings, words and new aspects of reality. the confrontation of these formal expressions can we emphasise it only from the emotions, ris, 1938, pp. 21-28), drawing attention on the But in this process, the difference be- with the reality they intend to describe and since there is always a coexistence of reason relations between the signs/phrases and their tween logical inferences and arguments does transmit. The praxis that mediates this con- and emotions). For this reason: nor can we denotation/referent. Only from this standpoint appear. The simple statement of a fact, as log- frontation – the practical analysis of infor- conceive the corrective reasoning as occurring of the relations between phrases and their ref- ical as it is/ as logically it is expressed, is not mation resulted from the reaction and action systematically only with an eye to the truth erent do we speak about truth and false: or the an argument: or, if we use a metaphorical sy- relationships to and with the environment, and its beneficial results. No, the corrective criteria according to which we consider the nonymy, it is only an implicit argumentation. and the correction of reactions and actions reasoning is only a means in man’s concrete phrases as true or false refer just to the rela- “It’s winter and it’s cold” or “Peter doubts (including the representations about the historical exploits. In rhetoric – and not on- tions between the phrases and their denota- Mary is there” have informative meaning world) according to this analysis/ the infor- ly – intentional false corrective reasoning are tions. The truth value of a phrase is just the about some facts and use the logical inferring, mation resulted – supposes and includes just denotation / that what the phrase refers to / the but they do not inform about the intention to the confrontation between representations 2 Actually, this standpoint corresponds to a very significances of the phrase. Consequently, the use these phrases as support of certain con- and arguments. modern understanding of knowledge as such: reasoning – relationships between phrases – clusions. The arguments are just those infer- Thus, the corrective reasoning is the first we know only what is true – or, obviously, and especially the corrective reasoning, have ences that inform semantically about the in- human tool of the adaptation to environment, considered as true in a certain temporal and social frame – and assumed by the speaker; for tention to arrive to certain conclusions. The the inner condition of action relationships protraction of their hands. Imagination itself us, the nonsense are only noise and we remove words for, because, but, nevertheless, howev- with this environment. Actually, the human was the result of a corrective reasoning. them from our consciousness. 12 13 13 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

common, since the goal of rhetoric is to con- ternal something, and not the image of this vince, and not to learn the truth. external something in the consciousness. However, the internal image – a marvellous From the multifarious manifestations of invention of the consciousness – is already the corrective reasoning in the entire human presenting us two things: the image as such – life I chose that from the scientific theory. the representation/the realisation of the repre- Here the conscious / intentional corrective sentation (noesis, said Husserl) – and its reasoning is a compulsory demarche: other- meaning (noema, in Husserl’s terms) relating wise the progress of knowledge does not take the representation and the external object. The place. The second constraint is that in science meaning is relational, and just through the the search for truth – and not for convincing permanent intended confrontation of the in- and dominating – is compulsory as well: ternal image to the external intended object knowledge and its progress depend just on the the creativity of the consciousness is possible. proportion of true cognisance and ways to And certainly, this creativity – arisen them. Consequently, the model of scientific from the intentionality of the awareness (Hus- argumentation might be taken as model of the serl) – has as means and steps the corrective corrective reasoning. reasoning. Sartre and Merleau-Ponty too have taken 4. The corrective reasoning and imagination over this standpoint of the active consciousness, overtaking the habitual Cartesian view The corrective reasoning is a question of of passive representations, and demonstrating daring – to doubt about the existing reasoning that the image is not a simple contents of the and its ordinariness – and of imagining alter- consciousness, but the operation of the whole native arguments. Some elements related to consciousness, they have shown that this op- imagination and developed in the first half of eration is socially relational: the noemas are the 20th century – on the trail of Kant’s con- socially constructed (Bazac, 2008). If so, the structivism – are useful for the understanding articulation of the understanding of the of the corrective reasoning. These elements world – the expression of logos – supposes appear in Husserl and (Sartre, 1936) and con- the social confrontation of different reason- sist of new relations between the objective ing/arguments and inevitably their correction. primordiality of the external world and the subjective consciousness of this world. Thus, 5. The logical form of the corrective the consciousness is not only representation – reasoning i.e. the passive face of consciousness – but always active intention concerning the object/ Indeed, the concrete manifestation of im- world focused on. Because the awareness is agination / the manner it manifests is the logi- always the awareness of something, the image cal form. Certainly, both the previous and the of this something in the consciousness is dif- present chapter do occupy with what we de- ferent from the external something, and the tect in the human mind / consciousness (here intention of the awareness concerns the ex- the distinction mind-consciousness is super-

14 2(7), 2016 14 15 2(7), 2016 WISDOM common, since the goal of rhetoric is to con- ternal something, and not the image of this fluous): actually, some aspects of the World not clear for us, and we arrive to substitute the vince, and not to learn the truth. external something in the consciousness. 2, of mental processes and facts, as Popper real grasping with words and descriptions and However, the internal image – a marvellous has named them. But without understanding arguments. From the multifarious manifestations of invention of the consciousness – is already these aspects the habit of reasoning and cor- Anyway, in order to understand the the corrective reasoning in the entire human presenting us two things: the image as such – recting one’s reasoning cannot be grasped ei- world, people endeavour three types of verifi- life I chose that from the scientific theory. the representation/the realisation of the repre- ther. cation (which are certainly intertwined): first, Here the conscious / intentional corrective sentation (noesis, said Husserl) – and its Therefore, the logical form is a structure they verify the process of thinking and, since reasoning is a compulsory demarche: other- meaning (noema, in Husserl’s terms) relating of thinking, a logical general reflecting or iso- they have “some knowledge of logical forms” wise the progress of knowledge does not take the representation and the external object. The morphic with the infinite variety of real par- (Dumitru, 2015, p. 13), i.e. they judge within place. The second constraint is that in science meaning is relational, and just through the ticulars. The form of thinking has constituted inferences and consider their correctness as a the search for truth – and not for convincing permanent intended confrontation of the in- within the process of complication of the reason of the correct understanding, they are and dominating – is compulsory as well: ternal image to the external intended object (human) reactions to environment and was aware of this level of logical forms and al- knowledge and its progress depend just on the the creativity of the consciousness is possible. “abstracted” in order to reflect and put order ways meet again them; secondly, they know proportion of true cognisance and ways to And certainly, this creativity – arisen within the infinite contents of the real world the words and are sensitive towards their sig- them. Consequently, the model of scientific from the intentionality of the awareness (Hus- (or to have the ability to grasp it). This pro- nificances (towards the nuances of different argumentation might be taken as model of the serl) – has as means and steps the corrective cess has entitled the old Greeks to observe synonyms etc.), and therefore try to fit the corrective reasoning. reasoning. that the logos of the world and that of humans words to their intentions and thinking; and Sartre and Merleau-Ponty too have taken are the same. thirdly, they verify the correspondence of 4. The corrective reasoning and imagination over this standpoint of the active conscious- The subtext of this observation was the their reasoning and expressing for their fellow ness, overtaking the habitual Cartesian view confidence into both the reasonability of the humans with the real facts. The corrective reasoning is a question of of passive representations, and demonstrating world and especially the reason/good sense as In fact, as we saw, the human beings are daring – to doubt about the existing reasoning that the image is not a simple contents of the the most equally distributed among human always positioned in a double situation: on and its ordinariness – and of imagining alter- consciousness, but the operation of the whole beings, as later on has Descartes formulated. the one hand, they act/think/speak/solve the native arguments. Some elements related to consciousness, they have shown that this op- But what was the reason of this confidence? problem, and on the other hand but at the imagination and developed in the first half of eration is socially relational: the noemas are Just the common logical forms allowing peo- same time, they are aware of their acting/thin- the 20th century – on the trail of Kant’s con- socially constructed (Bazac, 2008). If so, the ple to think, to judge: and the fact that these king/speaking/solving: they speak using/try- structivism – are useful for the understanding articulation of the understanding of the forms were and are always verified. ing to use the rights words for the given cir- of the corrective reasoning. These elements world – the expression of logos – supposes How are they verified? Obviously, the cumstance, they verify their inner inferences, appear in Husserl and (Sartre, 1936) and con- the social confrontation of different reason- transposition of the structures of thinking into and put face to face the given circum- sist of new relations between the objective ing/arguments and inevitably their correction. structures of language – as we know, this stance/the real things and their judgements primordiality of the external world and the transposition is mostly (but not entirely) the and vocal discourses. It does seem that man is subjective consciousness of this world. Thus, 5. The logical form of the corrective result of a didactic process of separation of a corrective animal, does it? the consciousness is not only representation – reasoning naturally interdependent levels – supposes The complexity formed by n levels of re- i.e. the passive face of consciousness – but these two types of structures/levels. Some- ality as they are grasped by the human inten- always active intention concerning the object/ Indeed, the concrete manifestation of im- times they are mutually hindering themselves tions and structures of thinking once more world focused on. Because the awareness is agination / the manner it manifests is the logi- in the reflecting/coherent articulating of the appears in the corrective reasoning as such. always the awareness of something, the image cal form. Certainly, both the previous and the coloured various states of affairs: either “we Here we find the counter-posing of the argu- of this something in the consciousness is dif- present chapter do occupy with what we de- have no words” for what we are grasping and ments to reality – and certainly, this moment ferent from the external something, and the tect in the human mind / consciousness (here even understanding, or we have some words, has as a ground n premises, experiences, ar- intention of the awareness concerns the ex- the distinction mind-consciousness is super- including habits of inferences, but things are guments – and the clash between arguments,

14 15 15 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

this clash itself corresponding to different sumptions that might turn out to be layers/stages of the understanding and again wrong/false” (Ibid). having as a ground n premises, experiences x The second tier, the semantic necessity and counter-posing to reality, arguments. means that to some specific meanings Thus, the corrective reasoning appears in (which are the result of the intention of front of the necessity to solve a new situation, consciousness) some specific words/ex- when the former arguments/theories do no pressions do correspond: the meanings more correspond and the solving needs the are here the most important. Therefore, exceeding of routine in reasoning and acting: from analytical standpoint, the semantic the corrective reasoning is the sign of the cre- necessity means that the words and ex- ativity of the human beings. pressions have meanings which are not The pattern of this Janus type complex denied by the common (or scientific) in- reasoning is based on the constraint of validity tuition: the correct use of words is here and this constraint in its turn is based on that the most important. of necessity: it is absolutely necessary the new x The third tier is the naturalist necessity arguments be consistent and coherent, as the that means that there is always a final old ones were (towards the intellectual condi- correspondence between the logical use tions of their time, of course). This means that of words and the (always changing) real 3 the arguments can explain the “new” reality state of affairs: or that there is always a only if they meet (therefore, from the stand- criterion of satisfaction (as Tarski has 4 point of logic) a three tier necessity . considered even for formalised lan- x The first tier, the logical necessity means guages, and Fine has developed in “The that at the level of logical forms, the con- Problem of De Re Modality” (Fine, clusions follow from the premises “with- 1989)) towards words and thoughts ac- out the need of any further additional as- cording to their relations with the real world5.

3 A new reality may be not only a new real object unnoticed before, but also an aspect gras- 5 Or, as in the good comparison (Fine, 1989, p. ped with new intellectual tools (theories, ex- 199): “The focus of the logical argument is on periments, concepts, principles, criteria). the intelligibility of a certain kind of expres- 4 The three types of logical necessity – logical sion. The question is whether there is any (in fact, formal), analytical, metaphysical – are meaningful use for free variables within the from Dumitru. Fine has talked about metaphy- scope of a modal operator. The focus of the sical, natural and normative (“there are three metaphysical argument is on the intelligibility distinct sources of necessity - the identity of of a certain kind of idea. The question is whet- things, the natural order and the normative or- her it makes sense to say of an object that it der - and that each gives rise to its own peculi- necessarily fulfills a condition. One might say ar form of necessity” (Fine, 2005)). I speak that in the one case we are concerned with the about logical, semantic/analytical and natural- intelligibility of a certain kind of expression ist (as the principle of necessity to apply to the without regard of what it might express, while objects) and specific/natural. in the other case we are concerned with a cer- 16 2(7), 2016 16 17 2(7), 2016 WISDOM this clash itself corresponding to different sumptions that might turn out to be And for not divagate too much (to the the words: “the activities of specifying the layers/stages of the understanding and again wrong/false” (Ibid). discussion of what does “real” mean, but also meaning of a word and of stating what an having as a ground n premises, experiences x The second tier, the semantic necessity of the normative approach of the real – the object is are essentially the same; and and counter-posing to reality, arguments. means that to some specific meanings fact that the human subject sees the real from hence each of them has an equal right to Thus, the corrective reasoning appears in (which are the result of the intention of the standpoint of “the good”/perfection of re- be regarded as a form of definition”. front of the necessity to solve a new situation, consciousness) some specific words/ex- ality according to the models historically cre- Consequently, “The metaphysical neces- when the former arguments/theories do no pressions do correspond: the meanings ated by man, but also according to the explic- sity refers to the existence of objects in more correspond and the solving needs the are here the most important. Therefore, itly good for the human person – that meaning their identity: the necessity has its source exceeding of routine in reasoning and acting: from analytical standpoint, the semantic that there is also a normative necessity), one in those objects which are the subject of the corrective reasoning is the sign of the cre- necessity means that the words and ex- can note that, still from the standpoint of log- the underlying essentialist claim… The ativity of the human beings. pressions have meanings which are not ic, metaphysically necessary truths can then The pattern of this Janus type complex denied by the common (or scientific) in- x one has arrived at a fourth tier of necessi- be identified with the propositions which reasoning is based on the constraint of validity tuition: the correct use of words is here ty, the metaphysical one, explaining the are true in virtue of the nature of all ob- and this constraint in its turn is based on that the most important. reason of the logical use of words – i.e. jects whatever” (Fine, 1994). of necessity: it is absolutely necessary the new x The third tier is the naturalist necessity the primordiality of their meanings as Finally, as it was mentioned and already arguments be consistent and coherent, as the that means that there is always a final they arise from the relationships with the implicated in the above note about the meta- old ones were (towards the intellectual condi- correspondence between the logical use “objects” cut up by the intentionality of physical identity, there are types of necessity tions of their time, of course). This means that of words and the (always changing) real consciousness – in the correspondence which are beyond the logical criteria: norma- 3 the arguments can explain the “new” reality state of affairs: or that there is always a between the logical use of words and the tive necessity and specific necessity (that is only if they meet (therefore, from the stand- criterion of satisfaction (as Tarski has identity of objects: or, differently put, in the concrete manifestation of the naturalist 4 point of logic) a three tier necessity . considered even for formalised lan- the care of the human consciousness for necessity) in different sciences and stand- x The first tier, the logical necessity means guages, and Fine has developed in “The the grasping and logical treatment of the points of the different levels/layers of reality. that at the level of logical forms, the con- Problem of De Re Modality” (Fine, identity of objects. Kit Fine has shown “Neither form of necessity can be subsumed, clusions follow from the premises “with- 1989)) towards words and thoughts ac- that the logical forms too reflect the iden- defined or otherwise understood by reference out the need of any further additional as- cording to their relations with the real tity of objects: “if logical form can take to any other forms of necessity” (Fine, 2005). world5. account of the repeated occurrence of a This last criterion of necessity, that of the sentence, it should also be able to take standpoints of the different levels/layers of 3 A new reality may be not only a new real ob- account of the repeated occurrence of an reality and, certainly, of the sciences studying ject unnoticed before, but also an aspect gras- 5 Or, as in the good comparison (Fine, 1989, p. object” (Fine, Modality and Tense. Philo- them, is which is tackled in this paper and it is ped with new intellectual tools (theories, ex- 199): “The focus of the logical argument is on sophical Papers, quoted in Dumitru, suggested by those who has shown the com- periments, concepts, principles, criteria). the intelligibility of a certain kind of expres- 4 The three types of logical necessity – logical sion. The question is whether there is any op.cit.: pp. 15-16), and thus the modality plementary character of the formal criteria (in fact, formal), analytical, metaphysical – are meaningful use for free variables within the de re is intelligible. Therefore, we define advanced by logics and the “worldly” criteria 6 from Dumitru. Fine has talked about metaphy- scope of a modal operator. The focus of the the words (according to their meanings) of the real life (Toulmin 2003 , but also Fine). sical, natural and normative (“there are three metaphysical argument is on the intelligibility and the analytical truths are the conclu- distinct sources of necessity - the identity of of a certain kind of idea. The question is whet- sions of the definitional truths according 6 “But analyticity is one thing, formal validity is things, the natural order and the normative or- her it makes sense to say of an object that it to their meanings; the definition is thus of another; and neither of these is a universal cri- der - and that each gives rise to its own peculi- necessarily fulfills a condition. One might say the meanings, but this is tantamount to terion of necessity, still less of the soundness ar form of necessity” (Fine, 2005)). I speak that in the one case we are concerned with the say that it is of the objects signified by of our arguments”, Toulmin, 2003, p. 134; “lo- about logical, semantic/analytical and natural- intelligibility of a certain kind of expression gic is a normative subjective, concerned with ist (as the principle of necessity to apply to the without regard of what it might express, while tain kind of idea without regard for how it the appraisal of arguments and the recognition objects) and specific/natural. in the other case we are concerned with a cer- might be expressed.” of their merits, one could hardly expect any- 16 17 17 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

The logical forms allowing the validity of in- realm – Toulmin (2003) has derived that to ferences – thus, the formal possibility of arrive to a valid argument means to combine truth – are only the scaffolding of the mean- the “quasi-geometrical” form of the logical ings it relates, and relates in such a manner as inference and the proper procedures to a cer- they might correspond to the real objects (as tain problem. However, this answer “creates a they grasp the identity of objects). Technical- further problem for us: to see how and why ly speaking, the relationship between mean- proper procedure demands the adoption of ings (of words, formulas etc.) and objects is simple geometrical shape, and how that shape one of intelligibility, and not of truth, and the guarantees in its turn the validity of our pro- valid inferences relate intelligibility and cedures. Supposing valid arguments can be truth: both the intelligible meanings and ob- cast in a geometrically tidy form, how does jects, and the clarification of the complex re- this help to make them any the more cogent?” lationships between objects (obviously, re- (Ibid, p. 88) flected in words with meanings). As much, Consequently, one has to unite the sim- the validity of inferences/logical forms con- ple explanation of logical arguments – the tains an entire history of clarifications (nega- game of logical inferences of conclusions tions, corrections). Simply put and letting from premises (the logical forms), and the aside the logical necessity (the necessity of procedural rules of these inferences – with the logical forms and their sine qua non charac- “field-dependence” of the criteria or standards ter), the logical forms reflect and structure the of evaluation of the choice of arguments and real necessity (this means also, in philosophi- words. The assessment of the validity of an cal language, the metaphysical necessity of argument (i.e. its consideration as cor- identity): and the human beings are constitu- rect/good) has in view both the formal model tively aware of these necessities and their in- of situations – for example, “In any field, the teracting, and they seek to control this com- conclusions that ‘cannot’ be the case are those plex fact, and arrive to do this. Once more, we are obliged to rule out” (Ibid, pp. 33-34), this is the reason of the Greek idea of coinci- namely, the negative conclusions do not sup- dence of the cosmic and human logos. pose their opposite would be possible in the same case and in the same time; or for the 6. The argumentation formal model of possibility the conclusion “must ‘have what it takes’ in order to be enti- From the most popular types of argumen- tled to genuine consideration in that context tation – in mathematics and in the juridical (Ibid, p. 34) – and the substantial one specific to domains and problems. thing else”, p. 173; it would be necessary “the The authority of arguments arises, thus, reintroduction of historical, empirical and from their scheme (Ibid, pp. 87-130): data, even-in a sense-anthropological considerations warrants, backing of warrants, correctness of into the subject which philosophers had prided syllogisms in the specific case, and types of themselves on purifying, more than all other conclusions (necessary or probable). The branches of philosophy, of any but a priori ar- scheme always must be adapted to the do- guments”, p. 234. 18 2(7), 2016 18 19 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

The logical forms allowing the validity of in- realm – Toulmin (2003) has derived that to mains/problems/cases, its weight depends on (Popper) is, as a matter of fact, only a manner ferences – thus, the formal possibility of arrive to a valid argument means to combine the substantial reasons/field the scheme is ap- of verification. Thus, in the course of time, it truth – are only the scaffolding of the mean- the “quasi-geometrical” form of the logical plied within; and the apparent complication of is possible that old theories, already falsified ings it relates, and relates in such a manner as inference and the proper procedures to a cer- this scheme with the backing of warrants – and proved invalid, be used as important ele- they might correspond to the real objects (as tain problem. However, this answer “creates a i.e. demonstration/argumentation of the ments for a state-of-the-art theory in a domain they grasp the identity of objects). Technical- further problem for us: to see how and why “proofs” advanced in order to justify the ini- (as in the present biology, the holistic ap- ly speaking, the relationship between mean- proper procedure demands the adoption of tial claim and to draw to a valid conclusion, proach of Aristotle, see only Delbrück, 1971; ings (of words, formulas etc.) and objects is simple geometrical shape, and how that shape or demonstration of demonstrations, or the Bastit, 2016). one of intelligibility, and not of truth, and the guarantees in its turn the validity of our pro- burden of proofs related to the reasons ad- The corrective reasoning in science arises valid inferences relate intelligibility and cedures. Supposing valid arguments can be vanced by the claims which links the initial when the truth of a theory – and we know truth: both the intelligible meanings and ob- cast in a geometrically tidy form, how does data – signifies that the argumentation is not a from Aristotle that, in order to arrive to the jects, and the clarification of the complex re- this help to make them any the more cogent?” syllogism, but a system of syllogisms, n syl- truth in a certain domain and in a certain tem- lationships between objects (obviously, re- (Ibid, p. 88) logisms, as it was mentioned before: the ar- poral interval, a theory presented by the mas- flected in words with meanings). As much, Consequently, one has to unite the sim- gumentation deals not with propositions, but ter to the disciple must have and has only one the validity of inferences/logical forms con- ple explanation of logical arguments – the with statements. And that: even though the solution, and secure, while the answers result- tains an entire history of clarifications (nega- game of logical inferences of conclusions conclusion takes place in the register of posed from a controversy aiming to persuade tions, corrections). Simply put and letting from premises (the logical forms), and the sibility, the argumentation reflects the logic of might have two and have different types and aside the logical necessity (the necessity of procedural rules of these inferences – with the necessity, the consciousness of the necessity degrees of possibility (probability) – is shaken logical forms and their sine qua non charac- “field-dependence” of the criteria or standards of that conclusion raising the problem of pos- by different material evidences of its histori- ter), the logical forms reflect and structure the of evaluation of the choice of arguments and sibility. cal character of plausibility. The corrective real necessity (this means also, in philosophi- words. The assessment of the validity of an The formal model of argumentation is reasoning is thus the antidote to the perisha- cal language, the metaphysical necessity of argument (i.e. its consideration as cor- absolutely necessary: but “it is not a para- bility of the truth as such. identity): and the human beings are constitu- rect/good) has in view both the formal model digm” (Ibid, p. 133). This emphasis is very The problem is that the material evidenc- tively aware of these necessities and their in- of situations – for example, “In any field, the important for the corrective argumentation. es of a theory/of its falsification are not the teracting, and they seek to control this com- conclusions that ‘cannot’ be the case are those Not the correctness of only the syllogism is at result of a cold analysis observing all the pro- plex fact, and arrive to do this. Once more, we are obliged to rule out” (Ibid, pp. 33-34), stake, but the entire coherent articulation of cedural rules of reasoning and scientific re- this is the reason of the Greek idea of coinci- namely, the negative conclusions do not sup- many syllogisms, that supposes: that at the search, nor are they the following of the neu- dence of the cosmic and human logos. pose their opposite would be possible in the basis people exercises their capacity to differ- tral agglomeration of facts being self-evident same case and in the same time; or for the entiate the things, then to link them, in a se- to the whole scientific community. The scien- 6. The argumentation formal model of possibility the conclusion lective manner, then to arrive to some conclu- tific research is a social process and all its as- “must ‘have what it takes’ in order to be enti- sions, and then to revise and correct the entire pects depend on many socially constructed From the most popular types of argumen- tled to genuine consideration in that context cycle of reasoning. Only in this way do we interests, including the one of the search for tation – in mathematics and in the juridical (Ibid, p. 34) – and the substantial one specific meet with liable argumentation, backing our truth. As a consequence, as the first step of a to domains and problems. lives so as to understand the reasons and con- scientific research and making of a theory be- thing else”, p. 173; it would be necessary “the The authority of arguments arises, thus, sequences of our actions. gins with the putting of probable premises, as reintroduction of historical, empirical and from their scheme (Ibid, pp. 87-130): data, the corrective approach of the existing theo- even-in a sense-anthropological considerations warrants, backing of warrants, correctness of 7. The corrective reasoning in science ries treats its elements from a social stand- into the subject which philosophers had prided syllogisms in the specific case, and types of point, i.e. from different social points of view. themselves on purifying, more than all other conclusions (necessary or probable). The In science, the verification is permanent, If so, the scientific argumentation does branches of philosophy, of any but a priori ar- scheme always must be adapted to the do- never once for all, and thus the falsification no longer appear as a clear-cut phenomenon guments”, p. 234. 18 19 19 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

in the sky of independent thinking confront- stracting, quantifying reason” and tending to ing “objective facts” and arriving to one-sided eliminate the individual, the accidental (Ibid, and simple truths, but just a permanent quar- pp. 140, 141). We infer by comparing homo- rel of different hypotheses related to the same genous facts and deducing general features, fact as well as to different ones. As Popper and then by comparing heterogeneous facts, has shown, every fact is preceded by a prob- and a group of homogenous or heterogeneous lem – actually, the fact is considered through facts with a single one, an “accident”: and we the angle of a hypothesis questioning the pre- have either a given rule in order to back our sent theory and the fact as such – and then the reasoning, or it is selected from plausible but hypothesis itself is inquired confronting it probable rules already existing in our universe with facts. If we do not put the hypothesis to of knowledge, or we create the rule and we the test of induction (to the test of the con- have to test it with the facts which awakened frontation with facts – and do not forget, irre- our need to guess a new rule (Eco, 1988). spective of our selection of facts, they are Thus, in every moment of the scientific re- never simple and few), we transform the hy- search we have to think in a hypothetical pothesis, as well as we did with the former manner and to put this hypothetical manner to theories, into prejudices. the test of facts (AB. the test of correspond- Yes, before we tack together the hypoth- ence) and of the grounds of our knowledge esis – the abductive reasoning, as Peirce has and hypotheses (see also Reichertz, 2010). theorised it – we have a “perceptual judge- There is also the test of coherence of dif- ment” (an open wonder regarding the fact, i.e. ferent rational decisions to choose such or the new face of the world through the lens of such argumentation and theory (see Thagard, the fact) which is not the object of the logical 2000), but what is important is that the entire and scientific analysis, it is outside criticism. problem of logic is related to the external Only the abductive reasoning constituted on facts and that this relationship supposes a the basis of perceptual judgements is the ob- permanent adaptation of the diverse reasoning ject of scientific inquiry, for this reason it is to these external facts and milieu: while this “the first step of scientific reasoning” (Peirce, adaptation, as well as the logic “of syllogism” 1958, § 218), the only one type bringing a (we remember, the syllogism was/ meant the new idea (Peirce, 1932, § 96) and being put to unification of words), reflect the constraints the test of facts (induction: the experimental of the social: they are “language games” if I testing of the hypothesis, Peirce, 1958, may use Wittgenstein’s formula, reflecting § 206). both the empirical causality and the formal The specific logical steps of science are one. The universals of the scientific inquiries deduction and induction, just on the basis of arise just from this intertwining. Professor the abduction that proceeds as a “circumstan- Brutian was right: the logic of argumentation tial method” from “the humblest details just (the above-mentioned logical forms) is uni- because of their individualizing attitude” versal, but argumentation depends on do- (Carettini, 1988, 141): in opposition with the mains and context (Brutian, 1998). Galilean paradigm of “universalizing, ab-

20 2(7), 2016 20 21 2(7), 2016 WISDOM in the sky of independent thinking confront- stracting, quantifying reason” and tending to 8. Two warnings of psychology where anticipation and creativity intertwine ing “objective facts” and arriving to one-sided eliminate the individual, the accidental (Ibid, (Nadin, 2015). The consciousness of one’s and simple truths, but just a permanent quar- pp. 140, 141). We infer by comparing homo- a) If there is never a pure behaviour of own identity and situation helps people to rel of different hypotheses related to the same genous facts and deducing general features, emotions – and certainly never one of reason- control themselves – and concretely, to cor- fact as well as to different ones. As Popper and then by comparing heterogeneous facts, ableness alone -, since reason and feelings rect their former reasoning and points of has shown, every fact is preceded by a prob- and a group of homogenous or heterogeneous intertwine and, beyond the individual, there is view – or to master their own power (as Aris- lem – actually, the fact is considered through facts with a single one, an “accident”: and we always somewhere in the general social at- totle has observed in the Nicomachean Ethics, the angle of a hypothesis questioning the pre- have either a given rule in order to back our mosphere the intuition or knowledge of the 1150a12 -13): in fact, to impose reason over sent theory and the fact as such – and then the reasoning, or it is selected from plausible but reasonable/logical solution, the scientific en- passion. hypothesis itself is inquired confronting it probable rules already existing in our universe deavour ought to surpass the random charac- b) The consciousness is not enough to with facts. If we do not put the hypothesis to of knowledge, or we create the rule and we ter of reasonable control over emotions. In correct – and consciously – a theory accord- the test of induction (to the test of the con- have to test it with the facts which awakened science, one must be conscious about the ne- ing to the truthful data existent in a certain frontation with facts – and do not forget, irre- our need to guess a new rule (Eco, 1988). cessity to free the quest for truth from emo- interval. As there is an individual superficiali- spective of our selection of facts, they are Thus, in every moment of the scientific re- tions and interests external to the scientific ty and simplification of the theories one ad- never simple and few), we transform the hy- search we have to think in a hypothetical research. Indeed, science means conscious- here to – see for example the halo effect falla- pothesis, as well as we did with the former manner and to put this hypothetical manner to ness of movement/development/change, thus cy, where people have a cognitive dissonance, theories, into prejudices. the test of facts (AB. the test of correspond- of the logic of critique of every cognisance: i.e. the consciousness that they do not know, Yes, before we tack together the hypoth- ence) and of the grounds of our knowledge consciousness of its inner corrective strategy, then they “correct” this situation by inferring esis – the abductive reasoning, as Peirce has and hypotheses (see also Reichertz, 2010). consciousness of the absolute necessity of this from a single aspect the general state of theorised it – we have a “perceptual judge- There is also the test of coherence of dif- strategy, consciousness of its inner correctible things, concretely from “a perceived single ment” (an open wonder regarding the fact, i.e. ferent rational decisions to choose such or character, and certainly, consciousness of the positive trait of a person the conclusion of a the new face of the world through the lens of such argumentation and theory (see Thagard, corrective endeavour as a result of the social generally positive assessment of that person” the fact) which is not the object of the logical 2000), but what is important is that the entire dialogue in narrow and large sense as well. In (Grcic, 2008) – as there is a tendency to re- and scientific analysis, it is outside criticism. problem of logic is related to the external science, the individual is not an isolated enti- duce/simplify theories about more complicat- Only the abductive reasoning constituted on facts and that this relationship supposes a ty. ed and “invisible” sides of reality. the basis of perceptual judgements is the ob- permanent adaptation of the diverse reasoning The consciousness of the corrective ject of scientific inquiry, for this reason it is to these external facts and milieu: while this strategy – of every human, of society, and of 9. Finally, the examples related to science “the first step of scientific reasoning” (Peirce, adaptation, as well as the logic “of syllogism” science – is the more important as it reflects 1958, § 218), the only one type bringing a (we remember, the syllogism was/ meant the and realises that this corrective approach per- The classic ones are those summarised new idea (Peirce, 1932, § 96) and being put to unification of words), reflect the constraints tains only to the living, and obviously, only by Bertrand Russell (Russell 1950, pp. 73, 74, the test of facts (induction: the experimental of the social: they are “language games” if I the superior living, the humans have the 75, 78, 80-81-82). The clash between the ar- testing of the hypothesis, Peirce, 1958, may use Wittgenstein’s formula, reflecting awareness of this approach. Creation means gument of authority and the scientific reason- § 206). both the empirical causality and the formal permanent correction, for indeed, the living ing having n proofs/data and backings, the The specific logical steps of science are one. The universals of the scientific inquiries matter does not behave as a simple repetition theories of the Ages of Faith and those of the deduction and induction, just on the basis of arise just from this intertwining. Professor of the laws of physics, and the human being modern science are already well-known7. the abduction that proceeds as a “circumstan- Brutian was right: the logic of argumentation even more “co-designs its existence” (Nadin, 7 tial method” from “the humblest details just (the above-mentioned logical forms) is uni- 2015, p. 7). And finally, the importance of the Let mention only some ones as referred to in because of their individualizing attitude” versal, but argumentation depends on do- consciousness of the corrective strategy de- Russell: Miracles, many thousands of witches burned; “Men's sins were punished by pesti- (Carettini, 1988, 141): in opposition with the mains and context (Brutian, 1998). rives from the human consciousness of time, lence and famine, by earthquake, flood, and Galilean paradigm of “universalizing, ab- better – of the human treatment of time, fire”; “To suppose that there are human beings 20 21 21 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

People have corrected the old theories having at the antipodes was heresy”; “When Benjamin as argument the authority of Holy Scriptures Franklin invented the lightning-rod, the clergy, of all the religions, and, though this process of both in England and America, with the enthu- superseding was painful and long, they have siastic support of George III, condemned it as arrived to theories having as support the sci- an impious attempt to defeat the will of God”; entific inquiry of phenomena. (And, inherent- “Although we are taught the Copernican astro- ly, absurdities are found in great philosophers nomy in our textbooks, it has not yet penetrat- too – such as, in Plato, that “men who do not ed to our religion or our morals, and has not even succeeded in destroying belief in astrolo- pursue wisdom in this life will be born again gy. People still think that the Divine Plan has as women”, or, in Aristotle, that “the blood of special reference to human beings, and that a females is blacker than that of males; that the special Providence not only looks after the pig is the only animal liable to measles; that good, but also punishes the wicked”; “It was an elephant suffering from insomnia should only very slowly and reluctantly that the have its shoulders rubbed with salt, olive oil, church sanctioned the dissection of corpses in and warm water…that women have fewer connection with the study of medicine. The pi- teeth than men, and so on” – but ”Commenta- oneer in dissection was Vesalius, who was tors on great philosophers always politely ig- Court physician to the Emperor Charles V. His nore their silly remarks” (Ibid, p. 99). medical skill led the Emperor to protect him, But there are many examples in the sci- but after the Emperor was dead he got into trouble”; “It is odd that modern men, who are ence of the last 66 years after Russell’s book, aware of what science has done in the way of which show the difficulty to correct the scien- bringing new knowledge and altering the con- tific theories. The causes of this difficulty ditions of social life, should still be willing to may be categorised: as causes arising from the accept the authority of texts embodying the extra-scientific domains (political, economi- outlook of very ancient and very ignorant pas- cal, cultural, ideological), and as causes in- toral or agricultural tribes”; “There are logical herent to the process of knowledge itself. The difficulties in the notion of Sin. We are told latter manifest as: that Sin consists in disobedience to God's com- x the avoiding of the definition of concepts mands, but we are also told that God is omnip- used (Russell, 1950, pp. 92-99: theories otent. If He is, nothing contrary to His will can about the human nature without defining occur; therefore when the sinner disobeys His commands, He must have intended this to happen. St. Augustine boldly accepts this view, can be no such thing as sin. This leads to and asserts that men are led to sin by a blind- frightful results”; “As soon as we abandon our ness with which God afflicts them. But most own reason, and are content to rely upon au- theologians, in modern times, have felt that, if thority, there is no end to our troubles. Whose God causes men to sin, it is not fair to send authority? The Old Testament? The New Tes- them to hell for what they cannot help. We are tament? The Koran? In practice, people choose told that sin consists in acting contrary to the book considered sacred by the community God's will. This, however, does not get rid of in which they are born, and out of that book the difficulty. Those who, like Spinoza, take they choose the parts they like, ignoring the God's omnipotence seriously, deduce that there others”. 22 2(7), 2016 22 23 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

People have corrected the old theories having it; pp. 99-101: belief in ‘nature’ and gramme, was and is depending on the at the antipodes was heresy”; “When Benjamin as argument the authority of Holy Scriptures ‘what is natural’; etc.); quality of the software programme. And Franklin invented the lightning-rod, the clergy, of all the religions, and, though this process of x the unclear definitions putting the func- when this quality is improved in order to both in England and America, with the enthu- superseding was painful and long, they have tional analysis in both the physical and eliminate the errors made by the former siastic support of George III, condemned it as arrived to theories having as support the sci- social sciences endeavour in an embar- programme, it is necessary to review all an impious attempt to defeat the will of God”; entific inquiry of phenomena. (And, inherent- rassing situation: if there is a lack of em- the studies elaborated with the former “Although we are taught the Copernican astro- ly, absurdities are found in great philosophers pirical objective criteria, absolutely nec- programme. Two epistemological prob- nomy in our textbooks, it has not yet penetrat- too – such as, in Plato, that “men who do not essary for “precise objectively testable lems results from this situation: one is the ed to our religion or our morals, and has not even succeeded in destroying belief in astrolo- pursue wisdom in this life will be born again scientific assertions”, so only if the con- necessity to repeat the experiments – in- gy. People still think that the Divine Plan has as women”, or, in Aristotle, that “the blood of cepts are (AB, i.e. consciously) “relativ- cluding with different means – in order to special reference to human beings, and that a females is blacker than that of males; that the ised”, the explanations are valid and al- validate them; the repetition of experi- special Providence not only looks after the pig is the only animal liable to measles; that lowing predictions irrespective of the ments/studies is compulsory for the accu- good, but also punishes the wicked”; “It was an elephant suffering from insomnia should domain supposing laws or only tenden- racy of the scientific knowledge; and cer- only very slowly and reluctantly that the have its shoulders rubbed with salt, olive oil, cies (Hempel, 1965, p. 324); tainly, the necessity to create new (theo- church sanctioned the dissection of corpses in and warm water…that women have fewer x the concomitant use of concepts in dif- retical and practical) instruments of ex- connection with the study of medicine. The pi- teeth than men, and so on” – but ”Commenta- ferent registers and their reciprocal sub- periments and their validation; the other oneer in dissection was Vesalius, who was tors on great philosophers always politely ig- stitution; one – is the necessity to do away with the Court physician to the Emperor Charles V. His nore their silly remarks” (Ibid, p. 99). x extra-scientific impediments to make and medical skill led the Emperor to protect him, the separation of formal correctness But there are many examples in the sci- validate scientific experiments: the pro- but after the Emperor was dead he got into from the material one, and the ignorance trouble”; “It is odd that modern men, who are ence of the last 66 years after Russell’s book, of one of them, as Aristotle has shown hibitive costs of experiments – when to- aware of what science has done in the way of which show the difficulty to correct the scien- long ago in his Analytics; day the states fund the tireless hunger of bringing new knowledge and altering the con- tific theories. The causes of this difficulty x in its turn, the material correctness is de- the military-industrial complex and ditions of social life, should still be willing to may be categorised: as causes arising from the pending on the material tools the re- wars – and the privatised scientific re- accept the authority of texts embodying the extra-scientific domains (political, economi- searchers use in order to measure and to search (of companies that search for the outlook of very ancient and very ignorant pas- cal, cultural, ideological), and as causes in- “view”/perceive reality, and this material immediate favourable costs-benefits for- toral or agricultural tribes”; “There are logical herent to the process of knowledge itself. The condition of correctness is too well- mula) must be annulled in a new philoso- difficulties in the notion of Sin. We are told latter manifest as: known as to stop on it. But see only the phy of the scientific research; that Sin consists in disobedience to God's com- x the avoiding of the definition of concepts dependence of scientific research on IT, x another source of slow correcting is the mands, but we are also told that God is omnip- used (Russell, 1950, pp. 92-99: theories avoiding of the empirical observation otent. If He is, nothing contrary to His will can the omnipotent instrument that mediates about the human nature without defining “thinking that you know when in fact you occur; therefore when the sinner disobeys His our understanding of the world: a recent don't” (Russell, 1950, p. 103) and, once commands, He must have intended this to hap- study (Eklund et al. 2016, corrected for pen. St. Augustine boldly accepts this view, can be no such thing as sin. This leads to alleviate and at the same time make more more, the avoiding of correct verifica- and asserts that men are led to sin by a blind- frightful results”; “As soon as we abandon our precise two phrases, but “These errors do tion/falsification through sufficient exper- ness with which God afflicts them. But most own reason, and are content to rely upon au- not affect the conclusions of the article. iments and concluding data; theologians, in modern times, have felt that, if thority, there is no end to our troubles. Whose The online version has been corrected”) x another one – is the avoiding of criticisms God causes men to sin, it is not fair to send authority? The Old Testament? The New Tes- has proved that the fMRI (Functional from the standpoint of other/opposed the- them to hell for what they cannot help. We are tament? The Koran? In practice, people choose Magnetic Resonance Imaging) machine, ories (Ibid, pp. 105-106; Popper, 1995). told that sin consists in acting contrary to the book considered sacred by the community providing an image of the brain and not And certainly, the main cause of this God's will. This, however, does not get rid of in which they are born, and out of that book the functioning in real time, and more, an avoiding is not technical, nor does it per- the difficulty. Those who, like Spinoza, take they choose the parts they like, ignoring the tain to the psychology of researchers, but God's omnipotence seriously, deduce that there others”. image interpreted by a computer pro- 22 23 23 2(7), 2016 Ana BAZAC

is the dependence on the social-political tends to impose superficiality, rather the inca- constraints of the scientific research: see pacity to articulate the “why” of things (“the only the conflict of interests of the re- wherefore and the cause”, said Aristotle, Met- searchers paid by concerns like Monsanto aphysics, 1, 981a1), (and “when adults fall in order to justify the healthy results of back to the primitive causal schema and over- the use of their products; extend it beyond the realm of mechanical cau- x the inertia of the use of old premises – al- sation, misconceptions are bound to occur” ready demonstrated as false –: just be- (Chen, 2015, p. 21), the relativisation of cause the premises are based on tacit sci- meanings, the incapacity to understand the entific and social/political presumptions difference between evil and good, and all of which are believed to be proper to the these turns are but a burden with ugly conse- general atmosphere of ideas, and thus quences for the logical thinking. Then what more “academic”; can we say about the corrective capacity of x the low flexibility of the researchers’ this logic? model of scientific approach; indeed, we should be critical not only about the 10. Instead of conclusions premises, but also about what occurs in every moment of the research: as we The corrective reasoning is always revo- know that the “lab research” has in view lutionary: it changes the former theories – cut conditions/ideal conditions, as we their presumptions, demonstrations, steps – have to exercise our attention to the chan- and thus it erases the common impression that ges related to every part of the scientific the logical forms/ the logic of argumentation pattern; because what is the most impor- or demonstration would be always cold and tant is not the accommodation to the ba- separated from the exuberant ontological di- sic hypothesis we started from, but the te- versity and possibilities of human points of los of the concrete research, or its ulti- view. Yes, the difficulty to see, to grasp and mate reason: like the prices of the works to understand seems as if the cold forms of art which are the result not of the start- would lead to conformist manners of thinking price or of the evaluation (both these ing: or as if their habit is that of fixing and premises are “lab/ideal conditions”, with reducing, impoverishing the infinite profusion all the criteria included), but of the phe- of levels of reality and moments of their hu- nomena occurred later, when the “subjec- man understanding. In effect, the logical tive” facts as the interest of persons and forms and the logic of argumentation are only institutions and the sums allocated by means, so tools, of the understanding of the them appear. world and they follow the variety and wealth These few aspects should make us care- of its levels, moments and problems. People ful of the danger of “dogmatism” (Russell, in do understand when the logical tools are used Preface), whose “growth”, though grasped by in a non-logical way, and if they blame the lucid minds in the mid-century, is nowadays logic and seem to be tired of so many argu- geometrical: the neo-liberal turn of modernity ments, it is not because of their turn toward an

24 2(7), 2016 24 25 2(7), 2016 WISDOM is the dependence on the social-political tends to impose superficiality, rather the inca- illogical status – though the rulers tend to de- REFERENCES constraints of the scientific research: see pacity to articulate the “why” of things (“the termine this turn – that would oppose to rea- only the conflict of interests of the re- wherefore and the cause”, said Aristotle, Met- sonable arguments, but just because they are Alston, W.P. (2000). Illocutionary Acts and searchers paid by concerns like Monsanto aphysics, 1, 981a1), (and “when adults fall thirsty of logic, of accuracy, of precision. Sentence Meaning, Ithaca: Cornell in order to justify the healthy results of back to the primitive causal schema and over- They feel that just the lack of logic, of accu- University Press. the use of their products; extend it beyond the realm of mechanical cau- racy, of precision does erase the infinite rich- Anscombre, J.-C., & Ducrot, O. (1976). L'ar- x the inertia of the use of old premises – al- sation, misconceptions are bound to occur” ness they could enjoy humanly. gumentation dans la langue. Lan- ready demonstrated as false –: just be- (Chen, 2015, p. 21), the relativisation of The guilt of the illogical attitudes of peo- gages, 10(42), 5-27. cause the premises are based on tacit sci- meanings, the incapacity to understand the ple is then not the powerlessness of logic, but Anscombre, J.-C., & Ducrot, O. (1983). L’ar- entific and social/political presumptions difference between evil and good, and all of of the domination-submission relations which gumentation dans la langue. Bru- which are believed to be proper to the these turns are but a burden with ugly conse- instrumentalise the logic, as they do with all xelles : Pierre Mardaga éditeur. general atmosphere of ideas, and thus quences for the logical thinking. Then what the human features and instruments. Aristotle. (2000). Nicomachean Ethics. 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(1983) The Sign of Three: Du- These few aspects should make us care- of its levels, moments and problems. People the logic of arguments cannot be opposed to pin, Holmes, Peirce (pp. 135-153). ful of the danger of “dogmatism” (Russell, in do understand when the logical tools are used the ethical scruples of peoples: the logic of Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indi- Preface), whose “growth”, though grasped by in a non-logical way, and if they blame the arguments is for the sake of the Good, as Ar- ana University Press. lucid minds in the mid-century, is nowadays logic and seem to be tired of so many argu- istotle has considered and, later on the Stoics Chen X. (2015). The Emergence and Devel- geometrical: the neo-liberal turn of modernity ments, it is not because of their turn toward an (Di Vita, 2016). opment of Causal Representations. In

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L. Magnani et al. Philosophy and Fine, K. (1994). Essence and Modality. Philo- Cognitive Science II, Studies in Ap- sophical Perspectives, 8, 1-16. plied Philosophy, Epistemology and Fine, K. (1989). The Problem of De Re Mo- Rational Ethics. Switzerland: Sprin- dality. In J. Almog, J. Perry, H. Wet- ger International Publishing, 21-34. tstein (Eds.), Themes from Kaplan Delbrück, M. (1971). Aristotle-totle-totle” in (197-272). New York, Oxford: Ox- “0f Microbes and Life. (J. Monod, & ford University Press (reprinted in E. Borek, Eds.) New York: Colum- Modality and Tense: Philosophical bia University Press, 50-55. Papers. Oxford: Clarendon Press Deux fabulistes arméniens du Moyen Âge : 2005). Mkhithar Goch, Vardan Ayguéktsi, À Fine, K. (2005). The Varieties of Necessity. la mémoire des arménistes français In Modality and Tense: Philosophi- Jean Saint-Martin (1731-1832) et cal Papers. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Frédéric Macler (1869-1938), Ré- http://philosophy.fas.nyu.edu/object/ dacteur Gohar Grigorian, Erévan: kitfine. Éditions Nahapet. Grcic, J. (2008). The Halo Effect Fallacy. E- Di Vita, N. (2016). Il logos tra filosofia e vita. Logos, Electronic Journal for Philos- Una nota sullo stroicismo antico. ophy, 1-6. Meta: Research in Hermeneutics, Hempel, C.G. (1965). The Logic of Function- Phenomenology and Practical Phi- al Analysis. In Hempel, (1959) As- losophy, Vol. VIII, June, 121-142. pects of Scientific Explanation and Dumitru, M. (2015). Logical Form. In Cătălin Other Essays in the Philosophy of Vasilescu, Maria-Luisa Flonta, Ioana Science (pp. 297-330), New York: Crăciun (Eds.) On Form and Pattern The Free Press; London: Collier- (pp. 11-16). București: Editura Aca- Macmillan Lmd. demiei Române. Morris, Ch.W. (1938). Foundations of the Eklund, A., Nichols, T.E., & Knutsson, H. Theory of Signs. International Ency- (2016). Cluster failure: Why fMRI clopedia of Unified Science, I(2). inferences for spatial extent have in- Chicago: The University of Chicago flated false-positive rates. Proceed- Press. ings of the National Academy of Sci- Nadin, M. (2015). Anticipation and Creation. ences of the USA 113(28). In Libertas Mathematica (new se- DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1602413113. ries), 35(2), 1-16. Eco, U. (1988). Horns, Hooves, Insteps: Peirce, Ch.S. (1932). Collected Papers of Some Hypotheses on Three Types of Charles Sanders Peirce. (Ch. Harts- Abduction. In E. Umberto, & T.A. horne, P. Weiss, & A.W. Burks, Sebeok (Eds.) (1983), The Sign of Eds.), Vol. 2, Cambridge, Massachu- Three: Dupin, Holmes, Peirce (198- setts: Harvard University Press. 220). Bloomington and Indianapolis: Peirce, Ch.S. (1958). Collected Papers of Indiana University Press. Charles Sanders Peirce. (A.W.

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L. Magnani et al. Philosophy and Fine, K. (1994). Essence and Modality. Philo- Burks, Ed.), Vol. 7, Cambridge, & Schuster. Cognitive Science II, Studies in Ap- sophical Perspectives, 8, 1-16. Massachusetts: Harvard University Sartre, J.-P. (1936). L’imagination, Paris: F. plied Philosophy, Epistemology and Fine, K. (1989). The Problem of De Re Mo- Press. Alcan. Rational Ethics. Switzerland: Sprin- dality. In J. Almog, J. Perry, H. Wet- Popper, K. (1994). The Myth of the Frame- Thagard, P. (2000). Coherence in Thought ger International Publishing, 21-34. tstein (Eds.), Themes from Kaplan work: In defence of Science and Ra- and Action. Cambridge, Massachus- Delbrück, M. (1971). Aristotle-totle-totle” in (197-272). New York, Oxford: Ox- tionality, (1965; 1986). (M.A. Not- sets, London: MIT Press. “0f Microbes and Life. (J. Monod, & ford University Press (reprinted in turno, Ed.), Abingdon, New York: Toulmin, S.E. (2003). The Uses of Argument E. Borek, Eds.) New York: Colum- Modality and Tense: Philosophical Routledge. (1958). Updated Edition, Cambridge, bia University Press, 50-55. Papers. Oxford: Clarendon Press Reichertz, J. (2010). Abduction: The Logic of New York: Cambridge University Deux fabulistes arméniens du Moyen Âge : 2005). Discovery of Grounded Theory. FQS Press. Mkhithar Goch, Vardan Ayguéktsi, À Fine, K. (2005). The Varieties of Necessity. Forum: Qualitative Social Re- Toulmin, S.E. (1977). Human Understanding: la mémoire des arménistes français In Modality and Tense: Philosophi- search/Sozialforschung, 11(1), Art. The Collective Use and Evolution of Jean Saint-Martin (1731-1832) et cal Papers. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 13. Concepts. (1972), Princeton: Prince- Frédéric Macler (1869-1938), Ré- http://philosophy.fas.nyu.edu/object/ Russell, B. (1950). An Outline of Intellectual ton University Press. dacteur Gohar Grigorian, Erévan: kitfine. Rubbish. In Russell, Unpopular Es- Éditions Nahapet. Grcic, J. (2008). The Halo Effect Fallacy. E- says (pp. 71-111), New York: Simon Di Vita, N. (2016). Il logos tra filosofia e vita. Logos, Electronic Journal for Philos- Una nota sullo stroicismo antico. ophy, 1-6. Meta: Research in Hermeneutics, Hempel, C.G. (1965). The Logic of Function- Phenomenology and Practical Phi- al Analysis. In Hempel, (1959) As- losophy, Vol. VIII, June, 121-142. pects of Scientific Explanation and Dumitru, M. (2015). Logical Form. In Cătălin Other Essays in the Philosophy of Vasilescu, Maria-Luisa Flonta, Ioana Science (pp. 297-330), New York: Crăciun (Eds.) On Form and Pattern The Free Press; London: Collier- (pp. 11-16). București: Editura Aca- Macmillan Lmd. demiei Române. Morris, Ch.W. (1938). Foundations of the Eklund, A., Nichols, T.E., & Knutsson, H. Theory of Signs. International Ency- (2016). Cluster failure: Why fMRI clopedia of Unified Science, I(2). inferences for spatial extent have in- Chicago: The University of Chicago flated false-positive rates. Proceed- Press. ings of the National Academy of Sci- Nadin, M. (2015). Anticipation and Creation. ences of the USA 113(28). In Libertas Mathematica (new se- DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1602413113. ries), 35(2), 1-16. Eco, U. (1988). Horns, Hooves, Insteps: Peirce, Ch.S. (1932). Collected Papers of Some Hypotheses on Three Types of Charles Sanders Peirce. (Ch. Harts- Abduction. In E. Umberto, & T.A. horne, P. Weiss, & A.W. Burks, Sebeok (Eds.) (1983), The Sign of Eds.), Vol. 2, Cambridge, Massachu- Three: Dupin, Holmes, Peirce (198- setts: Harvard University Press. 220). Bloomington and Indianapolis: Peirce, Ch.S. (1958). Collected Papers of Indiana University Press. Charles Sanders Peirce. (A.W.

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UDC 808:8123՚ Lilit BRUTIAN

COMPLIMENT TO A COMPLIMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF THE SPEECH ACT OF A COMPLIMENT

Dedicated to my father Academician Georg Brutian

Abstract

In the paper, an attempt is made to thoroughly analyse the speech act of a compliment as a rhetorical device. In particular, the value of compliments from the viewpoint of effective communication, as well as the motives of compliment making and accepting/non-accepting are being considered. In addition, the speech act of a compliment is analysed in the light of gender and intercultural similarities and differences. It is shown that with all the similarities in the functioning of the speech act of a compliment, there are essential differences that reflect the peculiarities in the mentality of the language bearers.

Keywords: speech act of a compliment, rhetorical, impact, effective communication, gender, intercultural.

Today, as a result of intensification of investigation is the speech act of a compli- contacts of various kinds the study of both ment, one of the types of speech acts which interpersonal and intercultural communication has been analysed little so for. Our goal is to which aims at minimization of communica- analyse the given speech act thoroughly, from tion failures and the achievement of effective different aspects and in the light of modern and harmonious communication has been in theories and research tendencies, in particular, the focus of keen interest of linguists, psy- pragmalinguistics, gender linguistics, theory chologists, philosophers, specialists in com- of communication, etc. The following ques- munication and in related disciplines, because tions will be analysed in the paper: the impact of its urgency and importance. of a compliment, the reasons for compliment In the framework of modern anthropo- making/not making and accepting/non-accep- centric scientific paradigm the theory of ting, compliments in the light of gender dif- speech acts as an integral part of the theory of ferences, compliments in the context of inter- communication, which is based on the ideas cultural communication. of outstanding philosophers of language As A.P. Sadokhin correctly mentions, “it Grice, Searle, Austin and others, occupies its has been ascertained that the character, form own, very important niche. The object of our and the style of communication depend to a 28 2(7), 2016 28 29 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 808:8123՚ great extent on the first minutes, sometimes – degree of closeness with them of the speaker, Lilit BRUTIAN seconds of communication. There exist a lot etc.) and the right situation (in some cases the of very simple devices that allow practically appearance can be praised, in some other – COMPLIMENT TO A COMPLIMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF THE SPEECH ACT in every situation to make the initial stage of the intellect, etc.) Besides, a compliment must OF A COMPLIMENT communication easier, which determines the be sincere and non-trivial, which corresponds entire further course of this process. Among to the rules of cooperative communication”

such devices is a compliment” (Sadokhin, (Gorelov & Sedov, 2005, pp. 180-181). Dedicated to my father 2010, p. 139). There are different reasons of making Academician Georg Brutian There are different types of compliments: compliments. It is, first of all, a good means

sincere and flattering, effective and ambigu- “to achieve the affection of the addressee and Abstract ous, appropriate and inappropriate, etc. In rhe- to establish the foundations of long-lasting

toric there are several requirements to com- and effective communication” (Sadokhin, In the paper, an attempt is made to thoroughly analyse the speech act of a compliment as a rhe- pliments. In this connection I. Gorelov and K. 2010, p. 139). Compliments are made also be- torical device. In particular, the value of compliments from the viewpoint of effective communica- Sedov write: “Compliment is a “small form” cause of courtesy. On the other hand, often tion, as well as the motives of compliment making and accepting/non-accepting are being consid- of epideictic eloquence which goes back to compliments are made to receive a compli- ered. In addition, the speech act of a compliment is analysed in the light of gender and intercultural the speech culture of Middle Ages, to the tra- ment in return: “You scratch my back and I’ll similarities and differences. It is shown that with all the similarities in the functioning of the speech dition of extolment by the knight of his beau- scratch yours”. In connection with the two- act of a compliment, there are essential differences that reflect the peculiarities in the mentality of tiful lady. …Compliment requires realized way character of a compliment F. Laroshfuko the language bearers. speech efforts from the speaker, it presuppos- said: “As a rule, we praise other people just

es artistic and creative orientation in speech. It to hear words of praise addressed to our- Keywords: speech act of a compliment, rhetorical, impact, effective communication, gender, goes without saying that different language selves”. There are also other reasons: “We intercultural. personalities follow different speech strate- sometimes extol the valour of one person to

gies in creating a compliment, and the choice humiliate another person (Laroshfuko, 1990).

of these strategies is determined by the types Finally, among the intentions of compliment Today, as a result of intensification of investigation is the speech act of a compli- of individual styles of the speakers. Yet, as making flattery and personal advantage can be contacts of various kinds the study of both ment, one of the types of speech acts which the observations of every-day discourse have singled out. interpersonal and intercultural communication has been analysed little so for. Our goal is to shown, … in the choice of intragenre strate- From the point of view of the impact on which aims at minimization of communica- analyse the given speech act thoroughly, from gies the type of the language personality of the addressee and the value of words of com- tion failures and the achievement of effective different aspects and in the light of modern the speech addressee plays a great role. It is pliments in general, it is worth mentioning and harmonious communication has been in theories and research tendencies, in particular, not by chance that the main rhetoric recom- that, first of all, compliments satisfy the most the focus of keen interest of linguists, psy- pragmalinguistics, gender linguistics, theory mendation in this genre is the orientation on important psychological need of a person – chologists, philosophers, specialists in com- of communication, etc. The following ques- “loving attention to the addressee and polish”. the need of positive emotions and have also munication and in related disciplines, because tions will be analysed in the paper: the impact Indeed, compliment arises from the wish to educational importance. Besides, the ability to of its urgency and importance. of a compliment, the reasons for compliment please the speaker. And to evoke positive notice positive qualities in other people helps In the framework of modern anthropo- making/not making and accepting/non-accep- emotions in a man, one must know his indi- us to reveal good features in ourselves centric scientific paradigm the theory of ting, compliments in the light of gender dif- vidual features, including the peculiarities of (Soon//http://lifecouachesblog.com). Victor speech acts as an integral part of the theory of ferences, compliments in the context of inter- his language personality. That is why the Hugo has compared words of praise with a communication, which is based on the ideas cultural communication. main rhetorical requirement to a compliment kiss through veil. Hence, the value of com- of outstanding philosophers of language As A.P. Sadokhin correctly mentions, “it is harmony (compliment is made differently plimenting is also in giving pleasure to each Grice, Searle, Austin and others, occupies its has been ascertained that the character, form to different people depending on their age, other. own, very important niche. The object of our and the style of communication depend to a 28 29 29 2(7), 2016 Lilit BRUTIAN

Thus, the value of complimenting as a can be considered as an indirect fishing for a verbal activity is in that it lays the foundation compliment. In F. Laroshfuko’s words, “Eva- of effective communication, establishes good ding praise is a request to repeat it” (Larosh- relations with the addressee, influences him in fuko, 1990). the favour of the addresser, puts in the right Thus, the speech act of a compliment is mood, has educational importance, raises the on of the types of speech acts which, in its estimation and self-estimation of both the ad- turn, consists of complimenting words and ex- dresser and the addressee. pressions of various character, different tac- Let us consider now the reactions to tics of accepting/non-accepting a compliment compliments. Although the majority of people by the addressee and is characterized by va- likes to receive compliments, their perception riety of intentions and motives of compliment and replies to them are different determined making (expression of courtesy, raise of esti- by various factors, including intercultural dif- mation and self-estimation, the wish to please ferences. On the whole, compliments are re- the addressee or even to insult him, personal ceived with pleasure, as each person is de- advantage, etc.). lighted by the fact that the speaker wishes to Of interest is also the study of compli- say something nice to him, and the possible ments in the aspect of gender differences. It slips can be easily excused. Yet, there are cas- is believed that compliments must be ad- es when the compliment is being received in dressed only to women, that by means of two the opposite meaning (with the sign “-“). or three trivial compliments her vanity can be Thus, for example, quite an opposite meaning flattered, that men do not like compliments. In can attach to the words of a compliment a fact, it is fallacy. In reality, as observations, as specific smile accompanying theses words, well as various investigations of researchers which transforms them to mockery. Or other in the field of psychology of communication associations, negative emotions can arouse in show, both women and men like to hear com- the addressee the ambiguous or flattering pliments. And the false opinion that men do compliments. The replies, such as “It is only a not like compliments can be explained, first, compliment”, “You are flattering me” and the by the fact that they, being more reserved, like come to prove that the words of a com- hide their reaction (in fact, positive, if it is not pliment do not reflect the reality and are just flattery), whereas women, being more emo- flattering. Another case when the compliment tional than men, do not hide their emotions, is not being accepted, can be perceived their satisfaction and joy when getting com- wrongly and interpreted as flattery is the case pliments and are always open to them: it is when the addressee and the addresser are in known that women love by hearing, they the relations of “chief and subordinate”. That strongly need “verbal strokes” (N. Formanov- is the reason why often subordinates avoid skaya’s term). It should be added that the dif- making compliments to their chiefs. Some- ference in the attitude to a compliment on the times compliments are not being accepted by part of two sexes is in that women are never the listener who has the intention to hear it tired of compliments, they want to always again. This tactics of compliment rejecting hear them to keep up their self-esteem and

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Thus, the value of complimenting as a can be considered as an indirect fishing for a self-confidence. On the other hand, in many Thus, for example, in English-speaking verbal activity is in that it lays the foundation compliment. In F. Laroshfuko’s words, “Eva- cultures it is typical for men to make compli- cultures “they encourage to praise people to of effective communication, establishes good ding praise is a request to repeat it” (Larosh- ments to women and not vice versa: males, raise them in their own eyes. On the contrary, relations with the addressee, influences him in fuko, 1990). being “strong sex”, allow themselves to “fa- in the Japanese culture they do not encourage the favour of the addresser, puts in the right Thus, the speech act of a compliment is vour women with attention” and say pleasant to praise in somebody’s face, but they ap- mood, has educational importance, raises the on of the types of speech acts which, in its words determined by their higher status. prove to speak “badly” about themselves” estimation and self-estimation of both the ad- turn, consists of complimenting words and ex- There is one more factor: compliments con- (Wierzbicka, 1997, pp. 397-398). The Japa- dresser and the addressee. pressions of various character, different tac- cerning appeareance are addressed mainly to nese who are restrained in praise and compli- Let us consider now the reactions to tics of accepting/non-accepting a compliment women but not men, and there are many ments (and who, at the same time have a spe- compliments. Although the majority of people by the addressee and is characterized by va- things to praise (the new dress, the hair-do cial form of gratitude in reply to the words of likes to receive compliments, their perception riety of intentions and motives of compliment and so on and so forth). Finally, in spite of praise) interpret the direct compliments made and replies to them are different determined making (expression of courtesy, raise of esti- gender discrimination the woman has always by Americans as flattery but not expression of by various factors, including intercultural dif- mation and self-estimation, the wish to please been an object of worship, admiration, rever- sincere praise. ferences. On the whole, compliments are re- the addressee or even to insult him, personal ence and the muse for men. In V.G. Gak’s It is known that in the USA to make a ceived with pleasure, as each person is de- advantage, etc.). words, “it is common knowledge that the best compliment to a woman during work hours lighted by the fact that the speaker wishes to Of interest is also the study of compli- words in the world have been addressed to the (to praise her appearance, her clothes, etc.) say something nice to him, and the possible ments in the aspect of gender differences. It women or said about women…” (Gak, 2003, can be interpreted as sexual harassment which slips can be easily excused. Yet, there are cas- is believed that compliments must be ad- p. 598). All the abovesaid speaks to the ine- can lead to imprisonment and heavy fines (by es when the compliment is being received in dressed only to women, that by means of two quality of distribution of compliments among the way, many American feminists have used the opposite meaning (with the sign “-“). or three trivial compliments her vanity can be men and women: women receive them more this opportunity). In the USA complimenting Thus, for example, quite an opposite meaning flattered, that men do not like compliments. In often though men like to get as much. a women can, indeed, be sometimes very can attach to the words of a compliment a fact, it is fallacy. In reality, as observations, as Let us now consider the speech act of a dangerous, whereas in Italy where there is a specific smile accompanying theses words, well as various investigations of researchers compliment in the light of intercultural dif- general cult of beauty, “it is common to ad- which transforms them to mockery. Or other in the field of psychology of communication ferences and similarities: with all the com- mire a woman and to express this admiration. associations, negative emotions can arouse in show, both women and men like to hear com- monality of one and the same orientation – to A feature that characterizes Italian men posi- the addressee the ambiguous or flattering pliments. And the false opinion that men do please the addresser – the form of the expres- tively is that they admire and, most important- compliments. The replies, such as “It is only a not like compliments can be explained, first, sion, as well as the perception and interpreta- ly, demonstrate their admiration to each compliment”, “You are flattering me” and the by the fact that they, being more reserved, tion of a compliment often differ to a great woman, with no exception: ugly, old, young, like come to prove that the words of a com- hide their reaction (in fact, positive, if it is not extent in different cultures. This is determined silly, beautiful…. Even if it is a game, it is a pliment do not reflect the reality and are just flattery), whereas women, being more emo- by the mentality of the bearers of this or that game that is pleasant deep in the heart to the flattering. Another case when the compliment tional than men, do not hide their emotions, culture, the sex and age of the communica- most awful feminists” (Pavlovskaya, 2006, is not being accepted, can be perceived their satisfaction and joy when getting com- tors, by the difference in the norms of expres- pp. 234-235). In the moslim countries, on the wrongly and interpreted as flattery is the case pliments and are always open to them: it is sing emotions, in particular, the feeling of lik- contrary, it is forbidden to make compliments when the addressee and the addresser are in known that women love by hearing, they ing. There are also essential differences in the on the appearance of the addressee’s wife, the relations of “chief and subordinate”. That strongly need “verbal strokes” (N. Formanov- reactions to compliments in different cultures, even though in the countries of Arab world it is the reason why often subordinates avoid skaya’s term). It should be added that the dif- sometimes even in close ones. That is the rea- is common thing to shower praises on each making compliments to their chiefs. Some- ference in the attitude to a compliment on the son why one and the same expression used as other. times compliments are not being accepted by part of two sexes is in that women are never praise, admiration, approval in one society Though, as it has already been men- the listener who has the intention to hear it tired of compliments, they want to always can be perceived in another one as flattery, tioned, women, generally speaking, like to again. This tactics of compliment rejecting hear them to keep up their self-esteem and and even as insult. receive compliments very much, in this, too,

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there are intercultural differences. Here is an woman is the comparison with a snake, to a example of how the women of Scandinavia, Tatar and Bashkir woman with a leech which which is considered to be “the bulwark of vic- is an embodiment of the perfection of forms torious feminism”, react to compliments: and movement. Addressing a woman by “The 8th of March, as usual, was marked by means of the word “Гусыня” (goose) is in- the battle for women’s rights. Many Scandi- sulting in the Russian culture. In Egypt it is a navian women reject on the “Women’s Day” gentle compliment” (Gorelov & Sedov, 2005, flowers, compliments, small presents and oth- p. 132). In Armenia a compliment to a male is er manifestations of gallantry typical for other a comparison with a lion, with an eagle; a lit- countries, as they see in them a hidden at- tle child can be gently called a lamb, and a tempt to return to the patriarchal structure of a compliment to a woman is comparing her society where “the weak sex” is subordinate with a fallow-deer. to males” (“Novoe vremya”, 2010). Let us consider compliments in the Ar- Frank Miller, Professor of Colombia menian culture more in detail. The Armenians University in New York, who teaches there are in a sense a nation of extremes. On the Russian and who has a rich experience of one hand, during different festive occasions communicating with the Russian people, de- and especially during the unique female holi- scribes in one of his interviews the difference day which lasts for a whole month in Armenia in reactions to compliments determined by a woman can hear praises and lots of compli- different cultural traditions: “The Americans ments. On the other hand, in every-day life will gladly accept a compliment with words people are reluctant to make compliments to of gratitude, while the Russians will by no each other which is the result of difficulties of means reject it, saying: “Not a bit of it!” (“Oh, life, as well as our mentality. The famous Ar- come!”) or “Knock a wood” (“Russkii yazyk menian actor and public figure Sos Sarkissian za rubezhom”, 2011). in one of his interviews once said: “A saving It is worth mentioning that in many lin- lie is a powerful thing. It is possible to make a guo-cultures comparisons with animals are compliment even to an ugly woman, to make used as compliments, and often what is used her happy. My people have political… truth” as a compliment in one culture can not be ac- (“Komsomol’skaya pravda”, 2009). cepted as such and even be perceived as in- And how do we receive compliments, if sult. Thus, in the Russian culture, “птичка, they are good, sincere ones? The observations рыбонька, сокол, орленок” (birdie, little show that the Armenians, especially the Ar- fish, falcon, eaglet) are all terms of affection menian women are in the habit of rejecting or praise” (Feller, 1964, p. 59). In I. Gorelov them with words: “No, it is not so”, “Just the and K. Sedov’s words, “very curious impres- opposite”, etc. Such reactions reflect our mension on bearers of other cultures can leave tality: the lack of confidence in the speaker, some compliments to women. In India people the orientation towards seeing some trick or can flatter a woman comparing her with a cow flattery, some implicit, hidden meaning, as and the way of her walking with that of ele- well as our certain restriction, the lack of ex- phant’s. A good compliment to a Japanese perience in getting compliments. It should be

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there are intercultural differences. Here is an woman is the comparison with a snake, to a stressed that this concerns to a great extent pathy is met only in the Russian linguo- example of how the women of Scandinavia, Tatar and Bashkir woman with a leech which middle-aged and senior women. Today’s culture; compliment understood in this mean- which is considered to be “the bulwark of vic- is an embodiment of the perfection of forms young Armenian women and girls accept ing is a purely Russian phenomenon; 8) com- torious feminism”, react to compliments: and movement. Addressing a woman by compliments with great dignity and words of pliments in the Russian and especially Arme- “The 8th of March, as usual, was marked by means of the word “Гусыня” (goose) is in- gratitude under the influence of globalization nian cultures, unlike the English one, are ac- the battle for women’s rights. Many Scandi- sulting in the Russian culture. In Egypt it is a and widely spread Americanization. cepted with difficulty. navian women reject on the “Women’s Day” gentle compliment” (Gorelov & Sedov, 2005, Aiming at а deeper analysis of the speech To sum up all the above-said, it can be flowers, compliments, small presents and oth- p. 132). In Armenia a compliment to a male is act of а compliment in Russian, Armenian concluded that with all the similarities in the er manifestations of gallantry typical for other a comparison with a lion, with an eagle; a lit- and English linguo-cultures, we have ana- functioning of the speech act of a compliment countries, as they see in them a hidden at- tle child can be gently called a lamb, and a lysed the corresponding dictionary articles, in different linguo-cultures, there exist essen- tempt to return to the patriarchal structure of a compliment to a woman is comparing her phraseological units, word combinations, pro- tial differences that reflect the peculiarities in society where “the weak sex” is subordinate with a fallow-deer. verbs and sayings, as well as patterns of com- the mentality of the language bearers. to males” (“Novoe vremya”, 2010). Let us consider compliments in the Ar- plimenting discourses in the mentioned lan- Frank Miller, Professor of Colombia menian culture more in detail. The Armenians guages. Тhe comparative analysis has led us REFERENCES University in New York, who teaches there are in a sense a nation of extremes. On the to the following conclusions: 1) from the Russian and who has a rich experience of one hand, during different festive occasions viewpoint of axiological characteristics comp- “Komsomol’skaya pravda” (“Komsomol communicating with the Russian people, de- and especially during the unique female holi- liments have the most positive colouring in truth”, in Russian). (2009). N50. scribes in one of his interviews the difference day which lasts for a whole month in Armenia the English linguo-culture whereas the most “Novoe vremya” (“The New Times”, in Rus- in reactions to compliments determined by a woman can hear praises and lots of compli- negative and subjective one in the Armenian sian). (2010). March 11. different cultural traditions: “The Americans ments. On the other hand, in every-day life culture. In the Russian language conscious- “Russkii yazyk za rubezhom” (“Russian Lan- will gladly accept a compliment with words people are reluctant to make compliments to ness compliment has, alongside with positive guage Abroad”, in Russian). (2011). of gratitude, while the Russians will by no each other which is the result of difficulties of connotations which prevail, also negative N3. means reject it, saying: “Not a bit of it!” (“Oh, life, as well as our mentality. The famous Ar- connotations connected with the overevalua- Feller, M. (1964). Kak rozhdayutsya i zhivut come!”) or “Knock a wood” (“Russkii yazyk menian actor and public figure Sos Sarkissian tion of the addressee and mercenary inten- slova (How words are born and live, za rubezhom”, 2011). in one of his interviews once said: “A saving tions of the addresser; 2) in the English cul- in Russian). Moscow: Prosveshhenie. It is worth mentioning that in many lin- lie is a powerful thing. It is possible to make a ture as compared with Russian and Armenian Gak, V.G. (2003). V poiskakh istiny (Search- guo-cultures comparisons with animals are compliment even to an ugly woman, to make compliments have a more formal character; ing for Truth, in Russian), Logiches- used as compliments, and often what is used her happy. My people have political… truth” 3) in the Russian and Armenian language kii analiz yazyka. Izbrannoe 1988- as a compliment in one culture can not be ac- (“Komsomol’skaya pravda”, 2009). consciousness, unlike the English one com- 1995. Moscow: Indrik. cepted as such and even be perceived as in- And how do we receive compliments, if pliments are connected with the intention of Gorelov, I.N., & Sedov, K.F. (2005). Osnovy sult. Thus, in the Russian culture, “птичка, they are good, sincere ones? The observations the speaker aiming at personal advantage; 4) psikholingvistiki (Basics of Psycho- рыбонька, сокол, орленок” (birdie, little show that the Armenians, especially the Ar- in the English mentality compliment is asso- linguistics, in Russian). Moscow: La- fish, falcon, eaglet) are all terms of affection menian women are in the habit of rejecting ciated first of all with approval, which lacks birint. or praise” (Feller, 1964, p. 59). In I. Gorelov them with words: “No, it is not so”, “Just the in the Armenian culture; 5) in the English and Laroshfuko, de F & dr. (1990). Suzhdeniya i and K. Sedov’s words, “very curious impres- opposite”, etc. Such reactions reflect our men- Russian linguo-cultures, as distinct from the aforizmy (Judgments and Aphorisms, sion on bearers of other cultures can leave tality: the lack of confidence in the speaker, Armenian one, compliment is associated with in Russian). Moscow: Izd-vo politi- some compliments to women. In India people the orientation towards seeing some trick or the notions of politeness and respect; 6) in the cheskoi literatury. can flatter a woman comparing her with a cow flattery, some implicit, hidden meaning, as Armenian linguo-culture, unlike Russian and Pavlovskaya, A.V. (2006). Italiya i ital'yancy and the way of her walking with that of ele- well as our certain restriction, the lack of ex- English, compliment is a groundless praise; (Italy and Italians, in Russian). Mos- phant’s. A good compliment to a Japanese perience in getting compliments. It should be 7) compliment as sympathy and wider – em- cow: Izd-vo Olma MediaGrupp.

32 33 33 2(7), 2016 Lilit BRUTIAN

Sadokhin, A.P. (2010). Mezhkul'turnaya kom- http://lifecoachesblog.com. munikatsiya (Intercultural Communi- Wierzbicka, A. (1997). Yazyk. Kul'tura. Poz- cation, in Russian). Moscow: Al'fa – nanie (Language. Culture. Cognition, M. INFRA – M. in Russian). Moscow: Russkie slo- Soon, A. (n.d.). How to give a good compli- vari. ment. Retrieved from

34 2(7), 2016 34 35 2(7), 2016 Karine DANIELYAN Tatevik POGHOSYAN Sirine KOSYAN

Sadokhin, A.P. (2010). Mezhkul'turnaya kom- http://lifecoachesblog.com. UDC 17:502 munikatsiya (Intercultural Communi- Wierzbicka, A. (1997). Yazyk. Kul'tura. Poz- Karine DANIELYAN, cation, in Russian). Moscow: Al'fa – nanie (Language. Culture. Cognition, Tatevik POGHOSYAN, M. INFRA – M. in Russian). Moscow: Russkie slo- Sirine KOSYAN Soon, A. (n.d.). How to give a good compli- vari. ment. Retrieved from ON MORAL ASPECT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE

Abstract

The paper deals with the modern processes of large-scale destabilization of the geosphere and the role of the scientific prediction of global environmental crisis. We also present an analysis of the reorientation process of civilization to sustainable development and ethical foundations of the relationship of humanity and nature.

Keywords: sustainable development, natural disaster, the destabilization of the geosphere, environmental ethics, the Earth Charter, the culture of moderation

To be sustainable, a steady state may require fewer natural resources, but much more moral qualities Herman Daly (op. by. Meadows et al, 1994, p. 16).

The XX century is considered to be the 36% of types under the threat; in 25 period of the full-scale process of destabiliza- countries forests are completely disap- tion of the geosphere, which is most obvious- peared, and in 29 countries were reduced ly evident in the global climate change and by 90%. Losses constitute 5,2 million increase/strengthening of various natural dis- hectares per year. asters – activation of volcanoes, earthquakes, x During 1970-2007 population of verte- tsunami, typhoons, mudflows and floods, brates was reduced by 30%, sea types – droughts and wildfires, etc. are obvious. The by 24%, fresh-water – by 35%. listed processes are combined and aggravated x 60% of the natural ecosystems are de- with the accruing processes of environmental graded or are used unstably; pollution, degradation of natural ecosystems, x Anthropogenic pressure on the biosphere depletion of natural resources. increased by ~5,5 times between 1910 It is enough to give some evident facts. and 2000, social and economic disharmo- x 2000-2009 years are designated as record ny - by ~2,5 times. decade in the context of climate change. x During 1980-2000 the quantity of dro- x The quantitative and qualitative depletion ughts increased by 38%, and floods – by of the natural resources increases at all; 230%. 34 35 35 2(7), 2016 Karine DANIELYAN Tatevik POGHOSYAN Sirine KOSYAN

x More than 90% of tests of water and fish Our Global Environment. UNEP Year Book”, are polluted by POP. Fish inventories are 2011; “Global Environmental Outlook -5, exhausted. UNEP, Environment for the Future We Want. x The level of underground waters decreas- UNEP,” 2012). es as a result of the extensive use of aqui- The above-mentioned global process of fers. destabilization is shown both in temporary, The each next year is practically declared and in spatial measurements. Information on recorded from the point of view of one or an- the alternating multidirectional temperature other destabilization process. So, in February, anomalies is combined with messages on the 2016 in the Inter-Agency Secretariat of the "geographical dispersion" of natural disasters International strategy for disaster reduction – on the same continents of the territory with was declared that 2015 was the hottest for the mudflows and floods literally adjoin to the whole history of observations and became yet territories, affected by droughts and wide- another confirmation of the fact that natural spread forest fires. disasters and the abnormal weather phenome- The above-mentioned numerous phenom- na, which lead to death of a large number of ena bring some scientists to the following hy- people and to huge economic losses, became pothesis: "The Earth of the Gaia begins to re- frequent in the world. Overall, in the last year ject humanity", which is shared also by the were registered more than 30 large-scale authors of this article (Yablokov, 2012). This droughts from which suffered about 50,5 mil- assumption is based on the Le-Chatelier’s lion people, 27,5 million people suffered from well-known principle according to which "the mudflows, floods and storms, 1,2 million system which is in equilibrium state is recon- people suffered from a heat, from them 7346 structed so as to neutralize the impact of died from overheating and sunstrokes, as a threats to its equilibrium". Currently the hu- result of earthquakes and tsunami 9525 peo- man civilization acts even as the similar de- ple, landslides – about 1400 people died. stabilizing factor which the planet aims "to Judging by preliminary data, we believe that neutralize". the results of 2016 will be less consolatory The question is periodically discussed in (see Danielyan, 2014; “Keeping Track of our the scientific literature: How could happen, Changing Environment,” 2011; “Global As- that the science having so powerful potential sessment Report on Disaster Reduction 2015. reacted to the above-mentioned processes Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International with such a delay? Why the science only Strategy for Disaster Reduction”; “The United fixed the fact of the entrance of the civiliza- Nations General Assembly 2005, Report of tion to deep ecological crisis, which already the World Conference on Disaster Reduc- held on, but didn't promote prevention of this tion”; “Climate change and health. Newsletter phenomenon due to the timely scientific fore- number 266”, 2016; “Protecting health from sight. climate change. Treatment of different groups The answer generally is in the narrow dif- of the population and sectors. World Health ferentiation of scientific disciplines, whereas Organization,” 2016; “Emerging Issues in the global problems require a comprehensive 36 2(7), 2016 36 37 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

x More than 90% of tests of water and fish Our Global Environment. UNEP Year Book”, interdisciplinary approach. As it accepted fig- tically so-called process "The way to Rio" are polluted by POP. Fish inventories are 2011; “Global Environmental Outlook -5, uratively to say: “The nature isn't divided into was started, which was crowned in Rio-de- exhausted. UNEP, Environment for the Future We Want. faculties, like university”. For this reason, Janeiro in 1992 by the Earth Summit on Envi- x The level of underground waters decreas- UNEP,” 2012). within the framework of the “UN Decade of ronment and Development, which approved es as a result of the extensive use of aqui- The above-mentioned global process of Education for Sustainable Development” the sustainable development as the cardinal way fers. destabilization is shown both in temporary, special emphasis was placed on carrying out of modern civilization development. It be- The each next year is practically declared and in spatial measurements. Information on multidisciplinary researches of modern envi- came obvious that the cycle of development recorded from the point of view of one or an- the alternating multidirectional temperature ronmental problems. of the civilizations, based on the principles of other destabilization process. So, in February, anomalies is combined with messages on the However, in fairness, it should be noted conquest of the Nature lasting for millennia, 2016 in the Inter-Agency Secretariat of the "geographical dispersion" of natural disasters that a number of scientists timely specified comes to the end. It is necessary the transition International strategy for disaster reduction – on the same continents of the territory with dager of the approaching ecological crisis, but to a civilization of essentially new type –a was declared that 2015 was the hottest for the mudflows and floods literally adjoin to the the humanity gave and continues to give civilization of equilibrium environmental whole history of observations and became yet territories, affected by droughts and wide- much more attention to the ethnic/internatio- management, where all the constituting im- another confirmation of the fact that natural spread forest fires. nal conflicts, financial and economic interests pacts of the human-being on the Nature are disasters and the abnormal weather phenome- The above-mentioned numerous phenom- of the countries and separate groups and to brought into accord with a capability of natu- na, which lead to death of a large number of ena bring some scientists to the following hy- the other priorities. ral systems to carry the anthropogenic load- people and to huge economic losses, became pothesis: "The Earth of the Gaia begins to re- So, for example, in the 30th of the XX ing. Sustainable development is based on a frequent in the world. Overall, in the last year ject humanity", which is shared also by the century, Nicholas Roerich presciently wrote: harmonious combination of economic devel- were registered more than 30 large-scale authors of this article (Yablokov, 2012). This "The nature is sick with human madness. opment to an ecological safety and social jus- droughts from which suffered about 50,5 mil- assumption is based on the Le-Chatelier’s Spasms of the planet become frequent … it is tice (see “Earth Summit. Agenda 21 – The lion people, 27,5 million people suffered from well-known principle according to which "the already possible to see how harmonic vibra- United Nations Programme of Action from mudflows, floods and storms, 1,2 million system which is in equilibrium state is recon- tions are disturbed, and the planet shudders in Rio”, 1997; Danielyan, 1996). people suffered from a heat, from them 7346 structed so as to neutralize the impact of pushes of heat and cold. Several years there At the Earth Summit the document "1992 died from overheating and sunstrokes, as a threats to its equilibrium". Currently the hu- are daily earthquakes, Earth is in continuous World’s Scientists’ warning to Humanity" result of earthquakes and tsunami 9525 peo- man civilization acts even as the similar de- trepidation. was presented to the country delegations, un- ple, landslides – about 1400 people died. stabilizing factor which the planet aims "to In the increasing of the waves of Earth der which 1600 world’s leading scientists Judging by preliminary data, we believe that neutralize". awe, it was possible to become more cautious from 71 countries, including the majority of the results of 2016 will be less consolatory The question is periodically discussed in and think out – weather is it all correctly?" Nobel laureates, issued this appeal. In particu- (see Danielyan, 2014; “Keeping Track of our the scientific literature: How could happen, (Nicholas Roerich, Op. by Seven Great lar, it is emphasized in the document: Changing Environment,” 2011; “Global As- that the science having so powerful potential Mysteries of the Cosmos, 1999). "Human beings and the natural world are sessment Report on Disaster Reduction 2015. reacted to the above-mentioned processes In 1971 2000 scientists appealed to man- on a collision course. Human activities inflict Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International with such a delay? Why the science only kind to pay attention to the expanding envi- harsh and often irreversible damage on the Strategy for Disaster Reduction”; “The United fixed the fact of the entrance of the civiliza- ronmental disaster and to take adequate environment and on critical resources. If not Nations General Assembly 2005, Report of tion to deep ecological crisis, which already measures. checked, many of our current practices put at the World Conference on Disaster Reduc- held on, but didn't promote prevention of this Respectively, in 1972 the UN called the serious risk the future that we wish for human tion”; “Climate change and health. Newsletter phenomenon due to the timely scientific fore- high-ranking representatives of the countries society and the plant and animal kingdoms, number 266”, 2016; “Protecting health from sight. to Stockholm for discussion of this problem. and may so alter the living world that it will climate change. Treatment of different groups The answer generally is in the narrow dif- As a result it was created UNEP (United Na- be unable to sustain life in the manner that we of the population and sectors. World Health ferentiation of scientific disciplines, whereas tions Environmental Program), the Commis- know. Fundamental changes are urgent if we Organization,” 2016; “Emerging Issues in the global problems require a comprehensive sion of Gro Brundtland was formed and prac- are to avoid the collision our present course 36 37 37 2(7), 2016 Karine DANIELYAN Tatevik POGHOSYAN Sirine KOSYAN

will bring about. … No more than one or a “The UN General Assembly, seventieth ses- few decades remain before the chance to avert sion, paragraph 20 (c) of the Agenda,” 2015). the threats we now confront will be lost and And, finally, in our opinion, the Russian the prospects for humanity immeasurably di- scientists attitude stated in the "Appeal of minished" (“Caution Scientists of the World Russian Scientists to the International Scien- of Humanity,” 1992). tific Community", from which (2007) frag- 20 years later, the Summit of the UN "Rio ments are stated below is absolutely fair: +20" in Rio de Janeiro, in 2012 noted that "Qualitatively new, moral view on these though the countries and the international or- problems and the scientific theory oriented to ganizations accumulated extensive positive sustainable development of the terrestrial civi- experience in the sphere of sustainable pro- lization are necessary today for providing duction and consumption, of education on guarantees of sustainable development. The SD, in general on promotion to sustainable Russian science addresses the international development, however, destabilizing process- scientific community with the offer to be de- es in the ecosphere advance our efforts on termined with the position of science in these prevention of destructive anthropogenic influ- questions … ence. Estimating the way passed by the civili- As the fundamental purpose of humanity zation after the Earth Summit «Rio-1992», the it should be recognized the necessity of final document of the "Rio +20" Conference preservation of earth civilization and to sug- of the UN on SD "The Future We Want" gest to enter this purpose as a constitutional states: basis of the states entering into the UN. This "Point 20. We acknowledge that since will allow to consolidate the humanity and to 1992 there have been areas of insufficient orient it in the direction of building a rational progress and setbacks in the integration of the terrestrial civilization while preserving all its three dimensions of sustainable development, diversity of nationalities and cultures. The aggravated by multiple financial, economic, scientific theory of development of society food and energy crises which have threatened constructed on this basis allows a possibility the ability of all countries in particular devel- of preservation of a terrestrial civilization on- oping countries, to achieve sustainable devel- ly on condition of all-round harmonious de- opment" (“Resolution 66/288 adopted by the velopment of the whole world community" UN General Assembly,” 2012). (“Appeal of Russian Scientists to the Interna- Respectively, the UN Summit "Rio +20" tional Scientific Community /Vernadsky - urged the countries and the international or- Dmitriev Manifesto/”, 2007). Thus, authors ganizations to intensify significantly ongoing urge to include the postulates of sustainable efforts on promotion to development in line development into the constitutions of all with the sustainability, as well as the Parisian countries. agreement on climate, as the UN World Con- We consider, it is regularly, that the ference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in above-mentioned processes were crowned Sendai… (see “Paris Agreement on Climate”; with the 70th anniversary session of the Gen- eral Assembly, which approved the world

38 2(7), 2016 38 39 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

will bring about. … No more than one or a “The UN General Assembly, seventieth ses- program on sustainable development until • Build democratic societies that are just, few decades remain before the chance to avert sion, paragraph 20 (c) of the Agenda,” 2015). 2030, including 17 interconnected sustainable participatory, sustainable, and peaceful. the threats we now confront will be lost and And, finally, in our opinion, the Russian development goals. • Secure Earth’s bounty and beauty for pre- the prospects for humanity immeasurably di- scientists attitude stated in the "Appeal of If to address to the history of moral bases sent and future generations (“Earth Char- minished" (“Caution Scientists of the World Russian Scientists to the International Scien- evolution of relations between human and the ter”). of Humanity,” 1992). tific Community", from which (2007) frag- Nature, then it is possible to allocate the fol- Discussing the way of development of 20 years later, the Summit of the UN "Rio ments are stated below is absolutely fair: lowing series of stages: Republic of Belarus and human civilization in +20" in Rio de Janeiro, in 2012 noted that "Qualitatively new, moral view on these • Nature worship, spiritualizing of compo- general, V.F. Baynev, V.T. Vinnik write: though the countries and the international or- problems and the scientific theory oriented to nents of the Nature (spirit of water, spirit "The present unprecedented aggravation of ganizations accumulated extensive positive sustainable development of the terrestrial civi- of the forest, etc.), struggle for existence; raw materials, energy, ecological, etc. prob- experience in the sphere of sustainable pro- lization are necessary today for providing • struggle with the Nature, expansion of an lems, referred to only as the global civiliza- duction and consumption, of education on guarantees of sustainable development. The ecological niche, gain of new ecological tion contradictions, shows that for an exit on a SD, in general on promotion to sustainable Russian science addresses the international niches; trajectory of sustainable development, the development, however, destabilizing process- scientific community with the offer to be de- • conquest of the Nature, aspiration to mas- humanity lacks some important fundamental es in the ecosphere advance our efforts on termined with the position of science in these ter the maximum quantity of natural re- conditions. We are convinced that such miss- prevention of destructive anthropogenic influ- questions … sources (in virtue of the achievements of ing factor is spiritual and moral component, ence. Estimating the way passed by the civili- As the fundamental purpose of humanity a scientific and technological revolution ignoring of which is the authentic reason of zation after the Earth Summit «Rio-1992», the it should be recognized the necessity of illusion of omnipotence and absolute the listed above global problems" (Bains & final document of the "Rio +20" Conference preservation of earth civilization and to sug- power of the human is created); Vinnik, 2010). of the UN on SD "The Future We Want" gest to enter this purpose as a constitutional • awareness of the necessity of following Authors see the pronounced moral meas- states: basis of the states entering into the UN. This the laws of Nature, coevolution of the urement of social and economic processes "Point 20. We acknowledge that since will allow to consolidate the humanity and to human and the Nature (human – is not the based on Christian values in specifics of the 1992 there have been areas of insufficient orient it in the direction of building a rational lord, but an organic part of the Nature), Belarusian model of development. progress and setbacks in the integration of the terrestrial civilization while preserving all its Environmental ethics. Accounting of moral aspect, and also re- three dimensions of sustainable development, diversity of nationalities and cultures. The The present stage of development of sponsibility is emphasized also in "The strate- aggravated by multiple financial, economic, scientific theory of development of society moral of civilization and the Nature relations gy of UNECE in the field of education for food and energy crises which have threatened constructed on this basis allows a possibility is characterized by one more essential princi- sustainable development" (“The UNECE the ability of all countries in particular devel- of preservation of a terrestrial civilization on- ple – respect to the Nature, recognition of its Strategy on Education for Sustainable Deve- oping countries, to achieve sustainable devel- ly on condition of all-round harmonious de- rights to natural, harmonious development, lopment,” 2005). opment" (“Resolution 66/288 adopted by the velopment of the whole world community" including the rights of all types of biological The analysis of the above-mentioned can UN General Assembly,” 2012). (“Appeal of Russian Scientists to the Interna- diversity to life. Most brightly and generally bring us to the following assumption. With Respectively, the UN Summit "Rio +20" tional Scientific Community /Vernadsky - these ideas are provided to the Earth Charter the Nature the Humanity passed in the sphere urged the countries and the international or- Dmitriev Manifesto/”, 2007). Thus, authors recognized by UNESCO as one of the main of development of moral of relations on a cy- ganizations to intensify significantly ongoing urge to include the postulates of sustainable instruments of education for the benefit of clic way, returning on a spiral to a stage of efforts on promotion to development in line development into the constitutions of all sustainable development. The basic principles worship of the Nature, but at the new intellec- with the sustainability, as well as the Parisian countries. of the Earth Charter are given below: tual and technical and technological level. agreement on climate, as the UN World Con- We consider, it is regularly, that the • Respect Earth and life in all its diversity. Now, when we know about a capability of ference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in above-mentioned processes were crowned • Care for the community of life with un- water to store and transfer information, whet- Sendai… (see “Paris Agreement on Climate”; with the 70th anniversary session of the Gen- derstanding, compassion, and love. her we think involuntarily of spiritual essence eral Assembly, which approved the world of the Nature.

38 39 39 2(7), 2016 Karine DANIELYAN Tatevik POGHOSYAN Sirine KOSYAN

It is known that one of the main determin- bought as sheep or bright jewelry. His appe- ing components of sustainable development is tite will devastate the earth and will leave be- the Culture of moderation designed to reduce hind only the desert … Your purpose – a rid- considerably scales of modern super exploita- dle for us. tion of natural resources, practiced by modern Perhaps, transition to Culture of modera- consumer society, to be exact, society of tion is the most hard-to-reach, because re- overconsumption. About thoughtless over- quires radical reorganization of the value sys- consumption of "the developed civilization" tem on which vital practice of the vast majori- very strictly and figuratively it is spoken in ty of the population of Earth is based. Wheth- widely known "Message of the leader of Seat- er the person will be able to pass in general tle": "We know that our traditions are unclear from self-affirmation in material values to to the white person … It treats the earth as to self-affirmation in spiritual values? Whether the enemy, but not as to the brother, therefore will be able really to listen to the principles, it moves further when subdues the part of it. It approaches and recommendations, being basic concerns the mother – the earth and the broth- for many world religions and beliefs of the er-the sky as if they can be sold, plundered, ancient indigenous people (table 1).

Table 1. World religions and the ancient people about consumption (Durning, 1991).

Religion/people Basic thesis Christianity "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the Kingdom of God". "Gospel of Matthew" Buddhism "The one who will overcome the desires in this world, from that grieves, as water drops from a lotus flower, will fall down". Dhammapada Confucianism "Both excesses, and a shortcoming equally create difficulties". Confucius Hinduism "The person, who lives free from desires, without passionate desires, achieves the peace". "Bhagavad Gita" Judaism "Don't give me either poverty, or wealth" "Book Solomon' parables" Islam "Poverty is my pride" Prophet Muhammad Taoism "The one who knows that he has enough - is rich" Dao De Jing

40 2(7), 2016 40 41 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

It is known that one of the main determin- bought as sheep or bright jewelry. His appe- American Indians "What pathetic we seemed in your eyes, we consider ourselves ing components of sustainable development is tite will devastate the earth and will leave be- much happier, than you yourselves, because we are happy with the Culture of moderation designed to reduce hind only the desert … Your purpose – a rid- that small, that we have" considerably scales of modern super exploita- dle for us. Leader Micmac tion of natural resources, practiced by modern Perhaps, transition to Culture of modera- Ancient Greeks "Nothing in excess" consumer society, to be exact, society of tion is the most hard-to-reach, because re- Inscription on the Delphic oracle overconsumption. About thoughtless over- quires radical reorganization of the value sys- consumption of "the developed civilization" tem on which vital practice of the vast majori- It is curious that the recommendation to cial and Economic Development, in very strictly and figuratively it is spoken in ty of the population of Earth is based. Wheth- keep an ecological food pyramid of fauna Russian). In Proc. Problemy progno- widely known "Message of the leader of Seat- er the person will be able to pass in general contains already in the Old Testament. We zirovaniya I gosudarstvennogo regu- tle": "We know that our traditions are unclear from self-affirmation in material values to usually remember the phrase about the need lirovaniya sotsial’no-ekonomiches- to the white person … It treats the earth as to self-affirmation in spiritual values? Whether of salvation from the flood "a pair of every kogo razvitiya (Problems of Fore- the enemy, but not as to the brother, therefore will be able really to listen to the principles, creature," but in the next verse contains more casting and State Regulation of it moves further when subdues the part of it. It approaches and recommendations, being basic specific recommendations to Noah, namely: Socio-Economic Development),132- concerns the mother – the earth and the broth- for many world religions and beliefs of the "You shall take with you seven each of every 135. Minsk. er-the sky as if they can be sold, plundered, ancient indigenous people (table 1). clean animal, a male and his female; two each Danielyan, K. (1996). Kontseptsiya ustoichi- of animals that are unclean, a male and his vogo chelovecheskogo razvitiya: teo- female; also seven each of birds of the air, riya i praktika (The Concept of Sus- Table 1. World religions and the ancient people about consumption (Durning, 1991). male and female, to keep the species alive on tainable Human Development: the the face of all the earth" (“The Old Testament, Theory and Practice, in Russian). Religion/people Basic thesis the head of the Flood”, verse 7). It is known UNDP. Yerevan. Christianity "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for that are meant by pure animals herbivorous, Danielyan, K. (2014). Sovremennaya tsiviliza- a rich person to enter the Kingdom of God". and dirty – predators, that is it is about need tsiya pered vyborom – Perekhod k "Gospel of Matthew" of preservation of an ecological pyramid. ustoichivomu razvitiyu ili samo- Buddhism "The one who will overcome the desires in this world, from that Anyway, today it is obvious that modern unichtozhenie (Modern civilization is grieves, as water drops from a lotus flower, will fall down". civilization has two ways: to pass to sustaina- faced with a choice - transition to Dhammapada ble development or to undergo self-destruc- sustainable development or self- Confucianism "Both excesses, and a shortcoming equally create difficulties". tion. And the main prerequisite for positive destruction, in Russian). Saarbruck- Confucius transition to sustainable development is trans- en, Germany: Palmarium academic Hinduism "The person, who lives free from desires, without passionate de- formation of the homo sapiens into the homo publishing. sires, achieves the peace". sapiens and moral. Durning, A. (1991). Asking How Much is "Bhagavad Gita" Enough. State of the World. Judaism "Don't give me either poverty, or wealth" REFERENCES Earth Charter. Earth Charter International "Book Solomon' parables" Secretariat. San Jose, Costa Rica. Islam "Poverty is my pride" Bains, V.F., & Vinnik, V.T. (2010, October www.earthcharter.org Prophet Muhammad 14-15). Trekhmernaya model’ ustoi- Earth Summit. Agenda 21 – The United Na- Taoism "The one who knows that he has enough - is rich" chivogo dukhovnogo-nravstvennogo tions Programme of Action from Dao De Jing sotsial’no-ekonomicheskogo razviti- Rio; Rio Declaration on Environment ya (The Three-Dimensional Model of and Development. UNCED, Rio-de- Sustainable Spiritual and Moral So- Janeiro, UNDPI, N-Y, 1997. 40 41 41 2(7), 2016 Karine DANIELYAN Tatevik POGHOSYAN Sirine KOSYAN

Emerging Issues in Our Global Environment. Manifesto - Dmitrieva), in Russian), UNEP Year Book. 2011. Obrashchenie rossiiskikh uchenykh k Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk mezhdunarodnomu nauchnomu soob- Reduction 2015. UN Inter-Agency shchestvu I osnovy edinoi nauki. Secretariat of the International Strat- Moscow: IVIRAN, (2007). http:// egy for Disaster Reduction. www.politforums.net/politclub/1264 http://www.preventionweb.net/englis 743280.html. h/hyogo/gar/2015/en/home/index.ht Paris Agreement on Climate. http://unfccc. ml int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php. Global Environmental Outlook -5, UNEP, Poslanie Vozhdya Sietla. Tsit. po izdaniyu Environment for the future we want. 1992 g. Sovetsko-Amerikanskaya gu- UNEP Valetta, Malta, 2012. manitarnaya initsiativa «Golubka» Izmenenie klimata i zdorov’e. Informatsionnyi «Dumaya kak gora: na puti k Sovetu byulleten’ No 266 (Change of Cli- vsekh Sushchestv. -(Message from mate and Health. Newsletter number Chief Seattle. In the publication of 266,. Media Center of the World Soviet-American Humanitarian Initi- Health Organization, in Russian). 29 ative "Dove" - "Thinking Like a June 2016. http: //www.who.int.med Mountain: Towards a Council of All iacentre/factsheets /fs266/ru/ Beings." in Russian), Ekologicheskii Keeping Track of our Changing Environment. byulleten’ No3. Assotsiatsiya «Za From Rio to Rio+20. UNEP, Nairo- UCHR», UNEP National Committee, bi, Kenya, October, 2011. Yerevan, 2003. Meadows, D. et al. (1994). Za predelami ros- Resolution 66/288 adopted by the UN Gen- ta (Beyond growth, in Russian). eral Assembly. 66th Session, Agenda Moscow. item 19. Application. "The Future we Moiseev, N.I. (1990). Chelovek i noosfera want "(final document of the UN" (The Man and the Noosphere, in Rio + 20 "Summit), July 27, 2012, Russian). Moscow. http://www.un.org/disabilities/docum Moiseev, N.I. (1994). Doklad “Ustoichivoe ents/rio20_outcome_document_com razvitie ili strategiya perekhodnogo plete.pdf perioda”. (Presentation “Sustainable Resolution adopted by the General Assembly Development or a Strategy in the 25 September 2015, seventieth ses- Transition Period”, in Russian). sion Paragraphs 15 and 116 of the http://rudocs.exdat.com/docs/index- agenda. 70/1. Transforming Our 386302.html?page=4 World: the 2030 Agenda for sustain- Obrashchenie rossiiskikh uchenykh k mevdu- able development). narodnomu soobshchestvu (Manifest https://sustainabledevelopment.un.or Vernadskogo - Dmitrieva) (Appeal of g/post2015/transformingourworld Russian Scientists to the Internation- al Scientific Community (Vernadsky

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Emerging Issues in Our Global Environment. Manifesto - Dmitrieva), in Russian), Roerich, N. Op. by: Sem’ velikikh tain kosmo- UNEP Year Book. Emerging Issues in Our UNEP Year Book. 2011. Obrashchenie rossiiskikh uchenykh k sa (Seven Great Mysteries of the Global Environment, 2011. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk mezhdunarodnomu nauchnomu soob- Cosmos, in Russian). 1999. Moscow. WHO-UNEP Report, 2012. State of the sci- Reduction 2015. UN Inter-Agency shchestvu I osnovy edinoi nauki. The United Nations General Assembly, sev- ence of endocrine disrupting chemi- Secretariat of the International Strat- Moscow: IVIRAN, (2007). http:// entieth session, paragraph 20 (c) of cals – 2012 An assessment of the egy for Disaster Reduction. www.politforums.net/politclub/1264 the Agenda. August 4, 2015. Imple- state of the science of endocrine dis- http://www.preventionweb.net/englis 743280.html. mentation of the International Strate- ruptors prepared by a group of ex- h/hyogo/gar/2015/en/home/index.ht Paris Agreement on Climate. http://unfccc. gy for Disaster Reduction. perts for the United Nations Envi- ml int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php. www.unisdr.org/files/resolutions/N1 ronment Programme (UNEP) and Global Environmental Outlook -5, UNEP, Poslanie Vozhdya Sietla. Tsit. po izdaniyu 524455.pdf WHO. http://www who.int/ceh Environment for the future we want. 1992 g. Sovetsko-Amerikanskaya gu- The United Nations General Assembly, Re- /publications/endocrine/en/ UNEP Valetta, Malta, 2012. manitarnaya initsiativa «Golubka» port of the World Conference on World Scientists Warning to Humanity. Un- Izmenenie klimata i zdorov’e. Informatsionnyi «Dumaya kak gora: na puti k Sovetu Disaster Reduction. Kobe Hyogo, ion of Concerned Scientists. byulleten’ No 266 (Change of Cli- vsekh Sushchestv. -(Message from Japan, 18-22 January 2005. http://fore.yale.edu/publications/state mate and Health. Newsletter number Chief Seattle. In the publication of http://www.unisdr.org/2005/wcdr/wc ments/union/Scientists 266,. Media Center of the World Soviet-American Humanitarian Initi- dr-index.htm. Yablokov, A. (2012). Zemlya mozhet ottorg- Health Organization, in Russian). 29 ative "Dove" - "Thinking Like a The UNECE Strategy on Education for Sus- nut’ chelovechestvo (The land can June 2016. http: //www.who.int.med Mountain: Towards a Council of All tainable Development. Adopted by deprive humanity. Ecology and Life, iacentre/factsheets /fs266/ru/ Beings." in Russian), Ekologicheskii the Meeting of the High-level repre- in Russian), №6, 4-7. Keeping Track of our Changing Environment. byulleten’ No3. Assotsiatsiya «Za sentatives of the Ministries of Envi- Zashchitim zdorov’e ot izmenenii klimata. From Rio to Rio+20. UNEP, Nairo- UCHR», UNEP National Committee, ronment and Education (Vilnius, 17- Obrashcheniya k razlichnym grup- bi, Kenya, October, 2011. Yerevan, 2003. 18 March 2005) (Items 5 and 6 of the pam naseleniya i sektoram (Protect- Meadows, D. et al. (1994). Za predelami ros- Resolution 66/288 adopted by the UN Gen- agenda). Economic Commission for ing health from climate change. ta (Beyond growth, in Russian). eral Assembly. 66th Session, Agenda Europe, Committee on Environmen- Treatment of different groups of the Moscow. item 19. Application. "The Future we tal Policy. The Economic-Social population and sectors, in Russian ). Moiseev, N.I. (1990). Chelovek i noosfera want "(final document of the UN" Council,). World Health Organization 2016. (The Man and the Noosphere, in Rio + 20 "Summit), July 27, 2012, www.unece.org/environmental- www.who.int/phe. Russian). Moscow. http://www.un.org/disabilities/docum policy/education-for-sustainable- Moiseev, N.I. (1994). Doklad “Ustoichivoe ents/rio20_outcome_document_com development razvitie ili strategiya perekhodnogo plete.pdf perioda”. (Presentation “Sustainable Resolution adopted by the General Assembly Development or a Strategy in the 25 September 2015, seventieth ses- Transition Period”, in Russian). sion Paragraphs 15 and 116 of the http://rudocs.exdat.com/docs/index- agenda. 70/1. Transforming Our 386302.html?page=4 World: the 2030 Agenda for sustain- Obrashchenie rossiiskikh uchenykh k mevdu- able development). narodnomu soobshchestvu (Manifest https://sustainabledevelopment.un.or Vernadskogo - Dmitrieva) (Appeal of g/post2015/transformingourworld Russian Scientists to the Internation- al Scientific Community (Vernadsky

42 43 43 2(7), 2016 Susanna DAVTYAN Tatevik PIRUMYAN

UDC 614.253 Susanna DAVTYAN, Tatevik PIRUMYAN

TOLERANCE AS A CONSTRUCTIVE MECHANISM OF DIALOGUE IN THE FIELD OF HEALTHCARE

Abstract

Modern bioethical issues (doctor-patient relationship) should be based on a tolerant attitude towards patient. Tolerance is an important value in Ethics, medical Ethics and Bioethics. As a moral norm, tolerance is a virtue. It is a rational human response, social value, which ensures the rights, freedom and security of human beings. Tolerance is a social ideal originating in society.

Keywords: tolerance, trust, respect, dialogue, doctor-patient relationship, informed consent.

In the modern globalized world, the ance is closely related to the fundamental phi- problem of tolerance as a mechanism for con- losophical issues focusing on the discovery of structing trust and dialogue has a great im- human nature, understanding human identity, portance. Nowadays tolerance is more crucial the boundaries of human knowledge and ca- than ever before. The leading role of tolerance pabilities” (Lektorskiy, 1997, p. 46). In order is obvious in almost all areas of the contem- to determine the concept of tolerance first we porary world: moral, medical, political, eco- should mention that it is a cultural quality of nomic, cultural, social, etc. As a social-cultu- each citizen, regardless of age, gender reli- ral norm tolerance is a capacity to endure dif- gious, ethnic and racial background. Accord- ferent opinions, thinking of views, ideas and ing to the linguistic analysis, tolerance (Latin lifestyle. It is the ability to respect and accept «tolerantia») is defined: cultural diversity, different ethnic and social 1. as an ability of organism, power of endur- groups and religions. In order to understand ing or resisting the negative effects and what tolerance is and its role in the modern action of a drug, poison, etc. bioethical issues, particularly in the doctor- 2. as a patient and tolerant attitude towards patient relationship, first we should take into something or somebody. Tolerance has consideration the origin, theoretical founda- different meanings in different languages tions and historical stages of development of depending on each nation's cultural, his- tolerance. torical and national features. Tolerance is a complicated and multifac- According to the Declaration of Princi- eted social-cultural phenomenon. “At first ples on Tolerance adopted by the General glance the idea of tolerance seems to be very Conference of UNESCO at its twenty-eighth simple but in fact it isn`t like this at all. Toler- session in Paris, on 16 November 1995. 44 2(7), 2016 44 45 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 614.253 1. Tolerance is respect, acceptance and ap- istics of tolerance are variety and differences. Susanna DAVTYAN, preciation of the rich diversity of our The aim of Declaration of principles on Tol- Tatevik PIRUMYAN world's cultures, our forms of expression erance is preserve the world from the reli- and ways of being human. It is fostered gious, political and cultural wars, which are TOLERANCE AS A CONSTRUCTIVE MECHANISM OF DIALOGUE IN THE by knowledge, openness, communication, inevitable in the modern globalized world. FIELD OF HEALTHCARE and freedom of thought, conscience and Only the acceptance of the principle of toler- belief. Tolerance is harmony in differ- ance is able to face the various challenges of st Abstract ence. It is not only a moral duty; it is also the 21 century, which is growing and becom- a political and legal requirement. Toler- ing uncontrollable. Modern bioethical issues (doctor-patient relationship) should be based on a tolerant attitude ance, the virtue that makes peace possi- As a moral norm, tolerance is a virtue. It towards patient. Tolerance is an important value in Ethics, medical Ethics and Bioethics. As a moral ble, contributes to the replacement of the is a rational human response, which depends norm, tolerance is a virtue. It is a rational human response, social value, which ensures the rights, culture of war by a culture of peace. on the level of individual's knowledge, per- freedom and security of human beings. Tolerance is a social ideal originating in society. 2. Tolerance is, above all, an active attitude sonal experience and skills. Tolerance does prompted by the recognition of the uni- not mean patient attitude towards social injus- versal human rights and fundamental tices. Being tolerant, does not mean to give up Keywords: tolerance, trust, respect, dialogue, doctor-patient relationship, informed consent. freedoms of others. own beliefs and adopt other ideologies. Toler-

3. Tolerance is the responsibility that up- ance is a social value, which insures human

In the modern globalized world, the ance is closely related to the fundamental phi- holds human rights, pluralism (including rights, freedom and security. The meaning of problem of tolerance as a mechanism for con- losophical issues focusing on the discovery of cultural pluralism), democracy and the tolerance has changed from religion tolerance structing trust and dialogue has a great im- human nature, understanding human identity, rule of law. It involves the rejection of into moral tolerance and is now perceived as a portance. Nowadays tolerance is more crucial the boundaries of human knowledge and ca- dogmatism and absolutism and affirms moral principle and the universal value of the than ever before. The leading role of tolerance pabilities” (Lektorskiy, 1997, p. 46). In order the standards set out in international hu- modern world. is obvious in almost all areas of the contem- to determine the concept of tolerance first we man rights instruments. Tolerance is a significant value in ethics, porary world: moral, medical, political, eco- should mention that it is a cultural quality of 4. Consistent with respect for human rights, bioethics and medical ethics. The contempo- nomic, cultural, social, etc. As a social-cultu- each citizen, regardless of age, gender reli- the practice of tolerance does not mean rary bioethical dilemmas and problems (doc- ral norm tolerance is a capacity to endure dif- gious, ethnic and racial background. Accord- toleration of social injustice or the aban- tor-patient relationship, human cloning and ferent opinions, thinking of views, ideas and ing to the linguistic analysis, tolerance (Latin donment or weakening of one's convic- genetic engineering, organ transplantation, lifestyle. It is the ability to respect and accept «tolerantia») is defined: tions. It means accepting the fact that abortion of human embryos, euthanasia, med- human beings, naturally diverse in their ical secrets, patient's rights and doctor's du- cultural diversity, different ethnic and social 1. as an ability of organism, power of endur- groups and religions. In order to understand ing or resisting the negative effects and appearance, situation, speech, behavior ties, palliative care, etc.) should be based on what tolerance is and its role in the modern action of a drug, poison, etc. and values, have the right to live in peace tolerant attitude towards all human beings. In and to be as they are. It also means that the doctor-patient relationship, it is important bioethical issues, particularly in the doctor- 2. as a patient and tolerant attitude towards patient relationship, first we should take into something or somebody. Tolerance has one's views are not to be imposed on oth- that the doctor is tolerant and respectful to- 1 consideration the origin, theoretical founda- different meanings in different languages ers . wards patient, because the treatment process tions and historical stages of development of depending on each nation's cultural, his- As we see, according to the UNESCO's and efficiency directly depends on the nature tolerance. torical and national features. Declaration of Tolerance, the main character- of the relationship between doctor and patient. “All doctors are well aware that recovery does Tolerance is a complicated and multifac- According to the Declaration of Princi- 1 Declaration of Principles on Tolerance adopted not often depend on the nature of the inter- eted social-cultural phenomenon. “At first ples on Tolerance adopted by the General by the General Conference of UNESCO at its vention and/or effectiveness of drug therapy glance the idea of tolerance seems to be very Conference of UNESCO at its twenty-eighth twenty-eighth session in Paris, on 16 Novem- but rather on the fact if the patient believes in simple but in fact it isn`t like this at all. Toler- session in Paris, on 16 November 1995. ber 1995, p. 9-10. 44 45 45 2(7), 2016 Susanna DAVTYAN Tatevik PIRUMYAN

the therapy, or whether he/she wants to get freedom for the individual it competes the better or prefers the role of patient, if he/she right to self-determination as well as the right likes or dislikes the doctor and so forth. The to health, because if it is true that every indi- influence of the socio-psychological situation vidual has the right to be cared for, he has al- of the individual patient on the effectiveness so the right to receive adequate information of treatment is considered by physicians, but on the nature in the course of treatment which it does not arouse any real their professional may be submitted, as well as possible alterna- interest. Therefore, the concept of personal- tive therapies (Lorenzo, 2013, p. 35). There- ized medicine is not complete and scientifical- fore physician must inform the patient about ly credible until specialists in humanities, first his/her health situation and disease, the treat- of all, in bioethics get involved in its devel- ment process, methods and possible risks. The opment” (Sedova & Basov, 2015, p. 21). First doctor should be patient and tolerant. He/she of all the doctor must take into account the must respect any choice of the patient, consci- patient's individual experiences and character- entiously fulfill patient's decision and wish. istics, because for the patient it is more im- According to the Lisbon Declaration on portant his/her own subjective disturbances Patient Rights which adopted by the 34th and disease. World Medical Assembly (1981) patient has The main principle of doctor-patient rela- right to medical care, right to freedom of tionship is tolerance towards patient's freedom choice, right to make his/her own decision of choice, rights, informed consent and medi- without any restriction. This Declaration cal secret. “Respect for patient autonomy is claims that the patient has the right to accept the basis of informed consent. For patients to or refuse to accept medical treatment after be autonomous and provide informed consent, getting information. According to this claim, the treating physician or psychiatrist must the doctor must inform the patient about the provide adequate information to the patient purposes of medical tests ordered, about the about their illness and treatment options that results of diagnostic tests and treatment pro- are available” (Avinas, 2015, p. 51). In the cedures as well as possible risks of treatment. case of informed consent, the doctor's ability This declaration gives rights to patients and of decision-making is vital. The doctor must restrict doctors' absolute autonomy (Davtyan, know in which way to inform the information 2013, p. 74). Therefore the realization of the about patient disease. All patients, without right treatment is largely depend on the doc- any restriction, have fundamental rights to tor's professional skills, knowledge, experi- obtain relevant information about their dis- ence, intellect and tolerant attitude. Before ease and its further developments, accept or making a final decision, doctor need to stop reject the treatment recommended by a doc- and think more carefully, however, when tor. The clear derivation of the constitutional she/he makes decisions in circumstances that right of the individual to decide which treat- are more difficult. The doctor must take into ment to undergo is evidenced by its ability to account all possible consequences either posi- represent a synthesis of two fundamental hu- tive or negative. man rights: to the definition of this space of The doctor's dilemma is: “To tell the

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the therapy, or whether he/she wants to get freedom for the individual it competes the truth to the patient or not?” During 2002-2008 school is poor; they do not provide the popu- better or prefers the role of patient, if he/she right to self-determination as well as the right years Yerevan State Medical University after lation with decent and appropriate knowledge. likes or dislikes the doctor and so forth. The to health, because if it is true that every indi- M. Heratsi, department of social sciences with No work is done in this direction in order to influence of the socio-psychological situation vidual has the right to be cared for, he has al- Institute of Philosophy, Sociology and Law of develop a culture of a healthy way of life, of the individual patient on the effectiveness so the right to receive adequate information National Academy of Sciences of Republic of sport and food regime for people of different of treatment is considered by physicians, but on the nature in the course of treatment which Armenia conducted sociological investiga- ages. it does not arouse any real their professional may be submitted, as well as possible alterna- tions. PhD students point out the fact that the Yerevan is flooded with internet clubs. interest. Therefore, the concept of personal- tive therapies (Lorenzo, 2013, p. 35). There- people in prosperous developed countries are Every day new e-net clubs are being opened; ized medicine is not complete and scientifical- fore physician must inform the patient about expected to undergo free of charge preventive they co-exist, side by side, on the same street; ly credible until specialists in humanities, first his/her health situation and disease, the treat- examination (screening), several times a year. the main problem is that they offer young of all, in bioethics get involved in its devel- ment process, methods and possible risks. The For example, in 2015 total health expenditure people a virtual life instead of a real one. In opment” (Sedova & Basov, 2015, p. 21). First doctor should be patient and tolerant. He/she per capita in USA is more than 8000 USD, in these clubs, filled with cigarette smoke, you of all the doctor must take into account the must respect any choice of the patient, consci- Canada is 4429 USD, in France is 4124 USD, can see young people just sitting, pushing the patient's individual experiences and character- entiously fulfill patient's decision and wish. in Germany is 5002 USD, in Italy is 3126 buttons and feeling as if they are the fastest istics, because for the patient it is more im- According to the Lisbon Declaration on USD, in Israel is 2428 USD, in Japan is 3768 runners, the best fighters and shooters, and the portant his/her own subjective disturbances Patient Rights which adopted by the 34th USD, in Russian Federation is 957 USD and winners, etc. and disease. World Medical Assembly (1981) patient has in Republic of Armenia is only 159 USD2. If Unfortunately, in real life a complex of The main principle of doctor-patient rela- right to medical care, right to freedom of something suspicious is revealed, the patient inferiority arises, because it turns out that they tionship is tolerance towards patient's freedom choice, right to make his/her own decision calmly, and without any stress, accepts the are not only very far from being champion, of choice, rights, informed consent and medi- without any restriction. This Declaration information and starts the treatment, being but also they can't even shoot, fight, build or cal secret. “Respect for patient autonomy is claims that the patient has the right to accept quite sure that the illness is completely cura- win at all. For a young man who is weak- the basis of informed consent. For patients to or refuse to accept medical treatment after ble at that stage. willed the simplest way is to return to virtual be autonomous and provide informed consent, getting information. According to this claim, What is the situation like in Republic of life and get his immediate satisfaction there. the treating physician or psychiatrist must the doctor must inform the patient about the Armenia? In country which, from a developed This problem calls for an urgent inter- provide adequate information to the patient purposes of medical tests ordered, about the one has turned into a developing country it is vention by the government in order to provide about their illness and treatment options that results of diagnostic tests and treatment pro- almost impossible to get such a free annual an applicable solution. If the government will are available” (Avinas, 2015, p. 51). In the cedures as well as possible risks of treatment. examination; it can be available in very rare not take any measures and will pursue its pol- case of informed consent, the doctor's ability This declaration gives rights to patients and cases, which can be classified as being ex- icy to focus on profits, the situation can dete- of decision-making is vital. The doctor must restrict doctors' absolute autonomy (Davtyan, tremely critical. Patients are generally in- riorate, and we may run the risk of losing a know in which way to inform the information 2013, p. 74). Therefore the realization of the formed about their illness when they reach a considerable number of our younger genera- about patient disease. All patients, without right treatment is largely depend on the doc- terminal condition. In this case telling the pation. We should seed taste and striving en- any restriction, have fundamental rights to tor's professional skills, knowledge, experi- tient about his/her incurable illness means deavor for a healthy mode of life. obtain relevant information about their dis- ence, intellect and tolerant attitude. Before warning him/her that death is close and At the PhD students have pointed out, ease and its further developments, accept or making a final decision, doctor need to stop his/her days are counted. getting a medical service is, for the majority reject the treatment recommended by a doc- and think more carefully, however, when Unfortunately, the principles of a healthy of the population, an expensive “pleasure”. tor. The clear derivation of the constitutional she/he makes decisions in circumstances that mode of life is not very developed in Arme- Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that even right of the individual to decide which treat- are more difficult. The doctor must take into nia. The role of mass media, family and in cases when people can afford to apply for a ment to undergo is evidenced by its ability to account all possible consequences either posi- medical service, they are still reluctant and are 2 Total health expenditure per capita represent a synthesis of two fundamental hu- tive or negative. not convinced much in the efficiency of these https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries man rights: to the definition of this space of The doctor's dilemma is: “To tell the _by_total_health_expenditure_per_capita. 46 47 47 2(7), 2016 Susanna DAVTYAN Tatevik PIRUMYAN

services. This behavior has already become a REFERENCES characteristic feature of the nation. Armenia wants to become a part of Eu- Avinash, S. (2015). Global Bioethics Enquiry. rope but it is an Asian country and its popula- Informed Consent and Geriatric Psy- tion is hypersensitive (in contrast, e.g. to chiatry: a clinical and research Americans who are cold-minded and prag- viewpoint. The scholarly publication matic, sometimes romantic-pragmatic). So, as of the UNESCO chair of Bioethics. have answered the majority of the students: Chieffi, L. (2013). Bioethical Issues by the “telling the truth to the patient is only justified Interuniversity Center for Bioethics in economically developed countries.” Research (C. I. R. B.). Areas of con- At the end of the lecture the students stitutional protection and develop- were again handed forms sent by UNESCO ment of interpretation of the govern- containing 20 questions, in four thematic ment of his own body. Napoli. blocks. In contrast to PhD students, the fresh- Davtyan, S.H. (2013). Bioethics. Yerevan. men, who had only studied this subject for 26 Davtyan, S.H. (2012). Experimental Course hours (4 hours with 2 testing) and didn't know of Bioethics upon the Bioethics Core anything about it before, gave relatively poor Curriculum of UNESCO: Methodol- answers (Davtyan, 2012, pp. 505-507). ogy and Results of Investigation The doctor must have a high sense of re- Medicine and Law. Number 4. sponsibility towards the patient and a high Lektorskiy, V.A. (1997). O tolerantnosti, ply- degree of tolerance. If in doctor-patient rela- uralizme i krititsizme (About Toler- tionship there is no tolerance, patients cannot ance, Pluralism and Criticism, in trust the doctor. Agreement between doctor Russian), Voprosy filosofii, No 11. and patient largely depends on the existence Sedova, N.N., & Basov, A.V. (2015). Etich- of a trust atmosphere. Trust is one of the eskie parametry personalizirovannoi characteristic features of public relations and meditsiny (Ethical Parameters of Per- is manifested both in the personal and social sonalized Medicine, in Russian), levels. It is a social virtue. The harmony of Federalnii nauchno-prakticheskii human and social relation is directly deter- zhurnal, Volgograd, Izdatel’stvo mined by the degree of trust in the society. VolgGMU, No2 (16). That is why it is obvious that in the modern world trust, tolerance are the main regulative principles.

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services. This behavior has already become a REFERENCES UDC 165 characteristic feature of the nation. Robert DJIDJIAN Armenia wants to become a part of Eu- Avinash, S. (2015). Global Bioethics Enquiry. rope but it is an Asian country and its popula- Informed Consent and Geriatric Psy- PARADOXES OF HUMAN COGNITION tion is hypersensitive (in contrast, e.g. to chiatry: a clinical and research Americans who are cold-minded and prag- viewpoint. The scholarly publication Abstract matic, sometimes romantic-pragmatic). So, as of the UNESCO chair of Bioethics. have answered the majority of the students: Chieffi, L. (2013). Bioethical Issues by the This paper presents the main paradoxes of the theory of human cognition, namely the paradox- “telling the truth to the patient is only justified Interuniversity Center for Bioethics es of epistemology and methodology. Each of paradoxes is given its laconic solution using a more in economically developed countries.” Research (C. I. R. B.). Areas of con- strict definition of relevant concepts. Suggested solutions could be helpful in developing further the At the end of the lecture the students stitutional protection and develop- complete teaching of human cognition. were again handed forms sent by UNESCO ment of interpretation of the govern- containing 20 questions, in four thematic ment of his own body. Napoli. Keywords: human cognition, philosophy, truth, proof, contradiction, paradoxes of epistemolo- blocks. In contrast to PhD students, the fresh- Davtyan, S.H. (2013). Bioethics. Yerevan. gy, paradoxes of methodology. men, who had only studied this subject for 26 Davtyan, S.H. (2012). Experimental Course hours (4 hours with 2 testing) and didn't know of Bioethics upon the Bioethics Core anything about it before, gave relatively poor Curriculum of UNESCO: Methodol- Introduction. Søren Kierkegaard has ments were quite difficult to conceive. For answers (Davtyan, 2012, pp. 505-507). ogy and Results of Investigation suggested a paradoxical interpretation of the instance, commentators are divided in their The doctor must have a high sense of re- Medicine and Law. Number 4. notion of paradox: “the thinker without the understanding of Aristotle’s analysis of the so sponsibility towards the patient and a high Lektorskiy, V.A. (1997). O tolerantnosti, ply- paradox is like the lover without passion”. As called aporia “Stadion” (Physics, 6 9 239b33). degree of tolerance. If in doctor-patient rela- uralizme i krititsizme (About Toler- all the negative statements this beautiful aph- Quite unexpectedly Immanuil Kant who tionship there is no tolerance, patients cannot ance, Pluralism and Criticism, in orism does not reveal any positive feature of assessed laws of formal logic as evidence of trust the doctor. Agreement between doctor Russian), Voprosy filosofii, No 11. its subject. In sciences the term paradox is absolute truth made an exception for contra- and patient largely depends on the existence Sedova, N.N., & Basov, A.V. (2015). Etich- strongly connected to self-contradiction or a diction (“antinomies”) of reason. His daring of a trust atmosphere. Trust is one of the eskie parametry personalizirovannoi contradiction to well established facts and ge- mind even suggested proofs in regard of the characteristic features of public relations and meditsiny (Ethical Parameters of Per- neral statements. A classical example of self- infinity of the world space and time. Yet is manifested both in the personal and social sonalized Medicine, in Russian), contradiction is presented by “The liar” para- modern time analysis revealed certain flows levels. It is a social virtue. The harmony of Federalnii nauchno-prakticheskii dox. The opposition to “apparent” facts usual- in Kant’s argumentation like using incompat- human and social relation is directly deter- zhurnal, Volgograd, Izdatel’stvo ly emerge by the discovery of revolutionary ible substantial and relativistic conceptions of mined by the degree of trust in the society. VolgGMU, No2 (16). theories like relativistic mechanics and quan- space and time (Djidjian, 2004, pp. 174-185). That is why it is obvious that in the modern tum mechanics. The great system builder Georg Hegel world trust, tolerance are the main regulative In regard of paradoxes of science the extended Kantian liberal attitude to logical principles. central point is the following: “Could the par- contradictions believing that just “the contra- adoxes of science be resolved?” Philosophers diction is the root of all movement and vitali- gave very different answers to this question, ty; it is only in so far as something has a con- especially considering Zeno’s aporias. Learn- tradiction within it that it moves, has an urge ing about Zeno’s aporias Aristotle without and activity.” hesitation took up the challenge and suggest- The 20th century greatest mathematician ed his solutions of the so called “aporias of David Hilbert categorically denied the very motion” though some of Aristotelian argu- existence of paradoxes: “The true reason why 48 49 49 2(7), 2016 Robert DJIDJIAN

no one has succeeded in finding an unsolvable truth-teller. But in reality there are no abso- problem is, in my opinion, that there is no un- lute liars and no absolute truth tellers. solvable problem. In contrast to the foolish Ignorabimus, our credo avers: We must know, 2. The fundamental lire-paradox we shall know” (Dawson, 1997). Understanding paradoxes requires an ad- Epimenides declared: “I am lying now” and equate knowledge of the essence of the truth did utter not utter any other word. and its negation – the false. We follow Aristo- This fundamental version of the lire-paradox telian fundamental definition “Truth is the has the following contemporary formulation adequacy of the thought and reality.” And also: (“The sentence in these brackets is since the concept of the truth lies in the bases false”). of the “The liar” paradox we start just its ana- To analyze the fundamental lire-paradox let lysis. us denote the sentence in these brackets as A. I would like to mention also that the Thesis. The sentence A (“The sentence in the- main principle of our approach to any kind of se brackets is false”) is true. Then according contradictions and paradoxes is that all of to its content A is false. them could be solved by a certain correction Anti-thesis. The sentence A (“The sentence in of relevant concepts. these brackets is false”) is false. Then according to its content the sentence A is true. Pardoxes of epistemology Solution. From the days of Medieval logicians it is well known that the fundamental lire- 1. The “absolute lire” paradox paradox is caused by its self-referential nature: the sentence A speaks about itself. For An ancient philosopher Epimenides declared: excluding this type of paradoxes we have to “I am a liar”. deny using self-referential sentences and ex- Thesis. Epimenides’ statement “I am a liar” is pressions. true. Then Epimenides is a liar. Then his statement is false. 3. Senses versus ratio paradox Anti-thesis. Epimenides’ statement “I am a liar” is false. Then Epimenides, according to Thesis. Ratio and thinking without sensual the content of his statement, is not a liar and data are empty, out of any subject matter so must be a truth-teller. So his statement is (Kant, 1781). true. Anti-thesis. Scientific knowledge is the Solution. The above Thesis presumes that liars knowledge of general which can be provided say only false things, or in other words, it pre- only by ratio. sumes the notion of the absolute liar. Similar- Solution. Senses provide the elementary units ly, the above Anti-thesis presumes that a of knowledge from which human ratio com- truth-teller says only true things, or in other poses general concepts. words, it presumes the notion of the absolute

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no one has succeeded in finding an unsolvable truth-teller. But in reality there are no abso- 4. Empirical versus theoretical paradox the truth of scientific knowledge follows from problem is, in my opinion, that there is no un- lute liars and no absolute truth tellers. experience, truth is aposteriori. solvable problem. In contrast to the foolish Thesis. There could be no knowledge without Solution. In times of absolute dominance of Ignorabimus, our credo avers: We must know, 2. The fundamental lire-paradox empiric cognition and practice. Euclidean geometry, Kant’s conception of we shall know” (Dawson, 1997). Anti-thesis. The human understanding of the apriori was the only possible explanation of Understanding paradoxes requires an ad- Epimenides declared: “I am lying now” and world is provided by scientific theories. the existence of the absolutely true human equate knowledge of the essence of the truth did utter not utter any other word. Solution. Empiric knowledge is the basic level knowledge. And on the contrary, since the and its negation – the false. We follow Aristo- This fundamental version of the lire-paradox of human understanding, its highest level be- acceptance of the consistency of non- telian fundamental definition “Truth is the has the following contemporary formulation ing provided by scientific theories. Euclidean geometry (Riman, 2004) there re- adequacy of the thought and reality.” And also: (“The sentence in these brackets is mained no need in the concept of apriori. since the concept of the truth lies in the bases false”). 5. Relative truth versus absolute truth of the “The liar” paradox we start just its ana- To analyze the fundamental lire-paradox let 7. Mathematical proof versus lysis. us denote the sentence in these brackets as A. Thesis. Truth is the adequacy of the thought mathematical truth I would like to mention also that the Thesis. The sentence A (“The sentence in the- and reality (Metaphysics 6 3 1027b20). This main principle of our approach to any kind of se brackets is false”) is true. Then according adequacy can’t be absolute, it can be only rel- Thesis. The strength of mathematical know- contradictions and paradoxes is that all of to its content A is false. ative. ledge is in its proof. Proof is the truth of them could be solved by a certain correction Anti-thesis. The sentence A (“The sentence in Anti-thesis. Laws of logic and postulates of mathematics (Hilbert, 2004). of relevant concepts. these brackets is false”) is false. Then accord- mathematics are examples of necessary, abso- Anti-thesis. Mathematical knowledge has such ing to its content the sentence A is true. lute truth (Kant, 1781). One can’t imagine a an abstract level that mathematical truth is Pardoxes of epistemology Solution. From the days of Medieval logicians world where the postulates of Euclidean ge- never checked by experience, empirically. it is well known that the fundamental lire- ometry are inconsistent. Solution. Though a highly abstract science, 1. The “absolute lire” paradox paradox is caused by its self-referential na- Solution. After the emergence and acceptance geometry’s adequacy to reality, the choice ture: the sentence A speaks about itself. For of the non-Euclidean geometry and mathe- between Euclidean geometry and non- An ancient philosopher Epimenides declared: excluding this type of paradoxes we have to matical logic in the second half of the 19th Euclidean geometry could be made at galactic “I am a liar”. deny using self-referential sentences and ex- century, scientists are unable to demonstrate distances. Thesis. Epimenides’ statement “I am a liar” is pressions. any single case of a theoretical absolute truth. true. Then Epimenides is a liar. Then his As an adequacy to reality, truth is relative in 8. Conventionalism versus statement is false. 3. Senses versus ratio paradox its very essence (Plank, 1949). progressiveness Anti-thesis. Epimenides’ statement “I am a liar” is false. Then Epimenides, according to Thesis. Ratio and thinking without sensual 6. Apriori versus aposteriori Thesis. The revolutionary theories of theoreti- the content of his statement, is not a liar and data are empty, out of any subject matter cal physics in the first decades of the 20th cen- so must be a truth-teller. So his statement is (Kant, 1781). Thesis. From the times of Aristotle scientific tury were in such a contrast to human experi- true. Anti-thesis. Scientific knowledge is the knowledge is considered necessary and gen- ence and common sense that the transition Solution. The above Thesis presumes that liars knowledge of general which can be provided eral. No experience can guarantee the neces- from an old (classical) theory to a radically say only false things, or in other words, it pre- only by ratio. sary nature of its conclusions (Hume, 1777). new theory could be conceived just as a con- sumes the notion of the absolute liar. Similar- Solution. Senses provide the elementary units The necessary can’t be dependent on experi- vention between leading, prominent scientists ly, the above Anti-thesis presumes that a of knowledge from which human ratio com- ence. It could be only apriori. later extended to the whole scientific commu- truth-teller says only true things, or in other poses general concepts. Antithesis. Scientific knowledge should be nity (Poincare, 1946). words, it presumes the notion of the absolute true; any scientific statement should be Anti-thesis. Learning the history of sciences checked by experience and experiment. Thus one could not miss that science keeps con-

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stantly progressing, and that just by the transi- human brain having a separate algorithm for tion from an old (classical) theories to the bet- proofs and another algorithm – for research. ter ones. But nothing can prevent considering these Solution. New radical theories come to life by two algorithms as the main parts of the gen- the discovery of radically new levels of the eral algorithm of human cognition. nature that require radically new ideas contrasting ordinary experience and common 11. Consciousness versus sense. Changes of theories follow the need of self-conscience better description of reality but never are accepted by convention. Thesis. Consciousness is that mental wholeness which is responsible for all processes of 9. Human cognition versus human cognition including that of self- animal cognition cognition and self-conscience. Anti-thesis. Self-conscience is the main at- Thesis. Only humans think rationally. All an- tribute of human cognition that separates hu- imal behavior is instinctive, genetically inher- mans from the animal world. ited. Solution. Self-conscience is just the ability of Anti-thesis. Higher animals demonstrate a a living organism to cognize its own separate wide range of learned, non-instinctive behav- being in the surrounding world. Theoretically, ior (Darwin, 1874). nothing could prevent or forbid animals to Solution. Human cognition is rational, ab- have an ability of cognizing their own sepa- stract, and verbal. Animals possess different rate being. The social relations in chimp tribes levels of sensual cognition based on the abil- in this sense are identical to that of human ity of generalization by sense-perception social life. (Diener et al., 2006). 12. Conscious versus subconscious 10. Reason versus judgment and unconscious

Thesis. The highest level of human cognition Thesis. In Freud’s conception, subconscious is provided by human reason. Judgment is is the lowest level of consciousness governed non-productive and only provides simple, log- by instinctive desires, including the sexual ical solutions (Hegel, 1969). and anti-social deviations (Jung, 1964). Anti-thesis. Thinking and cognition are func- Subconscious by Henri Poincare is the functions of human brain, yet there is no evidence tion of the part of human brain busy with proof the existence of separated brain-sections duction of creative ideas (Poincare, 1946). for reason or judgment. The process of production of new ideas is that Solution. If we define human judgment as the of making combinations of simple ideas the ability to prove, while reason – as the ability best of which are pushed to the conscious lev- of research (by solving problems and finding el as creative solutions. answers to questions), then we can presume

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stantly progressing, and that just by the transi- human brain having a separate algorithm for Anti-thesis. By Freud, subconscious is the set 14. Hypothesis versus proof tion from an old (classical) theories to the bet- proofs and another algorithm – for research. of units containing instinctive desires. As deter ones. But nothing can prevent considering these sires – be it conscious or unconscious – they Thesis. Any scientific idea is born as hypothe- Solution. New radical theories come to life by two algorithms as the main parts of the gen- have no connection to cognitive processes. sis, as a hypothetical solution of a problematic the discovery of radically new levels of the eral algorithm of human cognition. By Henri Poincare, subconscious thinking situation. nature that require radically new ideas con- presumes a hypothetic mechanism of produc- Anti-thesis. Mathematical knowledge is com- trasting ordinary experience and common 11. Consciousness versus ing new ideas as combinations of simple ideas prised of strictly proved theorems, and there sense. Changes of theories follow the need of self-conscience that, in his own words, can’t work independ- is no place for hypotheses in the kingdom of better description of reality but never are ac- ent of conscious thinking. Even so, after al- mathematics. cepted by convention. Thesis. Consciousness is that mental whole- most hundred years that past after Poincare’s Solution. Any theorem as a mathematical ness which is responsible for all processes of report his hypothesis has never been con- statement is a mathematical hypothesis before 9. Human cognition versus human cognition including that of self- firmed. it eventually gets its proof. animal cognition cognition and self-conscience. Solution. All human ideas including the so Anti-thesis. Self-conscience is the main at- called creative ones are produced by con- 15. Scientism versus hermeneutics Thesis. Only humans think rationally. All an- tribute of human cognition that separates hu- scious analysis of problematic situations fol- imal behavior is instinctive, genetically inher- mans from the animal world. lowed by hypothetical syntheses of ideas of Thesis. Scientism as the theoretical-expe- ited. Solution. Self-conscience is just the ability of solutions. rimental model of building scientific teach- Anti-thesis. Higher animals demonstrate a a living organism to cognize its own separate ings is the only reasonable model for all wide range of learned, non-instinctive behav- being in the surrounding world. Theoretically, Paradoxes of methodology branches of science. ior (Darwin, 1874). nothing could prevent or forbid animals to Anti-thesis. The main task of humanities Solution. Human cognition is rational, ab- have an ability of cognizing their own sepa- 13. The paradox of the universal method should be understanding individuals and their stract, and verbal. Animals possess different rate being. The social relations in chimp tribes groups, revealing their interests and intentions levels of sensual cognition based on the abil- in this sense are identical to that of human Thesis. The history of science proves that while the task of natural sciences is explain- ity of generalization by sense-perception social life. each scientific discovery has been made by its ing natural phenomena (Wright, 1971). (Diener et al., 2006). own exceptional, unordinary way (Whewel, Solution. There could be no explanation of a 12. Conscious versus subconscious 1864). natural phenomenon without its understand- 10. Reason versus judgment and unconscious Anti-thesis. There are many powerful general ing. In its turn, understanding interests and methods of scientific investigation like analy- intensions of people helps to explain the Thesis. The highest level of human cognition Thesis. In Freud’s conception, subconscious sis and synthesis, induction and deduction, events of the past. The special feature of so- is provided by human reason. Judgment is is the lowest level of consciousness governed experimenting and modeling, idealization and cial phenomena is the immense number of non-productive and only provides simple, log- by instinctive desires, including the sexual formalization, etc., which work effectively in acting factors and their instability. ical solutions (Hegel, 1969). and anti-social deviations (Jung, 1964). all branches of sciences. So uniting these gen- Anti-thesis. Thinking and cognition are func- Subconscious by Henri Poincare is the func- eral methods into one logical structure would 16. The whole versus its parts tions of human brain, yet there is no evidence tion of the part of human brain busy with pro- provide science the universal method of re- of the existence of separated brain-sections duction of creative ideas (Poincare, 1946). search and investigation. Thesis. To know the whole we have to inves- for reason or judgment. The process of production of new ideas is that Solution. All general methods of scientific tigate its parts (Heidegger, 1962). Solution. If we define human judgment as the of making combinations of simple ideas the investigation are the structural parts of the Anti-thesis. To know the parts we need certain ability to prove, while reason – as the ability best of which are pushed to the conscious lev- universal method of scientific research. And knowledge of the whole (Heidegger, 1962). of research (by solving problems and finding el as creative solutions. this universal method is the method of hy- Solution. The knowledge of the whole helps answers to questions), then we can presume potheses. investigating the parts, and the investigation

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of the parts enriches the knowledge of the phase – the synthesis of the idea of solution whole. (Djidjian, 1984; Djidjian, 2004).

17. Creativity versus standards 20. The paradox of analogizing

Thesis. The true values in science, technolo- Thesis. Analogy is the weakest form of logi- gy, and arts are produced only by creative cal inference. thought. Anti-thesis. As history of science confirms, Anti-thesis. Technology can’t function with- scientific discoveries have been made helped out standards; the most valuable results in sci- by analogies (Mach, 1905). ence are those that provide methods (algo- Solution. Each new idea is synthesized by rithms) for standard solutions of problems. analogy with the solution of a similar proto- Solution. Any new idea is a creative solution. type problem. (Djidjian, 1984; Djidjian, Creativity is often a new way of using stand- 2004). ards. 21. Talent versus geniality 18. Insight versus logic Thesis. Talent is gained by learning while ge- Thesis. The only way to discovery is the mo- niality is inborn. mentary insight into the true essence of the Anti-thesis. Genius is self-made while talent is problem under investigation. inborn. Anti-thesis. There can be no solution of any Solution. Three greatest geniuses of science – theoretical problem without logical reasoning. Einstein, Darwin, and Mendel never demon- Solution. Logical reasoning is the necessary strated problem solving qualities higher than basis of problem solving while insight is the ordinary ones. So we know geniuses of sci- crowning moment of the logical search for the ence not by their extraordinary intellectual winning idea. capacities but by their fruits – their great revolutionary conceptions. Talents are known 19. Analysis versus synthesis from the early childhood by their extraordinary problem-solving abilities which presume Thesis. The unity of the analysis and synthesis inborn great mental capacities (Djidiian, is one of the most powerful means of research 2002). and problem solving. Annti-thesis. Analysis is the precondition of 22. The paradox of intuition problem solving yet synthesis is a higher level of scientific thinking. Thesis. The greatest scientists have usually Solution. Problem analysis is the first phase of prescribed their discoveries to scientific intui- problem solution procedures providing the tion though not being able to point out its con- best condition for effectiveness of the second tent and essence (Descartes, 1637; Bunge, 1962).

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of the parts enriches the knowledge of the phase – the synthesis of the idea of solution Anti thesis. It is impossible making discover- ics proving theorems would be much more whole. (Djidjian, 1984; Djidjian, 2004). ies not having the following cognitive com- difficult denying the use of self-referential ponents – a sufficient level of inborn mental formula (Kleen, 1952). But such an argument 17. Creativity versus standards 20. The paradox of analogizing capacities, a sufficient scope of knowledge in should be principally rejected since here the the given field of research, a sufficient level foundations of mathematics are discussed. Thesis. The true values in science, technolo- Thesis. Analogy is the weakest form of logi- of own problem-solving experience in the Solution 3. Gödel’s proof is rigorous due to gy, and arts are produced only by creative cal inference. given field of research. using his invention of Gödel’s numbering thought. Anti-thesis. As history of science confirms, Solution. Scientific intuition is the unity of the (Smith, 2007). But it is not difficult to show Anti-thesis. Technology can’t function with- scientific discoveries have been made helped above mentioned cognitive components – a that using Gödel’s numbering one violates the out standards; the most valuable results in sci- by analogies (Mach, 1905). sufficient level of inborn mental capacities, fundamental law of identity. Certain Gödel’s ence are those that provide methods (algo- Solution. Each new idea is synthesized by the scope of knowledge, and own personal number p in the frame of the same proof is rithms) for standard solutions of problems. analogy with the solution of a similar proto- problem-solving experience. So every scien- used in two different meanings – as a certain Solution. Any new idea is a creative solution. type problem. (Djidjian, 1984; Djidjian, tist has as stronger intuition as stronger capac- natural number p and as the number of Gö-

Creativity is often a new way of using stand- 2004). ities, relevant knowledge, and personal expe- del’s formula Ap(p). ards. rience he has got, the latter being the most 21. Talent versus geniality important component (Djidjian, 1984; Dji- Conclusions 18. Insight versus logic djian, 2004). Let us review the useful conclusions of Thesis. Talent is gained by learning while ge- the above analysis of the paradoxes of epis- Thesis. The only way to discovery is the mo- niality is inborn. 23. The paradox of Gödel’s theorem temology and methodology of human cogni- mentary insight into the true essence of the Anti-thesis. Genius is self-made while talent is tion. problem under investigation. inborn. Thesis. Gödel’s formula Ap(p) is undecidable Senses provide the elementary units of Anti-thesis. There can be no solution of any Solution. Three greatest geniuses of science – in the system of formalized arithmetic what knowledge from which human ratio composes theoretical problem without logical reasoning. Einstein, Darwin, and Mendel never demon- means that formalized arithmetic is incom- general concepts. Solution. Logical reasoning is the necessary strated problem solving qualities higher than plete (Whitehead & Russell, 1910-1913; Gö- Empiric knowledge is the basic level of basis of problem solving while insight is the ordinary ones. So we know geniuses of sci- del 1931). human understanding, its highest level being crowning moment of the logical search for the ence not by their extraordinary intellectual Anti-thesis. The only content of Gödel’s for- provided by scientific theories. winning idea. capacities but by their fruits – their great revo- mula Ap(p) is the following: “The formula As an adequacy to reality, truth is rela-

lutionary conceptions. Talents are known Ap(p) tells that it is unprovable” (Kleene, tive in its very essence. 19. Analysis versus synthesis from the early childhood by their extraordi- 1952). So it is absolutely clear that Gödel’s Kant’s conception of apriori was the only

nary problem-solving abilities which presume formula Ap(p) has no mathematical content. possible explanation of the existence of the Thesis. The unity of the analysis and synthesis inborn great mental capacities (Djidiian, Solution 1. Having no mathematical content, absolutely true human knowledge. Nowadays is one of the most powerful means of research 2002). Gödel’s formula Ap(p) can’t support the claim the acceptance of the consistency of non- and problem solving. that formalized arithmetic is incomplete. Euclidean geometry abolishes the concept of Annti-thesis. Analysis is the precondition of 22. The paradox of intuition Solution 2. It is widely accepted that the con- apriori. problem solving yet synthesis is a higher level tent interpretation of Gödel’s formula - “Ap(p) Geometry’s adequacy to reality, the of scientific thinking. Thesis. The greatest scientists have usually tells that Ap(p) is not provable” - is a self- choice between Euclidean geometry and non- Solution. Problem analysis is the first phase of prescribed their discoveries to scientific intui- referential sentence. So Gödel’s proof of the Euclidean geometry could be made at galac- problem solution procedures providing the tion though not being able to point out its con- incompleteness of formalized arithmetic can tic distances. best condition for effectiveness of the second tent and essence (Descartes, 1637; Bunge, be accepted only by those mathematicians New radical theories come to life by the 1962). who think that in some branches of mathemat- discovery of radically new levels of the nature

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that require radically new ideas contrasting for effectiveness of the second phase – the ordinary experience and common sense. synthesis of the idea of solution. Animals possess different levels of sensu- Each new idea is synthesized by analogy al non-verbal cognition based on the ability of with the solution of a similar prototype prob- generalization by sense-perception. lem. We define human judgment as the ability We know geniuses of science not by their to prove, while reason – as the ability of re- extraordinary intellectual capacities but by search yet nothing can prevent considering their fruits – their great revolutionary con- them as the main abilities of the general hu- ceptions. Talents are known from the early man cognition. childhood by their extraordinary problem- Self-conscience is just the ability of a liv- solving abilities which presume inborn great ing organism to cognize its own separate be- mental capacities. ing in the surrounding world. Theoretically Scientific intuition is the unity of inborn nothing could prevent or forbid animals to mental capacities, the scope of knowledge, have an ability of cognizing their own sepa- and own personal problem-solving experi- rate being. ence, the latter being the most important All human ideas including the so called component. creative ones are produced by conscious Gödel’s theorem does not prove the in- analysis of problematic situations followed by completeness of formalized arithmetic or of hypothetical syntheses of ideas of solutions. anything else. All general methods of scientific investi- It is said that science is about that what gation are the structural parts of the universal we know, while philosophy – about that what method of scientific research. And this univer- we do not know. The above solutions of para- sal method is the method of hypotheses. doxes of human cognition provide some Any theorem as a mathematical state- grounds for the hope that epistemology and ment is a mathematical hypothesis before it methodology departing from philosophizing eventually gets its proof. come closer to science. There could be no explanation of a natural phenomenon without its understanding. In REFERENCES its turn, understanding interests and intensions of people helps to explain the events of Aristotle (1949). Prior and Posterior Analyt- the past. ics, (W.D. Ross, Ed.). Oxford: Ox- Creativity is often a new way of using ford University Press. standards. Aristotle (1996). Physics. Oxford: Oxford Logical reasoning is the necessary basis University Press. of problem solving while insight is the crown- Aristotle (1998). Metaphysics. (H. Lawson- ing moment of the search for the winning Tancred, Trans.) Penguin. idea. Bunge, M. (1962). Intuition and Science. Problem analysis is the first phase of the Prentice-Hall. problem solution providing the best condition

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that require radically new ideas contrasting for effectiveness of the second phase – the Darwin, Ch. (1874). The Descent of Man, and Hilbert, D. (2004). David Hilbert's Lectures ordinary experience and common sense. synthesis of the idea of solution. Selection in Relation to Sex (2nd on the foundations of Mathematics Animals possess different levels of sensu- Each new idea is synthesized by analogy ed.). London: John Murray. and Physics, 1891–1933, Springer- al non-verbal cognition based on the ability of with the solution of a similar prototype prob- Darwin, Ch. (1958). The Autobiography of Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. generalization by sense-perception. lem. Charles Darwin 1809–1882. Lon- Hume, D. (1748). An Enquiry Concerning We define human judgment as the ability We know geniuses of science not by their don: Collins. Human Understanding. London: A. to prove, while reason – as the ability of re- extraordinary intellectual capacities but by Dawson, J.W. Jr (1997). Logical Dilemmas: Millar. search yet nothing can prevent considering their fruits – their great revolutionary con- The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel. Itlis, H. (1932). Life of Mendel. W.W. Norton them as the main abilities of the general hu- ceptions. Talents are known from the early Wellesley MA, A.K. Peters. & Company, Inc., London. man cognition. childhood by their extraordinary problem- Descartes, R. (1637). Discourse on the Meth- Jung, C. (1964). Approaching the unconsci- Self-conscience is just the ability of a liv- solving abilities which presume inborn great od, Optics, Geometry and Meteorol- ous. Man and his Symbols. Double- ing organism to cognize its own separate be- mental capacities. ogy, (Revised edition 2001), Indian- day ing in the surrounding world. Theoretically Scientific intuition is the unity of inborn apolis: Hackett. Kant, I. (1781). Critique of Pure Reason. nothing could prevent or forbid animals to mental capacities, the scope of knowledge, Djidjian, R. (1984). Metodologicheskii analiz Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998. have an ability of cognizing their own sepa- and own personal problem-solving experi- processa otkrytiya i izobreteniya Kleene, S. (1952). Introduction to Meta-Ma- rate being. ence, the latter being the most important (Methodological Analysis of the Pro- thematics. Amsterdam: North-Hol- All human ideas including the so called component. cess of Discoveries and Inventions, land Publishing Company. creative ones are produced by conscious Gödel’s theorem does not prove the in- in Russian), Yerevan, izdatel’stvo Mach, E. (1905). Erkenntnis und Irrtum. Skiz- analysis of problematic situations followed by completeness of formalized arithmetic or of erevanskogo gosudarstvennogo uni- zen zur Psychologie der Forschung. hypothetical syntheses of ideas of solutions. anything else. versiteta. Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambro- All general methods of scientific investi- It is said that science is about that what Djidjian, R. (2002). The Secret of Geniality. sius Barth. gation are the structural parts of the universal we know, while philosophy – about that what Yerevan: Noyan Tapan. Mill, J.S. (1843). A System of Logic, Honolu- method of scientific research. And this univer- we do not know. The above solutions of para- Djidjian, R. (2004). Getting Ready for Great lu: University Press of the Pacific, sal method is the method of hypotheses. doxes of human cognition provide some Discoveries. Yerevan: Yerevan state 2002. Any theorem as a mathematical state- grounds for the hope that epistemology and university publication. Plank, M. (1949). Scientific autobiography. ment is a mathematical hypothesis before it methodology departing from philosophizing Djidjian, R. (2011). Building the logic of sci- New York: Philosophical Library, eventually gets its proof. come closer to science. entific discoveries. Main Issues of 1968. There could be no explanation of a natu- pedagogy and psychology (pp. 164- Poincare, H. (1946). The foundations of sci- ral phenomenon without its understanding. In REFERENCES 173). №3. Yerevan. ence. Washington, D.C.: University its turn, understanding interests and inten- Gödel, K. (1931). Über formal unentscheid- Press of America, 1982. sions of people helps to explain the events of Aristotle (1949). Prior and Posterior Analyt- bare Sätze der Principia Mathematica Riemann, B. (2004). Collected papers. Heber the past. ics, (W.D. Ross, Ed.). Oxford: Ox- und verwandter Systeme, I, Monat- City: Kendrick Press. Creativity is often a new way of using ford University Press. shefte für Mathematik und Physik, Smith, P. (2007). An Introduction to Gödel's standards. Aristotle (1996). Physics. Oxford: Oxford 38(1), 173-198. Theorems. Cambridge University Logical reasoning is the necessary basis University Press. Hegel, G. (1969). Science of Logic. Allen and Press. of problem solving while insight is the crown- Aristotle (1998). Metaphysics. (H. Lawson- Unwin. Whewell, W. (1860). On the philosophy of ing moment of the search for the winning Tancred, Trans.) Penguin. Hershell, J. (1831). A preliminary discourse discovery: chapters historical and idea. Bunge, M. (1962). Intuition and Science. on the study of natural philosophy, critical. London. Problem analysis is the first phase of the Prentice-Hall. part of Dionysius Lardner's Cabinet Whitehead, A.N., & Russell, B. (1910-1913). problem solution providing the best condition cyclopedia (1831, new edition 1840). Principia mathematica, Vol. 1-3,

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(1 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- O.F., Thompson, R.K., & Ratter- versity Press. mann, M.J. (2008). Concept Learn- Wright, von G.H. (1971). Explanation and ing in Animals. Comparative cogni- Understanding. Ithaca, Cornell UP, tion and behavior reviews, vol. 3, 13- 2004. 45. Zentall, Th.R., Wasserman, E.A., Lazareva,

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(1 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- O.F., Thompson, R.K., & Ratter- UDC 13:140.8 versity Press. mann, M.J. (2008). Concept Learn- Armenuhi MANUKYAN, Wright, von G.H. (1971). Explanation and ing in Animals. Comparative cogni- Mnatsakan MANUKYAN Understanding. Ithaca, Cornell UP, tion and behavior reviews, vol. 3, 13- 2004. 45. PHILOSOPHICAL WISDOM AS A METHOD OF FORMATION Zentall, Th.R., Wasserman, E.A., Lazareva, OF WORLDVIEW OF AN INDIVIDUAL

Only those youngsters who are smart become wise at an old age. Georg Brutian

Abstract

The article observes the role and significance of philosophical wisdom in the formation of person's worldview. It is also demonstrates the efficient ways of its usage, methods and conditions. It is noted that throughout ages Philosophy has mainly been studying the imagination, logic and abstract thinking of humans where the formation of personality is determined in its subjective existence. It is not secret that each phase of the development of civilization dictates new approaches and ideas, opinions and beliefs, values and standards, in other words, a new philosophy of life and being. Such transformations lead to the change of human being, to the modernization of his image and to the adaptation of a person to current demands. However, as a result of research and comparative analysis, we have come to the conclusion that, in spite of change in the mode of life and activities of a person, the main components characterizing the essence of a person remain unchanged. Among these components, the special role and importance is given to person's worldview as it decides his/her thinking and attitude towards the world and to himself/herslef, also to the quality of life style, morals and social aspects for which the effective way of formation is philosophical wisdom.

Keywords: philosophical wisdom, worldview, mean, formation, personality, human being, type, levels, concepts.

For centuries, human logic, imagination man nature and the creation of a new image. and abstract thinking have been the important However, in spite of a change in the mode of aspects of the study of philosophy where the life and activities of a person, the main com- formation of a person depends on his unique- ponents characterizing the essence of a person ness. It is not a secret that each phase of the remain unchanged. Among them, philosophi- development of civilization dictates new ap- cal wisdom plays a special role, which is not proaches and ideas, opinions and beliefs, val- only a powerful factor in preserving the na- ues and standards, in other words, a new phi- tional identity of the person, but also a way of losophy of life and being. These changes, in shaping his worldview. turn, contribute to the transformation of hu- In the broadest sense of the word, philo- 58 59 59 2(7), 2016 Armenuhi MANUKYAN Mnatsakan MANUKYAN

sophical wisdom is the environment of hu- of philosophical wisdom is an independent man's cognitive activity, his spiritual nature process where in the result of interaction of which is created, reproduced and transmitted cultural attributes occur clear convictions. to generations as formed stable values, tradi- Thanks to those convictions a person is re- tions and wisdom. Philosophical wisdom as a garded as a developing system and semantic result of human activity, is an alteration of factor of evolution. The initial element of nature in accordance with semantic laws and wisdom is the person's ability to understand regularities. In this regard, it is noteworthy to symbols, loans and allegories, also the per- quote M. Heidegger. He believes that human ception of their physical form and meaning. activity is organized in a meaningful way, Unfortunately, not everyone has that ability. which in modern world is regarded as imple- Nowadays, there are many smart but few wise mentation of supreme values by the perfect people. expression of human creativity. Let’s try to understand what wisdom is. By considering the philosophical wisdom In Ozhogov's dictionary it is defined as the as a way of shaping the worldview, we cannot unity of intelligence, knowledge and experi- miss out the theory of evolution, which in cul- ence. But this definition does not include the tural studies and cultural anthropology is per- idea of love. Due to our strong belief there ceived as a process of adaption of human be- cannot be wisdom without love. Only the idea ings to their natural environment. Evolution- expressed with love can be wise. To be wise ists in their approaches of philosophical wis- means to live with love and in love by dis- dom highlight concepts which in terms of sci- playing and disseminating the light which is entific laws, morals and laws of life should peculiar to wise mind full of love. Thanks to constitute as explanatory objects. In this re- that many “Wisdom Schools” have been gard, White's role is very valuable. He is a formed, preserved and reached to us over the successor of philosophical wisdom studies centuries and by their powerful influence which is an important part of the culture. For many generations have formed their outlooks White's conception it is typical to aspire to and beliefs about the surrounding world. define the objectives of philosophical wisdom The term ''worldview'' was introduced in- which have its own patterns of functional de- to scientific circulation in the second half of velopment (White, 1959, p. 29). XVIII century. The term comes from German They are very diverse but among that di- ''Weltanschauung'' word and refers to a wide versity the most important is the formation of world perception. Of course, it is obvious that person's worldview in the implementation of notions about worldview existed before the which, in certain chronological sequence, ide- origin of this term in ancient world and was as accumulated over the centuries have trans- described as wisdom or high knowledge The formed into wisdom. It is not a secret that a issues related to the formation of worldview person's worldview is shaped not only by the are rooted in the unity and integrity of the assumption of knowledge but mostly by cer- world surrounding man and balancing the tain cultural traditions and wisdom due to pe- concept about life and death is a cognitive culiarities of family education. The formation need for every individual. In the modern

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sophical wisdom is the environment of hu- of philosophical wisdom is an independent world the worldview is perceived as a point of of those elements. They are formed more ef- man's cognitive activity, his spiritual nature process where in the result of interaction of view of a person about his role in life and so- fective under the influence of philosophical which is created, reproduced and transmitted cultural attributes occur clear convictions. ciety. The point of view includes attitudes, wisdom. to generations as formed stable values, tradi- Thanks to those convictions a person is re- beliefs, principles and morals. In other words, Practical component involves practical tions and wisdom. Philosophical wisdom as a garded as a developing system and semantic worldview is a complete way to understand application of theoretical knowledge. In other result of human activity, is an alteration of factor of evolution. The initial element of the self and to generalize views about the sur- words under the influence of philosophical nature in accordance with semantic laws and wisdom is the person's ability to understand rounding world and man's place and role in it. wisdom human lifestyle is formed according regularities. In this regard, it is noteworthy to symbols, loans and allegories, also the per- Taking this into account, we can argue that to certain values, beliefs, orientations, princi- quote M. Heidegger. He believes that human ception of their physical form and meaning. through philosophical wisdom it is possible to ples and attitudes. activity is organized in a meaningful way, Unfortunately, not everyone has that ability. achieve self-awareness and to the identifica- It is natural that the worldview of every which in modern world is regarded as imple- Nowadays, there are many smart but few wise tion of man's role and place in the world as man comprises the above mentioned compo- mentation of supreme values by the perfect people. each of them involves components, levels and nents but each of them appear in a favorable expression of human creativity. Let’s try to understand what wisdom is. forms about worldview. situation depending on individual's age, per- By considering the philosophical wisdom In Ozhogov's dictionary it is defined as the A.A. Radugin classifies four structural sonal qualities, practice and wisdom. There- as a way of shaping the worldview, we cannot unity of intelligence, knowledge and experi- components of the worldview of an individu- fore, in the framework of worldview the indi- miss out the theory of evolution, which in cul- ence. But this definition does not include the al. They are cognitive component, value- vidual's cognitive and emotional experience, tural studies and cultural anthropology is per- idea of love. Due to our strong belief there orientation component, emotional-volitional his emotionality and intelligence are perceived as a process of adaption of human be- cannot be wisdom without love. Only the idea component and practical component. formed in different ways which is considered ings to their natural environment. Evolution- expressed with love can be wise. To be wise The cognitive component includes as the basis of emotional-psychological ists in their approaches of philosophical wis- means to live with love and in love by dis- knowledge which man acquire from different worldview and is called "world perception". dom highlight concepts which in terms of sci- playing and disseminating the light which is sources and in different ways during his life- The individual's perception about the world, entific laws, morals and laws of life should peculiar to wise mind full of love. Thanks to time. The philosophical wisdom can be one of its effectiveness and goal-orientation is great- constitute as explanatory objects. In this re- that many “Wisdom Schools” have been those ways and sources. Therefore, cognitive ly influenced by philosophical wisdom, gard, White's role is very valuable. He is a formed, preserved and reached to us over the component provides the scientific side of the which, in this case, is a powerful method of successor of philosophical wisdom studies centuries and by their powerful influence world which encompasses personal and social influence. which is an important part of the culture. For many generations have formed their outlooks skills in generalized and systematic manner. It should be noted that both in native and White's conception it is typical to aspire to and beliefs about the surrounding world. Value-oriented component is based on foreign schools of philosophy, the worldview define the objectives of philosophical wisdom The term ''worldview'' was introduced indifferent values, beliefs and ideals. It includes is traditionally classified into household, theo- which have its own patterns of functional de- to scientific circulation in the second half of social norms and moral interpretations of retical and practical types. Nevertheless, they velopment (White, 1959, p. 29). XVIII century. The term comes from German phenomena, the understanding of which leads are logical continuation of each other and in They are very diverse but among that di- ''Weltanschauung'' word and refers to a wide to a proper formation of interpersonal and so- the scope of "world perception" are linked to versity the most important is the formation of world perception. Of course, it is obvious that cial relations. Obviously, philosophical wis- each other. Certainly, there are some differ- person's worldview in the implementation of notions about worldview existed before the dom, which is generated from universal val- ences which depend on individual's good which, in certain chronological sequence, ide- origin of this term in ancient world and was ues, is equipped with this component. The knowledge, ideas and reasoning, critical and as accumulated over the centuries have trans- described as wisdom or high knowledge The system of values imply the meaning of life, logical thinking, imagination and wisdom. We formed into wisdom. It is not a secret that a issues related to the formation of worldview happiness, misfortune, notions of good and strongly believe that philosophical wisdom as person's worldview is shaped not only by the are rooted in the unity and integrity of the evil, love and hate, attitudes and beliefs. a method of formation of worldview, can also assumption of knowledge but mostly by cer- world surrounding man and balancing the Emotional-volitional component is the contribute to a formation of the personality, tain cultural traditions and wisdom due to pe- concept about life and death is a cognitive emotional side of values, beliefs and convic- can strengthen priorities both in household culiarities of family education. The formation need for every individual. In the modern tions and provides psychological functioning practical and theoretical levels. For instance,

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in level of household worldview, man expres- x Philosophical wisdom acts as expla- ses his daily routine values, the interpretation natory objects in accordance with of which vary in the framework of philosoph- scientific approvals, morals and rules ical wisdom, folk traditions, customs and so- of life. cial stereotypes. Yet, the theoretical level of x Through philosophical wisdom is the worldview is the superstructure of daily formed not only the person's world- practical level, which stands out by its sys- view but also his world perception. tematization and hierarchical structure. x Philosophical wisdom can have per- After analyzing the influence of philo- sonal, pedagogical and psychological sophical wisdom on the formation of individ- interpretations. ual's worldview, we have come to the following conclusions: REFERENCES x Philosophical wisdom is a universal, cultural and natural value through Brutian, G.A. (2010). Gitakan ashxatanqi which personal, historical and social texnologia (Technology of Research experiences are transferred from ge- Work, in Armenian), Pilisopayut’yan neration to generation. mijazgayin akademiayi hratarak- x Philosophical wisdom has educative, chut’yun, Yerevan. formative and developing function. Heidegger, M. (1986). Time of the World- x Philosophical wisdom as a way to view/ The new technocratic war in formation of an individual's world- the west. M. view is perceived in the framework Radugin, A.A. (2004). Filosofiya: kurs lektsii of evolutionary and cognitive theo- (Philosophy: Course of Lectures, in ries. Russian), Moscow, Tsentr. x Philosophical wisdom in the frame- White, L. (1959). The Evolution of Culture, work of culture and cultural anthro- New York. pology is perceived as a process of adaptation of an individual to natural environment.

62 2(7), 2016 62 63 2(7), 2016 Balázs M. MEZEI

in level of household worldview, man expres- x Philosophical wisdom acts as expla- UDC 167/168:2-1 ses his daily routine values, the interpretation natory objects in accordance with Balázs M. MEZEI of which vary in the framework of philosoph- scientific approvals, morals and rules ical wisdom, folk traditions, customs and so- of life. THE METHODOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF THE NOTION OF DIVINE cial stereotypes. Yet, the theoretical level of x Through philosophical wisdom is REVELATION IN A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE the worldview is the superstructure of daily formed not only the person's world- practical level, which stands out by its sys- view but also his world perception. Abstract tematization and hierarchical structure. x Philosophical wisdom can have per- After analyzing the influence of philo- sonal, pedagogical and psychological I offer an overview of the relevance of the notion of divine revelation to the methodology of sophical wisdom on the formation of individ- interpretations. the sciences. The notion of revelation is to be considered in the framework of a well-formed philo- ual's worldview, we have come to the follow- sophical theory. In such a theory, the theological notion of revelation is important as well, because ing conclusions: REFERENCES as a historically evolving notion it has contributed, in its own fashion, to the formation of other sci- x Philosophical wisdom is a universal, ences. The method the notion of revelation entails is instructive for the methodological presupposi- cultural and natural value through Brutian, G.A. (2010). Gitakan ashxatanqi tions of the sciences. Most importantly, the dynamism given in the notion of revelation to produce which personal, historical and social texnologia (Technology of Research genuine newness – ad intra as well as ad extra – appears to be the decisive methodological factor experiences are transferred from ge- Work, in Armenian), Pilisopayut’yan defining scientific methodology. I also reflect on the importance of various forms of knowledge – neration to generation. mijazgayin akademiayi hratarak- apodicticity, certainty and probability – as they appear in the notion of revelation and define scien- x Philosophical wisdom has educative, chut’yun, Yerevan. tific forms of knowledge in a historical as well as logical fashion. Finally, I show the place of the formative and developing function. Heidegger, M. (1986). Time of the World- methodological discussion in an overall view of revelation as a well-formed philosophical theory. x Philosophical wisdom as a way to view/ The new technocratic war in formation of an individual's world- the west. M. Keywords: Divine revelation, theology, philosophy, methodology, science, history, newness. view is perceived in the framework Radugin, A.A. (2004). Filosofiya: kurs lektsii of evolutionary and cognitive theo- (Philosophy: Course of Lectures, in ries. Russian), Moscow, Tsentr. 1. Introduction: The Centrality of the Notion cal scale, it is revelation in its specific Chris- x Philosophical wisdom in the frame- White, L. (1959). The Evolution of Culture, of Divine Revelation tian form that has defined the development of work of culture and cultural anthro- New York. Christianity including its crises and fragmen- pology is perceived as a process of Divine revelation is one of the central tations. On a theological scale, the revelation adaptation of an individual to natural terms in the epoch in which we live. This in question is revelation in a unique sense environment. epoch is the epoch of Christianity with all its which is characteristically different from oth- intrinsic and extrinsic features, together with er notions of revelation in the history of reli- its rise and flourishing, decline and even dis- gions, while these other notions are in many solution. Revelation, nevertheless, is the most ways related to the notion of revelation in fundamental notion in this tradition, a notion Christianity. that comes before other notions in the logical These three kinds of relevance – logical, order, such as being, time, history, society, historical, and theological – should be inves- person, wisdom, morality, philosophy, or sci- tigated separately. Here I confine myself to ence. The reason of the primacy of the notion the logical investigation of the primacy of of revelation is simple: in principle, it is reve- revelation taken in itself. Other aspects of this lation that defines itself and its outcomes, na- problem, such as the historical importance ture and human beings included. On a histori- and the relationship to other religious forms 62 63 63 2(7), 2016 Balázs M. MEZEI

must be limited to the context of the main peatedly termed ‘apocalyptics’ – is the reflec- topic of my present text, the methodological tion of the knowledge of revelation on the re- importance of revelation. Indeed, the Chris- alness of revelation, a realness that is presup- tian form of revelation calls for a historical posed, reflected, and disclosed in the theory analysis of the relationship between other itself.1 forms of revelation and thus also for an en- One may rightly ask as to how the pre- compassing notion of divine revelation in sent notion of revelation is related to the re- which such relations can be scrutinized. How- ceived view of divine revelation interpreted in ever, it is precisely the Christian notion of the framework of religion. My approach in revelation which is the basis of such a general this context is philosophical which takes as its notion, so here I can confine myself to the basis the historical notion of revelation as is latter taken in the perspective of methodolo- given in Christianity and it considers all other gy. forms of revelation as logical and, partially, On the logical level, revelation is con- historical ramifications of that central notion. ceived as the ultimate source of all reality and Let us recall that in Christianity the realness knowledge. The recognition of the primacy of of reality is disclosed in the revelation of in- revelation itself belongs to the effects of reve- carnation. As a result, we become aware of lation. Inasmuch as revelation is defined as the Trinity as the basic structure of the divine the source of reality, revelation is not reality both in itself and as the source of reality. As a in this sense, but is more original than reality; secondary result, we become aware of the fact revelation embodies the source of reality, its that our becoming aware of revelation as the realness. That is to say, revelation as the reve- disclosure of the realness of the real is itself lation of the real is taken in its utmost signifi- the working of revelation.2 cance. Reality in its various forms, such as Traditionally, revelation is classified into empirical, mental, external or internal reality, ‘natural revelation’ – the revelation given in the reality of time and history, or even the es- creation – and ‘supernatural revelation’ – rev- chatological dimension of reality, is contained elation given in the incarnation of the second in, and expressed through, revelation. Inas- person of the Trinity and its effects on the much as our knowledge is rooted in the know- course of history. Part and parcel of natural ledge of revelation, our knowledge is revela-

tion-bound or, to be more precise, its main 1 Cf. Mezei, Balázs M.: Radical Revelation: A function is the reflection of revelation on var- Philosophical Approach. New York: Blooms- ious levels. bury (forthcoming in 2017). 2 Such an approach to revelation undoes The Trinitarian notion of Revelation is consid- any substantive metaphysics and ontology ered here is having produced all other forms of which presuppose some kind of original stuff, revelation on the logical level, but partially also historically. For instance, the notion of reve- matter or spirit, or perhaps a set of ideas or lation in Islam is considered as a development ideals which has been progressively devel- of the Christian notion, a development overem- oped in the course of history. In this sense, phasizing just one aspect of the original notion, the theory of revelation – which I have re- the aspect of transcendence. 64 2(7), 2016 64 65 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

must be limited to the context of the main peatedly termed ‘apocalyptics’ – is the reflec- revelation is ‘natural reason’, but this reason tion is considered private if and only if it re- topic of my present text, the methodological tion of the knowledge of revelation on the re- is directly enlightened by supernatural revela- mains in the framework of ‘public’ or ‘gen- importance of revelation. Indeed, the Chris- alness of revelation, a realness that is presup- tion with respect to the subject matter of the eral’ revelation yet a certain interpretation of tian form of revelation calls for a historical posed, reflected, and disclosed in the theory latter. However, reason, either natural or illu- personal importance is attached to the general analysis of the relationship between other itself.1 minated, needs to be aware of its own limits doctrines of revelation. Moreover, private forms of revelation and thus also for an en- One may rightly ask as to how the pre- concerning the intrinsic features of supernatu- revelation is revealed to the receiver of reve- compassing notion of divine revelation in sent notion of revelation is related to the re- ral revelation. ‘Mystery’ is still a term we can lation in special ways the essence of which is which such relations can be scrutinized. How- ceived view of divine revelation interpreted in apply here to describe the relation of super- the emergence of the unique awareness of the ever, it is precisely the Christian notion of the framework of religion. My approach in natural revelation to our mind. But even with reception of revelation. It is not the possible revelation which is the basis of such a general this context is philosophical which takes as its this limitation, reason is capable of recogniz- contents of private revelation that concerns notion, so here I can confine myself to the basis the historical notion of revelation as is ing the centrality of revelation in its own me here but rather the fact that revelation as latter taken in the perspective of methodolo- given in Christianity and it considers all other workings as well as in what is called nature such possesses an ultimately personal relation gy. forms of revelation as logical and, partially, outside reason. Both in the world and the to human beings in their attempts to conceive On the logical level, revelation is con- historical ramifications of that central notion. mind, revelation has a centrally important po- revelation. Indeed, revelation in its entirety is ceived as the ultimate source of all reality and Let us recall that in Christianity the realness sition as source and structure.3 public both as given in nature and in history. knowledge. The recognition of the primacy of of reality is disclosed in the revelation of in- As to the problem of methodology of a But any aspect of revelation can be conceived revelation itself belongs to the effects of reve- carnation. As a result, we become aware of philosophical research of revelation, let me and understood exclusively on the grounds of lation. Inasmuch as revelation is defined as the Trinity as the basic structure of the divine refer to a third traditional notion of revelation: a private communication, that is, in the frame- the source of reality, revelation is not reality both in itself and as the source of reality. As a ‘private revelation’.4 Traditionally, a revela- work of my own understanding of revelation. in this sense, but is more original than reality; secondary result, we become aware of the fact This understanding is not something foreign revelation embodies the source of reality, its that our becoming aware of revelation as the to revelation but its most important dimen- realness. That is to say, revelation as the reve- disclosure of the realness of the real is itself 3 See also my other work: Mezei, Balázs M.: sion, its being understood, conceived, or relation of the real is taken in its utmost signifi- the working of revelation.2 Religion and Revelation after Auschwitz. New ceived. cance. Reality in its various forms, such as Traditionally, revelation is classified into York: Bloomsbury, 2013. Thus the private aspect of revelation 4 empirical, mental, external or internal reality, ‘natural revelation’ – the revelation given in In his work De revelatione Reginald Garrigou- emerges as the actual method in which revela- Lagrange explains that the notion of revelation the reality of time and history, or even the es- creation – and ‘supernatural revelation’ – rev- tion as such is conceived. In this way, the can be classified according to the Scholastic chatological dimension of reality, is contained elation given in the incarnation of the second function of revelation as received revelation is doctrine of causes. That is, the notion of reve- in, and expressed through, revelation. Inas- person of the Trinity and its effects on the expressed and this function is the basis of the lation is to be investigated in accordance with much as our knowledge is rooted in the know- course of history. Part and parcel of natural its form, its agent, its material cause and its fi- philosophical methodology applied here. ledge of revelation, our knowledge is revela- Revelation is revealed so that its overall struc- nal cause. Formally, revelation can be super- tion-bound or, to be more precise, its main 1 Cf. Mezei, Balázs M.: Radical Revelation: A natural in terms of its substance or in terms of tures may be conceived, understood and pro- function is the reflection of revelation on var- Philosophical Approach. New York: Blooms- its mode. Still as supernatural, revelation can perly interpreted through its function of a per- ious levels. bury (forthcoming in 2017). be defined in accordance with the fashion in sonal, subjective, or ‘private’ communication. 2 Such an approach to revelation undoes The Trinitarian notion of Revelation is consid- which it is revealed or in accordance with the any substantive metaphysics and ontology ered here is having produced all other forms of psychological state of the receiver of revela- which presuppose some kind of original stuff, revelation on the logical level, but partially al- tion. On the side of the agent, revelation can be so historically. For instance, the notion of reve- active or passive; as to its material cause, it can matter or spirit, or perhaps a set of ideas or lation in Islam is considered as a development be immediate or mediate. Finally, as to its final ideals which has been progressively devel- of the Christian notion, a development overem- cause, revelation can be private or public. Cf. oped in the course of history. In this sense, phasizing just one aspect of the original notion, Garrigou-Lagrange, Réginald: De revelatione Libreria Editrice Religiosa, 1951, vol. 1, pp. the theory of revelation – which I have re- the aspect of transcendence. per Ecclesiam Catholicam proposita. Romae: 153-54. 64 65 65 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

2. Revelation and the Sciences: A Historical such as the imminent coming of the end of the Outline world, the plurality of ‘heavens’, the manipu- lability of natural forces, such as the see and We tend to interpret the notion of revela- the wind, the right way to sow in agriculture, tion in a framework which is denoted theolog- or even the possibility of crossing the limits ical and is strictly separated from other fields of human life. In the letters we find further of human knowledge. However, revelation claims concerning the workings of nature, so- both in its original form and its effects on the ciety, morality, and history. There is a trajec- broader human culture is not a notion rigidly tory in this respect in the New Testament separated from the other fields of human awa- writings: from the historical and moral teach- reness. This point can be underpinned in three ings formed by revelation we slowly approach different ways: on Biblical grounds, on the cosmological teachings emphasizing the grounds of the history of theology, and finally structures of the universe with respect to ‘the on the grounds of a philosophical theory of end of all times’. This trajectory culminates in revelation. the highly metaphorical Book of Revelation Revelation is given especially as the col- which aspires to give a synthetic view of cos- lection of writings in the form of the New mological, theological and moral teachings in Testament. The New Testament is neverthe- the form of an ultimate revelation.5 less attached to the Old Testament just as the- As to the history of theology, it is fairly ology is attached to the various fields of hu- obvious that leading Church writers, such as man culture. The Old Testament is traditional- Clement of Alexandria, Augustine, or St. ly considered as the preparation of the New Thomas Aquinas among others considered Testament,’praeparatio evangelica’, a way to theology not as a field strictly isolated from Christ. This way, nevertheless, is two-direc- the other fields of human knowledge but rational: on the one hand, the form and contents ther as a field illuminating, exacting, ordering of the New Testament could be approached and enriching the latter. For instance, Clement from the Old Testament, and vice versa, the of Alexandria considered the various sciences Old Testament could be better understood on of the Greek mind as ‘fragments of the Eter- the basis of the New Testament. Obviously, nal Truth’ and described theological knowled- this bi-directional understanding is easily ap- ge as the general framework in which such plicable on the fields of revelation and the sciences. Revelation has a formal methodological importance; the sciences, on the other 5 See for instance James 3:7 on the taming of all hand, possess the material factor shaped by animals; also 2Pet 3:8-13 where we find the the overall form of revelation. doctrine of water and fire in the construction Indeed, the New Testament is full with and destruction of the universe; 1 Cor 15 on the nature of bodies (earthy and heavenly), references to various aspects of general hu- with a special emphasis on the various bright- man culture, aspects that are better understood ness of stars. And 1 Pet 4:7: ‘But the end of all in the context of revelation. Jesus teaches and things is at hand; therefore be serious and what he teaches is relevant to the sciences, watchful in your prayers.’ 66 2(7), 2016 66 67 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

2. Revelation and the Sciences: A Historical such as the imminent coming of the end of the fragments are properly conceived.6 It is a structure. Moreover, this science possesses a Outline world, the plurality of ‘heavens’, the manipu- well-known fact that the scientific nature of historical character according to which it can lability of natural forces, such as the see and theology is defined by Thomas Aquinas as an be developed, detailed, made even more per- We tend to interpret the notion of revela- the wind, the right way to sow in agriculture, accomplishment of the rest of the sciences. In fect along the line of a finite historical trajec- tion in a framework which is denoted theolog- or even the possibility of crossing the limits a similar fashion, modern theological perspec- tory. Revelation as fully given yet as also to ical and is strictly separated from other fields of human life. In the letters we find further tives, such as those of Teilhard de Chardin, be developed are the two poles in which all of human knowledge. However, revelation claims concerning the workings of nature, so- Jacques Maritain or Hans Urs von Balthasar, human investigations necessarily situate both in its original form and its effects on the ciety, morality, and history. There is a trajec- consider theology as an encompassing ap- themselves. For instance, in contemporary broader human culture is not a notion rigidly tory in this respect in the New Testament proach not in detriment to but rather as ac- cosmology, the reality of the universe is pre- separated from the other fields of human awa- writings: from the historical and moral teach- complishing of the rest of the sciences. supposed (even if this reality is likened some- reness. This point can be underpinned in three ings formed by revelation we slowly approach Theology is often seen as the proper field times to a computer simulation). And it is different ways: on Biblical grounds, on the cosmological teachings emphasizing the of dealing with the problem of revelation. equally presupposed that the process of grounds of the history of theology, and finally structures of the universe with respect to ‘the This is true to some extent inasmuch as theo- knowledge is such that it can arrive at a satis- on the grounds of a philosophical theory of end of all times’. This trajectory culminates in logy axiomatically presupposes the notion of factory understanding of the fact of the uni- revelation. the highly metaphorical Book of Revelation revelation and considers the implications – verse in the framework of a finite sequence of Revelation is given especially as the col- which aspires to give a synthetic view of cos- presuppositions, consequences, and corollar- discoveries and their conclusions.7 lection of writings in the form of the New mological, theological and moral teachings in ies – of this axiom. However, by possessing In more concrete terms, let me highlight Testament. The New Testament is neverthe- the form of an ultimate revelation.5 revelation as its axiom, theology properly the most important features of the dependence less attached to the Old Testament just as the- As to the history of theology, it is fairly speaking is unable to consider revelation in of the sciences on the contents of the notion ology is attached to the various fields of hu- obvious that leading Church writers, such as itself, because for such a consideration we of revelation. man culture. The Old Testament is traditional- Clement of Alexandria, Augustine, or St. need a critical view of the axiom. This view is a) Creation. As among others Stanley ly considered as the preparation of the New Thomas Aquinas among others considered provided by a specific theory of revelation, a Jaki pointed out, the rise of the modern natu- Testament,’praeparatio evangelica’, a way to theology not as a field strictly isolated from philosophy of revelation. The question what ral sciences would not have been possible Christ. This way, nevertheless, is two-direc- the other fields of human knowledge but ra- revelation is and how it is relevant to the rest without the notion of a created universe which tional: on the one hand, the form and contents ther as a field illuminating, exacting, ordering of human culture, including the sciences, is can be accordingly known – at least in princi- of the New Testament could be approached and enriching the latter. For instance, Clement then a question raised by such a theory. This ple – in its forms and contents. However, it from the Old Testament, and vice versa, the of Alexandria considered the various sciences philosophical theory shows that the notion of belongs to the core of Christian revelation to Old Testament could be better understood on of the Greek mind as ‘fragments of the Eter- revelation, that is, the notion of an ultimate emphasize not only the difference between the basis of the New Testament. Obviously, nal Truth’ and described theological knowled- source of all knowledge and reality, has sha- this bi-directional understanding is easily ap- ge as the general framework in which such ped the human mind in such a way that the 7 See the recent Isaac Asimov debate in the plicable on the fields of revelation and the notion of universal science could emerge. American Museum of Natural History on the sciences. Revelation has a formal methodo- This science is not just a sum of various sets chances that our universe is a simulation: logical importance; the sciences, on the other 5 See for instance James 3:7 on the taming of all of information, theoretical or practical, but https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wgSZA3N hand, possess the material factor shaped by animals; also 2Pet 3:8-13 where we find the rather a truly universal science with an abso- PpBs See also the summary of the debate here: the overall form of revelation. doctrine of water and fire in the construction lutely reliable and authoritative source and http://www.space.com/32543-universe-a- Indeed, the New Testament is full with and destruction of the universe; 1 Cor 15 on simulation-asimov-debate.html; and see espe- the nature of bodies (earthy and heavenly), 6 Clement of Alexandria: Stromata. In: Fathers cially Nick Bostrom’s Are You Living in a references to various aspects of general hu- with a special emphasis on the various bright- of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athe- Computer Simulation? at man culture, aspects that are better understood ness of stars. And 1 Pet 4:7: ‘But the end of all nagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexan- http://www.simulation- in the context of revelation. Jesus teaches and things is at hand; therefore be serious and dria, C. Cleveland (ed.). New York: Charles argument.com/simulation.html (accessed what he teaches is relevant to the sciences, watchful in your prayers.’ Scribner’s Sons, p. 313. 8/11/2016). 66 67 67 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

the creator and the creature but also the later as subservient to spiritual power. Just in ter’s rational nature. The act of creation has this relationship, as a consequence of its defi- been deemed to be a rational act of the creator nite position, kingship was able to develop a with the rational result of the created order. peculiar form of independence, a form which b) The essence of rationality with respect was building up its structures for many centu- to the created order is the doctrine of causali- ries. Thus, the notion of the political govern- ty. Human or natural reason is capable of as- ment developed, in many important phases, sessing causes and effects. The reasoning fac- through the influence of the spiritual realm ulty was most often considered, accordingly, and led to the emergence and even domina- as the arithmetical faculty capable of formal- tion of non-spiritual notions of politics in mo- izing logical and real relationships. Logic and dernity. This is the basis of the famous sen- mathematics are the most important fields in tence of Carl Schmitt, according to which “all which the notion of natural necessity (as op- significant concepts of the modern theory of posed to theological necessity) could be ob- the state are secularized theological con- served, followed, and modelled in symbolic cepts”.8 forms (such as in letter or numbers). e) In these developments, the peculiar c) The emergence of the notion of human understanding of history as an eschatological personhood is intrinsically bound up with the process is to be emphasized. The notion of the notion of divine personhood developed ultimate termination of the created order throughout the Trinitarian debates of the first shaped and structured the understanding of millennium of the Christian doctrines. The history as a complex, dynamic, and meaning- translation of huposthasis into persona and ful process throughout the centuries. Thus not the definition of the human nature of Christ in only the notion of history was formed – lead- the framework of his divine personhood de- ing to eschatological ideologies of the twenti- termined the discussions on the essence of a eth century – but also the eschatological hori- human being in the First Scholasticism. How- zon of human existence became emphasized ever only when Thomas Aquinas decided to in various ways as essentially constitutive of attribute the faculty of intellect to human in- being a human person. dividuals – as a reaction to Averroism – did it The notion of creation as the production become possible that an integral notion of of a functional complexity on the basis of human personhood evolved. This notion cor- natural laws and other technical rules of oper- roborated the unique nature of a human per- ation is clearly the backdrop of the production son and led, in its course, to the emergence of of machines in modernity. True, machine the modern notions of the special and intrinsic production was developed to some extent dignity of human persons. even in Hellenism as is shown by the compli- d) Even in political science, the peculiar- 8 Schmitt, Carl: Political Theology. Four Chap- ly double character of Western Christianity, ters on the Concept of Sovereignty. Edited and with the doctrine of the Two Swords in its translated by George Schwab. With a Fore- center, decisively shaped the nature of the word by Tracy B. Strong. Chicago: Chicago worldly power. First, it defined worldly pow- University Press, 1985, p. 36. 68 2(7), 2016 68 69 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

the creator and the creature but also the later as subservient to spiritual power. Just in cated planetarium of the so-called Antikythera question of methodology is the how an object ter’s rational nature. The act of creation has this relationship, as a consequence of its defi- Mechanism. However, the mass production of is reached, and I shall discuss this point be- been deemed to be a rational act of the creator nite position, kingship was able to develop a machines began only with the making of me- low. As to the what, it is the ultimate reality with the rational result of the created order. peculiar form of independence, a form which chanical clocks, for many centuries the most of revelation that is revealed. Inasmuch as b) The essence of rationality with respect was building up its structures for many centu- advanced examples of mechanical machines. revelation is the source of reality, revelation is to the created order is the doctrine of causali- ries. Thus, the notion of the political govern- While such machines were produced on a cer- the revelation of the realness of reality. That ty. Human or natural reason is capable of as- ment developed, in many important phases, tain level even in Antiquity, the mass produc- is to say: in revelation reality is revealed that sessing causes and effects. The reasoning fac- through the influence of the spiritual realm tion of clocks and similar machineries were is in no way partial, aspectual, or particular ulty was most often considered, accordingly, and led to the emergence and even domina- clearly related to the ever more elaborated but rather absolute, overarching, and all- as the arithmetical faculty capable of formal- tion of non-spiritual notions of politics in mo- theological notion of creation as the creation containing. Yet this generality is expressed in izing logical and real relationships. Logic and dernity. This is the basis of the famous sen- of a meaningful, rule following and well- the factuality of revelation. Revelation is fact, mathematics are the most important fields in tence of Carl Schmitt, according to which “all designed complexity. The notion of creation, the ultimate and absolute fact; it is an infinite which the notion of natural necessity (as op- significant concepts of the modern theory of the theological sophistication of the doctrine fact in the non-reduced meaning of infinity .(ת) -posed to theological necessity) could be ob- the state are secularized theological con- of causality, and the ever more refined tech served, followed, and modelled in symbolic cepts”.8 nologies in shaping iron, steel and wood made It is in the context of the infinite fact of forms (such as in letter or numbers). e) In these developments, the peculiar it possible to build such machines from the revelation that particular facts, again facts of c) The emergence of the notion of human understanding of history as an eschatological 10th century on. revelation, take place. Most importantly it is personhood is intrinsically bound up with the process is to be emphasized. The notion of the In its historical role, revelation may be the fact of revelation in the form of nature that notion of divine personhood developed ultimate termination of the created order compared to the source of simulation emerg- appears under the horizon of the infinite fact. throughout the Trinitarian debates of the first shaped and structured the understanding of ing in related arguments as to the nature of Nature becomes defined with respect to the millennium of the Christian doctrines. The history as a complex, dynamic, and meaning- reality in which we live. If, as Bostrom argues infinite fact and thus their contents and corre- translation of huposthasis into persona and ful process throughout the centuries. Thus not in his paper I referred to, the probability that lations become the substance given in revela- the definition of the human nature of Christ in only the notion of history was formed – lead- we live in a simulated universe is closer to tion. Inasmuch as revelation is always revela- the framework of his divine personhood de- ing to eschatological ideologies of the twenti- one than to zero, then the source of this simu- tion directed to the receiver of revelation, the termined the discussions on the essence of a eth century – but also the eschatological hori- lation is a conscious activity expressed in receiver of revelation gains access to the con- human being in the First Scholasticism. How- zon of human existence became emphasized mathematical processes. Such an activity, tents and the correlation given in revelation as ever only when Thomas Aquinas decided to in various ways as essentially constitutive of however, is very close to what the original an infinite fact and as nature. Without this attribute the faculty of intellect to human in- being a human person. notion of divine revelation suggests, a notion correlation, both the infinite and the finite fact dividuals – as a reaction to Averroism – did it The notion of creation as the production nevertheless much more complex than what of revelation would be inaccessible. Insofar as become possible that an integral notion of of a functional complexity on the basis of we gain from simulation arguments today. they are accessible, however, they become human personhood evolved. This notion cor- natural laws and other technical rules of oper- objects of knowledge and thus a well-defined roborated the unique nature of a human per- ation is clearly the backdrop of the production 3. Problems in Methodology I: What is structure of objects, under the horizon of the son and led, in its course, to the emergence of of machines in modernity. True, machine Revealed in Revelation? infinite fact, appears for the receiver of reve- the modern notions of the special and intrinsic production was developed to some extent lation. dignity of human persons. even in Hellenism as is shown by the compli- The first and most important task to do in In revelation it is revelation that is re- d) Even in political science, the peculiar- this context is the description of what is revealed above all and thus it is in revelation 8 Schmitt, Carl: Political Theology. Four Chap- ly double character of Western Christianity, vealed in revelation. The question concerning that we gain access to the appropriate objects ters on the Concept of Sovereignty. Edited and with the doctrine of the Two Swords in its this what is the pivotal methodological ques- and their structures for our knowledge. In the translated by George Schwab. With a Fore- center, decisively shaped the nature of the tion, because in all methodologies the object revelation of revelation, a knowable universe word by Tracy B. Strong. Chicago: Chicago worldly power. First, it defined worldly pow- University Press, 1985, p. 36. of method defines methodology. The second emerges which has a definite content – under 68 69 69 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

the horizon of the infinite fact – and also a pressed but also their complex relations in a meaningful structure of such contents open to historically concrete setting. the enquiry of the receiver of revelation. The Scientific methodologies presuppose the same point may be expressed in the following rational universe under the horizon of the in- way as well: the infinite fact of revelation finite fact. In some theories, this infinite fact does not only presuppose the finite facts of is conceived as the original fact of the birth of revelation in the form of nature, but also the the universe (‘Big Bang’) or perhaps a string fact of the receiver of revelation as a rational of original explosions leading to sequential subject that is capable of conceiving and births of universes. In such theories, however, knowing the reality of revelation on the basis the problem of the capacity of discovering of a rational structure. In this way, the receiv- and assessing such an original fact remains er of revelation may repeat the fact of revela- obscure. How does it happen that such an tion in their understanding and thus produce a original fact is a fact also for me? The naiveté mental model of revelation with its contents of scientific objectivity is too obvious: what is and structures. This model may be expressed ‘out there’ counts as the totality of the real in language, in symbols, in activities, or even and the role of the mind is neglected or not in moral behavior of individuals and commu- even identified as a problem. Yet the fact of nities. Ultimately, the model may be formed the origin is by definition is a fact related to in the form of a computer of various kinds the fact of the mind discovering this origin, (Antikythera Mechanism or Tianhe-2). Reve- thus the two facts should be described in a lation as a fact appears as the source of all unified theory which cosmological theories do factual and possible contents of various kinds not offer. The theory of revelation, however, of modelling. described the original fact as entailing the re- Moreover, revelation becomes particular ceiver of revelation and offers a unified de- not merely in the natural sense but in a more scription of the two facts in the form of their concrete historical and cultural sense as well. correlation. Think of the fact of incarnation at a certain point of time, at a certain location, in the form 4. Problems in Methodology II: How is of a concrete human being using a certain Revelation Revealed? language and living in definite a historical context (‘under Pontius Pilate’) as the exam- In the traditional accounts of revelation, ple of the particular fact of revelation. This we distinguish general, specific, private and particular fact is like a window through which final revelation. General revelation is the rev- we gain sight of the horizon of the infinite elation of nature in creation. Specific revela- fact. The two levels of factuality are related to tion is the revelation given in the history of one another and are then conceived in the salvation. Private revelation is communication terms of each other: the infinite fact in the given to individuals with respect to their per- terms of the particular fact and vice versa. sonal needs. And final revelation is the ulti- Thus, in the factual nature of revelation not mate accomplishment of revelation at the end only absolute and particular factuality are ex- of all times. We can further elaborate these

70 2(7), 2016 70 71 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

the horizon of the infinite fact – and also a pressed but also their complex relations in a kinds of revelation in accordance with other sion ‘all things’ does not only mean ‘the meaningful structure of such contents open to historically concrete setting. modes of communication, but it seems to be heavenly Jerusalem’ but indeed all things the enquiry of the receiver of revelation. The Scientific methodologies presuppose the more important to point out that by all these conceivable and unconceivable. Revelation, same point may be expressed in the following rational universe under the horizon of the in- distinctions we presuppose an original and thus, is not only infinite self-enrichment but way as well: the infinite fact of revelation finite fact. In some theories, this infinite fact integral notion of revelation. This notion of more importantly infinite self-renewal; and does not only presuppose the finite facts of is conceived as the original fact of the birth of revelation is the fundamental what to which this infinite self-renewal is the fundamental revelation in the form of nature, but also the the universe (‘Big Bang’) or perhaps a string there belongs an equally fundamental how of how of revelation as revelation. fact of the receiver of revelation as a rational of original explosions leading to sequential revelation. So what is this how of revelation? All other notions of revelation – in na- subject that is capable of conceiving and births of universes. In such theories, however, My short answer is this: Revelation is the ture, human beings, and history – are particu- knowing the reality of revelation on the basis the problem of the capacity of discovering revelation of revelation in such a way that lar exemplifications of the fundamental new- of a rational structure. In this way, the receiv- and assessing such an original fact remains revelation is enriched by itself. The very oc- ness of revelation. They express this newness er of revelation may repeat the fact of revela- obscure. How does it happen that such an currence of revelation is an occurrence that in particular ways; yet these ways are not un- tion in their understanding and thus produce a original fact is a fact also for me? The naiveté embodies self-enrichment. But how can reve- related to one another. Their structure is such mental model of revelation with its contents of scientific objectivity is too obvious: what is lation as an infinite fact self-enrich itself? The that it is in nature that history becomes possi- and structures. This model may be expressed ‘out there’ counts as the totality of the real answer may be given in turning around the ble and it is in history that human beings re- in language, in symbols, in activities, or even and the role of the mind is neglected or not same question: How could not revelation as ceive revelation. On the other hand, all these in moral behavior of individuals and commu- even identified as a problem. Yet the fact of an infinite fact self-enrich itself in the occur- moments are arranged along the lines of self- nities. Ultimately, the model may be formed the origin is by definition is a fact related to rence of revelation? Infinity is such that it is enriching newness, or – to use the expression in the form of a computer of various kinds the fact of the mind discovering this origin, infinitely more than itself; it is infinitely more of Miklos Veto – renewing newness (nou- (Antikythera Mechanism or Tianhe-2). Reve- thus the two facts should be described in a real, more rich, more complex, more detailed, veauté novatrice).10 In this way, we may say lation as a fact appears as the source of all unified theory which cosmological theories do more living, more substantial than itself. This that nature and history are just two aspects of factual and possible contents of various kinds not offer. The theory of revelation, however, sounds paradoxical, but the very notion of the realization of revelation in human beings; of modelling. described the original fact as entailing the re- infinity is paradoxical for our comprehension. and it is in human beings that not only the Moreover, revelation becomes particular ceiver of revelation and offers a unified de- Let it suffice to say that the fundamental how fundamental how but also the what of revela- not merely in the natural sense but in a more scription of the two facts in the form of their of revelation is its infinite self-enrichment in tion is realized in a communicative fashion. concrete historical and cultural sense as well. correlation. such a way that in all instances of revelation By ‘communicative fashion’ I mean the no- Think of the fact of incarnation at a certain not only the particular contents express this tion of the ‘communicatio idiomatum’ or ἡ point of time, at a certain location, in the form 4. Problems in Methodology II: How is self-enrichment but also the infinite horizon ἀντίδοσις τῶν ἰδιωμάτων. Just as the original of a concrete human being using a certain Revelation Revealed? itself is an infinitely self-enriching horizon. doctrine of ‘antidosis’ allowed the mutual language and living in definite a historical In the Biblical language we may express acknowledgement of properties for both the context (‘under Pontius Pilate’) as the exam- In the traditional accounts of revelation, this notion of self-enrichment as ‘making all divine and the human natures of Christ, hu- ple of the particular fact of revelation. This we distinguish general, specific, private and things anew’: ‘Behold, I make all things man beings as receivers of revelation realize particular fact is like a window through which final revelation. General revelation is the rev- new!’.9 In the original text it is clearly said in themselves both the how and the what of we gain sight of the horizon of the infinite elation of nature in creation. Specific revela- that the act of making all things new is the revelation in the way these factors determine fact. The two levels of factuality are related to tion is the revelation given in the history of essence of revelation – not only the essence of the reality of revelation itself. In more con- one another and are then conceived in the salvation. Private revelation is communication the Book of Revelation but also and more im- crete terms: the fundamental what and how of terms of each other: the infinite fact in the given to individuals with respect to their per- portantly of divine revelation itself – taken revelation can be recognized in the receiver of terms of the particular fact and vice versa. sonal needs. And final revelation is the ulti- both ad intra and ad extra. And the expres-

Thus, in the factual nature of revelation not mate accomplishment of revelation at the end 10 Vetö, Miklos, L’élargissement de la métaphy- only absolute and particular factuality are ex- of all times. We can further elaborate these 9 Καινὰ πάντα ποιῶ, Rev 21:5. sique. Paris: Hermann, 2012, p. 43. 70 71 71 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

revelation as entailed in the reality of revela- revelation may be conceived; and it is the re- tion. alness of revelation, as received by the re- Let me try to translate the above points ceiver, that the realness of revelation may be into a more concrete example of the methodo- understood. This feature of revelation can be logical problem. According to the fundamen- properly called the correlational nature of tal discovery of the special theory of relativi- revelation. ty, the position and movement of the observer It is an implication of the physical theo- influences the simultaneity of occurrences, ries mentioned that the presence of the ob- the movements of clocks, mass, and length. server not only influences the observed state Just as the Copernican discovery of the cen- of affairs but even realizes a new state of af- tral position of the Earth, the special theory of fairs. Yet it has always been the very essence relativity must take into account the position of revelation that its workings have been con- and movement of the observer so that it can ceived in terms of renewing newness, nou- properly describe the movements of objects veauté novatrice. Scientific inquiry can never outside the observers. In a somewhat similar be conceived of in terms of merely establish- fashion, quantum theory realized that the ing ‘what is out there’. Rather, scientific in- presence of an observer ‘changes’ the behav- quiry needs to understand itself as contrib- ior of light particles travelling through a slot. uting to reality not only theoretically but also In both cases, the fact, position and movement in terms of its contents. I do not say that in of the observer becomes decisive. Not that science we find what we want to find, but I reality could be a subjective illusion but rather say that our search contributes to reality in that reality is to be conceived so that the fact important ways and this contribution must be (and movement and position) of the observer taken into account in our assessment of is included into the notion of reality. What achievements. We must begin with the fact was conceived as reality in classical physics that reality is self-enrichment and our search has to be enlarged to include the observer in for knowledge – and also our production of concrete ways. models and machines – is a particular aspect However, the theory of revelation as of the self-enriching processes of reality. As based on the traditional notion of revelation often seems, such processes may be turned has always been clear about the correlational into self-destructive ones, and human beings nature of revelation as being expressed in var- has a clear responsibility here.11 ious ways but also as being addressed to the receiver of revelation. The receiver of revelation, the ‘observer’ as it were, is part and parcel of revelation, because revelation is such that it is to be received. It is in the structures 11 The dimension of newness is what appears to of the receiver of revelation that the reality of be the most difficult obstacle to a theory of reality as a mere simulation: for in simulation no newness could be discovered, thus, to begin with, the fact of the simulation itself. 72 2(7), 2016 72 73 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

revelation as entailed in the reality of revela- revelation may be conceived; and it is the re- 5. Problems in Methodology III: Apodicticity, concerning divine revelation (‘the signs of the tion. alness of revelation, as received by the re- Certainty, and Probability times’) are much higher: Let me try to translate the above points ceiver, that the realness of revelation may be into a more concrete example of the methodo- understood. This feature of revelation can be One of the clear mistakes of Peter Sloter- ‘When it is evening you say, “It logical problem. According to the fundamen- properly called the correlational nature of dijk’s theory of ‘the apocalypse of the Real’12 will be fair weather, for the sky is tal discovery of the special theory of relativi- revelation. is that he does not seem to recognize the im- red”; and in the morning, “It will be ty, the position and movement of the observer It is an implication of the physical theo- portance of the principle of nouveauté nova- foul weather today, for the sky is red influences the simultaneity of occurrences, ries mentioned that the presence of the ob- trice. Sloterdijk considers the history of mo- and threatening.” Hypocrites! You the movements of clocks, mass, and length. server not only influences the observed state dernity as the history of such an ‘apocalypse’ know how to discern the face of the Just as the Copernican discovery of the cen- of affairs but even realizes a new state of af- and construes this process in terms of a cer- sky, but you cannot discern the signs tral position of the Earth, the special theory of fairs. Yet it has always been the very essence tain emergentism. The new understanding of of the times’ (Mat 16, 2-3). relativity must take into account the position of revelation that its workings have been con- reality emerges out of the confusion of mis- and movement of the observer so that it can ceived in terms of renewing newness, nou- leading pseudo-theories, mainly religious in The schema we find here is this: natural properly describe the movements of objects veauté novatrice. Scientific inquiry can never nature, and the spherical emergence of a non- certainty is surpassed by revelational certain- outside the observers. In a somewhat similar be conceived of in terms of merely establish- fossil-bound source of energy, the light of the ty. We may add: the certainty of revelation fashion, quantum theory realized that the ing ‘what is out there’. Rather, scientific in- sun, will clear our mind of the last remnants was deemed to surpass even philosophical, presence of an observer ‘changes’ the behav- quiry needs to understand itself as contrib- of old theories. However, old theories, espe- logical certainties as well, because revelation ior of light particles travelling through a slot. uting to reality not only theoretically but also cially the theory of revelation in a theological was seen as possessing the highest apodic- In both cases, the fact, position and movement in terms of its contents. I do not say that in form already contained some of the most im- ticity possible. This apodicticity concerned of the observer becomes decisive. Not that science we find what we want to find, but I portant factors shaping our scientific history the saving power of God vis-à-vis sinful hu- reality could be a subjective illusion but rather say that our search contributes to reality in and even showing us a way beyond limited man beings, that is it concerned the reality of that reality is to be conceived so that the fact important ways and this contribution must be interpretations of reality. salvation. Certainty was the personal experi- (and movement and position) of the observer taken into account in our assessment of Let me show you briefly how modern ence of this salvific apodicticity expressed in is included into the notion of reality. What achievements. We must begin with the fact science based its epistemological dogmas on faith, such as in Hebrew 11:1: ‘Now faith is was conceived as reality in classical physics that reality is self-enrichment and our search certain aspects of the notion of revelation, the substance of things hoped for, the evi- has to be enlarged to include the observer in for knowledge – and also our production of how it isolated these aspects from one anoth- dence of things not seen.’ Probability – that is concrete ways. models and machines – is a particular aspect er, and finally how these aspects may be com- the aspectual ambivalence of an assertion – However, the theory of revelation as of the self-enriching processes of reality. As bined again on the basis of a better under- was delegated to the introductory realm of based on the traditional notion of revelation often seems, such processes may be turned stood theory of revelation. Revelation appears revelation. Probability is mentioned a number has always been clear about the correlational into self-destructive ones, and human beings in its Christian form as an objectively certain, of times in the New Testament as ‘possibil- nature of revelation as being expressed in var- has a clear responsibility here.11 even apodictically certain understanding the ity’, such as ‘The things which are impossible ious ways but also as being addressed to the necessity of which outshines the necessity of with men are possible with God’ (dunatos, receiver of revelation. The receiver of revela- philosophy, logic, or everyday experience. Luke 18, 27). tion, the ‘observer’ as it were, is part and par- One of the well-known sayings of Jesus men- Thus, revelational apodicticity, certainty cel of revelation, because revelation is such tions natural phenomena as predicting certain and probability are organically connected to that it is to be received. It is in the structures occurrences; however, the level of certainty one another. In the perspective of a theory of 11 The dimension of newness is what appears to of the receiver of revelation that the reality of revelation we may say that these dimensions be the most difficult obstacle to a theory of re- of knowledge express various aspects of the ality as a mere simulation: for in simulation no 12 Cf. Sloterdijk, Peter: Was geschah im 20. Jah- same whole in which revelation as revelation newness could be discovered, thus, to begin rhundert? Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2016, pp. 106- with, the fact of the simulation itself. 115. is realized. This whole may be described in 72 73 73 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

terms of truth and reality expressed by the In my understanding, these three aspects Hebrew word ‘amen’ so often used by Jesus must be seen in their entirety and combined in the gospels. into the organic whole of the reality of revela- In the history of the sciences, the organic tion. We need to receive revelation and have relationship between apodicticity, certainty faith in it, hope for it, and love it; but we also and probability disintegrates. Apodicticity in need to be uniquely certain of the reality of its mathematical and logical form gets rid of revelation which leads our world out of its the two other dimensions, especially of the present confusions and to reach a better order dimension of certainty; and probability of things in the form of a universal renewal. evolves into a calculus which has gained an This renewal makes our methodology instruc- increasing significance in contemporary sci- tive to an encompassing scientific methodolo- ence. What the theory of revelation may teach gy: because the aim of human knowledge is us in this respect is twofold: on the one hand, not only to understand what is ‘out there’, not an organic connection of these modes of only to produce limited models of natural go- knowledge is not only possible but even ad- ings-on in the form of machines, but rather to visable. Thus we need to work out a new form aim at the overall renewal of reality in which of apodicticity which integrates the aspects of all the fragments of our knowledge and reality logical apodicticity, certainty, and probability. may be organized into a meaningful whole. In this work, the principles of faith, hope and The notion of revelation, as is substantiated love are instructive. These principles describe by the theory of revelation, teaches us to fol- modes of the reception of revelation in three low this way. important aspects. All have been influential in the history of the sciences, because faith be- 6. Conclusion: Methodological Apocalyptics came understood not merely as faith in God but also as faith in the rational order of every- What I outlined above belongs to the thing; hope was understood not merely as the field I mentioned above under the title of connection to the ultimate fulfilment of reve- apocalyptics. Apocalyptics is the overall form lation but also as the hope concerning genuine of the study of revelation. Beyond its funda- understanding of ourselves and our world in mental introduction, apocalyptics has three which we live; and finally, love was not only important fields: 1. Theoretical Apocalyptics; understood as the love of God and our neigh- 2. Historical Apocalyptics; 3. Methodological bors, but also as the love of knowledge, wis- Apocalyptics dom, and humanity as such.

74 2(7), 2016 74 75 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

terms of truth and reality expressed by the In my understanding, these three aspects Here is the structure of these fields: Hebrew word ‘amen’ so often used by Jesus must be seen in their entirety and combined in the gospels. into the organic whole of the reality of revela- Structural fields Methodological Theoretical Apoca- Historical Apoca- In the history of the sciences, the organic tion. We need to receive revelation and have ► Apocalyptics lyptics lyptics relationship between apodicticity, certainty faith in it, hope for it, and love it; but we also Content fields ▼ and probability disintegrates. Apodicticity in need to be uniquely certain of the reality of Contexts of Logic Logical problems Logical problems Logical problems its mathematical and logical form gets rid of revelation which leads our world out of its of method of theory of history the two other dimensions, especially of the present confusions and to reach a better order Contexts of Philosophical prob- Philosophical prob- Philosophical prob- dimension of certainty; and probability of things in the form of a universal renewal. Philosophy lems of lems of lems of evolves into a calculus which has gained an This renewal makes our methodology instruc- method theory history increasing significance in contemporary sci- tive to an encompassing scientific methodolo- Contexts of Theological prob- Theological prob- Theological prob- ence. What the theory of revelation may teach gy: because the aim of human knowledge is Theology lems of method lems of theory lems of history us in this respect is twofold: on the one hand, not only to understand what is ‘out there’, not Contexts of Phenomenological Phenomenological Phenomenological an organic connection of these modes of only to produce limited models of natural go- Phenomenology problems problems problems knowledge is not only possible but even ad- ings-on in the form of machines, but rather to of method of theory of history visable. Thus we need to work out a new form aim at the overall renewal of reality in which Contexts of Problems of method Problems of theory Problems of history of apodicticity which integrates the aspects of all the fragments of our knowledge and reality Religious Studies in religious studies in religious studies in religious studies logical apodicticity, certainty, and probability. may be organized into a meaningful whole. Contexts of the Problems of method Problems of theory Problems of history In this work, the principles of faith, hope and The notion of revelation, as is substantiated Sciences in investigating in investigating the in investigating love are instructive. These principles describe by the theory of revelation, teaches us to fol- the sciences sciences the sciences modes of the reception of revelation in three low this way. Contexts of the Problems of method Problems of theory Problems of history important aspects. All have been influential in Arts in investigating in investigating in investigating the history of the sciences, because faith be- 6. Conclusion: Methodological Apocalyptics the arts the arts the arts came understood not merely as faith in God Contexts of Relevance but also as faith in the rational order of every- What I outlined above belongs to the Personhood for Apocalyptic Personhood thing; hope was understood not merely as the field I mentioned above under the title of connection to the ultimate fulfilment of reve- apocalyptics. Apocalyptics is the overall form All these fields are actually disciplines methodologies and the fundamental lation but also as the hope concerning genuine of the study of revelation. Beyond its funda- which consider fundamental problems of the method of apocalyptics; and understanding of ourselves and our world in mental introduction, apocalyptics has three study of revelation: its methods, its theories, c) to show the relevance of such method- which we live; and finally, love was not only important fields: 1. Theoretical Apocalyptics; and its history. As to the methodological ven- ologies to the receiver of revelation, understood as the love of God and our neigh- 2. Historical Apocalyptics; 3. Methodological ue, the study of revelation includes the study human personhood, in their perspec- bors, but also as the love of knowledge, wis- Apocalyptics of the logical, theological, phenomenological, tive of renewing newness, nouveauté dom, and humanity as such. scientific, religious, and artistic problems. In novatrice. other words, it considers the problems of rev- In my presentation, all I wished to sum- elation in the context of the human sciences in marize has been the special correlation be- general. Its ultimate aim is threefold: tween the study of revelation and scientific a) to show the organic connections methodology in a general sense and in a his- among the various fields of methodol- torical perspective. While I find it very im- ogies; portant, I did not have appropriate place to b) to show the relationship between these show the relevance of such a general method- 74 75 75 2(7), 2016 Balá zs M. MEZEI

ology to human or ‘apocalyptic’ personhood. Garrigou-Lagrange, R. (1951). De revelatione However, I believe it is of paramount im- per Ecclesiam Catholicam proposita. portance to recognize that all our considera- Romae: Libreria Editrice Religiosa,. tions are worthwhile if and only if they con- Mezei, B.M. (forthcoming in 2017). Radical tribute not only to a better understanding of Revelation: A Philosophical Appro- the sciences, philosophy, or culture, but es- ach. New York: Bloomsbury. sentially to the self-renewal of human persons Mezei, B.M. (2013). Religion and Revelation in their concrete historical situation. after Auschwitz. New York: Blooms- bury. REFERENCES Schmitt, C. (1985). Political Theology. Four Chapters on the Concept of Sover- Bostrom, N. (2016). Are You Living in a eignty. Edited and translated by Ge- Computer Simulation? at orge Schwab. With a Foreword by http://www.simulation- Tracy B. Strong. Chicago: Chicago argument.com/simulation.html University Press. (accessed 8/11/2016). Sloterdijk, P. (2016). Was geschah im 20. Clement of Alexandria: Stromata. In: Fathers Jahrhundert? Berlin: Suhrkamp. of the Second Century: Hermas, Tat- Vetö, M. (2012). L’élargissement de la méta- ian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and physique. Paris: Hermann. Clement of Alexandria, C. Cleveland (ed.). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

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bury.

REFERENCES Schmitt, C. (1985). Political Theology. Four

Chapters on the Concept of Sover-

Bostrom, N. (2016). Are You Living in a eignty. Edited and translated by Ge-

Computer Simulation? at orge Schwab. With a Foreword by http://www.simulation- Tracy B. Strong. Chicago: Chicago argument.com/simulation.html University Press.

(accessed 8/11/2016). Sloterdijk, P. (2016). Was geschah im 20.

Clement of Alexandria: Stromata. In: Fathers Jahrhundert? Berlin: Suhrkamp. of the Second Century: Hermas, Tat- Vetö, M. (2012). L’élargissement de la méta- SOCIAL, POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY ian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and physique. Paris: Hermann. Clement of Alexandria, C. Cleveland (ed.). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

76 77 77 2(7), 2016 Hans KÖCHLER

UDC 340.12 Hans KÖCHLER

NORMATIVE CONTRADICTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW: IMPLICATIONS FOR LEGAL PHILOSOPHY

Abstract

In order to be perceived as legitimate by those subject to it, a system of legal norms should be free of contradictions. The very idea of justice is incompatible with an erratic interpretation and, subsequently, arbitrary application of norms. Systemic contradictions make actions by state authorities unpredictable. However, at the domestic as well as at the international level, considerations of power and interest have often made of the respective body of norms a “hermeneutical minefield.” The international legal order in particular contains contradictions even between the most basic principles such as state sovereignty, self-determination and the rules of international humanitarian law. While, at the national level, the authority of constitutional courts may help to eliminate contradictions and inconsistencies, there exists, apart from limited regional arrangements, no such separation of powers at the international level. The lecture analyzes, inter alia, the systemic, destabilizing impact of normative contradictions in exemplary cases related to the interpretation of the United Na- tions Charter and draws conclusions in terms of the philosophy of law.

Keywords: Rule of law; validity of norms; justice and law; normative contradictions; jus cogens; sovereignty; national interest; power politics; United Nations.

THE PRECARIOUS NATURE OF THE physical” or ideological implications that RULE OF LAW would privilege only certain groups of society. The major challenge, however, and in the The stability of any state system, whether international context in particular, is that it national or international, depends on the rule has proven to be virtually impossible to avoid, of law. This essentially means general accep- or eliminate, certain normative contradictions tance and consistent enforcement of norms from the respective corpus of norms. that govern interaction among citizens, at the Consistency (A) in the enforcement of domestic, or states, at the inter-governmental norms, i. e. avoidance of double standards, level. The very rationale of a state, indeed the presupposes consistency (B) of the respective main justification of its existence, is the ca- system of norms. Domestically, this relates to pacity to enable its citizens to live free from the Constitution and the body of laws created fear and guarantee their physical integrity. under it; internationally, the “system” means The essence of it is a kind of “social contract” the corpus of norms regulating relations be- on the basis of mutuality and without “meta- tween states (general as well as customary 78 2(7), 2016 78 79 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 340.12 international law), including those of jus co- or, more precisely, power politics, described Hans KÖCHLER gens, and the ever increasing set of specific as “realpolitik” at the global level. norms contained in intergovernmental trea- We shall concentrate here on the latter, NORMATIVE CONTRADICTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW: ties, particularly the United Nations Charter. namely contradictions between norms in the IMPLICATIONS FOR LEGAL PHILOSOPHY If (A) is not guaranteed, we are faced with an political context. Unavoidably, we can only erosion of confidence in the system, indeed a elaborate on some of the most striking and

loss of legitimacy. If (B) cannot be ensured, potentially destabilizing cases of normative Abstract the system as such collapses since the very conflicts. In order to be perceived as legitimate by those subject to it, a system of legal norms should be validity of norms is at stake if a Constitutio – free of contradictions. The very idea of justice is incompatible with an erratic interpretation and, more generally: a system of norms – contains TYPES OF CONTRADICTIONS subsequently, arbitrary application of norms. Systemic contradictions make actions by state authori- (logical) contradictions. Although the validity BETWEEN NORMS IN THE ties unpredictable. However, at the domestic as well as at the international level, considerations of of norms (values) as such cannot be proven in INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT power and interest have often made of the respective body of norms a “hermeneutical minefield.” the material sense, i.e. in terms of their con- The international legal order in particular contains contradictions even between the most basic prin- tent (a normative statement is neither true nor In relations between states, confusion re- ciples such as state sovereignty, self-determination and the rules of international humanitarian law. false), logic applies at the formal level, i.e. to sulting from irreconcilable normative con- While, at the national level, the authority of constitutional courts may help to eliminate contradic- the relations between norms, namely ques- flicts abounds. Not only is the body of norms 1 tions and inconsistencies, there exists, apart from limited regional arrangements, no such separation tions as to the compatibility of their content. subsumed under the term “international law” of powers at the international level. The lecture analyzes, inter alia, the systemic, destabilizing im- Strictly speaking, the rule of law remains law only in very rudimentary form – as there pact of normative contradictions in exemplary cases related to the interpretation of the United Na- an abstract ideal if (A) or (B) cannot be en- exists no universal and consistent mechanism tions Charter and draws conclusions in terms of the philosophy of law. sured. While the requirements under (A) of enforcement; there effectively exists no can – in principle at least – be fulfilled on the separation of powers either to adjudicate such Keywords: Rule of law; validity of norms; justice and law; normative contradictions; jus co- basis of sincerity and good will of state au- conflicts. The International Court of Justice, gens; sovereignty; national interest; power politics; United Nations. thorities, and under the watchful eye of an part of the edifice of the United Nations Or- active citizenry, those under (B), pertaining to ganization, is not the “constitutional court” of the very integrity of the respective system of the international community. The sheer num- THE PRECARIOUS NATURE OF THE physical” or ideological implications that norms and to doctrinaire issues, are an en- ber of contradictions risks undermining the tirely different matter. In actual fact, contra- very legitimacy of the United Nations and RULE OF LAW would privilege only certain groups of socie- dictions between norms are often overlooked may make the “international rule of law” an ty. The major challenge, however, and in the or covered up, whether for reasons of “le- elusive goal. The stability of any state system, whether international context in particular, is that it gistic” convenience or political expediency – There are essentially two types of nor- national or international, depends on the rule has proven to be virtually impossible to avoid, the latter often as a result of power interests mative inconsistencies of which we shall of law. This essentially means general accep- or eliminate, certain normative contradictions highlight some of the most striking ones, with tance and consistent enforcement of norms from the respective corpus of norms. 1 For details see the author’s considerations: far-reaching consequences for the stability that govern interaction among citizens, at the Consistency (A) in the enforcement of “Zum Verhältnis von logischen Prinzipien und and reliability of the system of inter-state rela- domestic, or states, at the inter-governmental norms, i. e. avoidance of double standards, Rechtsnormen,” in: Hans Köchler, Philosophie tions. We are dealing (a) with strictly logical level. The very rationale of a state, indeed the presupposes consistency (B) of the respective – Recht – Politik: Abhandlungen zur politis- contradictions, i.e. incompatibilities of norma- main justification of its existence, is the ca- system of norms. Domestically, this relates to chen Philosophie und zur Rechtsphilosophie. tive content, as in the case of “sovereign pacity to enable its citizens to live free from the Constitution and the body of laws created (Veröffentlichungen der Arbeitsgemeinschaft equality” vs. inequality derived from special fear and guarantee their physical integrity. under it; internationally, the “system” means für Wissenschaft und Politik an der Universität privilege as embodied in the veto power of The essence of it is a kind of “social contract” the corpus of norms regulating relations be- Innsbruck, Vol. IV.) Vienna, New York: certain member states of the UN Security on the basis of mutuality and without “meta- tween states (general as well as customary Springer, 1985, pp. 9ff. 78 79 79 2(7), 2016 Hans KÖCHLER

Council.2 (In this context, both “equality” and doctrine, to use the more recent term – have “inequality,” are to be understood in the nor- made drastically obvious that, in actual state mative, not factual, sense.) practice, there exists no consensus on the hi- The second type of inconsistencies (b) erarchy of norms that would allow to resolve results from ambiguity in regard to the hier- those normative conflicts. To the contrary, archy of norms in the international system. disagreement on these doctrinaire issues has This particularly relates to the status of jus further fueled international tensions as in the cogens of general international law. One of cases of the use of force against Iraq (2003), the most obvious examples is the conflict be- Libya (2011), and, more recently, Syria. Can tween the norm of non-interference, derived norms, enshrined in the United Nations Char- from national sovereignty, and fundamental ter, such as that of “sovereign equality,” be norms of human rights. Do norms of a higher defined as relative, i. e. subordinated to the category effectively abrogate those of a less validity of other norms such as human rights, basic nature? (The question is similar to the understood as jus cogens of general interna- normative conflict in a domestic system tional law? Can one, in fact, argue in favor a where the individual’s right to property may, general “human rights caveat” that would be in certain cases, be subordinated to considera- tantamount to the “measuring” of every other tions of the common good. In such cases, norm of international law against standards on however, there are elaborate judicial proce- which there is, as of yet, no agreement as to dures to resolve the conflict on the basis of their specific meaning? The question of “who the respective constitution.) The dilemmata adjudicates?” in cases of disagreements can- resulting from and controversies surrounding not be answered under the present conditions. practices of “humanitarian intervention”3 – or In the absence of legal mechanisms, i.e. with- actions under the “Responsibility to Protect” out a separation of powers with an Interna- tional Court of Justice with compulsory juris- 2 On the implications of this contradiction for diction as an integral part,4 the risk is that the- collective security and the international rule of se normative conflicts and disagreements are law see the author’s analysis: The Voting Pro- resolved by resort to the arsenal of power pol- cedure in the United Nations Security Council: Examining a Normative Contradiction and its itics, not the instruments of law. Consequences on International Relations. We shall exemplify the above types of (Studies in International Relations, Vol. XVII.) contradictions in different areas and respects, Vienna: International Progress Organization, relating to: (a) the normative consistency of 1991. the Charter of the United Nations Organiza- 3 For normative contradictions and moral dil- tion and of the body of norms of international emmata see the author’s analysis: The Concept of Humanitarian Intervention in the Context of 4 According to Article 94(2) of the UN Charter, Modern Power Politics: Is the Revival of the enforcement of judgments of the ICJ by the Doctrine of "Just War" Compatible with the Security Council is at the discretion of the International Rule of Law? (Studies in Interna- Council, which is not compatible with the idea tional Relations, Vol. XXVI.) Vienna: Interna- of compulsory jurisdiction in a context of a tional Progress Organization, 2001. separation of powers. 80 2(7), 2016 80 81 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

Council.2 (In this context, both “equality” and doctrine, to use the more recent term – have criminal law; (b) the overall compatibility be- shaky ground. In actual fact, this means “inequality,” are to be understood in the nor- made drastically obvious that, in actual state tween different bodies of international law that the norm of equality strangely “coex- mative, not factual, sense.) practice, there exists no consensus on the hi- and specific treaties (“systemic consistency” ists” in the UN Charter with its very an- The second type of inconsistencies (b) erarchy of norms that would allow to resolve of contemporary international law); and (c), tithesis, namely the (unspoken) norm of results from ambiguity in regard to the hier- those normative conflicts. To the contrary, on an exemplary basis, contradictions be- inequality. It goes without saying that a archy of norms in the international system. disagreement on these doctrinaire issues has tween specific maxims of international law. logical contradiction between the con- This particularly relates to the status of jus further fueled international tensions as in the The issues will be demonstrated, in particular, tents of norms, in fact a conflict with one cogens of general international law. One of cases of the use of force against Iraq (2003), in regard to the legal status and doctrinaire of the system’s basic principles, makes it the most obvious examples is the conflict be- Libya (2011), and, more recently, Syria. Can evaluation of the international use of force, of impossible to characterize such a system tween the norm of non-interference, derived norms, enshrined in the United Nations Char- national sovereignty and of human rights. The as in conformity with the rule of law. It from national sovereignty, and fundamental ter, such as that of “sovereign equality,” be enumeration of 10 exemplary cases – most of may more appropriately be characterized norms of human rights. Do norms of a higher defined as relative, i. e. subordinated to the which, most of the time, are hidden from pub- as a system of political, not legal, rules category effectively abrogate those of a less validity of other norms such as human rights, lic scrutiny – will be followed by questions as and regulations. basic nature? (The question is similar to the understood as jus cogens of general interna- to the reasons behind these contradictions and (2) Ban on the use of force (Article 2[4] of normative conflict in a domestic system tional law? Can one, in fact, argue in favor a inconsistencies and by a reevaluation of the the UN Charter) versus the effective re- where the individual’s right to property may, general “human rights caveat” that would be meaning of “rule of law” in the international introduction of jus ad bellum because of in certain cases, be subordinated to considera- tantamount to the “measuring” of every other context. the non-abstention clause of Art. 27(3) of tions of the common good. In such cases, norm of international law against standards on Contradictions within the United Nations the Charter: however, there are elaborate judicial proce- which there is, as of yet, no agreement as to Charter The principle that all member states dures to resolve the conflict on the basis of their specific meaning? The question of “who (1) Principle of sovereign equality (Article “shall refrain in their international rela- the respective constitution.) The dilemmata adjudicates?” in cases of disagreements can- 2[1] of the UN Charter) versus the norm tions from the threat or use of force” be- resulting from and controversies surrounding not be answered under the present conditions. underlying the veto privilege of the Se- comes virtually meaningless as regards practices of “humanitarian intervention”3 – or In the absence of legal mechanisms, i.e. with- curity Council’s permanent members the permanent members’ “accumulated actions under the “Responsibility to Protect” out a separation of powers with an Interna- (Article 27[3] of the UN Charter): privilege” of (a) preventing any resolu- tional Court of Justice with compulsory juris- The rule that all decisions of the Council tion of the Council on matters under 2 On the implications of this contradiction for diction as an integral part,4 the risk is that the- other than procedural ones require the Chapter VII (collective security) by with- collective security and the international rule of se normative conflicts and disagreements are consent of the five permanent members5 holding their consent, and (b) being free law see the author’s analysis: The Voting Pro- resolved by resort to the arsenal of power pol- makes the notion of equality of all mem- from the obligation to abstain in a case cedure in the United Nations Security Council: Examining a Normative Contradiction and its itics, not the instruments of law. ber states, derived from the principle of where a permanent member is itself “par- 6 Consequences on International Relations. We shall exemplify the above types of sovereignty, void of any legal meaning. ty to a dispute,” as in the very case men- (Studies in International Relations, Vol. XVII.) contradictions in different areas and respects, If one of the basic principles of the world tioned in Article 2(4), namely an act of Vienna: International Progress Organization, relating to: (a) the normative consistency of organization is effectively invalidated by aggression “against the territorial integri- 1991. the Charter of the United Nations Organiza- a norm on decision-making in the body ty or political independence” of another 3 For normative contradictions and moral dil- tion and of the body of norms of international vested with supreme executive power, the state. As the veto rule itself, circum- emmata see the author’s analysis: The Concept entire edifice of the UN Charter is – due scribed as the requirement of the “con- 4 of Humanitarian Intervention in the Context of According to Article 94(2) of the UN Charter, to this normative inconsistency – on curring votes of the permanent members” Modern Power Politics: Is the Revival of the enforcement of judgments of the ICJ by the (Article 27[3]), this additional decision- Doctrine of "Just War" Compatible with the Security Council is at the discretion of the 5 Article 27(3). making rule is introduced only obliquely, International Rule of Law? (Studies in Interna- Council, which is not compatible with the idea 6 Article 2(1): “The Organization is based on the namely by implication, insofar as the Ar- tional Relations, Vol. XXVI.) Vienna: Interna- of compulsory jurisdiction in a context of a principle of the sovereign equality of all its tional Progress Organization, 2001. separation of powers. Members.” ticle stipulates that the indicated voting 80 81 81 2(7), 2016 Hans KÖCHLER

procedure (including the veto privilege) (3) Non-interference in the internal affairs is to be understood under the condition of states (a norm generally derived from (“provided that”) that in decisions under the principles in Articles 2[1] and 2[4], Chapter VI (which deals with non-bin- and affirmed as binding upon the world ding measures on the peaceful settlement organization in its own actions in Article of disputes) a party to a dispute “shall ab- 2[7]) versus the right to intervene ac- stain from voting.” Ergo, the obligation cording to the doctrines of “humanitarian to abstain does not apply to decisions un- intervention” or “Responsibility to Pro- der Chapter VII. This provision applies to tect” (R2P), both of which are based on all members of the Security Council, the interpretation of human rights as jus permanent and non-permanent, but in cogens of general international law: combination with the veto right it be- As explained in the introductory remarks comes a tool of power politics by which a of chapter (B) above, this normative con- permanent member can prevent the Co- flict may only be resolved if consensus uncil from taking coercive measures can be reached in the international com- against its own acts of aggression. The munity on the hierarchy of norms and if Council will, thus, always be paralyzed there is an independent, impartial body to when it comes to the most serious trans- decide on the use of force and its scope. gressions of international law by its per- The UN Security Council’s coercive manent members. There is a special irony powers are tied to its role in the preserva- in the fact that for non-enforceable deci- tion of peace and security and may only sions (under Chapter VI) a higher stand- indirectly be activated for a collective use ard, namely the obligation to abstain in of force with humanitarian purpose, case of involvement in a dispute, applies namely if the Council, under Article 39 than for binding, enforceable resolutions of the Charter, determines that a situation (by use of armed force) under Chapter of human rights violations or a humani- VII (in cases of “threats to the peace, tarian emergency in a member state con- breaches of the peace, and acts of aggres- stitutes a “threat to the peace.” However, sion”). Again, as under (1) above, it goes the crux of the matter is that the Council, without saying that such an outright con- for reasons partly explained under (1) and tradiction between the general rule of jus- (2) above, can not act as arbiter in cases tice nemo judex in causa sua (heeded by of fundamental rights. Because of the the Charter in regard to less important, voting procedure of Article 27(3), the i.e. non-binding decisions) and a deci- Council effectively operates as a political sion-making rule (privilege) in the field organ. Notwithstanding the solemn col- of collective security (i.e. coercive mea- lective commitments to the Principles of sures) makes the idea of the rule of law in Article 2, its decisions are dictated by relations between states void of any considerations of power politics, not by a meaning. fundamental concern for the preservation

82 2(7), 2016 82 83 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

procedure (including the veto privilege) (3) Non-interference in the internal affairs of human rights.7 Furthermore, the Coun- (4) Self-determination of peoples (Article is to be understood under the condition of states (a norm generally derived from cil’s vast coercive powers, in tandem 1[2]) as purpose versus state sovereignty (“provided that”) that in decisions under the principles in Articles 2[1] and 2[4], with its de facto legislative authority and (according to Article 2[1]) as principle of Chapter VI (which deals with non-bin- and affirmed as binding upon the world quasi-judicial competence it has arrogat- the United Nations: ding measures on the peaceful settlement organization in its own actions in Article ed in recent years,8 make it prone to arbi- An irreconcilable normative conflict ex- of disputes) a party to a dispute “shall ab- 2[7]) versus the right to intervene ac- trary action. Furthermore, a practice of ists between a state’s right to preserve its stain from voting.” Ergo, the obligation cording to the doctrines of “humanitarian double standards is the inevitable result territorial integrity, derived from the to abstain does not apply to decisions un- intervention” or “Responsibility to Pro- of the veto privilege of the permanent principle of sovereignty (to be respected der Chapter VII. This provision applies to tect” (R2P), both of which are based on members. If the basic norm of state sov- by all states on the basis of mutuality), all members of the Security Council, the interpretation of human rights as jus ereignty can indeed be “temporarily” ab- and the right of peoples to determine permanent and non-permanent, but in cogens of general international law: rogated for the defense of human rights themselves their form of political organi- combination with the veto right it be- As explained in the introductory remarks (i.e. in cases of humanitarian emergencies zation, including the decision to which comes a tool of power politics by which a of chapter (B) above, this normative con- deemed by the Council as threats to in- sovereign entity they eventually want to permanent member can prevent the Co- flict may only be resolved if consensus ternational peace and security), arbitrari- belong. In the contemporary system of in- uncil from taking coercive measures can be reached in the international com- ness resulting from the ever-changing ternational law, self-determination has against its own acts of aggression. The munity on the hierarchy of norms and if constellation of power and interests the status of a fundamental human right.10 Council will, thus, always be paralyzed there is an independent, impartial body to among the permanent members defeats The United Nations Charter, nonetheless, when it comes to the most serious trans- decide on the use of force and its scope. the very idea of humanitarian action and leaves the question of that right’s status gressions of international law by its per- The UN Security Council’s coercive negates the legality of such action. The in relation to national sovereignty in lim- manent members. There is a special irony powers are tied to its role in the preserva- case of Libya, just to mention one of the bo, and the numerous solemn declara- in the fact that for non-enforceable deci- tion of peace and security and may only most recent examples, speaks for itself.9 tions in favor of “self-determination” by sions (under Chapter VI) a higher stand- indirectly be activated for a collective use the General Assembly have only added to ard, namely the obligation to abstain in of force with humanitarian purpose, the legal ambiguity. If the right of self- 7 case of involvement in a dispute, applies namely if the Council, under Article 39 For details see the author’s earlier analysis: determination as collective human right is than for binding, enforceable resolutions of the Charter, determines that a situation “The Politics of Global Powers,” in: The Glo- indeed the foundation of the legitimacy bal Community. Yearbook of International (by use of armed force) under Chapter of human rights violations or a humani- of a state,11 if it is invoked as legal (not Law and Jurisprudence, 2009, Vol. I, pp. 173- VII (in cases of “threats to the peace, tarian emergency in a member state con- only moral) justification for state crea- 201. breaches of the peace, and acts of aggres- stitutes a “threat to the peace.” However, 8 tion, it can hardly be argued that its exer- On the implications of the change of the role of sion”). Again, as under (1) above, it goes the crux of the matter is that the Council, the Security Council for international legality without saying that such an outright con- for reasons partly explained under (1) and see the author’s analysis: The Security Council http://i-p-o.org/IPO-Memorandum-UN-Libya- tradiction between the general rule of jus- (2) above, can not act as arbiter in cases as Administrator of Justice? (Studies in Inter- 26Mar11.pdf. tice nemo judex in causa sua (heeded by of fundamental rights. Because of the national Relations, Vol. XXXII.) Vienna: In- 10 Article 1(1) of the International Covenant on the Charter in regard to less important, voting procedure of Article 27(3), the ternational Progress Organization, 2011. Civil and Political Rights: “All peoples have 9 i.e. non-binding decisions) and a deci- Council effectively operates as a political See, inter alia, MEMORANDUM by the Pres- the right of self-determination. By virtue of sion-making rule (privilege) in the field organ. Notwithstanding the solemn col- ident of the International Progress Organiza- that right they freely determine their political of collective security (i.e. coercive mea- lective commitments to the Principles of tion on Security Council Resolution 1973 status and freely pursue their economic, social (2011) and its Implementation by a "Coalition and cultural development.” sures) makes the idea of the rule of law in Article 2, its decisions are dictated by of the Willing" under the Leadership of the 11 See also Allen Buchanan, Justice, Legitimacy, relations between states void of any considerations of power politics, not by a United States and the North Atlantic Treaty and Self-determination: Moral Foundations meaning. fundamental concern for the preservation Organization. International Progress Organiza- for International Law. Oxford: Oxford Univer- tion, Doc. P/22680c, Vienna, 26 March 2011, sity Press, 2004. 82 83 83 2(7), 2016 Hans KÖCHLER

cise is ultimately at the discretion of an The doctrine of “universal jurisdiction,” existing state. The very notion of “self- recently incorporated into the legal sys- determination” makes no normative sense tems of certain states,13 implies the au- if its exercise in a given case depends up- thority of any domestic judiciary to exer- on the consent of the state that sees in cise jurisdiction over international crimes that very act a threat to its territorial in- irrespective of the nationality of the sus- tegrity, i.e. a challenge to its sovereign pect and the territory on which the al- status within the international communi- leged crimes may have been committed.14 ty, guaranteed by the UN Charter.12 This This has led to numerous controversies unresolved conflict between two founda- and disputes among UN member states tional norms of international law has pro- such as those between Belgium and the foundly destabilized the international sys- United States or Israel over the applica- tem and has been the source of political tion of Belgium’s war crimes law of disputes with the threat of extra-legal set- 1993. Because of its repercussions on the tlement by resort to armed force. Again, country’s foreign policy, Belgium has this contradiction exemplifies the precar- eventually modified the law, conditioning iousness of the international rule of law its application to a direct connection of a as guiding principle of a global system of case to the Kingdom of Belgium, thus peace. trying to avoid a conflict over the sover- Contradictions related to international crimi- eignty issue.15 As such, the doctrine of nal justice universal jurisdiction constitutes one of (5) National sovereignty versus universal the most serious and far-reaching chal- jurisdiction: lenges to the norm of national sovereign- The norm of “national sovereignty,” en- ty in contemporary international law.16 shrined in the UN Charter as “sovereign 13 This step has in most cases been connected to equality” of all member states, implies those states’ decision to join the International strict adherence to the rule of non- Criminal Court – in view of the Rome Stat- interference into the internal affairs of ute’s principle of complementary jurisdiction. states (of which criminal jurisdiction is 14 For the development of this doctrine see the one of the main areas). There are basical- author’s Global Justice or Global Revenge? ly two instances where an irreconcilable International Criminal Justice at the Cross- normative contradiction exists in terms of roads. Vienna/New York: Springer, 2004, pp. the exercise of criminal jurisdiction. (a) 79ff. 15 For details see op. cit., pp. 93ff. 12 For an overview of the legal and political is- 16 As regards the “sovereign immunity” of state sues see Y. N. Kly and D. Kly (eds.), In Pur- officials, this is also reflected in the judgment suit of the Right to Self-determination: Col- of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in lected Papers & Proceedings of the First In- the case of the arrest warrant by a Belgian international Conference on the Right to Self- vestigating judge, dated 11 April 2000, against determination & the United Nations, Geneva the then Foreign Minister of the Democratic 2000. Atlanta: Clarity Press, 2001. Republic of the Congo: International Court of 84 2(7), 2016 84 85 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

cise is ultimately at the discretion of an The doctrine of “universal jurisdiction,” (b) The “creation” of international crimi- (6) International humanitarian law versus existing state. The very notion of “self- recently incorporated into the legal sys- nal jurisdiction by fiat of the UN Security an interpretation of international law that determination” makes no normative sense tems of certain states,13 implies the au- Council has often been qualified as viola- considers the use of arms of mass de- if its exercise in a given case depends up- thority of any domestic judiciary to exer- tion of the sovereignty of member states. struction as legally neutral act of war- on the consent of the state that sees in cise jurisdiction over international crimes It is an open question whether ad hoc fare: that very act a threat to its territorial in- irrespective of the nationality of the sus- courts such as the Yugoslavia or Rwanda According to the norms of international tegrity, i.e. a challenge to its sovereign pect and the territory on which the al- tribunals, established by way of Chapter humanitarian law, the indiscriminate tar- status within the international communi- leged crimes may have been committed.14 VII resolutions of the Security Council, geting of civilians constitutes a war ty, guaranteed by the UN Charter.12 This This has led to numerous controversies are in conformity with international crime. “War crimes” are defined as “in- unresolved conflict between two founda- and disputes among UN member states law.17 If the creation of courts can indeed ternational crimes” which concern the tional norms of international law has pro- such as those between Belgium and the be construed as measure to maintain or community of states as such and over foundly destabilized the international sys- United States or Israel over the applica- restore international peace and security which – since the Nuremberg and Tokyo tem and has been the source of political tion of Belgium’s war crimes law of according to Article 41 of the Charter, tribunals in particular – international disputes with the threat of extra-legal set- 1993. Because of its repercussions on the Article 2(7) of the Charter would apply, criminal courts (such as the International tlement by resort to armed force. Again, country’s foreign policy, Belgium has which provides an exception from the Criminal Court) have jurisdiction. The this contradiction exemplifies the precar- eventually modified the law, conditioning rule of non-interference for all Chapter use of arms of mass destruction, in par- iousness of the international rule of law its application to a direct connection of a VII measures. If this were not the case ticular nuclear arms, makes the distinc- as guiding principle of a global system of case to the Kingdom of Belgium, thus (i.e. if judicial measures cannot be con- tion between civilian and military targets peace. trying to avoid a conflict over the sover- strued as part of the UN system of collec- effectively impossible. It has thus been Contradictions related to international crimi- eignty issue.15 As such, the doctrine of tive security), the jurisdiction of ad hoc argued that the use of such arms is per se nal justice universal jurisdiction constitutes one of courts would be in strict violation of the incompatible with international law. As (5) National sovereignty versus universal the most serious and far-reaching chal- norm of national sovereignty.18 regards nuclear arms, this was clearly jurisdiction: lenges to the norm of national sovereign- stated, inter alia, by the General Assem- The norm of “national sovereignty,” en- ty in contemporary international law.16 Justice, Year 2002, 14 February 2002, General bly of the United Nations. In a resolution shrined in the UN Charter as “sovereign List No. 121: [Judgment] Case Concerning the adopted on 15 December 1983, the mem- 13 This step has in most cases been connected to Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic equality” of all member states, implies ber states declared: The General Assem- those states’ decision to join the International Republic of the Congo v. Belgium). strict adherence to the rule of non- bly “Resolutely, unconditionally and for Criminal Court – in view of the Rome Stat- 17 Concerning the Yugoslavia Tribunal see interference into the internal affairs of all time condemns nuclear war as being ute’s principle of complementary jurisdiction. MEMORANDUM on the Indictment of the Pre- states (of which criminal jurisdiction is 14 For the development of this doctrine see the sident of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, contrary to human conscience and reason, one of the main areas). There are basical- author’s Global Justice or Global Revenge? the President of the Republic of Serbia and as the most monstrous crime against peo- ly two instances where an irreconcilable International Criminal Justice at the Cross- Other Officials of Yugoslavia by the "Interna- ples and as a violation of the foremost normative contradiction exists in terms of roads. Vienna/New York: Springer, 2004, pp. tional Tribunal for Prosecution of Persons Re- human right – the right to life.”19 In an the exercise of criminal jurisdiction. (a) 79ff. sponsible for Serious Violations of Internatio- Advisory Opinion, requested by the UN 15 For details see op. cit., pp. 93ff. nal Humanitarian Law Committed in the Terri- 12 16 For an overview of the legal and political is- As regards the “sovereign immunity” of state tory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991". In- sues see Y. N. Kly and D. Kly (eds.), In Pur- officials, this is also reflected in the judgment ternational Progress Organization, Caracas, 27 Relationship between Power and Law. Studies suit of the Right to Self-determination: Col- of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in May 1999, at http://i-p-o.org/yu-tribunal.htm. in International Relations, Vol. XXXII. Vien- lected Papers & Proceedings of the First In- the case of the arrest warrant by a Belgian in- 18 See the author’s analysis: “The Security Coun- na: International Progress Organization, 2011, ternational Conference on the Right to Self- vestigating judge, dated 11 April 2000, against cil and ad hoc international tribunals,” in: Hans pp. 17-47. determination & the United Nations, Geneva the then Foreign Minister of the Democratic Köchler, The Security Council as Administra- 19 97th Plenary Meeting, A/RES/38/75 (“Con- 2000. Atlanta: Clarity Press, 2001. Republic of the Congo: International Court of tor of Justice? Reflections on the Antagonistic demnation of nuclear war”), Paragraph 1. 84 85 85 2(7), 2016 Hans KÖCHLER

General Assembly,20 the International Court’s jurisdiction over war crimes sole- Court of Justice determined, inter alia, ly relates to cases where conventional and with a caveat “in an extreme circum- weapons are used. It specifically exclud- stance of self-defence,” “that the threat or ed the use of nuclear arms from jurisdic- use of nuclear weapons would generally tion of the Court, stating that Article be contrary to the rules of international 8(2)(b) – that deals with intentional at- law applicable in armed conflict, and in tacks on civilians – only covers conven- particular the principles and rules of hu- tional warfare.22 Although the declaration manitarian law.”21 International humani- further stated that this exclusion from ju- tarian law would thus be rendered obso- risdiction will only prevail as long as lete, indeed void of any normative con- there exists no comprehensive ban on the tent, if it were perceived as not applicable use of nuclear arms – which would have in cases of the most extreme violations, to be specified in an annex to the Rome namely the use of arms of mass destruc- Statute by way of an amendment, the tion. The inherent normative contradic- declaration effectively amounts to a “res- tion would also totally undermine the ervation,” something which is explicitly meaning and statutory position of human excluded in the Rome Statute (Article rights in the international system. 120). Should this unilateral declaration (7) The prohibition of the indiscriminate tar- by France (that effectively undermines geting of civilians under international the Court’s jurisdiction) be accepted, the humanitarian law versus a restriction of International Criminal Court’s jurisdic- the jurisdiction of the International Crim- tion over war crimes would become total- inal Court in cases of the use of nuclear ly meaningless since this reading of the arms, i.e. in a matter of international Statute would only allow the investiga- criminal law: tion and prosecution of “minor” crimes Related to the above-described contradic- while the potentially gravest violations tion (paragraph 6) is a normative conflict would be beyond the reach of the law. implied in the position of France con- For a legal critique, the interpretive dec- cerning the jurisdiction of the Interna- laration of France should also be validat- tional Criminal Court. In an “interpretive declaration” made upon ratification of the Rome Statute, France has stated that the 22 “The provisions of article 8 of the Statute, in 20 Resolution 49/75, 15 December 1994 (“Re- particular paragraph 2(b) thereof, relate solely quest for an advisory opinion from the Interna- to conventional weapons and can neither regu- tional Court of Justice on the legality of the late or prohibit the possible use of nuclear threat or use of nuclear weapons”). weapons …” United Nations, Multilateral tre- 21 International Court of Justice: Legality of the aties deposited with the Secretary-General – Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Treaty I-XVIII – 10. “Rome Statute of the In- Conflict. Advisory Opinion, Year 1996, Gen- ternational Criminal Court, Rome, 17 July eral List No. 93, 8 July 1996. 1998.” 86 2(7), 2016 86 87 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

General Assembly,20 the International Court’s jurisdiction over war crimes sole- ed in the context of the ICJ’s Advisory ya27 against whose state leaders and other Court of Justice determined, inter alia, ly relates to cases where conventional Opinion on the use of nuclear weapons.23 officials the ICC subsequently issued in- and with a caveat “in an extreme circum- weapons are used. It specifically exclud- Contradictions related to issues of jurisdic- dictments. That this provision is prone to stance of self-defence,” “that the threat or ed the use of nuclear arms from jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court political abuse has also become obvious use of nuclear weapons would generally tion of the Court, stating that Article (8) International treaty law versus interna- in the fact that permanent member states be contrary to the rules of international 8(2)(b) – that deals with intentional at- tional criminal law: of the Security Council not party to the law applicable in armed conflict, and in tacks on civilians – only covers conven- Article 34 of the Vienna Convention on Rome Statute (i.e. who reject the jurisdic- particular the principles and rules of hu- tional warfare.22 Although the declaration the Law of Treaties24 states that “[a] trea- tion of the Court in principle)28 have ena- manitarian law.”21 International humani- further stated that this exclusion from ju- ty does not create either obligations or bled the Council to adopt those resolu- tarian law would thus be rendered obso- risdiction will only prevail as long as rights for a third State without its con- tions.29 Apart from the normative contra- lete, indeed void of any normative con- there exists no comprehensive ban on the sent.” This norm is contradicted by the diction, this has introduced an element of tent, if it were perceived as not applicable use of nuclear arms – which would have provision of Article 13(b) of the Rome political inconsistency and arbitrariness in cases of the most extreme violations, to be specified in an annex to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal in so far as states, for political motives, namely the use of arms of mass destruc- Statute by way of an amendment, the Court. According to this rule, the United may make use, in a particular case, of a tion. The inherent normative contradic- declaration effectively amounts to a “res- Nations Security Council is given the norm, which they reject in all other cases, tion would also totally undermine the ervation,” something which is explicitly right to “refer” – by way of a Chapter VII and especially as far as their nationals are meaning and statutory position of human excluded in the Rome Statute (Article resolution – a situation in which one or concerned. This means that the Rome rights in the international system. 120). Should this unilateral declaration more crimes referred to in Article 5 of the Statute of the International Criminal (7) The prohibition of the indiscriminate tar- by France (that effectively undermines Court’s Statute25 “appears to have been Court not only contradicts international geting of civilians under international the Court’s jurisdiction) be accepted, the committed.” This applies irrespective of treaty law and, subsequently, the princi- humanitarian law versus a restriction of International Criminal Court’s jurisdic- whether the State on the territory of ple of sovereign equality of States, but al- the jurisdiction of the International Crim- tion over war crimes would become total- which the crime may have been commit- so subordinates the Court’s jurisdiction to inal Court in cases of the use of nuclear ly meaningless since this reading of the ted, or whose citizen may have commit- a body that operates outside, and above, arms, i.e. in a matter of international Statute would only allow the investigated the crime, is party to the Rome Stat- the Court’s jurisdiction, giving the Coun- criminal law: tion and prosecution of “minor” crimes ute or not. The Security Council has cil higher rights than the States Parties of Related to the above-described contradic- while the potentially gravest violations made use of this “privilege” – to “create” tion (paragraph 6) is a normative conflict would be beyond the reach of the law. jurisdiction where it would otherwise not 27 Resolution 1970 (2011) adopted by the Securi- implied in the position of France con- For a legal critique, the interpretive dec- exist – in the cases of Sudan26 and Lib- ty Council at its 6491st meeting, on 26 Febru- cerning the jurisdiction of the Interna- laration of France should also be validat- ary 2011. tional Criminal Court. In an “interpretive 23 Fn. 26 above. 28 As regards the United States, cf. the letter, dat- declaration” made upon ratification of the 24 Concluded on 23 May 1969, entered into force ed 6 May 2002, from John R. Bolton, Under Rome Statute, France has stated that the on 27 January 1980. Secretary of State for Arms Control and Inter- 22 25 “The provisions of article 8 of the Statute, in Crime of genocide; crimes against humanity; national Security, to the Secretary-General of 20 Resolution 49/75, 15 December 1994 (“Re- particular paragraph 2(b) thereof, relate solely war crimes; crime of aggression. the United Nations: Multilateral treaties de- quest for an advisory opinion from the Interna- to conventional weapons and can neither regu- 26 Resolution 1593 (2005) adopted by the Securi- posited with the Secretary-General – Treaty I- tional Court of Justice on the legality of the late or prohibit the possible use of nuclear ty Council at its 158th meeting, on 31 March XVIII – 10. “Rome Statute of the International threat or use of nuclear weapons”). weapons …” United Nations, Multilateral tre- 2005. For details see the Statement of the In- Criminal Court, Rome, 17 July 1998,” Note 6. 21 International Court of Justice: Legality of the aties deposited with the Secretary-General – ternational Progress Organization: Double 29 In the case of the Sudan resolution, the United Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Treaty I-XVIII – 10. “Rome Statute of the In- Standards in International Criminal Justice: States and China, both not parties to the Rome Conflict. Advisory Opinion, Year 1996, Gen- ternational Criminal Court, Rome, 17 July The Case of Sudan. Vienna, 2 April 2005, Statute, abstained. In the case of Libya, the re- eral List No. 93, 8 July 1996. 1998.” http://www.i-p-o.org/Koechler-Sudan-ICC.pdf. solution was adopted unanimously. 86 87 87 2(7), 2016 Hans KÖCHLER

the ICC themselves.30 The matter could (ICTR).33 Similarly, the doctrine of uni- only be redressed if the referral right of versal jurisdiction, applied by the domes- the Council were defined in the same way tic judiciary in a number of states, ex- as that of the State Parties, namely link- cludes impunity for action in official ca- ing it to crimes “within the jurisdiction of pacity.34 the Court.”31 However, as regards the (in itself legally (9) International criminal law versus Uni- problematic) jurisdiction of the ICC on ted Nations Charter: the basis of Article 13(b) of the Rome Indirectly related to the above contradic- Statute,35 officials from permanent mem- tion between international treaty law and ber states of the United Nations Security international criminal law is a contradic- Council enjoy de facto impunity, i.e. im- tion between the Rome Statute of the ICC munity from prosecution, due to those and the voting privilege in the Security states’ voting privilege under Article Council. Article 27 of the Rome Statute 27(3) of the UN Charter. Whenever offi- (“Irrelevance of official capacity”) une- cials from a permanent member state, or quivocally states that “[t]his Statute shall

apply equally to all persons without any 33 See articles 7(2) and 6(2) respectively of the 32 distinction based on official capacity.” statutes of the ICTY and the ICTR: “The offi- This means that no official can claim im- cial position of any accused person, whether as punity for acts in the exercise of national Head of State or Government or as a responsi- sovereignty. The notion of “sovereign ble Government official, shall not relieve such immunity” is alien to international crimi- person of criminal responsibility nor mitigate nal law. This is also evident in the stat- punishment.” 34 utes of international ad hoc courts estab- Following the affirmation by the UN General lished by the Security Council such as the Assembly of “the principles of international law recognized by the Charter of the Nurem- International Criminal Tribunal for the berg Tribunal and in the judgment of the Tri- Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the Inter- bunal” (resolution 177[II] of 21 November national Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 1947), the International Law Commission of the United Nations has drafted this norm in the following way: “Principle III. The fact that a 30 For details see also The Security Council as person who committed an act which consti- Administrator of Justice?, pp. 49ff. tutes a crime under international law acted as a 31 Article 14(1) of the Rome Statute. Head of State or responsible Government offi- 32 The Article further states: “In particular, official does not relieve him from responsibility cial capacity as a Head of State or Govern- under international law.” For details see also ment, a member of a Government or parlia- Christopher C. Joyner, “Arresting Impunity: ment, an elected representative or a govern- The Case for Universal Jurisdiction in Bring- ment official shall in no case exempt a person ing War Criminals to Accountability,” in: Law from criminal responsibility under this Statute, and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 59, No. 4, nor shall it, in and of itself, constitute a ground Autumn 1996, pp. 153-172. for reduction of sentence.” 35 See paragraph 8 above. 88 2(7), 2016 88 89 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

the ICC themselves.30 The matter could (ICTR).33 Similarly, the doctrine of uni- a state allied with the former, might be to abstain from voting on Chapter VII only be redressed if the referral right of versal jurisdiction, applied by the domes- subjected to the prosecution of the ICC, resolutions).36 the Council were defined in the same way tic judiciary in a number of states, ex- the concerned state may veto the respec- Contradictions related to the status of human as that of the State Parties, namely link- cludes impunity for action in official ca- tive Chapter VII resolution on referral of rights ing it to crimes “within the jurisdiction of pacity.34 a situation. Ironically, in a twist of power (10) Human rights norms versus the rules of the Court.”31 However, as regards the (in itself legally politics, this provision “neutralizes” the the United Nations Charter regarding (9) International criminal law versus Uni- problematic) jurisdiction of the ICC on effects of Article 13(b) of the Rome Stat- the coercive powers of the Security ted Nations Charter: the basis of Article 13(b) of the Rome ute which would allow the ICC to exer- Council: Indirectly related to the above contradic- Statute,35 officials from permanent mem- cise jurisdiction even in cases where offi- Since the collapse of the global power tion between international treaty law and ber states of the United Nations Security cials of states not party to the Rome Stat- balance upon the end of the Cold War, international criminal law is a contradic- Council enjoy de facto impunity, i.e. im- ute are suspected to have committed the United Nations Security Council has tion between the Rome Statute of the ICC munity from prosecution, due to those crimes referred to in Article 5 of that increasingly resorted to the use of eco- and the voting privilege in the Security states’ voting privilege under Article Statute. Although this relates to all na- nomic sanctions as coercive measures Council. Article 27 of the Rome Statute 27(3) of the UN Charter. Whenever offi- tionals of the respective permanent mem- under Article 41 of the UN Charter. The (“Irrelevance of official capacity”) une- cials from a permanent member state, or ber states, the potential implications of most comprehensive sanctions régime to quivocally states that “[t]his Statute shall Article 13(b) for the heads of state and date were the measures imposed on Iraq apply equally to all persons without any 33 other high officials from non-state parties in the period 1990-2003, mainly victimiz- See articles 7(2) and 6(2) respectively of the 32 distinction based on official capacity.” statutes of the ICTY and the ICTR: “The offi- of the ICC make the veto provision a paring the civilian population. In the pursuit This means that no official can claim im- cial position of any accused person, whether as ticularly powerful tool according to the of its mandate under Chapter VII of the punity for acts in the exercise of national Head of State or Government or as a responsi- maxim “might makes right,” effectively Charter, the Council enforced conditions sovereignty. The notion of “sovereign ble Government official, shall not relieve such allowing those states to instrumentalize a that caused suffering and death to hun- immunity” is alien to international crimi- person of criminal responsibility nor mitigate statute of international criminal law in the dreds of thousands of people.37 In a depo- nal law. This is also evident in the stat- punishment.” interest of power politics. sition before the United Nations Com- 34 utes of international ad hoc courts estab- Following the affirmation by the UN General In general terms, however, the contradic- mission on Human Rights, the Interna- lished by the Security Council such as the Assembly of “the principles of international tion exists between a norm regulating the tional Progress Organization, on 13 Au- law recognized by the Charter of the Nurem- International Criminal Tribunal for the jurisdiction of the ICC, namely Article gust 1991, deplored the violation of the berg Tribunal and in the judgment of the Tri- Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the Inter- 13(b) of its Statute, and a norm regulating most basic human right, the right to life, bunal” (resolution 177[II] of 21 November national Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda the voting procedure in the Security “by an intergovernmental body [namely 1947), the International Law Commission of the United Nations has drafted this norm in the Council, namely Article 27(3) of the the UN Security Council / H.K.] against Charter, potentially “immunizing” all na- the population of a member state of the following way: “Principle III. The fact that a 38 30 For details see also The Security Council as person who committed an act which consti- tionals from non-states parties of the UN.” Administrator of Justice?, pp. 49ff. tutes a crime under international law acted as a Rome Statute insofar as those states are 31 Article 14(1) of the Rome Statute. Head of State or responsible Government offi- permanent members of the Council. 36 See also paragraph 2 above. 32 37 The Article further states: “In particular, official does not relieve him from responsibility Again, this is a case of judicial inequality See the report The Human Costs of War in cial capacity as a Head of State or Govern- under international law.” For details see also of the highest order, effectively linking Iraq. New York: Center for Economic and So- ment, a member of a Government or parlia- Christopher C. Joyner, “Arresting Impunity: legal privileges (immunity from prosecu- cial Rights (CESR), 2003. ment, an elected representative or a govern- The Case for Universal Jurisdiction in Bring- 38 “Statement by the delegate of the International tion) to a privilege of power politics (the ment official shall in no case exempt a person ing War Criminals to Accountability,” in: Law Progress Organization, Warren A. J. Hamer- veto provision in tandem with the non- from criminal responsibility under this Statute, and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 59, No. 4, man, before the United Nations Commission obligation of parties involved in a dispute nor shall it, in and of itself, constitute a ground Autumn 1996, pp. 153-172. on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on Pre- for reduction of sentence.” 35 See paragraph 8 above. vention of Discrimination and Protection of 88 89 89 2(7), 2016 Hans KÖCHLER

Although the Council, under Article 41, peace and security.41 In the ultimate conse- enjoys full discretion in the use of coercive quence, the “normative dilemma” consists in measures – not involving the use of armed the Council’s need to reconcile the pursuit of force – “to maintain or restore international two basic “Purposes” stated in Article 1 of the peace and security” (Article 39), including the UN Charter, namely the “maintenance of “complete or partial interruption of economic peace” (Par. 1) on the one hand and the “pro- relations,” it must not be overlooked that the motion” of respect for human rights (Par. 3) consequences of those measures have often on the other. In spite of the Council’s almost meant the denial of the most basic human absolute powers under Chapter VII, enabling rights to the affected civilian population, in- it to interfere into the sovereign domain of deed a form of collective punishment.39 In member states, the Council, according to Ar- these cases, a basic normative contradiction ticle 24(2), is still required to act “in accord- cannot be denied between the validity of hu- ance with the Purposes and Principles of the man rights, as codified in international cove- United Nations,” which means that it is also nants, if not as peremptory norms (jus cogens) bound by human rights constraints. However, of general international law,40 and the norms in the absence of a separation of powers with- regulating the United Nations’ mandate for in the UN system,42 there exists no body with the maintenance or restoration of international the authority to review coercive (Chapter VII) resolutions of the Security Council in regard to their compatibility with human rights. In the words of a former Secretary of State of the Minorities, on UN sanctions against Iraq and United States: “The Security Council is not a human rights, 13 August 1991.” UN Document E/CN.4/Sub.2/1991/SR.10, 20 August 1991. 41 On the question of the authority of the Security 39 On the legal aspects see also: “The Adverse Council see also Mary Ellen O’Connell, “De- Consequences of Economic Sanctions.” United bating the Law of Sanctions,” in: European Nations, Commission on Human Rights, Sub- Journal of International Law, Vol. 13 (2002), Commission on the Promotion and Protection pp. 63–79. – On the compatibility issue see al- of Human Rights, Fifty-second session, item so the author’s analysis: The United Nations 12 of the provisional agenda, Economic and Sanctions Policy & International Law. Just Social Council, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/33, June World Trust: Penang, 1995. 21, 2000: Working paper prepared by Mr. 42 The Charter of the United Nations Organiza- Marc Bossuyt. tion provides for a predominant role of its su- 40 On the status of human rights norms see, inter preme executive organ, the Security Council, alia, Menno T. Kamminga and Martin Schein- completely marginalizing the role of the Gen- in, The Impact of Human Rights Law on Gen- eral Assembly and the International Court of eral International Law. Oxford, New York: Justice. As regards the latter, see also Attila Oxford University Press, 2009. – Predrag Ze- Tanzi, “Problems of Enforcement of Decisions nović, Human rights enforcement via peremp- of the International Court of Justice and the tory norms – a challenge to state sovereignty. Law of the United Nations,” in: European RGSL Research Papers, No. 6, Riga Graduate Journal of International Law, Vol. 6 (1995), School of Law, 2012. pp. 539-572. 90 2(7), 2016 90 91 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

Although the Council, under Article 41, peace and security.41 In the ultimate conse- body that merely enforces agreed law. It is a changing global power constellation. This is enjoys full discretion in the use of coercive quence, the “normative dilemma” consists in law unto itself.”43 particularly obvious when and where the measures – not involving the use of armed the Council’s need to reconcile the pursuit of norm of national sovereignty is concerned force – “to maintain or restore international two basic “Purposes” stated in Article 1 of the NORMATIVE CONTRADICTIONS AND (referred to as “Principle” of “sovereign equ- peace and security” (Article 39), including the UN Charter, namely the “maintenance of POWER POLITICS: ality” in Article 2[1] of the UN Charter). “complete or partial interruption of economic peace” (Par. 1) on the one hand and the “pro- CONCLUSIONS OF LEGAL PHILOSOPHY When, i.e. under what circumstances, does it relations,” it must not be overlooked that the motion” of respect for human rights (Par. 3) trump human rights or norms of international consequences of those measures have often on the other. In spite of the Council’s almost Most of the normative contradictions and humanitarian and international criminal law, meant the denial of the most basic human absolute powers under Chapter VII, enabling systemic inconsistencies listed above result and when does it not? rights to the affected civilian population, in- it to interfere into the sovereign domain of from issues related to the international status The American Servicemembers’ Protec- deed a form of collective punishment.39 In member states, the Council, according to Ar- of the state – in terms of the preservation of tion Act of 2002,46 ironically labeled the these cases, a basic normative contradiction ticle 24(2), is still required to act “in accord- (state) power in a global competition over the “Hague Invasion Act,”47 is an especially dras- cannot be denied between the validity of hu- ance with the Purposes and Principles of the assertion of “sovereignty” and the “national tic illustration of what may be at stake in man rights, as codified in international cove- United Nations,” which means that it is also interest,” and in a context that is still only terms of establishing a hierarchy of norms nants, if not as peremptory norms (jus cogens) bound by human rights constraints. However, marginally determined by law.44 (In view of when legal principles are in direct contradic- of general international law,40 and the norms in the absence of a separation of powers with- what was explained under paragraphs 1 and 2 tion. This law constitutes a direct challenge to regulating the United Nations’ mandate for in the UN system,42 there exists no body with above, there is simply no way to legally re- the territorial jurisdiction of the International the maintenance or restoration of international the authority to review coercive (Chapter VII) strain the exercise of power by the Security Criminal Court on the basis of Article 12(2) resolutions of the Security Council in regard Council’s permanent members.) (a) of the Rome Statute.48 In the hypothetical to their compatibility with human rights. In The predominance of considerations of case that a US citizen would be prosecuted for the words of a former Secretary of State of the power politics over the commitment to norms the commission of an international crime, and Minorities, on UN sanctions against Iraq and United States: “The Security Council is not a related to individual rights in particular has would be extradited to the Court under Article human rights, 13 August 1991.” UN Document been the reason why normative conflicts are 89 of the Statute (“Surrender of persons to the 41 E/CN.4/Sub.2/1991/SR.10, 20 August 1991. On the question of the authority of the Security often “resolved” with a casuistic approach. Court”), the law provides that “The President 39 On the legal aspects see also: “The Adverse Council see also Mary Ellen O’Connell, “De- Which norm is given priority depends on the [of the United States / H.K.] is authorized to Consequences of Economic Sanctions.” United bating the Law of Sanctions,” in: European fluctuation of political interests, defined as the use all means necessary and appropriate to Nations, Commission on Human Rights, Sub- Journal of International Law, Vol. 13 (2002), respective “national interest,”45 in an ever- bring about the release of any person de- Commission on the Promotion and Protection pp. 63–79. – On the compatibility issue see al- of Human Rights, Fifty-second session, item so the author’s analysis: The United Nations 43 12 of the provisional agenda, Economic and Sanctions Policy & International Law. Just John Foster Dulles, War or Peace. New York: Social Council, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/33, June World Trust: Penang, 1995. Macmillan, 1950, p. 194. 46 United States Congress, American Service- 21, 2000: Working paper prepared by Mr. 42 The Charter of the United Nations Organiza- 44 See also the author’s earlier analysis: “The members’ Protection Act of 2002, H.R. 4775, Marc Bossuyt. tion provides for a predominant role of its su- United Nations Organization and Global Pow- Public Law 107-206, Sec. 2001-2015, Aug. 2, 40 On the status of human rights norms see, inter preme executive organ, the Security Council, er Politics: The Antagonism between Power 2002. alia, Menno T. Kamminga and Martin Schein- completely marginalizing the role of the Gen- and Law and the Future of World Order,” in: 47 “U.S.: 'Hague Invasion Act' Becomes Law.” in, The Impact of Human Rights Law on Gen- eral Assembly and the International Court of Chinese Journal of International Law, Vol. 5, Human Rights Watch, 3 August 2002, at eral International Law. Oxford, New York: Justice. As regards the latter, see also Attila No. 2 (2006), pp. 323-340. https://www.hrw.org/news/2002/08/03/us- Oxford University Press, 2009. – Predrag Ze- Tanzi, “Problems of Enforcement of Decisions 45 On the notion of national interest in the global hague-invasion-act-becomes-law. nović, Human rights enforcement via peremp- of the International Court of Justice and the context see also Hans Morgenthau, In Defense 48 The Court may exercise jurisdiction if “[t]he tory norms – a challenge to state sovereignty. Law of the United Nations,” in: European of the National Interest: A Critical Examina- State on the territory of which the conduct in RGSL Research Papers, No. 6, Riga Graduate Journal of International Law, Vol. 6 (1995), tion of American Foreign Policy. New York: question occurred” is a Party to the Rome Sta- School of Law, 2012. pp. 539-572. Knopf, 1951. tute. 90 91 91 2(7), 2016 Hans KÖCHLER

scribed in subsection (b)49 who is being de- policies – for which it anyway enjoys de facto tained or imprisoned by, on behalf of, or at “immunity” due to Article 27(3) of the UN the request of the International Criminal Charter.53 Court.”50 While, under the Rome Statute, the As of today, there exists no overarching investigation and eventual prosecution of in- system of norms, agreed upon among all ternational crimes committed by nationals of states, that would make it possible to resolve non-States Parties on the territory of a State this conflict (between the exercise of sover- Party to the Rome Statute is a clear-cut case eignty and the requirements of international of jurisdiction of the ICC, for the United criminal justice) within the normative realm. States this is an equally clear-cut case of vio- In spite of its labeling as “the principal judi- lation of the norm of national sovereignty cial organ of the United Nations,”54 the ICJ is against which – as a last resort – the use of not the constitutional court of the internation- force, by the United States, on the territory of al community. In its own interpretation, for the Netherlands, the seat of the ICC, would be instance, it cannot rule on any complaints of justified.51 In addition to this, Article 34 of member states when the Security Council of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties the United Nations has acted on the basis of is also quoted according to which “A treaty Chapter VII of the Charter.55 The inbuilt sys- does not create either obligations or rights for 52 a third State without its consent.” Apart 53 See ch. B(9) above. from the legal arguments, this appears to be a 54 Statute of the International Court of Justice, matter of the interpretation and exercise of the Article 1. “national interest” by a permanent member 55 This follows, by implication, from the Judg- state of the Security Council that is not pre- ment of the ICJ of 27 February 1998 in the pared to accept any judicial restrictions, re- case Libya vs. United States (Questions of In- sulting from treaties concluded by third par- terpretation and Application of the 1971 Mon- treal Convention arising from the Aerial Inci- ties, on the conduct of its foreign and security dent at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America), esp. paras. 39-44. 49 This relates in particular to United States mili- The Court ruled: “As to Security Council reso- tary and allied personnel and for persons acting lution 731 (1992), adopted before the filing of in official capacity. the Application, it could not form a legal im- 50 Sec. 2008(a). pediment to the admissibility of the latter be- 51 Also in current Security Council terminology, cause it was a mere recommendation without the phrase “all necessary means” includes the binding effect (…). Consequently, Libya's Ap- use of armed force. plication cannot be held inadmissible on these 52 Concerning the U.S. position see, inter alia, grounds.” N.B.: Security Council resolution Bartram S. Brown, “U.S. Objections to the Sta- 731 (1992) was not based on Chapter VII of tute of the International Criminal Court: A the Charter, while all later resolutions (adopt- Brief Response,” in: NYU Journal of Interna- ed after Libya filed its Application) were based tional Law and Politics, Vol. 31 (1999), pp. on the Council’s coercive powers under Chap- 855-891; esp. pp. 868ff (“Does the Statute ter VII, which meant – in the interpretation of Violate the Law of Treaties?”). the Court – that the matters dealt with in those 92 2(7), 2016 92 93 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

scribed in subsection (b)49 who is being de- policies – for which it anyway enjoys de facto temic contradictions in contemporary interna- higher order derogate those of a lower order.57 tained or imprisoned by, on behalf of, or at “immunity” due to Article 27(3) of the UN tional law, and in particular within the United So far, however, a basic precondition of such the request of the International Criminal Charter.53 Nations system, resulting from an unre- a normative syllogism in the inter-state con- Court.”50 While, under the Rome Statute, the As of today, there exists no overarching strained exercise of the national interest under text is not in place: In spite of the vast com- investigation and eventual prosecution of in- system of norms, agreed upon among all the auspices of state sovereignty, have not pendium of definitions produced by the Inter- ternational crimes committed by nationals of states, that would make it possible to resolve only made the global order ever more precari- national Law Commission of the United Na- non-States Parties on the territory of a State this conflict (between the exercise of sover- ous, and even more so in the absence of a bal- tions, a “normative hermeneutics” that would Party to the Rome Statute is a clear-cut case eignty and the requirements of international ance of power,56 but threaten to undermine assist states to agree on a clear and unambig- of jurisdiction of the ICC, for the United criminal justice) within the normative realm. the very idea of the “international rule of uous definition of legal terms (even as basic States this is an equally clear-cut case of vio- In spite of its labeling as “the principal judi- law,” embodied by the United Nations Organ- as “self-determination,” “sovereignty,” “use lation of the norm of national sovereignty cial organ of the United Nations,”54 the ICJ is ization. of force,” “self-defense,” or “equality”) is not against which – as a last resort – the use of not the constitutional court of the internation- As a kind of guiding principle of a polity, in sight – as there exists no general agreement force, by the United States, on the territory of al community. In its own interpretation, for whether domestic or international, the notion either on what, for instance, constitutes norms the Netherlands, the seat of the ICC, would be instance, it cannot rule on any complaints of of the “rule of law” makes no sense unless of jus cogens.58 There is also the obstacle of justified.51 In addition to this, Article 34 of member states when the Security Council of normative contradictions are eliminated – or realpolitik: a more precise definition of those the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties the United Nations has acted on the basis of avenues are seriously pursued to resolve sys- terms will remain a desideratum simply be- is also quoted according to which “A treaty Chapter VII of the Charter.55 The inbuilt systemic inconsistencies. If not, norms may be cause vagueness is often a requirement of does not create either obligations or rights for declared valid simply on the basis of a priori- consensus – especially when interests are to 52 a third State without its consent.” Apart 53 See ch. B(9) above. ty of interests – which will nurture a legal cul- be camouflaged in legal terminology. from the legal arguments, this appears to be a 54 Statute of the International Court of Justice, ture of “anything goes” where arbitrariness Apart from the philosophical caveat that matter of the interpretation and exercise of the Article 1. replaces reliability and accountability of state makes us aware of the fragile nature of law in “national interest” by a permanent member 55 This follows, by implication, from the Judg- behavior. What would be important, in that the power-centered framework of inter-state state of the Security Council that is not pre- ment of the ICJ of 27 February 1998 in the regard, is that consensus is reached on a pre- relations, there is also a twofold caveat of re- pared to accept any judicial restrictions, re- case Libya vs. United States (Questions of In- cise hierarchy of norms whereby norms of alpolitik (or, more euphemistically, diploma- sulting from treaties concluded by third par- terpretation and Application of the 1971 Mon- cy): (a) Contradictions between norms often treal Convention arising from the Aerial Inci- ties, on the conduct of its foreign and security result from conflicts of interests, and, (b) as dent at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. resolutions were excluded from scrutiny by the far as the United Nations Charter is con- United States of America), esp. paras. 39-44. ICJ. In their Joint Declaration, annexed to the 49 This relates in particular to United States mili- The Court ruled: “As to Security Council reso- Judgment, Judges Bedjaoui, Ranjeva and Ko- tary and allied personnel and for persons acting lution 731 (1992), adopted before the filing of roma however stated “that it is not sufficient to 57 On an earlier effort of the author to establish in official capacity. the Application, it could not form a legal im- invoke the provisions of Chapter VII of the criteria for such a procedure see: “Die Prin- 50 Sec. 2008(a). pediment to the admissibility of the latter be- Charter so as to bring to an end ipso facto and zipien des Völkerrechts und die Menschenre- 51 Also in current Security Council terminology, cause it was a mere recommendation without with immediate effect all argument on the Se- chte: Zur Frage der Vereinbarkeit zweier No- the phrase “all necessary means” includes the binding effect (…). Consequently, Libya's Ap- curity Council's decisions.” rmensysteme,” in: Zeitschrift für öffentliches use of armed force. plication cannot be held inadmissible on these 56 See also the author’s analysis: “The Precarious Recht und Völkerrecht, Vol. 32 (1981), pp. 5- 52 Concerning the U.S. position see, inter alia, grounds.” N.B.: Security Council resolution Nature of International Law in the Absence of 28. Bartram S. Brown, “U.S. Objections to the Sta- 731 (1992) was not based on Chapter VII of a Balance of Power,” in: Hans Köchler (ed.), 58 For a critical assessment see Ulf Linderfalk, tute of the International Criminal Court: A the Charter, while all later resolutions (adopt- The Use of Force in International Relations: “The Effect of Jus Cogens Norms: Whoever Brief Response,” in: NYU Journal of Interna- ed after Libya filed its Application) were based Challenges to Collective Security. (Studies in Opened Pandora’s Box, Did You Ever Think tional Law and Politics, Vol. 31 (1999), pp. on the Council’s coercive powers under Chap- International Relations, Vol. XXIX.) Vienna: About the Consequences?,” in: European 855-891; esp. pp. 868ff (“Does the Statute ter VII, which meant – in the interpretation of International Progress Organization, 2006, pp. Journal of International Law, Vol. 18 (5), pp. Violate the Law of Treaties?”). the Court – that the matters dealt with in those 11-19. 853-871. 92 93 93 2(7), 2016 .. Hans KOCHLER

cerned, inconsistencies that are the legacy of a over norms leaves the international commu- compromise with power politics cannot be nity – or, more precisely, the system of inter- eliminated because of the veto.59 Due to Arti- state relations – in a state of limbo that makes cle 108 of the Charter, linking amendments to the “international rule of law” ever more elu- the consent of the permanent members, the sive. world organization is indeed caught in a vi- cious circle. The predominance of interests

59 See paragraph 1 of chapter (B) above. 94 2(7), 2016 94 95 2(7), 2016 Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN

cerned, inconsistencies that are the legacy of a over norms leaves the international commu- UDC 1(091):316 compromise with power politics cannot be nity – or, more precisely, the system of inter- Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN eliminated because of the veto.59 Due to Arti- state relations – in a state of limbo that makes cle 108 of the Charter, linking amendments to the “international rule of law” ever more elu- IDEA AND MODELS OF CIVIL SOCIETY: DEVELOPMENT the consent of the permanent members, the sive. TENDENCIES, ARGUMENTS PRO AND CON world organization is indeed caught in a vi- cious circle. The predominance of interests Abstract

The article presents the main stages of development and major modifications of the idea of civil society from Greek and Roman antique philosophy to modern researchers. It discusses two – broad (philosophical) and narrow (the third sector of organizing civil society) – perceptions of civil society and proposes corresponding definitions. Etatistic (controlled), liberal, conflicting, partnership, segmentational and linked models of civil society are analyzed. The expediency of linked and partnership models is substantiated from the position of security and harmonious development of the civic society.

Keywords: civil society; civil society organizations; civil system security; etatistic, liberal, conflicting, partnership, segmentational and linked models of civil society.

In the course of global history various history of global thought and practice, thus concepts have been shaped of how best of all being edited, rectified and developed. to organize the society, the desirable future. In modern times, too, the future of de- While religion promises the best life in ex- mocracy is mainly linked to the idea of civic tramundane world, variable political and phil- society. Resolution of several issues typical of osophical schools and doctrines have tried to the current stage of development of democrat- imagine and shape that best life conditioned ic systems is concomitant to the development by effective organization of social relations in of the civic society. And the latter supposes actual reality. methodologically substantial study of the idea Among these dreams could be Plato’s of civil society, of its components, of its ideal state, Th.More’s «Utopia», T.Campa- structural and functional features, of possible nella’s «The City of the Sun», K.H.Saint- ways of development and models, and also Simon’s, F.Ch. Foureier’s utopian views, the existence of their realistic elaboration. Marxist ideas about communism and others. Although in professional literature the The most viable and realistic among all these formation of the idea of civic society is more dreams and programs, perhaps, appeared to be often connected with the era of Enlightenment the idea of civic society. and Enlightenment philosophy, it should be The idea of civic society, similar to that noted that it dates back to the roots of ancient of democracy, is not a dogma. It has modified Greek and Roman philosophy. 59 See paragraph 1 of chapter (B) above. and undergone amendments in the course of One may come across the notions Poli- 94 95 95 2(7), 2016 Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN

tike Koinonia1 and Societas Civilis (Cicero, citizens of the same given society but as bio- “De Republica,” XXXII, 49; “Civil Society: logical individuals (“A man is a wolf to anot- history and possibilities”, 2011, p. 33)2 in the her man”) (Hobbes, 1998, p. 3). Unregulated works of ancient Greek and Roman thinkers. freedom, the desire to possess and own, com- Within the ancient Greek civilization the petition and distrust towards one other gave notions of city and state were objectively syn- rise to “war of all against all3” (Hobbes, 1991, onymous. Citizenship was interpreted as the pp. 94-96). reality of being a full member of a given soci- Constant dangers and insecurity forced ety, of having regulated relations with gov- people to unite and create a structure of com- ernment structures, of enjoying rights and re- mon safety – the state. People gave up some sponsibilities. The perception of a civic or of their natural rights and empowered the political society was that of a public where state with them, thus in return receiving guar- the core role in organizational and govern- antees to enjoy the other rights freely and mental processes was allocated to state insti- without restraints. This is how they acquired a tutions. new status – that of a citizen. Civil status and Somewhat similar understanding of the citizens’ society are the most civilized and civil society is also characteristic of the 17- warranted form of lifestyle and exercise of 18th centuries Enlighteners. The English phi- rights (Ibid, pp. 129-133). losopher of the 17th century Th. Hobbes, in The idea of civic society underwent fur- line with other theorists of the public alliance ther modifications and improvements within (B.Spinoza, J.Locke, CH.Montesquieu), di- both Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment vided the social history into two stages: natu- philosophical theory. The idea of monarchic ral (or pre-political, pre-civic) and civic (or rule was replaced by the ideas of power shar- political). The natural state is characterized by ing between the legislative, executive and ju- the absence of state as the core institution re- dicial branches, of creating the principle of gulating and administering public life. During checking and balancing them, which would that phase people interacted not as member- grant citizens more opportunities to exercise and protect their rights. th 1 “… this is that which is called in the State and 19 century mass movements and politi- the Political-Association”. (Aristotle, 1877, p. cal processes introduced some new alterations 107. Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, 1994, into the ideas about civil society actors and pp. 84-85) institutional constituents. This was an era 2 The term was introduced by M.T.Cicero: when, as French sociologist and psychologist “… quare cum lex sit civilis societatis vincu- G. Le Bon described it, the right of monarchs lum, ius autem legis aequale, quo iure societas was replaced by the right of masses, the time civium teneri potest, cum par non sit condicio civium? si enim pecunias aequari non placet, si 3 “Homo homini lupus est”. Thomas Hobbes ingenia omnium paria esse non possunt, iura uses this famous expression from the comedy certe paria debent esse eorum inter se qui sunt “Asinaria by ancient Roman playwright Titus cives in eadem re publica. quid est enim civitas Plautus to describe the pre-political stage of nisi iuris societas civium?”. social history. 96 2(7), 2016 96 97 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

tike Koinonia1 and Societas Civilis (Cicero, citizens of the same given society but as bio- of heroes was replaced by the “era of crowds” organizations are entrusted with a special role “De Republica,” XXXII, 49; “Civil Society: logical individuals (“A man is a wolf to anot- (Le Bon, 2005, pp. 5-8) and the era of politi- to integrate citizens’ interest, to aggregate, history and possibilities”, 2011, p. 33)2 in the her man”) (Hobbes, 1998, p. 3). Unregulated cal parties to organize and direct these articulate and voice them; to represent them in works of ancient Greek and Roman thinkers. freedom, the desire to possess and own, com- crowds. The latter assumed the functions of relations with parties and government struc- Within the ancient Greek civilization the petition and distrust towards one other gave balancing and counterbalancing in relations tures. In public administration processes they notions of city and state were objectively syn- rise to “war of all against all3” (Hobbes, 1991, with the state; of integrating citizens’ interests conduct organizational, regulating-integra- onymous. Citizenship was interpreted as the pp. 94-96). and submitting them at the level of political ting, propagating, monitoring and several oth- reality of being a full member of a given soci- Constant dangers and insecurity forced decision-making. Thus, the modern under- er core functions. ety, of having regulated relations with gov- people to unite and create a structure of com- standing of “government” and “opposition” In modern understanding of the civil so- ernment structures, of enjoying rights and re- mon safety – the state. People gave up some poles emerged. ciety, besides government structures and po- sponsibilities. The perception of a civic or of their natural rights and empowered the In the modern stage of evolution of no- litical parties, a vital mission in the processes political society was that of a public where state with them, thus in return receiving guar- tions about civil society, Alexis de Tocque- of organizing and governing the public life is the core role in organizational and govern- antees to enjoy the other rights freely and ville’s and G. Hegel’s ideas regarding the sig- fulfilled also by non-government organiza- mental processes was allocated to state insti- without restraints. This is how they acquired a nificance of decentralization and autonomy in tions formed on voluntary basis and common tutions. new status – that of a citizen. Civil status and the processes of public administration had a interests and functioning on the principle of Somewhat similar understanding of the citizens’ society are the most civilized and huge influence (Hegel, 1991, pp. 219-226; autonomy. (See Diagram 1.) In the broader civil society is also characteristic of the 17- warranted form of lifestyle and exercise of Tocqueville, 1848a, pp. 42-94; Tocqueville, sense not only formal non-governmental or- 18th centuries Enlighteners. The English phi- rights (Ibid, pp. 129-133). 1848b, pp. 35-53). ganizations, their networks and associations losopher of the 17th century Th. Hobbes, in The idea of civic society underwent fur- In the 20th century the role of non-go- but also movements, interest groups and mass line with other theorists of the public alliance ther modifications and improvements within vernmental (non-political), non-profit organi- media should be observed within the third (B.Spinoza, J.Locke, CH.Montesquieu), di- both Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment zation – “the third sector” – in the social life sector. vided the social history into two stages: natu- philosophical theory. The idea of monarchic became increasingly signified. Currently these ral (or pre-political, pre-civic) and civic (or rule was replaced by the ideas of power shar- political). The natural state is characterized by ing between the legislative, executive and ju- Diagram 1. The Basic Components of Civil Society the absence of state as the core institution re- dicial branches, of creating the principle of gulating and administering public life. During checking and balancing them, which would that phase people interacted not as member- grant citizens more opportunities to exercise and protect their rights. th 1 “… this is that which is called in the State and 19 century mass movements and politi- the Political-Association”. (Aristotle, 1877, p. cal processes introduced some new alterations 107. Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, 1994, into the ideas about civil society actors and pp. 84-85) institutional constituents. This was an era 2 The term was introduced by M.T.Cicero: when, as French sociologist and psychologist “… quare cum lex sit civilis societatis vincu- G. Le Bon described it, the right of monarchs lum, ius autem legis aequale, quo iure societas was replaced by the right of masses, the time civium teneri potest, cum par non sit condicio civium? si enim pecunias aequari non placet, si 3 “Homo homini lupus est”. Thomas Hobbes In various stages of development of uni- central value of the social system possessing ingenia omnium paria esse non possunt, iura uses this famous expression from the comedy versal mind, despite certain variations in de- certain interests and inalienable rights (see certe paria debent esse eorum inter se qui sunt “Asinaria by ancient Roman playwright Titus scriptions of the civil society, there has been Hovhannisyan, 2005, pp. 24-25). cives in eadem re publica. quid est enim civitas Plautus to describe the pre-political stage of one common ideological-methodological fab- Two definitions of the civic society can nisi iuris societas civium?”. social history. ric for them: the idea of the citizen as the be, thus, proposed. 96 97 97 2(7), 2016 Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN

In the broader, philosophical sense, the A number of possible models of the civil civic society is a mode of organizing and society can be identified regarding relations governing public life where the individual- between non-governmental organizations and citizen is the core value, the main function- the state, and non-governmental organizations ing subject and final end with his/her inter- and political parties. ests, requirements and rights. On the basis of relations between non- This perception observes all the civil so- governmental organizations and state depart- ciety institutions demonstrated in the diagram ments etatistic5 (controlled), liberal (some- above. times conflicting) and partnership models In the narrower sense, highlighting the can be singled out. role of non-governmental organizations in the In case of the first model non-govern- processes of organizing and governing public mental organizations are initiated mainly by life, the third sector is meant by civil society; the state, their objectives and forms of func- that is non-governmental, non-profit organi- tioning are dictated and strictly controlled by zations, foundations, associations of legal government bodies. These organizations are persons, artistic unions, charity organiza- assigned the role of “the fifth wheel of the tions, civil movements and other forms of cart” in public administration. This model is activism. mostly typical of societies with totalitarian Thereby, within a democracy the civic form of government (for example, the Soviet society is a mode of organizing public life Union). characterized by: 1) a wide network of non- In case of the second, liberal model in- governmental structures formed voluntarily trusion and involvement of the state into the (unions, associations, organizations); 2) a sphere of non-governmental organizations is comprehensive system comprising economic, undesirable and is minimized. Accountability political, social, spiritual, cultural relations. of non-governmental organizations to the The second definition is more wide- state is mostly reduced just as well. Relations spread and involved in the documents of in- between non-governmental organizations and ternational organizations (“CIVICUS Civil the state are often conflicting; they appear Society Index. Armenian Civil Society…” “on opposing sides of the barricades” and 2010, p. 14)4. perceive each other as predominantly undesir-

able rivals. 4 The World Bank has adopted a definition of civil society developed by a number of leading research centers: “the term civil society is to ganizations, faith-based organizations, profes- refer to a wide array of non-governmental and sional associations, and foundations”. See: not-for-profit organizations that have presence http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERN in public life, expressing the interests and val- AL/TOPICS/CSO/0,,contentMDK:20101499~ ues of their members or others, … involve a menuPK:244752~pagePK:220503~piPK:2204 wide array of organizations: community gro- 76~theSitePK:228717,00.html (Last visited on ups, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 13.12.2016.) labor unions, indigenous groups, charitable or- 5 From the French word état – state. 98 2(7), 2016 98 99 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

In the broader, philosophical sense, the A number of possible models of the civil Those two models comprise some dan- their projects via grants from foreign and in- civic society is a mode of organizing and society can be identified regarding relations gers from the position of balanced develop- ternational organizations. governing public life where the individual- between non-governmental organizations and ment of the social system. They can both Grants are allocated also from some local citizen is the core value, the main function- the state, and non-governmental organizations hamper and restrain the development of non- sources, namely from the state budget of RA. ing subject and final end with his/her inter- and political parties. governmental organizations, and lead to so- In 2012 AmD 7.4 billion was granted to local ests, requirements and rights. On the basis of relations between non- cial concussions. non-governmental organizations from the This perception observes all the civil so- governmental organizations and state depart- The most preferable, namely for Arme- state budget. That sum was distributed among ciety institutions demonstrated in the diagram ments etatistic5 (controlled), liberal (some- nia, and perspective type is the partnership 115 organizations7. It should be noted that 2/3 above. times conflicting) and partnership models model. This model is characterized by the of the sum – AmD 4.87 billion was given to In the narrower sense, highlighting the can be singled out. principles of cooperation, mutual control and merely 19 organizations. role of non-governmental organizations in the In case of the first model non-govern- interpenetration. Civil organizations are more The process of allocating grants to Ar- processes of organizing and governing public mental organizations are initiated mainly by flexible in their activities; they can act as op- menian CSOs from the state budget is charac- life, the third sector is meant by civil society; the state, their objectives and forms of func- ponents, critics as well as supporters of the terized by the lack of a systemized policy, def- that is non-governmental, non-profit organi- tioning are dictated and strictly controlled by government held policy if that policy com- inite and transparent procedures, little accessi- zations, foundations, associations of legal government bodies. These organizations are plies with their programs and aims. In this bility of information about the projects conduct- persons, artistic unions, charity organiza- assigned the role of “the fifth wheel of the model most knowledgeable and experienced ed and corruption risks. tions, civil movements and other forms of cart” in public administration. This model is representatives of non-governmental organi- To solve the problem effectively, “Civil activism. mostly typical of societies with totalitarian zations get more and more involved in various Society Support National Foundation” Thereby, within a democracy the civic form of government (for example, the Soviet departments of state authorities and local self- (CSSNF) could be established, following the society is a mode of organizing public life Union). government, while representatives of state example of a number of western European characterized by: 1) a wide network of non- In case of the second, liberal model in- authorities participate in projects conducted countries8. In result, the budget funds intend- governmental structures formed voluntarily trusion and involvement of the state into the by non-governmental organizations. The part- ed for CSOs as grants and donations will be (unions, associations, organizations); 2) a sphere of non-governmental organizations is nership model allows overcoming alienation, allocated not to various bureaucracies, but comprehensive system comprising economic, undesirable and is minimized. Accountability polarization and conflicting situations in rela- will accumulate in the CSSNF. political, social, spiritual, cultural relations. of non-governmental organizations to the tions between civil society organizations The Foundation will, then process the of- The second definition is more wide- state is mostly reduced just as well. Relations (SCOs) and the state, thus contributing to ef- fers and applications submitted by govern- spread and involved in the documents of in- between non-governmental organizations and ficient dialogue and cooperation. ment bodies and CSOs, will examine them to ternational organizations (“CIVICUS Civil the state are often conflicting; they appear To develop the partnership model in Ar- reveal the array of issues for the solution of Society Index. Armenian Civil Society…” “on opposing sides of the barricades” and menia, apart from educational and propagan- which involvement of CSOs is vital. Then, 2010, p. 14)4. perceive each other as predominantly undesir- da projects, some steps should be taken: 1) to expertise will detect the degree of importance

able rivals. increase effectiveness of financial support and urgency of those issues, relevant coeffi- 4 The World Bank has adopted a definition of allocated from local funds to CSOs and 2) cient will be set to allocate the funds per year. civil society developed by a number of leading to form and work out mechanisms and cul- There are an array of issues beyond the research centers: “the term civil society is to ganizations, faith-based organizations, profes- ture for interaction between the state and interest realm of foreign and international do- refer to a wide array of non-governmental and sional associations, and foundations”. See: CSOs. not-for-profit organizations that have presence http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERN Only few Armenian CSOs have paid 7 According to the Ministry of Justice, there in public life, expressing the interests and val- AL/TOPICS/CSO/0,,contentMDK:20101499~ 6 staff . Most of these organizations conduct were 3432 public organizations, 733 founda- ues of their members or others, … involve a menuPK:244752~pagePK:220503~piPK:2204 tions and 301 legal entity unions registered in wide array of organizations: community gro- 76~theSitePK:228717,00.html (Last visited on 6 According to 2010 survey these constitute Armenia as of October 2012. ups, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 13.12.2016.) 19,1%: (CIVICUS Civil Society Index. Civil 8 Such foundations function in Hungary, Croa- labor unions, indigenous groups, charitable or- 5 From the French word état – state. Society of Armenia…2010, p. 29). tia, Albany, Estonia, the Czech Republic. 98 99 99 2(7), 2016 Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN

nor organizations, that are vital for the Arme- processes; nian society. For instance, the issue of provid- x To increase engagement of CSOs in ing aid to military servicemen and their fami- resolution of issues of public im- lies, widows of fallen soldiers, their family portance and to make it more effec- members. CSOs could be especially efficient tive; in the processes of monitoring projects con- x To decrease expenditure on issues of ducted by government structures and in the public importance; fight against corruption. x To avoid controlled and conflicting Another means to improve the financial models of civil society, instead form- stability indicator of CSOs and to increase effi- ing bases for the development of the ciency of the policy and projects conducted by more efficient model of civil society, government bodies is to form and develop the that of partnership. tradition of assigning certain projects in the Regarding relations between political spheres of social assistance, education and re- parties and CSOs, segmentational and linked search, as well as some monitoring and control models of civil society are identified. procedures over state-held programs to non- In the first case, CSOs are classified ac- governmental organizations on competitive ba- cording to social and political layers. They are sis. classical in essence, are more often estab- Implementation of that model of social lished by parties and act as their adjuncts. cooperation guarantees reduction in financial (See Diagram 2.) In that situation the social expenditure, meanwhile provides involvement system is vulnerable against political conflicts of extra human, material and intellectual re- and resonant reaction to the latter. sources; public awareness about projects be- In the linked model CSOs seek objec- ing implemented; definition of criteria to as- tives that unite citizens representing variable sess the quality of projects; extension of mon- layers and having different political-ideolo- itoring over partnership activity of state bod- gical orientation. In the social system CSOs ies and CSOs. ''are arranged vertically'' to social and political Fulfillment of the above described pro- layers. That arrangement promotes dialogue posals will give the opportunity: and partnership between different social clas- x To essentially improve the financial ses, reconciles political organizations and re- conditions of Armenian CSOs; duces clashes, shapes relevant atmosphere for x To raise the credibility of state struc- negotiations (Hovhannisyan, 2003, pp. 34- tures; 35). This is a preferential model from the po- x To enhance state bodies-CSOs part- sition of securing a cohesive and safe social nership and to improve mutual control system.

100 2(7), 2016 100 101 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

nor organizations, that are vital for the Arme- processes; Diagram 2. Segmentational and Linked Models of Civil Society nian society. For instance, the issue of provid- x To increase engagement of CSOs in ing aid to military servicemen and their fami- resolution of issues of public im- lies, widows of fallen soldiers, their family portance and to make it more effec- members. CSOs could be especially efficient tive; in the processes of monitoring projects con- x To decrease expenditure on issues of ducted by government structures and in the public importance; fight against corruption. x To avoid controlled and conflicting Another means to improve the financial models of civil society, instead form- stability indicator of CSOs and to increase effi- ing bases for the development of the ciency of the policy and projects conducted by more efficient model of civil society, government bodies is to form and develop the that of partnership. tradition of assigning certain projects in the Regarding relations between political spheres of social assistance, education and re- parties and CSOs, segmentational and linked search, as well as some monitoring and control models of civil society are identified. procedures over state-held programs to non- In the first case, CSOs are classified ac- governmental organizations on competitive ba- cording to social and political layers. They are sis. classical in essence, are more often estab- Implementation of that model of social lished by parties and act as their adjuncts. cooperation guarantees reduction in financial (See Diagram 2.) In that situation the social expenditure, meanwhile provides involvement system is vulnerable against political conflicts of extra human, material and intellectual re- and resonant reaction to the latter. It is important that the state demonstrates one as it does not exclude misery, persecution sources; public awareness about projects be- In the linked model CSOs seek objec- care and consideration towards the formation and ignorance (Nikfar, 1999). However, it is ing implemented; definition of criteria to as- tives that unite citizens representing variable of such non-governmental organizations that important that the miserable and persecuted can sess the quality of projects; extension of mon- layers and having different political-ideolo- can promote cooperation between various so- unite in a civil society and fight for their rights itoring over partnership activity of state bod- gical orientation. In the social system CSOs cial layers and overcoming social alienation and freedoms. ies and CSOs. ''are arranged vertically'' to social and political between them. The existence of critical views can also Fulfillment of the above described pro- layers. That arrangement promotes dialogue In theoretical literature one may also be considered a positive phenomenon for the posals will give the opportunity: and partnership between different social clas- come across some skeptical and critical views development, improvement, avoiding possible x th To essentially improve the financial ses, reconciles political organizations and re- on civil society. While 18 century French drawbacks. conditions of Armenian CSOs; duces clashes, shapes relevant atmosphere for philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau found x To raise the credibility of state struc- negotiations (Hovhannisyan, 2003, pp. 34- that a political-civil society is based on injus- REFERENSES tures; 35). This is a preferential model from the po- tice, economic inequality and exploitative re- x To enhance state bodies-CSOs part- sition of securing a cohesive and safe social lations (Rousseau, 1762, p.15; Rousseau, Aristotle’s Politics (1877). Books I, III, IV, nership and to improve mutual control system. 1761, p. 97), modern Indian researcher Jai (VII) (with English trans. by W.E. Sen states that the civil society is a neo- Bolland). London, Longmans: Green colonization project conducted by global and Co., elites in pursuing their interests (Sen, 2010). https://archive.org/stream/cu3192407 Persian theorist Mohammad Reza Nikfar notes 1172914#page/n121/mode/2up (Last that a civil society cannot be regarded an ideal visited on 19.12.2016.) 100 101 101 2(7), 2016 Hovhannes HOVHANNISYAN

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Elements of the Philosophy 2016). cy. America is no longer the ruler of her own spirit. In Armenia and Russia, there is instituted now of Right. Cambridge University Rousseau, J.J. (1762). The Social Contract or timocracy, a form of government in which love of honor is the ruling principle (timē honor + Press. Principles of Political Right. Virgil, krateein to rule). There exist here public law apart from human rights. The task of the philosophy of Hobbes, Th. (1991). Leviafan ili materia, for- Æneid xi. politics is to secure democracy in the United States of America and to carry out the transition from ma i vlast' gosudarstva cerkovnogo i https://www.ucc.ie/archive/hdsp/Rou timocracy to democracy in the Republic of Armenia and the Russian Federation. grazhdanskogo. (Leviathan or The sseau_contrat-social.pdf (Visited on Matter, Forme and Power of a Com- 14.12.2016). Keywords: Philosophy of Politics, Plato, Hegel, Montesquieu, Jefferson, democracy, timocra- mon Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civ- Sen, J.(2010). Paper: Interrogating the Civil. cy, information war, slander, dictatress of the world, the system of the threats, the change of the il, in Russian). Sochinenia v dvukh Engaging Critically with the Reality world. tomakh. T. 2. Мoscow. and Concept of Civil Society. Hobbes, Th. (1998). On the Citizen. Cam- http://wiki.p2pfoundation.net/Engagi bridge University Press. ng_Critically_with_the_Reality_and Long time the well-known Plato’s thesis proach which can be designated as the lines of Hovhannisyan, H.O. (2003). Hasarakakan _Concept_of_Civil_Society (Visited about the mergence of power and philosophy Socrates and Glavkon. Both are the main per- hamakargi zargacman himnaxndir- on 14.12.2016). with the purpose of deliverance of states from sonages of Plato’s “Republic” discovering of nery’. (Issues of Social System De- Tocqueville, A. de (1848a). De la démocratie evils seemed to be Utopian. But today with war origin. The position of Socrates: war aris- velopment, in Armenian). Yerevan. en Amérique. Volume 1, Chap. 5 Pa- regard to the threats of the XXI century just es because of endless rapacity exceeding all Hovhannisyan, H.O. (2005). The Factor of gnerre. the alliance between politics and philosophy bounds of need and impelling to seizing a part Human Rights Protection as Criteria Tocqueville, A. de (1848b). De la démocratie performs the duties connected with saving of a territory of a neighbouring country. It for the Development in the Social en Amérique. Volume 2, Chap. 5, mankind from overhanging mortal danger. means evil. The war is the main source of pri- System. Armenia: A Human Rights Pagnerre. For the space of the whole history of vate and public troubles when carrying on. mankind, especially the last two centuries, the Socrates appealed to beware of war. But it can staunch ally of politics was not philosophy be evoked by the necessity to protect the but war. In the attitude of mankind to war it is country, to repulse aggression. And then one clearly observed two opposite methods of ap- will be forced to wage war. Thus wars may be 102 103 103 2(7), 2016 Will POGHOSYAN

unjust, predatory and just, ones of liberation. No less important is another threat: the The position of Glavkon: a war is absolutely war of information, the war of words. It came inevitable if we intend to have enough pas- up to take the place of the ideological strug- tures and fields. It means good. This appraisal gle, of the struggle of the ideas. The main in- of war predominates in minds of politicians strument of the war of information is the till present day. slander directed to fan the conflicts between An organic connection of war and poli- the states. “And all in the world can be slan- tics was pointed out by a Prussian general and dered” (Plato, 1971, VI 500d). One becomes a military theorist Carl von Clausewitz (1780- slanderer by lack of education or by dilettan- 1831). He saw in war the continuation of the tism. So Karl R. Popper in the tendentious state politics with other means. “The war is work “The open Society and Its Enemies” not only a political act but a true instrument of (1945) represented Plato as a “totalitarian” politics, too, the continuation of political rela- thinker. This book slanders the mankind. It tions, their conducting with other means”. fabricates a fable that Plato under the name The position of Clausewitz served as a stimu- “the ideal state” wordily outlined a totalitarian lus for glorification of the old thesis about the regime which came true as the Third Reich inevitability of seizure of foreign territories and the USSR. Popper’s arbitrary inventions and practically influenced on the organization in connection of “totalitarian” Plato are ex- of military campaigns of the German Empire plained by his will to please the political and the Third Reich. hawks of the West straight after the end of the The conception of the organic connection World War II. He has done all to close the between politics and war led to two world access to the open society for the staunch ally wars. The maintenance of their alliance in of the USA and England. For the sake of this XXI century threatens to end with the World aim he has turned the philosophy into the War III which can wipe off the earth the hu- servant of the aggressive politics. The words man race. Only urgent giving the baneful alli- “totalitarian” and “authoritarian” were invent- ance up and the transition to the positions of ed by Mussolini in 1925 as high – flown epi- the alliance between politics and philosophy thets of fascism. Lumping the USSR together can save the mankind from the world catast- with the Third Reich, Popper strived to dis- rophy. To paraphrase Plato one can rightfully credit and shake the state of the democratic assert that untill the state power and the phi- centralism. losophy will merge all together and untill in Bertrand Russell’s book “A History of accordance with compulsory procedure will Western Philosophy” (1945) slanders the be removed those persons (and there are many mankind, too. He calls in question the exist- of them) who now strive apart either for the ence of “wisdom” as the principle of aristoc- power or for the philosophy, the genuine racy. Hence it follows: “The problem of find- peaceful democratic states will not see the ing a collection of “wise” men and leaving the sunlight (Plato 1971: Rp. V 473 d). Thus the government to them is thus an insoluble one. approaching World War III is the first real That is the ultimate reason for democracy” threat of the XXI century. (Russell, 1945, p. 107). There is in this Rus-

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unjust, predatory and just, ones of liberation. No less important is another threat: the sell’s conclusion a misunderstanding that highly effective method… I definitely do not The position of Glavkon: a war is absolutely war of information, the war of words. It came must be cleared up. One can think that de- like the war of words, but so is the reality” inevitable if we intend to have enough pas- up to take the place of the ideological strug- mocracy excludes wisdom and wise men. (Sartori, 1992, p. 469). The epithets of fas- tures and fields. It means good. This appraisal gle, of the struggle of the ideas. The main in- They can be successfully found by showing cism – “totalitarian” and “authoritarian” – af- of war predominates in minds of politicians strument of the war of information is the their ability to aspire to legal power and phi- ter the more precise definition of their content till present day. slander directed to fan the conflicts between losophy simultaneously. Now the problem of have become the apt words directed against An organic connection of war and poli- the states. “And all in the world can be slan- finding a collection of wise men and leaving the USSR, and now already against Russia, tics was pointed out by a Prussian general and dered” (Plato, 1971, VI 500d). One becomes a the government to them is on the agenda in too. And to ensure their unceasing repetition, military theorist Carl von Clausewitz (1780- slanderer by lack of education or by dilettan- the Republic of Armenia and Russian Federa- the slanderers have inserted them in a “new” 1831). He saw in war the continuation of the tism. So Karl R. Popper in the tendentious tion. Russell erroneously considers Plato’s (after Montesquieu) classification of the state politics with other means. “The war is work “The open Society and Its Enemies” guardians (suppliers of wise men) as ”a class forms of government: democracy, authoritari- not only a political act but a true instrument of (1945) represented Plato as a “totalitarian” apart” to be enemies of the open society and anism, totalitarianism. The crowds of philis- politics, too, the continuation of political rela- thinker. This book slanders the mankind. It is lumping together with them the Paraguayan tines, various “learned” gentlemen and offi- tions, their conducting with other means”. fabricates a fable that Plato under the name Jesuits, ecclesiastics and the Russian revolu- cials by means of the frequent repetition of The position of Clausewitz served as a stimu- “the ideal state” wordily outlined a totalitarian tionists who were not a class apart: like Jaco- judgements of the type “The USSR is a totali- lus for glorification of the old thesis about the regime which came true as the Third Reich bins they went in advance to fall the first. tarian empire”, “Russia is an authoritarian inevitability of seizure of foreign territories and the USSR. Popper’s arbitrary inventions There is a simple and right solution of state” turned them into most dangerous preju- and practically influenced on the organization in connection of “totalitarian” Plato are ex- Russell’s “insoluble problem”: to exclude dices threatening the existence of the man- of military campaigns of the German Empire plained by his will to please the political from the Constitutions of the Republic of kind. That is what brought the transformation and the Third Reich. hawks of the West straight after the end of the Armenia and the Russian Federation all refer- of the philosophy into the servant of the poli- The conception of the organic connection World War II. He has done all to close the ence to the word “successively”. This word tics. The place of the truth has occupied the between politics and war led to two world access to the open society for the staunch ally was arbitrarily added by Yeltsin to the princi- slander, false accusation. wars. The maintenance of their alliance in of the USA and England. For the sake of this pal clause of the Amendment XXII (1951) to The western slanderers suggested to ig- XXI century threatens to end with the World aim he has turned the philosophy into the the Constitution of the United States: “No norant Khrushchev an idea of Stalin’s cult to War III which can wipe off the earth the hu- servant of the aggressive politics. The words person shall be elected to the office of Presi- equate him with Hitler’s cult. This idea ap- man race. Only urgent giving the baneful alli- “totalitarian” and “authoritarian” were invent- dent more than twice successively”. “Succes- peared to be attractive because it allowed ance up and the transition to the positions of ed by Mussolini in 1925 as high – flown epi- sively” must disappear. This word gives the Khrushchev with the help of the apt words the alliance between politics and philosophy thets of fascism. Lumping the USSR together former presidents the right to be elected more “Stalin’s personality cult” to depreciate the can save the mankind from the world catast- with the Third Reich, Popper strived to dis- than twice and creates corrupt clans. Instead merits of his late lord and to exalt himself. rophy. To paraphrase Plato one can rightfully credit and shake the state of the democratic of such political wisdom the President of the The slander against Stalin led to the split of assert that untill the state power and the phi- centralism. Republic of Armenia declared coming transi- the party top and the whole country. The mer- losophy will merge all together and untill in Bertrand Russell’s book “A History of tion to parliamentary form of government. its of Stalin in the Great Patriotic and the accordance with compulsory procedure will Western Philosophy” (1945) slanders the Popper and Russell happened to have World War II were recognized by the country be removed those persons (and there are many mankind, too. He calls in question the exist- found followers full of energy: Brzezinski, and mankind. Even the Americans and Eng- of them) who now strive apart either for the ence of “wisdom” as the principle of aristoc- Friedrich, Linz, Sartori. The latter so charac- lishmen did great honor to him when he has power or for the philosophy, the genuine racy. Hence it follows: “The problem of find- terized the method of the conduct of the in- arrived to Potsdam. The argument about Sta- peaceful democratic states will not see the ing a collection of “wise” men and leaving the formation war: “The coinage of the apt words lin’s merits before the Motherland still is not sunlight (Plato 1971: Rp. V 473 d). Thus the government to them is thus an insoluble one. and their unceasing repetition. The whole ceasing. approaching World War III is the first real That is the ultimate reason for democracy” trick is to start with the help of the apt words The traitors of the proletarian thought threat of the XXI century. (Russell, 1945, p. 107). There is in this Rus- the slander. We must understand that this is suddenly felt themselves liberals. In Russia

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there exist always two kinds of liberals: liber- out theft) followed by president’s decree als in the sphere of morals and liberals of bu- about an amnesty of capitals. siness sphere. The first mentioned are group- The greatest of all these evils is developing round the parliament, the latter round the ing today before our eyes: the threat of be- president endowed with almost dictatorial po- coming of the USA the dictator of the world. wers. In 1993 the parliament was shot down “America goes not abroad in search of mon- from cannons. After that followed two-day sters to destroy…. She might become the dic- bloody citizen war. Then both of them came tatress of the world; she would no longer be to an agreement. The first such a political and the ruler of her own spirit”. Just so John social upheaval came over in Ancient Greece, Quincy Adams, sixth president of the United when between the aristocratic, attracting to States, son of John Adams, second president morals, and the self-interested parts of the rul- of the United States, determined the place of ing top arose hostility. “Using the force and America in the world. The warning prophecy, rivaling with each other, they finally came to contained in Adams’ words, have come true something average: agreed to establish private on that days when America went to Near East property for the land and houses distributing to destroy the “monster” Saddam Hussein. At them among themselves, and those whom that time she made the first step to become the they till this time protected as their free dictatress of the world. True, the question is friends and bread-winners, decided to turn of America in the person of the conservative into slaves, making out of them rural workers political coalition which at that moment sup- and servants, but themselves were engaged in ported the republicans as the party of the ma- the military matter and guard service” (Plato, jority in the national politics. The spirit of 1971, VIII 547c). As we see, the new incom- freedom and democracy usual for America ers are ambitious men having established the began to disappear because of violating the private property only for themselves and hav- great ideology of American founding fathers. ing turned the free people into the service for After the liberalization and (as a result) de- themselves, too. A government which is foun- struction of the Soviet Union which in the ded on ambition is known under the name opinion of the American conservatives and “timocracy”. One may think that here Plato European liberals was the “empire of evil” has described the transition from the col- remained else the countries of the “axis of lapsed Workers’ and Peasants’ republic to evil” representing rather the ready booty than Russia of Yeltsin and Putin in which the basic a real threat for the West. In such favourable human rights exist only de jure, on paper. But conditions the American expansion has ac- de facto the ignorant rulers usurped the rights quired extremely aggressive character. to freedom, security and property, supposing Among the factors of American expansion that those are the rights of the state. For the (ideology, economics, military strategy, inter- common people only the right to resistance nal politics) first and foremost swiftly went against the oppression is retained. In Russia out the military strategy. This is the strategy privatization is constantly realized in the of the highly precise lightning stroke. The criminal form of “prikhvatization” (to carry factor of individual possessing the powerful

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there exist always two kinds of liberals: liber- out theft) followed by president’s decree arsenal of highly precise usual weapons the the occasion to most brutal and unjust pun- als in the sphere of morals and liberals of bu- about an amnesty of capitals. first men of violence of the XXI century con- ishments generously scattered by terrorists. siness sphere. The first mentioned are group- The greatest of all these evils is develop- sidered to be a “source” of the right of the But one can rightfully point out the idleness ing round the parliament, the latter round the ing today before our eyes: the threat of be- United States to search in countries of the of their fanaticism. The terrorists joined the president endowed with almost dictatorial po- coming of the USA the dictator of the world. “axis of evil” banned weapons, to overthrow principle of fear, horror to the principle of vir- wers. In 1993 the parliament was shot down “America goes not abroad in search of mon- despotic regimes existing there and to estab- tue. The virtue became fearful as in the epoch from cannons. After that followed two-day sters to destroy…. She might become the dic- lish democracy. What despotism is in ques- of the French revolution. Meanwhile it is nec- bloody citizen war. Then both of them came tatress of the world; she would no longer be tion? essary here tolerance, not fear. Why? The to an agreement. The first such a political and the ruler of her own spirit”. Just so John The eastern despotism is being consid- question of tolerance is the fundamental reli- social upheaval came over in Ancient Greece, Quincy Adams, sixth president of the United ered. In contrast to the western despotism it gious question. The sight of this is completely when between the aristocratic, attracting to States, son of John Adams, second president never becomes the totalitarian tyranny. It is lost by the religious fanatics. Because of it morals, and the self-interested parts of the rul- of the United States, determined the place of very important here to note that the Islam im- liberals seized the opportunity of declaring ing top arose hostility. “Using the force and America in the world. The warning prophecy, poses a certain bridle on the eastern despot- tolerance the basic value of Europe. With the rivaling with each other, they finally came to contained in Adams’ words, have come true ism. According to Hegel who belonged to the help of compliance and mildness the terrorists something average: agreed to establish private on that days when America went to Near East generation of John Quincy Adams, the most would achieve many more results if they in- property for the land and houses distributing to destroy the “monster” Saddam Hussein. At gifted and educated president of the United deed want to turn virtue into the conviction of them among themselves, and those whom that time she made the first step to become the States, Islam is in the true sense of the word a modern man. Then the terror will go down, they till this time protected as their free dictatress of the world. True, the question is the religion of the elevated. Concerning the too. It must be outdated. It is impossible to friends and bread-winners, decided to turn of America in the person of the conservative inhabitants of the Near East, especially the fight with this evil only by means of physical into slaves, making out of them rural workers political coalition which at that moment sup- Arabs, the best minds of the XIX and XX elimination of death-terrorists and of unceas- and servants, but themselves were engaged in ported the republicans as the party of the ma- centuries kept to the idea that this people in its ing repeating the apt words “the terrorist or- the military matter and guard service” (Plato, jority in the national politics. The spirit of fit to the united god is indifferent to any ca- ganization banned in Russia”. Montesquieu 1971, VIII 547c). As we see, the new incom- freedom and democracy usual for America lamity, generously sacrifice its life and its ma- pointed out the idleness of this method: “The ers are ambitious men having established the began to disappear because of violating the terial wealth. The Islam is abolishing any men who wait in the future life for the certain private property only for themselves and hav- great ideology of American founding fathers. caste system and spreading the spirit of indi- reward escape the hands of the legislator; they ing turned the free people into the service for After the liberalization and (as a result) de- vidual freedom. The true despotism has no despise the death too much”. The govern- themselves, too. A government which is foun- struction of the Soviet Union which in the place in the states of the Near East. The re- ments are obliged to observe strictly tolerance ded on ambition is known under the name opinion of the American conservatives and gime of Saddam Hussein was not a special concerning the world outlook and punishment “timocracy”. One may think that here Plato European liberals was the “empire of evil” exception to the general rule. of the religious fanatics. It must be put a veto has described the transition from the col- remained else the countries of the “axis of An acknowledged threat of the XXI cen- on the obscene caricatures insulting under dif- lapsed Workers’ and Peasants’ republic to evil” representing rather the ready booty than tury is the international terrorism. Partly it has ferent pretexts the memory of the great Russia of Yeltsin and Putin in which the basic a real threat for the West. In such favourable arisen as a protest against the expansion of prophet. human rights exist only de jure, on paper. But conditions the American expansion has ac- America which has become the dictatress of The unquestionable threat of the XXI de facto the ignorant rulers usurped the rights quired extremely aggressive character. the world. But partly the cause of its origin century is the approaching of NATO to the to freedom, security and property, supposing Among the factors of American expansion became the religious fanaticism. Concerning frontiers of Russia. This is a proud country that those are the rights of the state. For the (ideology, economics, military strategy, inter- the latter Montesquieu noticed: “The evil and great nuclear power. It is dangerous to try common people only the right to resistance nal politics) first and foremost swiftly went rooted in the idea that the man is obliged to its patience by unreasonable sanctions and against the oppression is retained. In Russia out the military strategy. This is the strategy take revenge for the deity”. In consequence of permanent intimidation. The people of Russia privatization is constantly realized in the of the highly precise lightning stroke. The the abuse of the deity’s name the concept of perfectly remembers perfidious assault upon criminal form of “prikhvatization” (to carry factor of individual possessing the powerful the sacrilege became boundless and served as the USSR by the Nazi Germany on the 22nd

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of June 1941, terrible defeats and the Great uct of the devil calling the youth “to stick in Victory. If the expansion of NATO to East polemics to words”, not to ideas, but words, leads to a war then it is not excepted that the not to struggle of ideas, but to war of words. Russian timocracy will prevail over the Ame- As far as the morals of the governments of rican democracy. As the classical lesson can Israel and Turkey are concerned, one can serve the Peloponnesian War in which the ti- think that they are exactly confused by the mocratic Sparta prevailed over the democratic devil. These politicians cannot comprehend Athens. that in the cause of the recognition of the Ar- Thus the system of threats of the XXI menian holocaust the evidence of Sarah Ar- century can be presented in the form of a pyr- onson (1890-1917) outweighs mountains of amid with the summit “America the dictatress archive documents. She was tortured to death of the world” and the sides representing the by Turks, and it became the prelude of the ascent to the summit according to degree of Jewish holocaust. Sarah’s death shows the strengthening of the threats and the descent inner tie of both holocausts. according to degree of their weakening. Paraphrasing Hegel one can by right as- It remains to be seen (and this is im- sert that the state power and politics, however portant fundamental question): how are the they try to reason without addressing to phi- threats of the XXI century to be fought? First losophy, they can possess without it neither of all it must be put an end to the slanderous life nor spirit nor truth. Meanwhile the war of war of information. Unexpectedly Germany information, the war of words turned philoso- has given the lead in the cause of abandoning phy into a servant of politics. It only has the notorious war of words. On the 2nd of brought nearer the world catastrophe. Under June 2016 the Bundestag recognized the fact the circumstances extremely actual has be- of the Genocide of the Armenians after 101 come the slogan “No philosophy, no politics, years from the time of its committing. By no politics, no philosophy”. Only the merging force of the magical figure 100 the German of the state power and the philosophy, the negationists of the Genocide of the year 1915 powerful alliance between them can cope were put to silence. This is a whole upheaval with the oncoming terrible events. Instead of in the international relations. For tens of years yielding in the field of international relations the war of information was under way against to wholly human spirit, the governments are the Armenian people which has suffered the only talking profusely about the national in- deportation into the other world. The Geno- terests. They appreciate the national interests cide was deliberately called a mass murder. above the great ideas of mankind (truth, free- Through the malicious nonrecognition of the dom, justice, humanity, progress). Let us on Genocide of the year 1915 the United States that score listen to Montesquieu: “If I knew and other states are pecking at Armenia and something advantageous for my family and do not let it rise. The active attitude of the disadvantageous for fatherland, I should try to German parliamentarians of Turkish origin forget about it, and if I knew something ad- deserves approval. The German people is vantageous for my fatherland and harmful for tired of the war of words representing a prod- Europe and for mankind, I should consider it

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of June 1941, terrible defeats and the Great uct of the devil calling the youth “to stick in criminal”. Thus to show off a long list of evils lose its blaze as the war of words will be Victory. If the expansion of NATO to East polemics to words”, not to ideas, but words, produced by the “ideology” and to glorify the brought to a stop by the fight of ideas. leads to a war then it is not excepted that the not to struggle of ideas, but to war of words. national interests, this is only a bad profuse Russian timocracy will prevail over the Ame- As far as the morals of the governments of talk against the great ideas of mankind. REFERENCES rican democracy. As the classical lesson can Israel and Turkey are concerned, one can The system of the international relations serve the Peloponnesian War in which the ti- think that they are exactly confused by the turned out now thus that in Europe one of the Adams, J.Q. (1991). Expansion, Continental mocratic Sparta prevailed over the democratic devil. These politicians cannot comprehend states after 20 years of America’s service cast and Overseas. The Reader’s Com- Athens. that in the cause of the recognition of the Ar- off its fetters and began to speak about equali- panion to American History. (E. Fo- Thus the system of threats of the XXI menian holocaust the evidence of Sarah Ar- ty. This is Russia. All powers of the so-called ner, & J. Garraty, Eds.), Boston. century can be presented in the form of a pyr- onson (1890-1917) outweighs mountains of West scold it and do not let it rise. Then Eng- Aristotele. (1971) Politik, hg. v. Carl And- amid with the summit “America the dictatress archive documents. She was tortured to death land. It leaves the European Union by force of resen, Olof Gigon. 2., durchgesehene of the world” and the sides representing the by Turks, and it became the prelude of the definite civilizational processes. The western und um einen Kommentar erweiterte ascent to the summit according to degree of Jewish holocaust. Sarah’s death shows the civilization has two faces: the Anglo-Saxon Auflage, Artemis-Verlag, Zürich, strengthening of the threats and the descent inner tie of both holocausts. and the eurocontinental one. England returns Stuttgart. according to degree of their weakening. Paraphrasing Hegel one can by right as- into the lap of the Anglo-Saxon civilization. Clausewitz, C. von (1957) Vom Kriege. Ber- It remains to be seen (and this is im- sert that the state power and politics, however This only will widen the borders of the euro- lin. portant fundamental question): how are the they try to reason without addressing to phi- continental civilization a part of which before Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts threats of the XXI century to be fought? First losophy, they can possess without it neither the collapse of the USSR was Russia. Hun- (1831). Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am of all it must be put an end to the slanderous life nor spirit nor truth. Meanwhile the war of tington is right insisting that “when Russians Main, 1970 war of information. Unexpectedly Germany information, the war of words turned philoso- ceased to conduct themselves as Marxists and Hegel, G.W.F. (1980). Phänomenologie des has given the lead in the cause of abandoning phy into a servant of politics. It only has began to conduct themselves as Russians the Geistes, hg. v. Wolfgang Bonsiepen the notorious war of words. On the 2nd of brought nearer the world catastrophe. Under gap between them and the West increased”. It u. Reinhard Heede. (Gesammelte June 2016 the Bundestag recognized the fact the circumstances extremely actual has be- is clear that this gap must be removed. There Werke, Bd. 9) Meiner, Hamburg. of the Genocide of the Armenians after 101 come the slogan “No philosophy, no politics, is no need to become Marxists again. One Huntington, S.P. (1996). The Clash of Civili- years from the time of its committing. By no politics, no philosophy”. Only the merging simply must not be ashamed of Marxism and zations and the Remaking of World force of the magical figure 100 the German of the state power and the philosophy, the run down the history of the USSR to please Order. negationists of the Genocide of the year 1915 powerful alliance between them can cope Brzezinski. Then very soon Russia will occu- Jefferson, T. (1776). Declaration of Indepen- were put to silence. This is a whole upheaval with the oncoming terrible events. Instead of py England’s place in the union of the peoples dence, July 4. in the international relations. For tens of years yielding in the field of international relations of continental Europe. Russia is not “Ortho- Montesquieu, C.L. de (1951). L’esprit des the war of information was under way against to wholly human spirit, the governments are dox”, China is not “Sino”-civilization, as in- lois. Dt. Vom Geist der Gesetze, 2 the Armenian people which has suffered the only talking profusely about the national insists Huntington. The Chinese conduct them- Bde. H. Laupp’sche Buchhandlung, deportation into the other world. The Geno- terests. They appreciate the national interests selves as Marxists, therefore the gap between Tübingen. cide was deliberately called a mass murder. above the great ideas of mankind (truth, free- them and West is impetuously reducing. Platon. (1970). Werke, hg. v. Gunther Eigler. Through the malicious nonrecognition of the dom, justice, humanity, progress). Let us on In the nearest perspective two alliances Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Genocide of the year 1915 the United States that score listen to Montesquieu: “If I knew will countervail: on the one hand the USA Darmstadt. Darin: Der Staatsmann and other states are pecking at Armenia and something advantageous for my family and and England, on the other hand Russia and (Bd 6). do not let it rise. The active attitude of the disadvantageous for fatherland, I should try to China. The approximate parity of their forces Platon. (1971). Werke, hg. v. Gunther Eigler. German parliamentarians of Turkish origin forget about it, and if I knew something ad- will ensure the balance in the international Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, deserves approval. The German people is vantageous for my fatherland and harmful for relations. The war of information on the part Darmstadt. Darin: Der Staat (Bd. 4). tired of the war of words representing a prod- Europe and for mankind, I should consider it of Anglo-Saxons will be continued, but it will

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Poghosyan, W. (2013). The Forms of Gov- Russell, B. (1945). A History of Western Phi- ernment and the State Morals in the losophy, N.Y.: Simon and Schuster Contemporary World. Wisdom №1. 1964. Yerevan: Tigran Mets Publishing Sartori, G. (1987). Demokratietheorie. Darm- House. stadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchge- Popper, K.R. (1945). The Open Society and sellschaft, 1992. its Enemies. rev. Aufl. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1952.

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Poghosyan, W. (2013). The Forms of Gov- Russell, B. (1945). A History of Western Phi- UDC 94(479.25):316:32 ernment and the State Morals in the losophy, N.Y.: Simon and Schuster Ashot VOSKANIAN Contemporary World. Wisdom №1. 1964. Yerevan: Tigran Mets Publishing Sartori, G. (1987). Demokratietheorie. Darm- ON TWO FACTORS OF NATIONAL IDENTITY: House. stadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchge- ORIENTATION AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY Popper, K.R. (1945). The Open Society and sellschaft, 1992. its Enemies. rev. Aufl. Routledge and Abstract Kegan Paul, London, 1952. Given peculiarity of Armenian history, the Armenian political thought for centuries debated around geopolitical orientation between neighboring great powers. In post-Soviet reflections, however, the emphasis has been moved towards self-reliance, and the very principle of political orientation was questioned. The attitude towards Israel Ori, whose name was viewed as a symbol of the principle of orientation, became the locums for determining the political-ideological disposition of debater, as well as understanding their approaches towards different concepts of national identity. A brief comparison between the conceptual paradigms of two renowned historians Ashot Hovhannisyan (1887-1972) and Leo (Arakel Babakhanyan, 1860-1932) in relation to their attitude towards Israel Ori aims to demonstrate that questioning of the very principle of orientation has much deeper roots in Armenian historical studies than commonly is believed. It also illuminates the complex relationship between principle of orientation and desired model of social structure of society, which these two classics have revealed in rather different ways.

Keywords: national identity, geopolitical orientation, social structure, methodology of historical studies, Israel Ori, Leo, Ashot Hovhannisyan.

I entation was viewed as vulnerable and the very principle of political orientation was Shortly after the collapse of Soviet Em- questioned. The emphasis moved towards the pire, a critical re-examination of conventional principle of self-reliance, according to which perceptions about national identity surfaced in any conflict with neighboring countries Armenia. One of the key issues around which should be resolved on their own – stipulated the debate revolved was the question of geo- in “the law of excluding the third force”.1 political orientation. Due to peculiarity of Armenian history, the Armenian political 1 The doctrine suggested by Armenian historian thought for centuries debated around orienta- and philologist Rafael Ishkanyan (belongs to a tion between neighboring great powers: narrow circle of the Karabakh Committee) ar- whether Rome or Parthia, Byzantine Empire gued that Armenia should rely only on itself or Persia, whether Turkey or Russia. The dis- for resolving its issues with the neighbors and tinctive feature of the post-Soviet debates, its foreign policy should be therefore limited however, was that any mode of political ori- only to doable tasks (Ishkhanian 1991). 110 111 111 2(7), 2016 Ashot VOSKANIAN

During these ideological debates the eva- complex relationship between ‘the principle luation of the role of Israel Ori came to full of orientation’ and the social structure of so- strength. The name of this famous Armenian ciety, which they have shown in rather differ- diplomat and political activist of 17th century ent ways. was rightfully viewed as a symbol of the principle of orientation. The attitude towards Isra- III el Ori’s political thinking became the locums for determining political-ideological disposi- Ashot Hovhannisyan (1887-1972) has tion of the debater, as well as for understand- confessed in his thesis “Israel Ori and the idea ing their approaches towards different con- of Armenian national liberation”2 (Johan- cepts of national identity. nissjan, 2016) that the interest in the topic In the following years after the inde- was fueled by the assessment of his teacher, pendence the debate didn’t go on and was ac- Professor Karl-Theodor von Heigel, accord- tually forgotten. As well, the linkage between ing to which Israel Ori was an adventurist the principle of orientation and other, espe- pursuing his personal interest (Johannissjan, cially social components of national identity 2016, p. 416). Hence, A. Hovhannisyan want- was ignored. ed to demonstrate that Ori’s “adventurism” had a historical justification, because it has II fostered the development of the Armenian aspirations for national liberation. The paper intends to demonstrate, that It must be noted that A. Hovhannisyan the questioning of the very principle of orien- wasn’t a proponent of the idea of “liberating tation has deeper roots in Armenian historical Armenia with the help of foreign powers”. As studies than commonly is believed. At the a Marxist-historian he underlined the common same time, I want to show the direct relation- social struggle of the Armenians and other ship, existing between the principle of orien- exploited neighboring nations, which in the tation, which primarily related to the external end should have resulted into liberation. At factors that shape identity, and the problems the same time, being a pragmatic historian, he of social structure of society, which are obvi- accepted that such ideas had played signifi- ously connected to the internal self-organi- cant role in Armenian history. He saw the zation of national body. source of “the Armenian liberation legend” in Hence, I will make a brief comparison the dream ascribed to Armenian Katholicos between two “Great Shushi people” – histori- Nerses the Great, which predicted that the ans Ashot Hovhannisyan and Leo (Arakel Armenian liberation (salvation) would take Babakhanyan). I will review their conceptual 2 paradigms in relation to the attitude towards Defended at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1913. The main ideas of this work Israel Ori and his idea of “liberating Armenia were further developed in the two-volume mo- with the help of foreigners”. I hope, that the nograph “Episodes in the History of Armenian reflection of historical studies of these two Liberation Thought” (Hovhannisyan, 1957, prominent scholars will help to illuminate the 1959). 112 2(7), 2016 112 113 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

During these ideological debates the eva- complex relationship between ‘the principle place by Byzantine support. Over the centu- tionship between Armenian liberation dreams luation of the role of Israel Ori came to full of orientation’ and the social structure of so- ries, the legend has metamorphosed several and historical process conditioned by real strength. The name of this famous Armenian ciety, which they have shown in rather differ- times, but the core idea of the external salva- economic and social interests. Nevertheless, diplomat and political activist of 17th century ent ways. tion has remained intact. he thought that in Armenia, which has des- was rightfully viewed as a symbol of the prin- The objective of A. Hovhannisyan was to perately lagged behind global developments, ciple of orientation. The attitude towards Isra- III demonstrate that all historical phases of ex- the ideas, dreams and even delusions about el Ori’s political thinking became the locums ternal liberation idea have been propelled by liberation turned into the base for social mobi- for determining political-ideological disposi- Ashot Hovhannisyan (1887-1972) has certain class’ or social layer’s interest. In this lization; hence they were instrumental in cre- tion of the debater, as well as for understand- confessed in his thesis “Israel Ori and the idea way, a nexus between the process of social ating new social reality. In that very point ing their approaches towards different con- of Armenian national liberation”2 (Johan- and national liberation has been established. Hovhannisyan has noted the positive side of cepts of national identity. nissjan, 2016) that the interest in the topic From this very perspective was analyzed also the adventurist activities of Israel Ori as In the following years after the inde- was fueled by the assessment of his teacher, the shift from Western orientation to Russian termed by his teacher Prof. Heigel. pendence the debate didn’t go on and was ac- Professor Karl-Theodor von Heigel, accord- one, implemented due to Israel Ori’s activi- Within the same context we should as- tually forgotten. As well, the linkage between ing to which Israel Ori was an adventurist ties. The real value behind Russian orientation sess A. Hovhannissian’s ambivalent approach the principle of orientation and other, espe- pursuing his personal interest (Johannissjan, was that thanks to it, Armenians were eventu- towards the falsifications in history. To wit, cially social components of national identity 2016, p. 416). Hence, A. Hovhannisyan want- ally integrated into new community regulated he demonstrates that Israel Ori and his con- was ignored. ed to demonstrate that Ori’s “adventurism” by Soviet ethos. This switch from the national federate Father Minas have falsified the reali- had a historical justification, because it has perspective to the social one has kept in mind ty for Peter the Great, trying to convince him II fostered the development of the Armenian another “specific-Marxist”3 Alexander Mias- that Armenians have always been of Russian aspirations for national liberation. nikian saying “from all orientations the Soviet orientation. Hovhannisyan believes that the The paper intends to demonstrate, that It must be noted that A. Hovhannisyan one is the best”. fake letter, presenting something as reality, the questioning of the very principle of orien- wasn’t a proponent of the idea of “liberating However, if interpreted in this light, the which in fact didn’t even exist, has given an tation has deeper roots in Armenian historical Armenia with the help of foreign powers”. As principle of orientation in its conventional impulse for creating a new historical perspec- studies than commonly is believed. At the a Marxist-historian he underlined the common sense is surmounted. The Armenian liberation tive. same time, I want to show the direct relation- social struggle of the Armenians and other legend having originated from national liber- It is noteworthy, that the same fact un- ship, existing between the principle of orien- exploited neighboring nations, which in the ation ideology transforms into social libera- covered by A. Hovhannisyan provoked the tation, which primarily related to the external end should have resulted into liberation. At tion reality. second hero of this paper – historian Leo, to factors that shape identity, and the problems the same time, being a pragmatic historian, he It is not hard to notice that A. Hovhan- review his positive assessment of Israel Ori in of social structure of society, which are obvi- accepted that such ideas had played signifi- nissian’s presentation of historical events has his earlier works. Some scholars believe that ously connected to the internal self-organi- cant role in Armenian history. He saw the been fashioned as a “grand narrative” in terms Leo’s change of attitude towards Israel Ori zation of national body. source of “the Armenian liberation legend” in of J-F. Lyotard. The essential historical epi- had moralistic grounds. I think there were Hence, I will make a brief comparison the dream ascribed to Armenian Katholicos sodes are described and assessed from actual other reasons. In order to persuade them, let between two “Great Shushi people” – histori- Nerses the Great, which predicted that the perspective of narrator, who knows the end of us turn to Leo’s concept of historical study. ans Ashot Hovhannisyan and Leo (Arakel Armenian liberation (salvation) would take story. It is understood that A. Hovhannisyan Babakhanyan). I will review their conceptual being a cognizant historian didn’t suppose IV 2 paradigms in relation to the attitude towards Defended at Ludwig Maximilian University of that there were direct cause and effect rela- Munich in 1913. The main ideas of this work Israel Ori and his idea of “liberating Armenia Leo’s (1860-1832) most popular work – were further developed in the two-volume mo- 3 Group of Armenian Marxists (similar to the with the help of foreigners”. I hope, that the the three-volume “Armenian History” (the nograph “Episodes in the History of Armenian Jewish “Bund”), which tried to combine the reflection of historical studies of these two first volume published in 1919), was written Liberation Thought” (Hovhannisyan, 1957, ideology of social liberation with “specific” prominent scholars will help to illuminate the 1959). features of Armenian national identity. in opposition to the academic school of Ar- 112 113 113 2(7), 2016 Ashot VOSKANIAN

menian historiography. Leo consciously ap- the ideology of “narodniki” and that of M. posed himself to the conventional Armenian Bakunin. As a figure who has transmitted historians, in trying to inject emotional, “viv- those ideas to the Armenian ground, he has id” elements in his studies thus orienting his considered Mikael Nalbandian - a publicist, work towards more patriotic, ideological di- poet and political activist, to whom, by the mension. way, Ashot Hovhannisyan has dedicated his The tragic experience of Armenian Gen- second fundamental monograph (Hovhannis- ocide turned into a powerful impulse resulting yan, 1955, 1956). into U-turn at second stage of Leo’s work, The weak point of Nalbandian’s libera- which can be understood as self-overcoming, tion project Leo sees in the contradiction be- if not self-denial. tween social and national ways of liberation. Leo of later period becomes a ruthless This important problem has been codified in critic of the liberation project, linked with ex- Nalbandian’s classical article “Agriculture as ternal support. I believe, that the shift of his a direct Way” written in 1862 (Nalbandian, attitude towards Israel Ori was not necessarily 1985). The willful postponement of the social connected to morality issue, but conditioned component of liberation project and limitation much more by a conviction that fake ideas of national liberation to Western Armenia on- that do not reflect the reality in a proper way ly (Leo noted that in fact Nalbandian had no push for adventurist and irresponsible actions, idea of real situation there) has rendered his leading to consequences, which can be disas- liberation project to being abstract and adven- trous for the whole nation. turist one. Hence, we can say that our two propo- That adventurism for the sake of success nents had concentrated on different constitu- of the endeavor, has especially exhibited itself encies of ideology (in sense of Karl Mann- in one episode, which in fact repeats - alt- heim). Hovhannisyan tries to explicate utopi- hough unsuccessful - the story of Israel Ori’s an element of the idea of national liberation, fake letter. In order to mobilize the Armenian while treating it as a kind of futuristic vision. community, Nalbandian has attempted to per- Leo understands the ideology of national lib- suade Istanbul-Armenian Serovbe Tagvoryan eration as a collection of delusions, as “false to spread news that there is an active under- consciousness” in sense of the Frankfurt ground secret committee in the city. The re- School. Therefore, we can consider the se- quest was turned down on grounds that it cond stage of Leo’s work as a critique of ide- would discredit the movement. ology. Leo’s methodological idea of orientation This concept has emerged from Leo’s as false consciousness was further developed work “The Ideology of Turkish-Armenian in his book “Khojas’ (Merchants) Capital” Revolution”, written in 1928, published in (Leo, 1934). It was transformed to the concept 1934 in Paris (Leo, 1994). Here Leo demon- of “clerical diplomacy” and applied on all of strates the clear nexus between Turkish- Armenian history. When this specific form of Armenian liberation ideology and the princi- diplomatic activities, based on class interest ples of Russian socialism, in particular with of the clergy and inalienably chained with re-

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menian historiography. Leo consciously ap- the ideology of “narodniki” and that of M. ligious principles, dogmas and beliefs, trans- important common feature was the interest posed himself to the conventional Armenian Bakunin. As a figure who has transmitted cends into secular realm it turns into an unre- towards the social dimensions of history. historians, in trying to inject emotional, “viv- those ideas to the Armenian ground, he has alistic policy guided with abstract ideas4. Ashot Hovhannisyan has shown how the id” elements in his studies thus orienting his considered Mikael Nalbandian - a publicist, It is easy to see, that Leo’s “Khojas’ Ca- question of geopolitical orientation was trans- work towards more patriotic, ideological di- poet and political activist, to whom, by the pital” – like Hovhannisyan’s monograph - is formed into the question of choosing a prefer- mension. way, Ashot Hovhannisyan has dedicated his constructed in “grand narrative” fashion. able social model. In Leo’s work there was a The tragic experience of Armenian Gen- second fundamental monograph (Hovhannis- However, unlike A. Hovhannisyan, who pre- key shift of research focus towards studying ocide turned into a powerful impulse resulting yan, 1955, 1956). sents a sequence of ripening liberation ideas, the economic relations, first of all the interna- into U-turn at second stage of Leo’s work, The weak point of Nalbandian’s libera- Leo qualifies the same chain of historical tional movement of the Armenian trade capi- which can be understood as self-overcoming, tion project Leo sees in the contradiction be- events as a rally of starry-eyed and destructive tal, which, as he believed, had enormously if not self-denial. tween social and national ways of liberation. delusions5. influenced the national history. Moreover, Leo of later period becomes a ruthless This important problem has been codified in cooperation as well as competition of Arme- critic of the liberation project, linked with ex- Nalbandian’s classical article “Agriculture as V nian merchants with East Indian Company ternal support. I believe, that the shift of his a direct Way” written in 1862 (Nalbandian, came to signify the Armenian participation in attitude towards Israel Ori was not necessarily 1985). The willful postponement of the social This principled opposition is explained shaping a new economic world order. In this connected to morality issue, but conditioned component of liberation project and limitation by the difference of the respective perspec- regards, Leo follows the footsteps of Profes- much more by a conviction that fake ideas of national liberation to Western Armenia on- tives of two historians. A. Hovhannisyan sor M. Pokrovski and alongside the latter, he that do not reflect the reality in a proper way ly (Leo noted that in fact Nalbandian had no views Armenian history from resurrected So- can be viewed as forerunner of the “world- push for adventurist and irresponsible actions, idea of real situation there) has rendered his viet Armenia, which marches towards the fu- system” theory. leading to consequences, which can be disas- liberation project to being abstract and adven- ture. Leo’s perspective, in contrary, streams Thus, the analysis of different methodo- trous for the whole nation. turist one. from the tragic experience of Armenian Ca- logical traditions in historical studies unveils Hence, we can say that our two propo- That adventurism for the sake of success tastrophe. that the correlation between geopolitical ori- nents had concentrated on different constitu- of the endeavor, has especially exhibited itself Notwithstanding the considerable differ- entation (the essential component of national encies of ideology (in sense of Karl Mann- in one episode, which in fact repeats - alt- ences, there is significant degree of similarity liberation ideology) and the models of social heim). Hovhannisyan tries to explicate utopi- hough unsuccessful - the story of Israel Ori’s in the concepts of these authors. The most organization of national life - is rather com- an element of the idea of national liberation, fake letter. In order to mobilize the Armenian plicated and is often functioning on implicit 4 It would be of scientific interest to compare the while treating it as a kind of futuristic vision. community, Nalbandian has attempted to per- levels. This hidden linkage is an important Leo’s “clerical diplomacy” with the” protestant Leo understands the ideology of national lib- suade Istanbul-Armenian Serovbe Tagvoryan factor, which influences further transfor- diplomacy”, which, according to some scholars eration as a collection of delusions, as “false to spread news that there is an active under- has defined the policy of US president W. Wil- mations of national identity. This is yet an- consciousness” in sense of the Frankfurt ground secret committee in the city. The re- son towards the victims of Armenian Geno- other reason for scholars who are interested in School. Therefore, we can consider the se- quest was turned down on grounds that it cide. For more accounts see (Grabill 1974). Armenian identity to direct their researches cond stage of Leo’s work as a critique of ide- would discredit the movement. 5 Do not be amiss to notice that in order to cre- towards understanding nonlinear relations be- ology. Leo’s methodological idea of orientation ate a general impression of holistic historical tween desirable (“ideal”) and existent (“real”) This concept has emerged from Leo’s as false consciousness was further developed perspective the both historians tried to avoid forms of social organization in Armenia. work “The Ideology of Turkish-Armenian in his book “Khojas’ (Merchants) Capital” forms of continuous linear narrative and pre- Revolution”, written in 1928, published in (Leo, 1934). It was transformed to the concept ferred to work with large “episodes”. This spe- REFERENCES cific fact is reflected in the titles of their mas- 1934 in Paris (Leo, 1994). Here Leo demon- of “clerical diplomacy” and applied on all of terpieces: “Episodes in the History of Armeni- strates the clear nexus between Turkish- Armenian history. When this specific form of Grabill, J. (1974). Protestant Diplomacy and an Liberation Thought” and “Episodes from Armenian liberation ideology and the princi- diplomatic activities, based on class interest an American Mandate for Armenia: Armenian Clerical Diplomacy” (covering ples of Russian socialism, in particular with of the clergy and inalienably chained with re- heading for “Khoja’s Capital”) by Leo. 1914-1920, In: Recent Studies in Mo- 114 115 115 2(7), 2016 Ashot VOSKANIAN

dern Armenian History. Armenian Israel Orin & hay azatagrakan ga- Heritage Press. Cambridge, Mass. ghapary’ (Israel Ori and the Armeni- Hovhannisyan, A. (1955, 1956). Nalband- an Liberation Idea, in Armenian). yany’ & nra jhamanaky’ (Nalband- Yerevan: Hovhannisyan institut. yan and his Time, in Armenian). Vol. Leo. (1934). Khojayakan kapitaly’ & nra 1 & 2. Yerevan: Haypethrat. qaghaqakan-hasarakakan dery’ ha- Hovhannisyan, A. (1957, 1959). Drvagner yoc mej. Drvagner hay kgherakan di- hay azatagrakan mtqi patmut’yunic vanagitut’yan patmut’yunic (The (Episodes from the History of Arme- Merchant Capital and its Political- nian Liberation Thought, in Armeni- Social Role for Armenians: Episodes an). Vol. 1 & 2. Yerevan: HSSR GA from the History of Armenian Cleri- hratarakchutyun. cal Diplomacy, in Armenian) Vol. I. Ishkhanian, R. (1991). The Law of Excluding Yerevan: Pethrat. the Third Force. In G. J. Libaridian Leo. (1994). T’urqahay heghap’okhut’yan (Ed.) Armenia at the Crossroads. gaghap’arabanut’yuny’ (The Ideolo- Democracy and Nationhood in the gy of the Turkish-Armenian Revolu- Post-Soviet Era. Blue Crane Books, tion, in Armenian). Vol. A. Yerevan: Watertown, Mass. Shaghik. Johannissjan, A. (2016). Israel Ori und die Lyotard, J.-F. (1984).The Postmodern Condi- Armenische Befreiungsidee. Inagu- tion. l. Manchester University Press. ral-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Nalbandian, M. (1985). Yerkragorc’ut’yuny’ Doktorwürde der Philosophischen vorpes ughigh twanaparh (Agricul- Fakultät (1. Sektion) der K. Ludwig- ture as a Straight Way). In M. Nal- Maximilians-Universität zu Mün- bandian Collection of Works. Yere- chen vorgelegt von Aschot Johan- van: Sovetakan grogh. nissjan. In Hovhannisyan, A. (2016).

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dern Armenian History. Armenian Israel Orin & hay azatagrakan ga- Heritage Press. Cambridge, Mass. ghapary’ (Israel Ori and the Armeni-

Hovhannisyan, A. (1955, 1956). Nalband- an Liberation Idea, in Armenian). yany’ & nra jhamanaky’ (Nalband- Yerevan: Hovhannisyan institut. yan and his Time, in Armenian). Vol. Leo. (1934). Khojayakan kapitaly’ & nra

1 & 2. Yerevan: Haypethrat. qaghaqakan-hasarakakan dery’ ha-

Hovhannisyan, A. (1957, 1959). Drvagner yoc mej. Drvagner hay kgherakan di- hay azatagrakan mtqi patmut’yunic vanagitut’yan patmut’yunic (The

(Episodes from the History of Arme- Merchant Capital and its Political- nian Liberation Thought, in Armeni- Social Role for Armenians: Episodes an). Vol. 1 & 2. Yerevan: HSSR GA from the History of Armenian Cleri- hratarakchutyun. cal Diplomacy, in Armenian) Vol. I.

Ishkhanian, R. (1991). The Law of Excluding Yerevan: Pethrat. the Third Force. In G. J. Libaridian Leo. (1994). T’urqahay heghap’okhut’yan

(Ed.) Armenia at the Crossroads. gaghap’arabanut’yuny’ (The Ideolo-

Democracy and Nationhood in the gy of the Turkish-Armenian Revolu-

Post-Soviet Era. Blue Crane Books, tion, in Armenian). Vol. A. Yerevan: HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY Watertown, Mass. Shaghik. Johannissjan, A. (2016). Israel Ori und die Lyotard, J.-F. (1984).The Postmodern Condi- Armenische Befreiungsidee. Inagu- tion. l. Manchester University Press. ral-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Nalbandian, M. (1985). Yerkragorc’ut’yuny’ Doktorwürde der Philosophischen vorpes ughigh twanaparh (Agricul- Fakultät (1. Sektion) der K. Ludwig- ture as a Straight Way). In M. Nal- Maximilians-Universität zu Mün- bandian Collection of Works. Yere- chen vorgelegt von Aschot Johan- van: Sovetakan grogh. nissjan. In Hovhannisyan, A. (2016).

116 117 117 2(7), 2016 Georgia APOSTOLOPOULOU

UDC 1(091) Georgia APOSTOLOPOULOU

FROM ANCIENT GREEK LOGOS TO EUROPEAN RATIONALITY

Abstract

Because of history, culture, and politics, European identity has its archetypical elements in ancient Greek culture. Ancient Greek philosophy brought Logos to fore and defined it as the crucial problem and the postulate of the human. We translate the Greek term Logos in English as reason or rationality. These terms, however, do not cover the semantic field of Logos since this includes, among other things, order of being, ground, language, argument etc. The juxtaposition of Logos (reason) to myth makes up the matrix of rationalism. Ancient Greek culture, however, was a culture of Logos (reason) as well as of myth and had enough room for forms, gods, and heroes, for science, poetry, and religious festivities. While ancient Greek culture seems to follow the logic of forms, modern European culture follows the logic of things. Plato criticizes myth and, at the same time, he sets out a philosophy of myth. He follows the principle of ‘giving reason’ (logon didonai) about things, as his master Socrates did. He establishes dialogue and defines dialectics as the science of principles and ideas and their relations to the things of this world. Aristotle did not accept Plato’s interpretation of Logos. He considered dialectics only as a theory of argumentation and defined his ‘first philosophy’ or ‘theology’ as the science of highest Being. His program of rationalism is based on ontology and accepts the primordial relation of Logos, life, and order of things. European modernity begins in philosophy with Descartes’ turn to the subject. Descartes defines the main elements of European rationality and their problems. He brings to fore the human subject as the ‘I’ that is free to doubt about everything it can know except itself. Knowledge has to consolidate the power and the mastery of humans over things and nature. Besides, the distinction between soul and body in terms of thinking thing and extended thing does not allow a unique conception of the human. Especially Kant and Hegel attempted to eliminate the impasses of Descartes’ and of Cartesians. While Kant defined freedom as the transcendental idea of reason, Hegel highlighted the reconciliation of spirit and nature. Nowadays there is a confusion regarding rationality. The power of humans over nature and over other humans as nature is increasing. We have lost the measure of our limits. Perhaps we need the ancient Greek grammar of Logos in order to define the measure and the limits of modern Euro- pean rationality.

Keywords: Logos, reason, rationality, myth, dialectics, order, human identity, subject, freedom, nature, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Kant, Hegel, idea of Europe.

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UDC 1(091) 1. Introduction: Politics and Culture ‘identity’ of the idea of Europe is, we have to Georgia APOSTOLOPOULOU refer to ancient Greek culture, not only be- The idea of Europe almost belongs to cause ancient Greek culture is the universal FROM ANCIENT GREEK LOGOS TO EUROPEAN RATIONALITY everyday vocabulary, but its semantics is flu- heritage of humankind; but because the al- id, even though there is the impression that it leged ‘identity’ of the idea of Europe has its Abstract is not so. For politicians the idea of Europe archetypical element in ancient Greek culture seems to be clear, since it expresses the unity and has been formed through renewing the Because of history, culture, and politics, European identity has its archetypical elements in an- of European people as a reality in process and relation to it. Ancient Greek culture has not cient Greek culture. Ancient Greek philosophy brought Logos to fore and defined it as the crucial as an ideal as well. It is suggested that this only offered important creations in poetry, problem and the postulate of the human. We translate the Greek term Logos in English as reason or reality embraces the common political actions philosophy, history, art, or rhetoric; it has also rationality. These terms, however, do not cover the semantic field of Logos since this includes, of European people for freedom, prosperity, brought to the fore important conceptions among other things, order of being, ground, language, argument etc. The juxtaposition of Logos peace, and education. Nevertheless, behind concerning the order and the meaning of hu- (reason) to myth makes up the matrix of rationalism. Ancient Greek culture, however, was a culture political actions, goals and rules, there is a man life, like political freedom, isonomy, the of Logos (reason) as well as of myth and had enough room for forms, gods, and heroes, for science, long and alive tradition of European culture equal right to public speech, justice, measure, poetry, and religious festivities. While ancient Greek culture seems to follow the logic of forms, including cultural goods, values, and expecta- and Logos. The most important discovery of modern European culture follows the logic of things. tions that belong to the common horizon of the ancient Greeks is the idea of Logos that Plato criticizes myth and, at the same time, he sets out a philosophy of myth. He follows the life. It is plain that we have to take into ac- makes up the crucial problem and the postu- principle of ‘giving reason’ (logon didonai) about things, as his master Socrates did. He establishes count these elements and to set out a broader late connecting ancient Greek culture together dialogue and defines dialectics as the science of principles and ideas and their relations to the things interpretation of the idea of Europe that would with European culture. We translate Logos in of this world. Aristotle did not accept Plato’s interpretation of Logos. He considered dialectics only allow European people to recognise their con- English usually as reason, or rationality. The- as a theory of argumentation and defined his ‘first philosophy’ or ‘theology’ as the science of high- tribution and relation to European culture and se terms, however, do not cover the whole est Being. His program of rationalism is based on ontology and accepts the primordial relation of to participate in the various activities intend- semantic field of Logos. The main problem Logos, life, and order of things. ing to make Europe the common home of the does not concern the translation, but it is re- European modernity begins in philosophy with Descartes’ turn to the subject. Descartes defines Europeans. In fact, the aforementioned Euro- lated to the difference of human self-under- the main elements of European rationality and their problems. He brings to fore the human subject pean culture seems to be a differentiated and standing and understanding of the world. as the ‘I’ that is free to doubt about everything it can know except itself. Knowledge has to consol- open unity, the main components of which are Generally speaking, Logos can be reason and idate the power and the mastery of humans over things and nature. Besides, the distinction between ancient Greek culture, Christian religion, and language, ground of things and order of Be- soul and body in terms of thinking thing and extended thing does not allow a unique conception of Roman law. These components are the spir- ing, discourse, and discursive rationality. The the human. Especially Kant and Hegel attempted to eliminate the impasses of Descartes’ and of itual property, the offer, and the proposal of semantic focus depends on the semantic inter- Cartesians. While Kant defined freedom as the transcendental idea of reason, Hegel highlighted the Europe to itself and to humankind for under- relations within a concrete context. reconciliation of spirit and nature. standing the values and the dangers of human Even though Logos characterises ancient Nowadays there is a confusion regarding rationality. The power of humans over nature and life. Nevertheless, the idea of Europe is not a Greek culture, it is ancient Greek philosophy over other humans as nature is increasing. We have lost the measure of our limits. Perhaps we need theoretical conception of what European cul- that has attempted to develop a theoretical the ancient Greek grammar of Logos in order to define the measure and the limits of modern Euro- ture is, or a projection into a future for every- account of it. In fact, ancient Greek philoso- pean rationality. day purposes. On the contrary, it is connected phers developed different theoretical ac- with the value-based attitude of citizens to- counts, distinguished through a critique that Keywords: Logos, reason, rationality, myth, dialectics, order, human identity, subject, freedom, wards politics, culture, and humanism and never questioned either Logos or the primor- nature, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Kant, Hegel, idea of Europe. with the critical awareness and participation dial interrelation of life and thinking. For an- in public life. cient Greek philosophy, the question of Logos When we raise the question of what the refers to reality and to the human attitude to- 118 119 119 2(7), 2016 Georgia APOSTOLOPOULOU

wards reality, and it is not a simple problem and they created concrete cultural expressions of semantics. It is the connection to this rea- according to Logos, like philosophy, history, soning attitude towards life and the world that and the sciences. Philosophers searched for offers to the idea of Europe historical depth as the way to truth according to Logos, they dis- well as openness and perspective. covered method and concept, dialectics and In this paper, I shall explore some struc- logic, ethics and politics. In ancient Greek tural characteristics and transpositions in the culture, a novel view of the human and of the philosophical theorising about Logos that world emerges, because the human is ‘here’ manifest the common principle and the differ- and the world is not determined anymore ence of European rationality from ancient through the relation to mythic powers. The Greek Logos. human and the world make up an order with Logos, with reason, that becomes the unique 2. The Hermeneutic Outset problem of philosophy. Husserl admits that the spiritual birth of Europe happens in an- Focusing on Logos and Reason does not cient Greece, when philosophers introduce a mean either the absence of reason or rationali- new attitude towards the world, namely the ty from other cultures or a rationalistic inter- theoretical attitude, that differs from the prac- pretation of ancient Greek culture in terms of tical-mythic one, because it is a self-purpose European rationalism. The common founda- purpose in itself and shapes the work of phi- tion of cultures is the conditio humana, the losophy, namely of the universal science of human condition including the metaphysical the world (Husserl, 1976a, pp. 326, 328, 331). need of the human to give a meaning to its In this way philosophy constitutes the life and the world and to create an order of identity of European culture and, at the same life corresponding, as far it is possible, to this time, it belongs to it. Since philosophy has as meaning. Max Weber has brought to the fore its work to explain the question of Logos, of the various forms of rationality in religions reason, philosophy itself holds the book of the and cultures and has emphasised that the ra- open accounts of reason in European culture. tional need of giving a meaning to the world This consciousness of the importance of rea- makes up a constitutive characteristic of hu- son makes up the foundation of the differenti- mans (Weber, 1972, p. 307). ated continuity of reason in European culture. Nevertheless, the rationality of religions Even though the juxtaposition of Logos and cultures is mediated through scientific against myth constitutes the origin of rational- research, while in the case of ancient Greek ism, the fact is that ancient Greek culture was culture Logos makes up a characteristic of the the culture of reason as well as myth; it made self-consciousness of the people that created space for the critique of myth and for tragedy, this culture. The ancient Greeks conceived the for art and philosophy. It was exactly the reasoning character of the human and, at the creative plasticity of the ancient Greek spirit same time, they became conscious of the rel- that allowed the human to express its relation evance of their discovery, so that they consid- to itself and to the world in the different ex- ered Logos as a content with value in itself, pression of reason and myth. In the continuity

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wards reality, and it is not a simple problem and they created concrete cultural expressions of reason that is explored in philosophy there 3. Logos and Myth – Logos and Order of semantics. It is the connection to this rea- according to Logos, like philosophy, history, is a turning point indicated by Descartes as soning attitude towards life and the world that and the sciences. Philosophers searched for the leader of European rationalism and the In ancient Greek philosophy an order of offers to the idea of Europe historical depth as the way to truth according to Logos, they dis- ‘grandfather of the French revolution’ accord- the meaning of Logos emerges, which is per- well as openness and perspective. covered method and concept, dialectics and ing to Nietzsche’s words (Nietzsche, 1966a, p. tinent to the answer to the fundamental ques- In this paper, I shall explore some struc- logic, ethics and politics. In ancient Greek 649). It is the turn towards the human subject tion ‘what is?’. Logos is the primordial corre- tural characteristics and transpositions in the culture, a novel view of the human and of the as the ‘I’ that defines the order of the human sponding order of the human and the world. philosophical theorising about Logos that world emerges, because the human is ‘here’ and of the world as an epistemological rela- The human approaches this order through manifest the common principle and the differ- and the world is not determined anymore tion. thinking and expresses it through language ence of European rationality from ancient through the relation to mythic powers. The Max Weber has characterised the course indicating that beings are as well as what be- Greek Logos. human and the world make up an order with of occidental culture as a course of detach- ings are in their essence. Since philosophy Logos, with reason, that becomes the unique ment and rationalisation due to a bundle of appears as a peculiar approach to the world 2. The Hermeneutic Outset problem of philosophy. Husserl admits that factors attributed to religion, science, econo- and, at the same time, as a peculiar utterance the spiritual birth of Europe happens in an- my, science, bureaucracy. Some of Max We- of Logos as language, it becomes juxtaposed Focusing on Logos and Reason does not cient Greece, when philosophers introduce a ber’s remarks allow the conclusion that, in to poetry and myth, since they have their mean either the absence of reason or rationali- new attitude towards the world, namely the ancient Greek culture, things exist and receive origin in inspiration and imagination. Never- ty from other cultures or a rationalistic inter- theoretical attitude, that differs from the prac- meaning through their essential relation to theless, except for this justified juxtaposition, pretation of ancient Greek culture in terms of tical-mythic one, because it is a self-purpose forms, to gods, to heroes, to the human. Mod- there is also a primordial connection between European rationalism. The common founda- purpose in itself and shapes the work of phi- ern European culture undermines this logic of them. So, myth and metaphysics exist togeth- tion of cultures is the conditio humana, the losophy, namely of the universal science of forms and ascribes a specific sense in the log- er in Parmenides’ poetry and, at the same human condition including the metaphysical the world (Husserl, 1976a, pp. 326, 328, 331). ic of things (Weber, 1972, p. 250). So, ration- time, they become different. The critique of need of the human to give a meaning to its In this way philosophy constitutes the alisation develops together with reification, myth, even in its radical expression, does not life and the world and to create an order of identity of European culture and, at the same and things lack every other meaning except abolish myth, because the scientific-rational life corresponding, as far it is possible, to this time, it belongs to it. Since philosophy has as that of exploitation and mechanistic relation. spirit with its abstraction from the forms ex- meaning. Max Weber has brought to the fore its work to explain the question of Logos, of This distinction of two logics, namely of the ists, but it has not yet become dominant, as it the various forms of rationality in religions reason, philosophy itself holds the book of the logic of forms and of the logic of things, does happens in modernity. and cultures and has emphasised that the ra- open accounts of reason in European culture. not indicate that there are two separate epochs In ancient Greece, Logos remains human tional need of giving a meaning to the world This consciousness of the importance of rea- of European culture; it only points to the fluid and myth is also human, since myth is the makes up a constitutive characteristic of hu- son makes up the foundation of the differenti- tension existing in the relation of the human creation of the old poets and not the revela- mans (Weber, 1972, p. 307). ated continuity of reason in European culture. to the world and, at the same time, it points to tion of a transcendent Being that defines and Nevertheless, the rationality of religions Even though the juxtaposition of Logos the open historicity and to the open worldness restrains forms. In this aspect myth is present and cultures is mediated through scientific against myth constitutes the origin of rational- of the human. in ancient Greek poetry, art, and religion and research, while in the case of ancient Greek ism, the fact is that ancient Greek culture was If we use this distinction as a hermeneu- it feeds the logic of forms. In fact, this logic culture Logos makes up a characteristic of the the culture of reason as well as myth; it made tic outset, we can ascertain that the differenti- of forms characterises ancient Greek culture, self-consciousness of the people that created space for the critique of myth and for tragedy, ation of modern European culture from an- and not even ancient Greek philosophy aban- this culture. The ancient Greeks conceived the for art and philosophy. It was exactly the cient Greek culture is obvious in terms of dons them. Without doubt, Plato is the phi- reasoning character of the human and, at the creative plasticity of the ancient Greek spirit abolishing the idea of ontological order and in losopher who investigates myth as an inde- same time, they became conscious of the rel- that allowed the human to express its relation the radical consciousness of the freedom of pendent problem of reason. Through his cri- evance of their discovery, so that they consid- to itself and to the world in the different ex- the human, of the human concretely consid- tique of myth, he comes to a philosophy of ered Logos as a content with value in itself, pression of reason and myth. In the continuity ered as the knowing and acting subject. myth that creates a favourable field for the

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emergence of some fundamental elements of regarding the priority of logical elements in rationalism. Plato started as a poet and was relation to experience. acquainted with myth and its relevance for Anyway, dialogue itself relies on the pri- life. Later, he became a philosopher and he ority of Logos. Plato, as well as his master formulated a harsh critique of myth in order Socrates, follows the principle of logon di- to restrain anthropomorphism and to oppose donai, namely of ‘giving reasons’ about dialectics to the extensive mythic narrative. things (Plato, 1961d, 534b). But this principle Nevertheless, Plato remains a philosopher points to an interactive performance, since it with poetic inspiration. While banishing poets presupposes a common investigations and a from his ideal state, Plato himself is confident mutual examination of the arguments by two that he realises the essence of poetry through persons. Therefore, this principle offers a dis- dialogue, since his speech divines truth tinction between critical dialogue and anti- through the inspiration of the philosophic critical authority in knowledge and action. As muse (Plato, 1961a, 676b6-7). Aristotle writes, while examining the argu- The ontological connection of philosoph- ments and searching for definition and uni- ical speech to ideas and the truth allows Plato versals, Socrates opened up a new way of to define philosophical myth as the probable thinking (Aristotle, 1963, 987b-988a, narrative of becoming. But this is a narrative 1078b17-30). Plato followed this conscious the limits of which are examined, while its turn of Socrates towards definition and the place within philosophical dialogue has been universal and he achieved the conscious dis- determined (Plato, 1961d, 29b-d). The conse- covery of the concept. In the view of Max quence is the ontological re-evaluation of Weber, this discovery was the greatest contri- myth as well as the poetical re-evaluation of bution of the ancient Greeks to the develop- Logos, since myth presents truth in picture, ment of scientific thinking (Weber, 1973, p. while Logos (reason) is elevated to the divine 596). level from which poetry draws its inspiration. Nevertheless, a concept does not make So, Plato finds his own solution for the prob- up the only component of the idea. First of lem concerning the limits of Logos. It is all, the idea is the ontological universal that worth mentioning as an example the myth of offers a solution to the problem concerning recollection from Plato’s dialogue Phaedrus. the relation between one and many, since the This myth narrates that the soul has seen the many are what they are through their partici- eternal ideas during its pre-existence. When pation in the one. Plato transposes the prob- the soul was embodied, it forgot what it had lem on the level of the two primordial princi- seen in its previous existence. It is the work of ples, namely the One and the Indefinite Dyad. philosophy to help the human soul recollect The ontological priority of ideas and princi- the truth of ideas. This myth explains within ples defines dialectics as the fundamental the Platonic context how the soul knows ideas philosophical science of Being and keeps to- that are not tangible things. At the same time, gether method and intuition. In this aspect, it includes the origin of the rationalistic view ‘method’ is not some instrument for every purpose (Plato, 1961c, 510b). On the contrary,

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emergence of some fundamental elements of regarding the priority of logical elements in method is the appropriate way of thinking that beautiful things of this world points to the rationalism. Plato started as a poet and was relation to experience. leads to the manifestation of truth. Neverthe- priority of the predicate towards the subject. acquainted with myth and its relevance for Anyway, dialogue itself relies on the pri- less, the crucial point and moment of this So, in the judgement ‘this rose is beautiful’, life. Later, he became a philosopher and he ority of Logos. Plato, as well as his master manifestation can hardly be described through the predicate indicates the essential ‘one’ that formulated a harsh critique of myth in order Socrates, follows the principle of logon di- language, since it is an event accessible to in- is also ‘unique’, namely it points to the idea to restrain anthropomorphism and to oppose donai, namely of ‘giving reasons’ about tuitive vision (Plato, VII Epist, 341c-d). In of the beautiful. dialectics to the extensive mythic narrative. things (Plato, 1961d, 534b). But this principle epistemological terms, dialectics is the sum- Taking into account Plato’s conception Nevertheless, Plato remains a philosopher points to an interactive performance, since it mit of sciences; it founds the sciences of the of participation and presence, we have to un- with poetic inspiration. While banishing poets presupposes a common investigations and a second class, namely mathematics, and de- derline that the human does not have this on- from his ideal state, Plato himself is confident mutual examination of the arguments by two fines dialogue as the formulation and exami- tological order of relations in terms of an ob- that he realises the essence of poetry through persons. Therefore, this principle offers a dis- nation of arguments concerning the highest ject opposite to itself, as is the case in the dialogue, since his speech divines truth tinction between critical dialogue and anti- issues of human life. Nevertheless, this defini- modern split of subject-object. In fact, the through the inspiration of the philosophic critical authority in knowledge and action. As tion does not lead to the marginalisation of human participates in this order and, at the muse (Plato, 1961a, 676b6-7). Aristotle writes, while examining the argu- desire. On the contrary, Plato ascribes to de- same time, it is invited to establish through its The ontological connection of philosoph- ments and searching for definition and uni- sire (eros) the power of elevating the soul to own activity the appropriate order in the soul, ical speech to ideas and the truth allows Plato versals, Socrates opened up a new way of the idea of Beauty, which is ‘the refuge of the in the city, in its whole life. The privilege and to define philosophical myth as the probable thinking (Aristotle, 1963, 987b-988a, power of the idea of Good’ (Plato, 1961b, the work of the human are to discover and to narrative of becoming. But this is a narrative 1078b17-30). Plato followed this conscious 210d-211c; Plato, 1961a, 64e-65b). know the primordial order in which humans the limits of which are examined, while its turn of Socrates towards definition and the Plato sets out a comprehensive program participate. In this way, human life becomes a place within philosophical dialogue has been universal and he achieved the conscious dis- of rationalism that is based on the primordial life with reason and spiritual joy. While dis- determined (Plato, 1961d, 29b-d). The conse- covery of the concept. In the view of Max ontological interconnection of the two princi- covering the primordial order, the human also quence is the ontological re-evaluation of Weber, this discovery was the greatest contri- ples, namely the One and the Indefinite Dyad, discovers itself as participant of this order. myth as well as the poetical re-evaluation of bution of the ancient Greeks to the develop- to the ideas, to nature, to soul, to political Therefore, the dignity of the human is primar- Logos, since myth presents truth in picture, ment of scientific thinking (Weber, 1973, p. state. Further, the ‘appropriate’ unity and or- ily defined through the participation to this while Logos (reason) is elevated to the divine 596). der of every field fits into the order of the primordial order and not through any achi- level from which poetry draws its inspiration. Nevertheless, a concept does not make whole that has its primordial point of relations evements. So, Plato finds his own solution for the prob- up the only component of the idea. First of in the ‘idea of Good’. This idea is beyond es- Nonetheless, Plato’s comprehensive pro- lem concerning the limits of Logos. It is all, the idea is the ontological universal that sence, and it affords truth, possibility of gram creates new problems through the solu- worth mentioning as an example the myth of offers a solution to the problem concerning knowledge, and value. Since all things of this tion of old ones. Subsequently, Aristotle, the recollection from Plato’s dialogue Phaedrus. the relation between one and many, since the world participate in other ideas, they receive most famous of Plato’s pupils, undermined This myth narrates that the soul has seen the many are what they are through their partici- through these ideas ontological and axiologi- his master’s program. He criticised the exag- eternal ideas during its pre-existence. When pation in the one. Plato transposes the prob- cal quality (Plato, 1961c, 508e-509a). It is gerated ontological interpretation of Logos the soul was embodied, it forgot what it had lem on the level of the two primordial princi- plain that Plato establishes an ontological (reason) as well as the unifying principles and seen in its previous existence. It is the work of ples, namely the One and the Indefinite Dyad. model of relations. The relation among the the idea of the Good. His argumentation con- philosophy to help the human soul recollect The ontological priority of ideas and princi- specific idea and the sensuous things is called cerns the very existence of the ideas on an the truth of ideas. This myth explains within ples defines dialectics as the fundamental participation as regards the sensuous things, ontological level beyond sensuous things. His the Platonic context how the soul knows ideas philosophical science of Being and keeps to- while it is called the presence of idea in the famous argument disrupts ontology by reduc- that are not tangible things. At the same time, gether method and intuition. In this aspect, sensuous things. This consideration includes ing it to a semantic pluralism: For example, it includes the origin of the rationalistic view ‘method’ is not some instrument for every indirectly a conception of judgement. For ex- ‘Good’ is said in many ways; consequently, purpose (Plato, 1961c, 510b). On the contrary, ample, the relation of the idea of beauty to the the term ‘Good’ is not some exclusive essence

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existing beyond the concrete things that are Aristotle considers knowledge as the re- good. As regards the judgement, priority is sult of methodical investigation as well as of ascribed to the subject, while the predicate is restraining transcendental connotations. In- deprived of the priority it had in Plato’s phi- deed, Aristotle’s epistemic and epistemologi- losophy. cal considerations bear characteristics that So, Plato’s comprehensive ontology of foreshadow the modern scientific spirit. One beings and relations is broken down, the order could mention here considerations about the of things is relegated from the transcendent systematic character of scientific knowledge, level to the cosmological one, to this world, to the distinction between facts and explanation, nature, to city. Nevertheless, Aristotle avoids the role of empirical description. Further, Ar- the naturalistic reduction of Logos (reason), istotle established the independent philosoph- since he defines the first ‘moving unmoved’ ical research of ethics, of the theory of argu- as ‘the thinking of thinking’ (Aristotle, 1963, mentation, of political philosophy, or of sci- 1074b34-35). Aristotle develops a pluralistic ences like biology, embryology, zoology, and ontology and argues that the essential element others. Nevertheless, Aristotle does not en- is in things themselves and not in transcend- dorse some version of scientism in modern ence (Ibid, 1032b1-2, 1037b25-27). These terms, namely the conception that only sci- novelties cut down on Plato’s definition of ence can provide answers to the main ques- dialectics as the highest science of principles tions of life. In Aristotle’s view, only philos- and ideas and of their relation to things. So, ophy can explore the order of being qua being Aristotle defines dialectics as a peculiar in- (on e on) and, at the same time, describe the vestigation of argumentation, without abolish- rational order of knowledge as well as of sci- ing its truthful intention, as it had been estab- ence. His first philosophy or theology mani- lished through Socrates and Plato. In Aristo- fests that the highest Being (Aristotle, 1963, tle’s consideration the highest science is the 1064b2-5) is the point of the teleological rela- science of Being and is named ‘first philoso- tion of all things, of the celestial spheres, of phy’ (prote philosophia) and sometimes ‘the- natural elements, of living nature, and of the ology’ (theologia), since the highest is the Di- human too. vine Being. In Aristotle’s pluralistic ontology, Aristotle’s program of rationalism rests sciences have their own principles and shift upon the primordial ontological connection of attention from transcendence to experience reason, species, and life, human life included. (Aristotle, 1968, Anal. post., 87a39-87b1). The human considered as a ‘living being’, Nevertheless, they are not detached from on- namely as a being moving itself (Aristotle, tology. Aristotle and Plato do not separate 1960, 252a11-16), just like the other living philosophy from science. Therefore, they con- beings on earth, belongs to living nature that sider the (philosophical) science of principles, is subject to the order of becoming and decay. of the highest and ultimate Being, as the high- At the same time, the human is endowed with est science. It is worth mentioning that even Logos (reason) and lives with and from rea- logic remains connected to ontology for Aris- son in political society, in family, in friend- totle, even though logic tends to abstraction. ship. Moreover, the human is endowed with

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existing beyond the concrete things that are Aristotle considers knowledge as the re- intellect (Nous) and related to the Divine Be- logical foundation. Both of them retain the good. As regards the judgement, priority is sult of methodical investigation as well as of ing that lives beyond process and change in priority of the ontological universal as well as ascribed to the subject, while the predicate is restraining transcendental connotations. In- its actuality of ‘the thinking of thinking’ (Ar- the correspondence of the human to the order deprived of the priority it had in Plato’s phi- deed, Aristotle’s epistemic and epistemologi- istotle, 1963, 1072b26-30). Since Aristotle of reality. As seen, the broad differences be- losophy. cal considerations bear characteristics that criticised the transcendent idea of the Good as tween the two programs do not marginalise So, Plato’s comprehensive ontology of foreshadow the modern scientific spirit. One a universal principle, he considers the catego- the common perspective of intuitive access to beings and relations is broken down, the order could mention here considerations about the ry of relation (pros ti) as a component of vir- the primordial source of ontological meaning. of things is relegated from the transcendent systematic character of scientific knowledge, tues indicating the relation to the self or to Plato mentions love and intuition, Aristotle level to the cosmological one, to this world, to the distinction between facts and explanation, others. Wisdom is the only virtue that does points to theoretical intuition as an intrinsic nature, to city. Nevertheless, Aristotle avoids the role of empirical description. Further, Ar- not need the relation to others, because it is activity of the soul. These aspects precede the naturalistic reduction of Logos (reason), istotle established the independent philosoph- the activity of intellect towards the Divine method, and retain the logic of forms. since he defines the first ‘moving unmoved’ ical research of ethics, of the theory of argu- Being. The conception of ontological and cos- as ‘the thinking of thinking’ (Aristotle, 1963, mentation, of political philosophy, or of sci- In fact, this activity presupposes the cog- mological order as the primordial frame of 1074b34-35). Aristotle develops a pluralistic ences like biology, embryology, zoology, and nitive acquaintance with the whole of reality, life is characteristic for ancient Greek philos- ontology and argues that the essential element others. Nevertheless, Aristotle does not en- at the summit of which is the Divine Being. ophy. Later, it makes up the foundation of the is in things themselves and not in transcend- dorse some version of scientism in modern So, wisdom as the characteristic of the theo- conception of order (ordo) in the philosophy ence (Ibid, 1032b1-2, 1037b25-27). These terms, namely the conception that only sci- retical form of life indicates the activity and of the Middle Ages, namely of the conception novelties cut down on Plato’s definition of ence can provide answers to the main ques- the purpose of philosophy. Aristotle draws about the order of beings that are created and dialectics as the highest science of principles tions of life. In Aristotle’s view, only philos- attention to the main reasoning activities of preserved and ruled by God. This conception and ideas and of their relation to things. So, ophy can explore the order of being qua being the human. Theory (theoria) is the disinterest- will be deconstructed in modernity. Neverthe- Aristotle defines dialectics as a peculiar in- (on e on) and, at the same time, describe the ed search for truth (Aristotle, 1970, Eth., less its merits and problems are like splinters vestigation of argumentation, without abolish- rational order of knowledge as well as of sci- 1177b1-2), action (praxis) is the moral and still present in modern and contemporary phi- ing its truthful intention, as it had been estab- ence. His first philosophy or theology mani- political activity performed in the light of the losophy. lished through Socrates and Plato. In Aristo- fests that the highest Being (Aristotle, 1963, Good and fulfilling the richness of life. Crea- tle’s consideration the highest science is the 1064b2-5) is the point of the teleological relative activity (poiesis) creates things and art- 4. Rationality and Subject – Subject and science of Being and is named ‘first philoso- tion of all things, of the celestial spheres, of works (Aristotle, 1970, 1140a2-16). Freedom phy’ (prote philosophia) and sometimes ‘the- natural elements, of living nature, and of the Also, for Aristotle human activities take ology’ (theologia), since the highest is the Di- human too. place within an ontological and cosmological The formation of European rationality is vine Being. In Aristotle’s pluralistic ontology, Aristotle’s program of rationalism rests interconnection that has a differentiated rela- a complicated event extended over the whole sciences have their own principles and shift upon the primordial ontological connection of tion to the meaning of life. The human realis- of European culture. In philosophy, the be- attention from transcendence to experience reason, species, and life, human life included. es its intrinsic purpose (telos) through the ginning of modernity is connected with Des- (Aristotle, 1968, Anal. post., 87a39-87b1). The human considered as a ‘living being’, aforementioned activities within social and cartes’ name, because Descartes signals with Nevertheless, they are not detached from on- namely as a being moving itself (Aristotle, political relations that exist ‘by nature’, name- his turn to the subject ‘the primordial founda- tology. Aristotle and Plato do not separate 1960, 252a11-16), just like the other living ly they are essential to human life. Conse- tion of philosophical modernity’, as Husserl philosophy from science. Therefore, they con- beings on earth, belongs to living nature that quently, they are not constituted by humans; writes (Husserl, 1976, p. 438). Nevertheless, sider the (philosophical) science of principles, is subject to the order of becoming and decay. humans carry out their forms of life within it is worthwhile to consider how this turn has of the highest and ultimate Being, as the high- At the same time, the human is endowed with them and realise their primordial relation to been understood in Neohellenic philosophy. est science. It is worth mentioning that even Logos (reason) and lives with and from rea- the teleology of the whole. We take as an example the view of Nikolaos logic remains connected to ontology for Aris- son in political society, in family, in friend- As it is obvious, Plato and Aristotle set Kotzias who lived in 19th century, was a criti- totle, even though logic tends to abstraction. ship. Moreover, the human is endowed with out two programs of rationalism with an onto- cal student of Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling,

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and, consequently, was acquainted with the that of Socrates’. Anyway, as far as the ques- question about what philosophical modernity tion about the human is concerned, Socrates’ is. Kotzias maintains that there is no rupture rationalism is different from that of Des- between ancient Greek philosophy and mod- cartes’ rationalism, since the former focuses ern philosophy; on the contrary, their continu- on ethics, while the latter aims at grounding ity is obvious, because the human is taken as knowledge. For Socrates, the question of the the principle and the starting point of theoris- human is an anthropological one, since it ing in both cases. In his view, the difference takes into account some ontological elements, between them consists in the relationship be- like the universal of justice or the universal of tween spirit and nature; while ancient Greek the sacred, which do not depend on human philosophy brings to the fore the ‘identity’ of input. Therefore, they do not allow the total spirit and nature, modern philosophy pro- reflection of thinking onto itself, as this be- motes the split between spirit and nature comes possible primarily with the philoso- (Kotzias, 1878, p. 490). Kotzias admits that phers of German idealism. In Descartes’ Descartes ‘has put rationality, namely the view, however, the human as the subject, thinking subject’ as the principle and the namely the ‘I’ makes up the point at which foundation of philosophy. But he criticises rationality is gathered and concentrated; con- him by arguing that this rationality is not sequently, it leads to anthropocentric consid- ‘right’, because it denies reality and remains erations. For, even God undertakes the burden hemmed within the subject (Ibid, p. 6). of solving problems defined by the subject, However, we have to take into account like the objectivity of the world or the guaran- that the human is not taken as the principle of tee of truth according to the prerequisites of philosophy with the same meaning in both the subject. cases. For ancient Greek rationalism, the hu- In Descartes’ philosophy the elements of man is the participant of the primordial order the logic of things emerge gradually, as it is of Being and it realises its participation in this obvious in his conception of the human. Nev- through the order of its own life. It is exactly ertheless, this logic manifests the world as the this primordial ontological interrelation that space of things and enlarges the practical protects ancient Greek Philosophy from the chances of the human. Further, the view that abstraction from the human as well as from the human is a subject means that only the the danger of the subject-object split. Any- human is a subject. Descartes’ version re- way, Socrates’ turn from nature to humans as stricts the conception of subject and abolishes well as the focusing upon the question ‘what the rich ontological and logical consideration is the human?’ is decisive events in the histo- of Aristotle, for whom a subject can be the ry of ancient Greek philosophy, because they human but not only the human. Besides, the take place at a time when the research of na- distinction between methodology and ontolo- ture trends to become independent from hu- gy concerning the conception of the human is man reality. not made clearly enough by Descartes. While Maybe in this sense there is a coinci- dealing with the question about the human, dence with Descartes’ philosophy, similar to Descartes denies, among other qualities, the

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and, consequently, was acquainted with the that of Socrates’. Anyway, as far as the ques- view that the human is a ‘living being en- come ‘masters and possessors’ of nature (Ibid, question about what philosophical modernity tion about the human is concerned, Socrates’ dowed with reason’, since he interprets it as a VI, 62). is. Kotzias maintains that there is no rupture rationalism is different from that of Des- psychological one; instead of it, he defines Even though the distinction of ‘thinking between ancient Greek philosophy and mod- cartes’ rationalism, since the former focuses knowing consciousness as the main character- thing’ substance and ‘extended substance’ is ern philosophy; on the contrary, their continu- on ethics, while the latter aims at grounding istic of the human (Descartes, 1969, VII, 27). useful as the starting-point for the develop- ity is obvious, because the human is taken as knowledge. For Socrates, the question of the In this way, Descartes does not consider the ment of specific sciences, it has negative con- the principle and the starting point of theoris- human is an anthropological one, since it primordial relation of reason and life, and he sequences for the consideration of nature as ing in both cases. In his view, the difference takes into account some ontological elements, answers questions as to what the ‘I’ is but not well as humanity (Apostolopoulou, 2007). between them consists in the relationship be- like the universal of justice or the universal of questions as to what the human is. The sub- For, nature is considered to consist in bodies tween spirit and nature; while ancient Greek the sacred, which do not depend on human ject as the ‘I’ has the peculiar freedom not subjected under laws of mechanics and to philosophy brings to the fore the ‘identity’ of input. Therefore, they do not allow the total only to doubt everything except itself but also constitute an object of science. Further, the spirit and nature, modern philosophy pro- reflection of thinking onto itself, as this be- to deny the existence of those things which it human body is considered as a complicated motes the split between spirit and nature comes possible primarily with the philoso- doubts (Ibid, VII, 12). machine (Descartes, 1969, VII, 229-230). Af- (Kotzias, 1878, p. 490). Kotzias admits that phers of German idealism. In Descartes’ Nevertheless, doubt is connected with a ter all, one ignores that nature is a vivid order Descartes ‘has put rationality, namely the view, however, the human as the subject, new conception of method. In this case, of becoming and decay; at the same time, the thinking subject’ as the principle and the namely the ‘I’ makes up the point at which method precedes beings, because the firm ap- unity of the human being is split. Under these foundation of philosophy. But he criticises rationality is gathered and concentrated; con- plication of method determines the existence presuppositions, there is no unique meaning him by arguing that this rationality is not sequently, it leads to anthropocentric consid- of beings and relates them to the subject. This connecting humans and nature in terms of ‘right’, because it denies reality and remains erations. For, even God undertakes the burden ideal of method has, indeed, contributed to the life. hemmed within the subject (Ibid, p. 6). of solving problems defined by the subject, progress of modern science. However, while While the Cartesian program of rational- However, we have to take into account like the objectivity of the world or the guaran- suggesting that the method of mathematics is ism introduces a split between subject and that the human is not taken as the principle of tee of truth according to the prerequisites of unique and effective for every kind of know- world as well as the radical freedom of the philosophy with the same meaning in both the subject. ledge, either mathematical or philosophical modern human, it is characterised by this call- cases. For ancient Greek rationalism, the hu- In Descartes’ philosophy the elements of (Ibid, VI, 20-21), Descartes does not leave ing for domination of the human upon the al- man is the participant of the primordial order the logic of things emerge gradually, as it is many possibilities for philosophy in terms of legedly mechanical nature and by the destabi- of Being and it realises its participation in this obvious in his conception of the human. Nev- referring science to the world of life. The re- lisation of philosophy. Because philosophy through the order of its own life. It is exactly ertheless, this logic manifests the world as the sult is that science becomes autonomous to- founds knowledge, but what it declares as the this primordial ontological interrelation that space of things and enlarges the practical wards the world of life. For Descartes, doubt calling of the human is misleading, since na- protects ancient Greek Philosophy from the chances of the human. Further, the view that does not have existential connotations (he has ture is not only the space of things determined abstraction from the human as well as from the human is a subject means that only the overcome them in his biography), but it be- to be dominated by the human, since nature is the danger of the subject-object split. Any- human is a subject. Descartes’ version re- comes the principle of the methodical produc- the interrelation of life to which the human way, Socrates’ turn from nature to humans as stricts the conception of subject and abolishes tion of knowledge as regards God and also the also belongs. Even though the Cartesian pro- well as the focusing upon the question ‘what the rich ontological and logical consideration things of this world (Ibid, X, 515). Since sub- gram brings the subject to the fore, it does not is the human?’ is decisive events in the histo- of Aristotle, for whom a subject can be the ject is the centre of reality and decides mean that the human is brought to the fore as ry of ancient Greek philosophy, because they human but not only the human. Besides, the through its cognitive effort about Being, it a living and reasoning being –as ‘soul’ in Ar- take place at a time when the research of na- distinction between methodology and ontolo- corroborates its power as well as its domina- istotle’s terms (Aristotle, 1984, 431b21). For ture trends to become independent from hu- gy concerning the conception of the human is tion over beings. Philosophy receives a new Descartes, the consciousness of the subject is man reality. not made clearly enough by Descartes. While determination, since it has to promote the only the object of rational psychology and it Maybe in this sense there is a coinci- dealing with the question about the human, domination over nature, so that humans be- is considered as an object. In this aspect, the dence with Descartes’ philosophy, similar to Descartes denies, among other qualities, the subject abolishes its existential depth. Further,

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the subordination of nature under scientific side of the world; but it is necessary to con- rationality excludes the possibility of a her- sider an order of freedom and recognition of meneutics of nature that could establish na- protecting and in some way respecting the ture as the realm of appearance manifesting a order of nature. variety of qualities, of forms, colours, light, When Kant deconstructs the Cartesian and darkness, namely of elements enriching program of rationalism, he releases the sub- human sensibility. In fact, this exclusive subject from the demand for domination over na- ordination will function as a foundation for ture. While exploring the third antinomy of the exaggerated development of objectivism pure reason, Kant considers freedom in terms as well as for the detachment of human inter- of cosmology and solves the antinomy ventions in nature from the question of mean- through elevating freedom to a transcendental ing and of the order of human life on earth. idea of pure reason (Kant, 1998, B561; Anyway, philosophical proposals for re- B574). This transcendental freedom as the vising the Cartesian program have not been peculiar characteristic of reason is the source lacking. Living nature has been a serious phi- of practical freedom, the positive expression losophical problem, for Leibniz, for Kant, for of which is the autonomy of will, namely the the philosophers of German idealism. In the self-commitment of the will towards the mor- twentieth century too, philosophical biology al law (Kant, 2003, pp. 58-59). In Kant’s and philosophical anthropology have set out view, only the human expresses freedom in another proposal for considering the primor- this world. Then the human could be consid- dial interrelation of life to which humanity ered as the being that can express the freedom and nature belong without arguing that the of nature in terms of respect or protection of human is merely a natural being. These Aris- nature, so that nature preserves the status of totelian interventions have not led to the ex- the relational other of reason. pected results, at least up to now. It seems that Philosophy has explained the primordial the objective powers representing the ambig- relation of humans and nature that cannot be uous rationality of modernity are not willing abolished in favour of the alleged domination to adopt a common meaning of reason and of humans over nature. Since humans have life. Nevertheless, modern philosophy does ‘subdued’ nature –according to the demand of not offer only the Cartesian consideration of modernity- in order to carry out their lives the connection between nature and freedom. and to realise their own freedom, humans Another perspective results from Kant’s and have the duty, since they are free beings, to Hegel’s philosophy that has to tell the human offer nature more freedom and to let nature be something important about its relation to na- what it is, namely relational and co-existing ture; it is the view that domination cannot be otherness of the human. Maybe this concep- the principle defining the presence of the hu- tion could be the conclusion from what Hegel man in this world, because domination mis- writes about the reconciliation of spirit and understood as freedom without boundaries nature (Hegel, 1975, 505f.), even though we leads to catastrophe. It is plain that humans are sceptical about the absolute terms of his cannot live without consuming the material discourse. Nevertheless, European rationalism

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the subordination of nature under scientific side of the world; but it is necessary to con- includes a critique and meta-critique of its we need the ancient Greek philosophical rationality excludes the possibility of a her- sider an order of freedom and recognition of versions and shows that the problem concern- grammar of Logos in order to find the way meneutics of nature that could establish na- protecting and in some way respecting the ing the order of reason and life remains still from the infinite subject to the free human ture as the realm of appearance manifesting a order of nature. open after the breakdown of what was consid- and to reconsider what it means to be human. variety of qualities, of forms, colours, light, When Kant deconstructs the Cartesian ered as metaphysics. The impasses of Europe- The critique of reason, which does not intend and darkness, namely of elements enriching program of rationalism, he releases the sub- an rationalism do not imply the abandonment to be a critique against reason, has always the human sensibility. In fact, this exclusive subject from the demand for domination over na- of reason. For, reason is the ‘raft’ of human purpose of finding the boundaries and the ordination will function as a foundation for ture. While exploring the third antinomy of life. Reason, freedom, reconciliation indicate measure of reason in and with the world the exaggerated development of objectivism pure reason, Kant considers freedom in terms the way in which modernity becomes enlight- (Apostolopoulou, 1994). Nietzsche defined as well as for the detachment of human inter- of cosmology and solves the antinomy ened about its limits and unforeseen conse- this as ‘the fatal issue of Europe. Together ventions in nature from the question of mean- through elevating freedom to a transcendental quences. The history of humankind is an open with our fear for the human we have lost our ing and of the order of human life on earth. idea of pure reason (Kant, 1998, B561; process of education; the lessons of modernity love for the human, our respect towards the Anyway, philosophical proposals for re- B574). This transcendental freedom as the are not yet exhausted and can contribute to human, our hope for the human, really our vising the Cartesian program have not been peculiar characteristic of reason is the source facing the problems of our days. will for the human. To see the human makes lacking. Living nature has been a serious phi- of practical freedom, the positive expression us tired. What is nihilism today if it is not ex- losophical problem, for Leibniz, for Kant, for of which is the autonomy of will, namely the 5. Concluding Remarks actly this? We are tired of the human...’ (Nie- the philosophers of German idealism. In the self-commitment of the will towards the mor- tzsche, 1966b, 789, Trans. from German G. twentieth century too, philosophical biology al law (Kant, 2003, pp. 58-59). In Kant’s If we consider the current situation of Apostolopoulou). Nevertheless, we have to and philosophical anthropology have set out view, only the human expresses freedom in reason in terms of Aristotle’s distinction of read these words against Nietzsche’s prelude another proposal for considering the primor- this world. Then the human could be consid- reasoning activities, we ascertain that there is of the transition from the human to the super- dial interrelation of life to which humanity ered as the being that can express the freedom a confusion of them. Theory has almost lost human, but as an instigation to reconsider and nature belong without arguing that the of nature in terms of respect or protection of its primordial meaning as the search for truth, what it means to be the human and to live as human is merely a natural being. These Aris- nature, so that nature preserves the status of because the discovery of truth has been sub- the human, without the alibi of the defeatism totelian interventions have not led to the ex- the relational other of reason. ordinated under the construction of truth. Phi- of reason. pected results, at least up to now. It seems that Philosophy has explained the primordial losophy, religion, and pure science retreat be- the objective powers representing the ambig- relation of humans and nature that cannot be fore techno-scientific knowledge. Action has REFERENCES uous rationality of modernity are not willing abolished in favour of the alleged domination lost its connection to the question about the to adopt a common meaning of reason and of humans over nature. Since humans have meaning and the order of life, namely to that Apostolopoulou, G. (1994). He idea tou poli- life. Nevertheless, modern philosophy does ‘subdued’ nature –according to the demand of question which, according to Socrates, offers tikou anthropismou (The Idea of Polit- not offer only the Cartesian consideration of modernity- in order to carry out their lives value and endurance to the presence of hu- ical Humanism, in Greek). In M. the connection between nature and freedom. and to realise their own freedom, humans mans on earth. While the logic of things re- Dragona-Monachou (Ed.), Political Another perspective results from Kant’s and have the duty, since they are free beings, to gards the world as the field of the infinite pos- Philosophy Today. Proceedings of the Hegel’s philosophy that has to tell the human offer nature more freedom and to let nature be sibilities of the subject, the human itself tends Fifth Panhellenic Congress of Philos- something important about its relation to na- what it is, namely relational and co-existing to be reified; that means that the only living ophy. Greek Philosophical Society. ture; it is the view that domination cannot be otherness of the human. Maybe this concep- form that is a person is considered as a thing. (pp. 25-34) Athens: Kardamitsa. the principle defining the presence of the hu- tion could be the conclusion from what Hegel It is not obvious what the solution can be Apostolopoulou, G. (2007). Philosophy and man in this world, because domination mis- writes about the reconciliation of spirit and to these problems. Nevertheless, Logos, rea- Science at the ‘End’ of Cartesianism. understood as freedom without boundaries nature (Hegel, 1975, 505f.), even though we son is a fundamental power, a chance and a News and Views(17), 8-29. Interna- leads to catastrophe. It is plain that humans are sceptical about the absolute terms of his duty that is always open and gives meaning to tional Academy for Philosophy. cannot live without consuming the material discourse. Nevertheless, European rationalism human effort and to human history. Perhaps

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Aristotle. (1960). Aristotelis, Physica. Recog- mermann. Mit einer Bibliographie von novit brevique adnotatione critica in- H. Klemme. Hamburg. Meiner. struxit W. D. Ross. Oxonii: E typog- Kant, I. (2003). Kritik der praktischen Ver- rapheo Clarendoniano. nunft. Mit einer Einleitung, Sachbe- Aristotle. (1963). Aristotelis, Metaphysica. merkungen und einer Bibliographie Recognovit brevique adnotatione criti- von H. Klemmer, herausgegeben von ca instruxit W. Jaeger. Oxonii: E ty- H. D. Brandt und H. F. Klemme. pographeo Clarendoniano. Hamburg. Meiner. Aristotle. (1968). Aristotelis, Analytica priora Kotzias, N. (1878). Historia tes philosophias et posteriora. Recognovit W.D. Ross. apo ton archaiotaton chronon mechri Praefatione et appendice auxit L. Mi- ton kath’ emas (History of Philosophy nio-Paluello. Oxonii: E typographeo from the Most Ancient Times to Ours, Clarendoniano. in Greek). Vol. 3. Athens. Aristotle. (1970). Aristotelis, Ethica Nicoma- Nietzsche, Fr. (1966). Werke in drei Baenden. chea. Recognovit brevique adnotati- Herausgegeben von K. Schlechta. one critica instruxit I. Bywater. Oxo- Muenchen. Hanser. nii: E typographeo Clarendoniano. Nietzsche, Fr. (1966a). Jenseits von Gut und Aristotle. (1984). Aristotelis, De anima. Re- Boese. In: Nietzsche, Fr. (1966). Bd.2. cognovit brevique adnotatione critica Nietzsche, Fr. (1966b). Zur Genealogie der instruxit W.D. Ross. Oxonii: E Typog- Moral. Eine Streitschrift. In: Niet- rapheo Clarendoniano. zsche, Fr. (1966). Bd. 2. Descartes, R. (1969). Œuvres. Tom. 1-10. Plato (1961). Platonis, Opera. Tom. I-V. Re- Publiées par Ch. Adam et R. Tannery. cognovit adnotatione critica instruxit I. Paris. Vrin. Burnet. Oxonii. E typographeo Clar- Hegel, G.W.F. (1975). Wissenschaft der Lo- endoniano. gik. Herausgegeben von G. Lasson. Plato (1961a). Philebus. In: Plato (1961), Zweiter Teil. Hamburg. Meiner. Tom. II. Husserl, E. (1976). Die Krisis der europaeis- Plato (1961b). Symposion. In: Plato (1961), chen Wissenschaft und die transzen- Tom. II. dentale Phaenomenologie. Eine Ein- Plato (1961c). Res publica. In: Plato (1961), leitung in die phaenomenologische Tom. IV. Philosophie. In: E. Husserl, Husser- Plato (1961d). Timaeus. In: Plato (1961), liana VI, 1-313. Haag. Martinus Nij- Tom. IV. hoff (11954). Plato (1961e). Epistulae. In:Plato (1961), V. Husserl, E. (1976a). Die Krisis des europaei- Weber, M. (1972). Wirtschaft und Gesell- schen Menschentums und die Philo- schaft. Grundriss der verstehenden sophie. In: Husserl, E. (1976). Soziologie. Tuebingen. Mohr. Kant, I. (1998). Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Weber, M.(1973). Wissenschaft als Beruf. In: Nach der ersten und zweiten Origina- M. Weber, Gesammelte Aufsaetze zur lausgabe herausgegeben von J. Tim- Wissenschaftslehre. Tuebingen. Mohr.

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Aristotle. (1960). Aristotelis, Physica. Recog- mermann. Mit einer Bibliographie von UDC 1/14:7.01 novit brevique adnotatione critica in- H. Klemme. Hamburg. Meiner. Anna ASATRYAN struxit W. D. Ross. Oxonii: E typog- Kant, I. (2003). Kritik der praktischen Ver- rapheo Clarendoniano. nunft. Mit einer Einleitung, Sachbe- GEORG BRUTIAN AND NAS RA INSTITUTE OF ARTS Aristotle. (1963). Aristotelis, Metaphysica. merkungen und einer Bibliographie Recognovit brevique adnotatione criti- von H. Klemmer, herausgegeben von Abstract ca instruxit W. Jaeger. Oxonii: E ty- H. D. Brandt und H. F. Klemme. pographeo Clarendoniano. Hamburg. Meiner. The author recounts the cooperation of the academician Georg Brutian with the Institute of Aristotle. (1968). Aristotelis, Analytica priora Kotzias, N. (1878). Historia tes philosophias Arts, NAS RA. In particular, the scientific symposium, organized on the initiative of G. Brutian in et posteriora. Recognovit W.D. Ross. apo ton archaiotaton chronon mechri the Institute of Arts on March 9, 2010 and dedicated to the 90th anniversary of the world-renowned Praefatione et appendice auxit L. Mi- ton kath’ emas (History of Philosophy French painter of Armenian origin Jansem, as well as the booklet “Jansem-90”, published the same nio-Paluello. Oxonii: E typographeo from the Most Ancient Times to Ours, year by the International Academy of Philosophy, the Armenian Academy of Philosophy and the Clarendoniano. in Greek). Vol. 3. Athens. Institute of Arts NAS RA and edited by the academician G. Brutian are spoken about. Aristotle. (1970). Aristotelis, Ethica Nicoma- Nietzsche, Fr. (1966). Werke in drei Baenden. chea. Recognovit brevique adnotati- Herausgegeben von K. Schlechta. Keywords: Georg Brutian, Institute of Arts NAS RA, creative cooperation, scientific confer- one critica instruxit I. Bywater. Oxo- Muenchen. Hanser. ence, Jansem’s jubilee. a nii: E typographeo Clarendoniano. Nietzsche, Fr. (1966 ). Jenseits von Gut und Aristotle. (1984). Aristotelis, De anima. Re- Boese. In: Nietzsche, Fr. (1966). Bd.2. b cognovit brevique adnotatione critica Nietzsche, Fr. (1966 ). Zur Genealogie der On December 8, 2015, Georg Brutian, of NAS RA vice-president. In those years, the instruxit W.D. Ross. Oxonii: E Typog- Moral. Eine Streitschrift. In: Niet- academician of the RA National Academy of Institute of Arts was part of the mentioned rapheo Clarendoniano. zsche, Fr. (1966). Bd. 2. Sciences, an outstanding philosopher and ef- Department and, quite naturally, all the ac- Descartes, R. (1969). Œuvres. Tom. 1-10. Plato (1961). Platonis, Opera. Tom. I-V. Re- ficient organizer passed away. At once, three complishments of the Institute during that pe- Publiées par Ch. Adam et R. Tannery. cognovit adnotatione critica instruxit I. organizations - the International Institute of riod of time were to a greater or lesser extent Paris. Vrin. Burnet. Oxonii. E typographeo Clar- Argumentation, the Armenian Philosophical attributable to the strict and demanding, yet Hegel, G.W.F. (1975). Wissenschaft der Lo- endoniano. Academy and the International Academy for sympathizing and caring head of the Depart- a gik. Herausgegeben von G. Lasson. Plato (1961 ). Philebus. In: Plato (1961), Philosophy - lost their leader … ment. Zweiter Teil. Hamburg. Meiner. Tom. II. NAS RA Institute of Arts lost a great In 2018, NAS RA Institute of Arts will b Husserl, E. (1976). Die Krisis der europaeis- Plato (1961 ). Symposion. In: Plato (1961), friend. celebrate 60 years of its founding. During the- chen Wissenschaft und die transzen- Tom. II. On the 90th birthday (March 24, 2016) of se six decades it had but three directors, and c dentale Phaenomenologie. Eine Ein- Plato (1961 ). Res publica. In: Plato (1961), academician G. Brutian, the management of they all enjoyed academician G. Brutian’s fa- leitung in die phaenomenologische Tom. IV. NAS RA Institute of Arts visited the acade- vor. Thus, he played an important role in the d Philosophie. In: E. Husserl, Husser- Plato (1961 ). Timaeus. In: Plato (1961), mician’s grave and laid flowers. scientific career of Ruben Zaryan, academi- liana VI, 1-313. Haag. Martinus Nij- Tom. IV. Among academician G. Brutian’s many cian of the Arm. SSR Academy of Sciences, 1 e hoff ( 1954). Plato (1961 ). Epistulae. In:Plato (1961), V. talents, the best known was that for organiz- who headed the Institute from the day of its a Husserl, E. (1976 ). Die Krisis des europaei- Weber, M. (1972). Wirtschaft und Gesell- ing science: back in 1977, he was elected founding in 1958 through 1987, when he was schen Menschentums und die Philo- schaft. Grundriss der verstehenden academician-secretary of the Department of removed from office upon his own applica- sophie. In: Husserl, E. (1976). Soziologie. Tuebingen. Mohr. Philosophy and Philology of the Armenian tion and appointed advisor to the directorate Kant, I. (1998). Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Weber, M.(1973). Wissenschaft als Beruf. In: Academy of Sciences; in 1994-2002 he was of the Institute of Arts, having recommended Nach der ersten und zweiten Origina- M. Weber, Gesammelte Aufsaetze zur academician-secretary of NAS RA Depart- Levon Hakhverdyan as his substitute. On Oc- lausgabe herausgegeben von J. Tim- Wissenschaftslehre. Tuebingen. Mohr. ment of Humanitarian Sciences, held the post tober 1, 1987, by the decision of the general 130 131 131 2(7), 2016 Anna ASATRYAN

meeting of NAS RA Department of Philoso- the world fine arts of the XX century and our phy and Philology, Doctor of Philology Le- days. A hard worker of arts for decades, you von Hakhverdyan was appointed director of have mastered all the secrets of painting, and the Arm. SSR Institute of Arts. thereby reached ultimate artistic craftsman- Friendly relations between academician ship. Your amazing and fascinating art has G. Brutian and NAS RA Institute of Arts con- earned numerous admirers across the globe. tinued through the days of Ararat Aghasyan, Dear Master, we know you as an indi- the third director of the Institute. Incidentally, vidual of honest and bright soul, the talented it was on the initiative of G. Brutian that A. and worthy son of the Armenian people. Aghasyan was elected as member to the Ar- On this anniversary day we wish you menian Philosophical Academy. good health, long years of creative life, bo- The friendship between academician G. undless vitality, wellbeing and personal hap- Brutian and NAS RA Institute of Arts was piness. deeply rooted in the philosopher’s love and With best regards, appreciation of arts. President of Armenian Philosophical Taking advantage of the occasion, I Academy, would like to bring up an episode of coopera- Academician of NAS RA tion between academician G. Brutian and Georg Brutian NAS RA Institute of Arts. On May 9, 2010, on the initiative of G. Brutian, a scientific Director of NAS RA Institute of Arts, symposium, dedicated to the 90th birth anni- Doctor of Arts, Professor versary of the French Armenian international- Ararat Aghasyan ly known painter Jansem (Hovhannes Se- merdjian, March 9, 1920 – August 27, 2013) March 9, 2010, and NAS RA Foreign Member (2002), was Yerevan.”1 held in the premises of NAS RA Institute of On the occasion of the 90th anniversary Arts. A telegram was sent to the hero of the of Jansem, the booklet “Jansem – 90” was event, which in particular said: published in 2010 by the International Acad- “Dear Master, emy for Philosophy and NAS RA Institute of On behalf of the Armenian Philosophical Arts, under the general editorship of academi- Academy and the Institute of Arts of the Na- cian G. Brutian. tional Academy of Sciences of the Republic In his address to the artist, dated March of Armenia, on behalf of the participants of 9, 2010, the President of the Armenian Philo- the symposium, dedicated to Your 90th birth- sophical Academy G. Brutian particularly day anniversary, we extend our heartfelt wi- says: “Dear M. Jansem, on behalf of the pre- shes on this remarkable occasion. sidium of the Armenian Philosophical Acad- Your art of profound ideal and visual emy, the international community of philoso- content, broad genre and thematic scope and phers and myself, I heartily wish You a very high artistic qualities has long taken its steady

and solid place in the history of Armenian and 1 See Archives of NAS RA Institute of Arts. 132 2(7), 2016 132 133 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

meeting of NAS RA Department of Philoso- the world fine arts of the XX century and our happy 90th birthday. The fact that Your art has rated in the “Jansem – 90” booklet, pages 14- phy and Philology, Doctor of Philology Le- days. A hard worker of arts for decades, you earned you world fame and rightfully ranked 19 (see Ibid, pp. 14-19). von Hakhverdyan was appointed director of have mastered all the secrets of painting, and you among the Immortals, fills our hearts “… I was fortunate to meet with Jansem the Arm. SSR Institute of Arts. thereby reached ultimate artistic craftsman- with pride. We know you as not only a Great in person. Just once! We talked, or, rather, I Friendly relations between academician ship. Your amazing and fascinating art has artist and painter, but also a true patriot of listened to him talking, and thereby enriched G. Brutian and NAS RA Institute of Arts con- earned numerous admirers across the globe. Armenia. The title of Honored Member of the my soul and thought. It happened in Paris in tinued through the days of Ararat Aghasyan, Dear Master, we know you as an indi- Armenian Philosophical Academy, awarded 2001. Just a single day, just a single time… the third director of the Institute. Incidentally, vidual of honest and bright soul, the talented to you years ago, evidences your exceptional Yet every time I make a mental visit to the it was on the initiative of G. Brutian that A. and worthy son of the Armenian people. role in the world of art, as well as the close world of art, I meet Jansem and continue our Aghasyan was elected as member to the Ar- On this anniversary day we wish you association of Your art with philosophy, the interrupted talk: I see what I had failed to see menian Philosophical Academy. good health, long years of creative life, bo- philosophical framework and gist of Your during our first meeting. The first meeting The friendship between academician G. undless vitality, wellbeing and personal hap- wonderful oeuvre. that was to be the last one. Let this not be per- Brutian and NAS RA Institute of Arts was piness. Dear Master of Masters, on the occasion ceived as pessimism. It is but realism. Both of deeply rooted in the philosopher’s love and With best regards, of the 90th anniversary of your birth, the Ar- us are in our advanced ages, and the distance appreciation of arts. President of Armenian Philosophical menian Philosophical Academy decorates between Paris and Yerevan is not so easy to Taking advantage of the occasion, I Academy, You with the most prestigious award of the cover. would like to bring up an episode of coopera- Academician of NAS RA Academy – the David Anhaght Medal. We As it usually happens, I became familiar tion between academician G. Brutian and Georg Brutian also hope that You will accept our invitation with Jansem’s works before I met him. That NAS RA Institute of Arts. On May 9, 2010, to celebrate Your glorious 100th anniversary familiarization took place at rather extraordi- on the initiative of G. Brutian, a scientific Director of NAS RA Institute of Arts, in Yerevan. nary circumstances. Academicians F. Sargs- symposium, dedicated to the 90th birth anni- Doctor of Arts, Professor yan, Em. Gabrielyan and I were in Japan, en- versary of the French Armenian international- Ararat Aghasyan President of the Armenian Philosophical joying the hospitality of the world renowned ly known painter Jansem (Hovhannes Se- Academy, artist, art historian, scientist, philosopher, in a merdjian, March 9, 1920 – August 27, 2013) March 9, 2010, Academician Georg Brutian word – the profusely gifted Goino-san. How- and NAS RA Foreign Member (2002), was Yerevan.”1 March 9, 2010 ever, there was a flaw in him – his English held in the premises of NAS RA Institute of On the occasion of the 90th anniversary Yerevan” (Brutian, 2010, p. 3). was pretty poor, and his articulation was even Arts. A telegram was sent to the hero of the of Jansem, the booklet “Jansem – 90” was poorer. Obviously, I should not have said event, which in particular said: published in 2010 by the International Acad- Jansem first visited Armenia in 1973. His anything like this about a person who had “Dear Master, emy for Philosophy and NAS RA Institute of second visit to Armenia in 2001 was on the been doing his best to please us, his guests. On behalf of the Armenian Philosophical Arts, under the general editorship of academi- invitation of RA President Robert Kocharyan. Among others, he took us to a museum, Academy and the Institute of Arts of the Na- cian G. Brutian. The artist presented his “Genocide” series of whose name Goino-san pronounced with a tional Academy of Sciences of the Republic In his address to the artist, dated March 34 canvases (2000-2001) to the Armenian strong Japanese accent, so none of us got any of Armenia, on behalf of the participants of 9, 2010, the President of the Armenian Philo- Genocide Museum-Institute. The series is ex- idea of whom it was about. The situation the symposium, dedicated to Your 90th birth- sophical Academy G. Brutian particularly hibited in the special Jansem Hall opened in brought about arguments, our incorrect guess- day anniversary, we extend our heartfelt wi- says: “Dear M. Jansem, on behalf of the pre- the Museum. es took so much time that we left the museum shes on this remarkable occasion. sidium of the Armenian Philosophical Acad- The first and last meeting of Jansem and without even seeing the exhibits. Your art of profound ideal and visual emy, the international community of philoso- academician G. Brutian took place in 2001 in It happened so that academician Goino content, broad genre and thematic scope and phers and myself, I heartily wish You a very Paris, the valuable remembrances of which, invited me to a second visit to Japan, this time high artistic qualities has long taken its steady titled “A Meeting with Jean Jansem”, are nar- with my grandson Ara. With Ara’s quick and solid place in the history of Armenian and 1 See Archives of NAS RA Institute of Arts. mind we realized that the museum is named 132 133 133 2(7), 2016 Anna ASATRYAN

after the great artist and our great compatriot ceived a violin as a gift from the famous vio- Jansem. Incidentally, Jansem and Shahen lin master Martin Yeritsyan. The artist said he Khachatryan did know about the museum, yet was very happy and could not even think of a had never been to it. Who knows whether any better gift.” Armenian from Armenia or Armenian diaspo- During their talk, G. Brutian reads some ra has ever been to the Japanese city of Azu- philosophical thoughts between the lines. “I mino 150 kilometers away from Tokyo, or is do not think Jansem chose to speak so be- aware of that museum? cause he talked with a philosopher. His philo- Later Jansem told me that there are two, sophical ideas about art sounded so naturally. not just one, museums of his works in Japan. I am convinced that whatever issue or field We talk… I prefer to be silent, to have a we touch upon in our conversation, the longer time to listen to Jansem. He stops, tired thoughts will be based on philosophical con- of talking. When he does not talk, he plays the texts. Although, there is a difference in to violin. He has a powerful sensation of the what extent the philosophical context seeks to languages of arts, and easily switches from become an overt text and to complete what the language of painting to that of music. This has already been said openly. Such authors reminds me of the English mathematician are usually labeled as “physicists-philoso- Sawyer’s teaching about the languages of sci- phers”, “historian- philosophers”, “artist- phi- ence. Particularly, he maintains that it is very losophers”, etc. important to be able to switch from the lan- My impression was that Jansem belongs guage of algebra to that of geometry and vice to the painters whose artwork enriches not versa. In the first case, the abstract symbols of only fine arts, but also the overt and covert algebra become understandable when a for- world of philosophic reflections.” mula’s content is translated into geometrical At the very first elections held at the Ar- forms. The language of geometry makes visi- menian Philosophical Academy after the phi- ble the content of the algebraic formula. In the losopher and the artist had met in Paris, Jean second case, we switch from the language of Jansem was elected as Honored Member of geometry to that of algebra to check how pre- the Academy. G. Brutian imparted the news cisely the geometrical representations corre- to the artist, whose response was not slow to late with the algebraic problems. arrive. The booklet brings both the original I do not think Jean Jansem has read Saw- text in French and the Armenian translation: yer. However, he has the innate sensation of “Dear Mr. President,’ Jansem writes, ‘I the regularities discovered by the mathemati- am touched and proud to hear I have been cian. In his own way, he transitions from the elected as Honored Member of the Armenian language of one art field to the language of Philosophical Academy. I am grateful to You another. This both relaxes him and gives for this honor to belong to Your respected or- power to solve his own fundamental prob- ganization. Jean Jansem.” lems. By the way, his love of the violin was In 2002, Jansem was elected as Foreign so widely known that when, a year after our Member of NAS RA. meeting, Jansem arrived in Yerevan, he re-

134 2(7), 2016 134 135 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

after the great artist and our great compatriot ceived a violin as a gift from the famous vio- “Born and brought up beyond his father- Our dear painter lives far from his father- Jansem. Incidentally, Jansem and Shahen lin master Martin Yeritsyan. The artist said he land Armenia’, G. Brutian continues, ‘Jan- land Armenia, yet he, his oeuvre and spirit, Khachatryan did know about the museum, yet was very happy and could not even think of a sem’s thoughts belong in Armenia, and his are always here with us”, G. Brutian con- had never been to it. Who knows whether any better gift.” every heartbeat is dedicated to Armenia. The cludes his recollections. Armenian from Armenia or Armenian diaspo- During their talk, G. Brutian reads some facts to prove this are plenty, yet I would like Jansem died on August 27, 2013, at the ra has ever been to the Japanese city of Azu- philosophical thoughts between the lines. “I to first mention the creative enthusiasm, age of 93. Two years after, in 2015, academi- mino 150 kilometers away from Tokyo, or is do not think Jansem chose to speak so be- which drove him in his advanced age to create cian G. Brutian passed away. Thanks to the aware of that museum? cause he talked with a philosopher. His philo- multiple canvases depicting the Armenian booklet “Jansem – 90”, two written docu- Later Jansem told me that there are two, sophical ideas about art sounded so naturally. Genocide. The paintings make emotional not ments and academician G. Brutian’s valuable not just one, museums of his works in Japan. I am convinced that whatever issue or field only those who condemn the Genocide, but memories about the world famous artist were We talk… I prefer to be silent, to have a we touch upon in our conversation, the every viewer. It is a scream of the soul, an brought to the attention of academic circles. longer time to listen to Jansem. He stops, tired thoughts will be based on philosophical con- outburst of concentrated thought and sensa- of talking. When he does not talk, he plays the texts. Although, there is a difference in to tion, a deed of an individual whose fatherland REFERENCES violin. He has a powerful sensation of the what extent the philosophical context seeks to is always within his heart. A deed that can languages of arts, and easily switches from become an overt text and to complete what deeply impress anybody. During his visit to Brutian, G. (Ed.). (2010). Mi handipum Jhan the language of painting to that of music. This has already been said openly. Such authors Armenia, the Great artist and patriot presented Jhansemi het, Jhansem – 90 (A reminds me of the English mathematician are usually labeled as “physicists-philoso- these large-scale pictures, reproducing the Meeting with Jean Jansem, Jansem – Sawyer’s teaching about the languages of sci- phers”, “historian- philosophers”, “artist- phi- horrors of the Armenian Genocide, to the Ar- 90, in Armenian), Yerevan: P’ili- ence. Particularly, he maintains that it is very losophers”, etc. menian Genocide Museum for permanent ex- sop’ayut’yan mijazgayin akademiayi important to be able to switch from the lan- My impression was that Jansem belongs hibition. hratarakchut’yun. guage of algebra to that of geometry and vice to the painters whose artwork enriches not versa. In the first case, the abstract symbols of only fine arts, but also the overt and covert algebra become understandable when a for- world of philosophic reflections.” mula’s content is translated into geometrical At the very first elections held at the Ar- forms. The language of geometry makes visi- menian Philosophical Academy after the phi- ble the content of the algebraic formula. In the losopher and the artist had met in Paris, Jean second case, we switch from the language of Jansem was elected as Honored Member of geometry to that of algebra to check how pre- the Academy. G. Brutian imparted the news cisely the geometrical representations corre- to the artist, whose response was not slow to late with the algebraic problems. arrive. The booklet brings both the original I do not think Jean Jansem has read Saw- text in French and the Armenian translation: yer. However, he has the innate sensation of “Dear Mr. President,’ Jansem writes, ‘I the regularities discovered by the mathemati- am touched and proud to hear I have been cian. In his own way, he transitions from the elected as Honored Member of the Armenian language of one art field to the language of Philosophical Academy. I am grateful to You another. This both relaxes him and gives for this honor to belong to Your respected or- power to solve his own fundamental prob- ganization. Jean Jansem.” lems. By the way, his love of the violin was In 2002, Jansem was elected as Foreign so widely known that when, a year after our Member of NAS RA. meeting, Jansem arrived in Yerevan, he re-

134 135 135 2(7), 2016 Aelita DOLUKHANYAN

UDC 1(091) Aelita DOLUKHANYAN

THE MAIN THESES OF THE ARMENIAN TRANSLATION OF THE DEFINITIONS BY HERMES TRISMEGISTUS

Abstract

Academician Sen Arevshatyan, a great connoisseur of medieval philosophy, enumerates a series of philosophical and theological works, translated in the middle of the 5th century and the beginning of the 6th century, the texts of which have been preserved only in Armenian. Among them one shall cite seven works by Philo of Alexandria and the Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus. The text of the Hermes’ work, which has an international value, was prepared to publication by academician Hacob Manandyan and it was printed in the journal “Banber Matenadarani” (“The Messenger of the Matenadaran”). To prepare the critical text of the work under study H. Manand- yan has utilized six manuscripts kept in the Mashtots Matenadaran of Yerevan, the most ancient of which was written in the 13th century, before 1282. The Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus were translated into Old Armenian at the second half of the 5th century. Translations made in that period from Greek and Hellenic works have deeply influenced Armenian authors of the Golden Age. The careful study of this philosophical treaty shows numerous relations between this work and those of the Armenian authors of the 5th century and the following period. The Armenian translation of Hermes Trismegistus’ work proves how much the scientific thought was developed in Armenia still in the 5th century. The fact of the translation of the Defini- tions by Hermes Trismegistus shows that in the 5th century Neo-Platonism was among the fundamental directions of Armenian philosophy and it is not fortuitous that David the Invincible became the greatest figure of this philosophical direction in Armenia.

Keywords: theologian, philosopher, Neo-Platonism, translation, Golden Age, scribe, international, value, oriental, Hellenic.

As a result of the mighty translation ac- these translations were lost, while, fortunate- tivity during the Armenian Golden Age nu- ly, their translations into Old Armenian Gra- merous philosophical, theological, literary bar language have been preserved and have and historical works were translated from now the value of originals, contributing at the Greek and Syriac into Armenian. They repre- same time to the development of Armenian sented the most important manifestations of studies. The work Armenian Translations of Antic Greco-Latin, as well as Oriental and Ancestors (5th – 13th centuries) by Garegin Hellenic thought. The originals of a part of Zarbhanalian from the Mkhitarist Congrega- 136 2(7), 2016 136 137 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 1(091) tion is devoted to Armenian translated litera- According to the evidence given by Sen Aelita DOLUKHANYAN ture. Arevshatyan, the Definitions by Hermes Tris- Academician Sen Arevshatyan, a great megistus were translated into Old Armenian THE MAIN THESES OF THE ARMENIAN TRANSLATION connoisseur of medieval philosophy, dates in the second half of the 5th century. Transla- th OF THE DEFINITIONS BY HERMES TRISMEGISTUS back to the 5 century and the beginning of tions made in that period from Greek and Hel- th lenic works deeply influenced the Armenian the 6 century the translation of a series of authors of the Golden Age. “It is a clear and Abstract philosophical and theological works which undisputable fact that translations of the have been preserved only in Armenian. works by Dionysius of Thrace, Aphthonius, Academician Sen Arevshatyan, a great connoisseur of medieval philosophy, enumerates a se- Among them one shall cite seven works by th Philo of Alexandria and the Definitions by Theon of Alexandria, Philo of Alexandria and ries of philosophical and theological works, translated in the middle of the 5 century and the beginning of the 6th century, the texts of which have been preserved only in Armenian. Among them Hermes Trismegistus (Arevshatyan, 1973, p. Irenaeus, as well as many other works of the one shall cite seven works by Philo of Alexandria and the Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus. 19). same circle (Definitions by Hermes Trisme- The text of the Hermes’ work, which has an international value, was prepared to publication by The text of the Hermes’ work, which has gistus, The History of Alexander of Macedo- academician Hacob Manandyan and it was printed in the journal “Banber Matenadarani” (“The an international value, was prepared to publi- nia by Pseudo-Callisthenes and so on), were Messenger of the Matenadaran”). To prepare the critical text of the work under study H. Manand- cation by academician Hacob Manandyan and done from the end of the 450-es to the 480-es, yan has utilized six manuscripts kept in the Mashtots Matenadaran of Yerevan, the most ancient of it was printed in the journal “Banber Matena- or the latest in the middle of the 480-es, and which was written in the 13th century, before 1282. darani” (“The Messenger of the Matenada- their ideological and lexical influence on the The Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus were translated into Old Armenian at the second half ran”). To prepare the critical text of the work Armenian contemporary authors as Eghishe, of the 5th century. Translations made in that period from Greek and Hellenic works have deeply in- under study, H. Manandyan used six manu- David the Grammarian, Movses Khorenatsi fluenced Armenian authors of the Golden Age. scripts kept in the Mashtots Matenadaran of and Mambre the Decipherer (supposedly The careful study of this philosophical treaty shows numerous relations between this work and Yerevan, the most ancient of which was writ- Anonymous), is mentioned by many scholars” th those of the Armenian authors of the 5th century and the following period. ten in the 13 century, before 1282. This (Arevshatyan, 1973, p. 166). The Armenian translation of Hermes Trismegistus’ work proves how much the scientific manuscript is a “Homilies” written by the Nowadays famous specialist in Armenian thought was developed in Armenia still in the 5th century. The fact of the translation of the Defini- scribe Mkhitar Ayrivanetsi in the monastery studies Jean-Pierre Mahé, while receiving the th of Geghard (Catalogue of Manuscripts, 1965, tions by Hermes Trismegistus shows that in the 5 century Neo-Platonism was among the funda- spade of membership of the Academy of In- mental directions of Armenian philosophy and it is not fortuitous that David the Invincible became p. 568). scriptions and Literature of the Paris Univer- Historian, theologian, theorist of the cal- the greatest figure of this philosophical direction in Armenia. sity La Sorbonne, heartily thanked those Ar- endar, poet and pedagogue, Mkhitar Ayriva- menian medieval translators who translated netsi gathered in the manuscript he copied an into Armenian the works of the Ancient world Keywords: theologian, philosopher, Neo-Platonism, translation, Golden Age, scribe, interna- authentic treasury of philosophical and theo- men of wisdom, a part of which are preserved tional, value, oriental, Hellenic. logical works. Among them one can find the only thanks to Armenian translations, at the

works by Dionysius the Areopagite, translated same time expressing his gratitude to Arme-

in the 8th century by Stepanos Siunetsi, the nian scribes who preserved these works until As a result of the mighty translation ac- these translations were lost, while, fortunate- Book of Fasting by Basil of Caesarea, the our days by copying and multiplying them tivity during the Armenian Golden Age nu- ly, their translations into Old Armenian Gra- Definitions of Philosophy by David the Invin- during the following centuries. He praised merous philosophical, theological, literary bar language have been preserved and have cible, the Introduction by Porphyry, the Art of these translations as the valuable memory of and historical works were translated from now the value of originals, contributing at the Grammar by Dionysius of Thrace, the Defini- humanity (Mahé, 2002, p. 54). Greek and Syriac into Armenian. They repre- same time to the development of Armenian tions by Hermes Trismegistus, as well as sev- Mkhitar Ayrivanetsi was among those sented the most important manifestations of studies. The work Armenian Translations of th th eral works of Aristotle and other important who preserved the Definitions by Hermes Antic Greco-Latin, as well as Oriental and Ancestors (5 – 13 centuries) by Garegin works. Hellenic thought. The originals of a part of Zarbhanalian from the Mkhitarist Congrega- 136 137 137 2(7), 2016 Aelita DOLUKHANYAN

Trismegistus, copying the Armenian transla- issues of microcosm and macrocosm interre- tion of this work. lations the representatives of Armenian offi- According to H. Manandyan, the Defini- cial literature are completely corresponding tions which came down to our days under the with the theses of the Definitions by Hermes name of Hermes Trismegistus are a mixture Trismegistus. of Neo-Platonism, Oriental mysticism and The latter says in his Definitions: “God is Egyptian philosophical thought. He insists eternal and uncreated; the man is mortal, al- that the original of the Definitions published ways staying a creature” (Manandyan, 1956, by him has not reached our times and adds p. 299). that “the importance of the Armenian transla- We read the same thing said by Eznik: tion is indisputably great as the Greek original “Everything proceeds from Him (God – A.S.) is probably lost” (Manandyan, 1956, p. 289). and He from nobody. He put the beginning of Manandyan explains the meaning of Hermes being to invisible-immaterial and to visible- Trismegistus’ name according to the explana- material, to each according to its class” tion given by the authors of the New Diction- (Koghbatsi, 1970, p. 32). ary of the Armenian Language. They think The theory of the four elements of exist- that ‘Trismegistus’ means ‘three times great’, ence, which comes from Antic philosophy famous. Trismegistus has borrowed the name and continues in the Middle Ages, is also of Hermes, the great Egyptian philosopher. found either in the Definitions by Hermes Among Armenians David the Invincible was Trismegistus or in the work of Eznik. We read also called Trismegistus. in the Definitions: “The corpse consists from According to the evidence given by Kira- four elements; it is a unique harmonic combi- kos Gandzaketsi, historian of the 13th century, nation consisting from warmness, coldness, Mkhitar Ayrivanetsi was called Trismegistus dryness and humidity. From the warmness of as well (Nouveau Dictionnaire de la Langue fire, the coldness of air, the dryness of earth Arménienne, 1836, p. 662). and the humidity of water” (Manandyan, The Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus 1956, p. 299). are published in Old Armenian with parallel Eznik Koghbatsi writes about the same translation into Russian done by Sen Arev- four elements: “And so, the four elements shatyan. from which this world is made are separately The careful study of this philosophical destructive for each other, but combined with treaty shows numerous relations between this their parallels they become useful and advan- work and those of the Armenian authors of tageous” (Koghbatsi, 1970, p. 33). the 5th century and the following period. It should be noticed that we find the ana- Thoughts contained in it can be easily found log of the relation between the Heaven and either in Faithful Speeches by Mesrop Mash- the Earth of the Definitions by Hermes Tris- tots or in the Refutation of the Sects by Eznik megistus in the song Discussion between the Koghbatsi, the Book of Lamentation by Gri- Heaven and the Earth of Nerses Moats, phi- gor Narekatsi, the Epistles by Grigor Tathe- losopher and poet of the 17th century: “I con- vatsi and in the works of other authors. In the sider that God is in the Heaven and the Heav-

138 2(7), 2016 138 139 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

Trismegistus, copying the Armenian transla- issues of microcosm and macrocosm interre- en is above the Earth” (Manandyan, 1956, p. and the light is mind” (Manandyan, 1956, p. tion of this work. lations the representatives of Armenian offi- 301). Nerses Mokatsi also ends the discussion 307). According to H. Manandyan, the Defini- cial literature are completely corresponding between Heaven and Earth by their union, In 451 all the Armenian people raised in tions which came down to our days under the with the theses of the Definitions by Hermes because he sees divinity in both. The Heaven rebellion for the sake of its national independ- name of Hermes Trismegistus are a mixture Trismegistus. bows down before the Earth, because it is the ence and its religious freedom against the of Neo-Platonism, Oriental mysticism and The latter says in his Definitions: “God is last refuge of the human bodies (Mokatsi, conversion project of Yazdegerd II. Eghishe Egyptian philosophical thought. He insists eternal and uncreated; the man is mortal, al- 1975, pp. 42-43). was among the rebels, in the ideological field that the original of the Definitions published ways staying a creature” (Manandyan, 1956, Specialists know that the famous master- as well as in the practical one. The following by him has not reached our times and adds p. 299). piece of Grigor Narekatsi, his Book of Lamen- wise formula can be considered as the motto that “the importance of the Armenian transla- We read the same thing said by Eznik: tation examines the issue of life and death and of his history: “As it was said in ancient tion is indisputably great as the Greek original “Everything proceeds from Him (God – A.S.) comes to the conclusion that the human being times, unconscious death is death, conscious is probably lost” (Manandyan, 1956, p. 289). and He from nobody. He put the beginning of is mortal by his flesh, but immortal by his death is immortality. Who doesn’t know what Manandyan explains the meaning of Hermes being to invisible-immaterial and to visible- wise word. death is, is afraid of it, but one who knows Trismegistus’ name according to the explana- material, to each according to its class” “And even if as a mortal I shall die what death is, doesn’t fear it” (Eghishe, 1989, tion given by the authors of the New Diction- (Koghbatsi, 1970, p. 32). But by the durability of this book I will p. 29). We find the same thought in the Book ary of the Armenian Language. They think The theory of the four elements of exist- remain immortal” of Lamentation by Grigor Narekatsi: that ‘Trismegistus’ means ‘three times great’, ence, which comes from Antic philosophy (Narekatsi, 1979, p. 527). “As a foreign philosopher famous. Trismegistus has borrowed the name and continues in the Middle Ages, is also We find the same statement in the Defi- Considers that death is the greatest evil of Hermes, the great Egyptian philosopher. found either in the Definitions by Hermes nitions by Hermes Trismegistus: “As to the If it is not really conscious and meaning- Among Armenians David the Invincible was Trismegistus or in the work of Eznik. We read body human beings are mortal, while as to the ful, also called Trismegistus. in the Definitions: “The corpse consists from word they are immortal” (Manandyan, 1956, And I am certifying the same with my According to the evidence given by Kira- four elements; it is a unique harmonic combi- p. 302). words” kos Gandzaketsi, historian of the 13th century, nation consisting from warmness, coldness, Among the authors of the 5th century (Narekatsi, 1979, p. 330). Mkhitar Ayrivanetsi was called Trismegistus dryness and humidity. From the warmness of most of all we can find the influence of Her- Neither Eghishe in the 5th century nor as well (Nouveau Dictionnaire de la Langue fire, the coldness of air, the dryness of earth mes Trismegistus’ thoughts in the works of Grigor Narekatsi five centuries later cited the Arménienne, 1836, p. 662). and the humidity of water” (Manandyan, Eghishe. Eghishe considers that the projects name of Hermes Trismegistus, but they con- The Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus 1956, p. 299). of conversion of Yazdegerd II are the result of scientiously confessed that the thought was are published in Old Armenian with parallel Eznik Koghbatsi writes about the same his ignorance in religious issues. “And all this not theirs and belonged to a philosopher of translation into Russian done by Sen Arev- four elements: “And so, the four elements evil penetrates the human mind because of the the ancient times. This philosopher is of shatyan. from which this world is made are separately lack of instruction. The blind is deprived of course Hermes Trismegistus whose Defini- The careful study of this philosophical destructive for each other, but combined with the sun’s rays, but the ignorance deprives of tions were known to those two great Armeni- treaty shows numerous relations between this their parallels they become useful and advan- perfect life. It is better to be blind by eyes, an authors. We can read in Hermes’ work: work and those of the Armenian authors of tageous” (Koghbatsi, 1970, p. 33). than blind in mind. Just as soul is greater than “Conscious death is immortality, unconscious the 5th century and the following period. It should be noticed that we find the ana- body, the vision of mind is greater than the death is death” (Manandyan, 1956, p. 311). In Thoughts contained in it can be easily found log of the relation between the Heaven and vision of body” (Eghishe, 1989, p. 29). his Definitions Hermes Trismegistus speaks either in Faithful Speeches by Mesrop Mash- the Earth of the Definitions by Hermes Tris- Hermes Trismegistus expresses the same about the existence of three worlds: “Subse- tots or in the Refutation of the Sects by Eznik megistus in the song Discussion between the thought in the following way: “Eyes see ex- quently, there are three universal worlds: the Koghbatsi, the Book of Lamentation by Gri- Heaven and the Earth of Nerses Moats, phi- ternal things, while mind sees internal ones. first is perceived by feelings; the second is gor Narekatsi, the Epistles by Grigor Tathe- losopher and poet of the 17th century: “I con- Light is where mind is, as the mind is light, understood by mind (i.e. God) and according vatsi and in the works of other authors. In the sider that God is in the Heaven and the Heav- to the kind of man, and the third one accord-

138 139 139 2(7), 2016 Aelita DOLUKHANYAN

ing to the completeness of the whole. All the paring them with Greek and Roman philoso- multitude of things belong to these three phers (Mahé, 1978). worlds: two visible worlds, perceptible and The Armenian translation of Hermes perishable, which are the man, while knowa- Trismegistus’ work proves how much the sci- ble invisible, i.e. immaterial God who is not entific thought was developed in Armenia still visible, but manifests Himself in the visible” in the 5th century. The fact of the translation (Manandyan, 1956, p. 299). of the Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus About this passage Sen Arevshatyan shows that in the 5th century Neo-Platonism writes: “Using the thesis of Hermes Trisme- was among the fundamental directions of gistus, one of the predecessors of Neo-Plato- Armenian philosophy and it is not fortuitous nism, Eghishe says: “There are three worlds: that David the Invincible became the greatest God, the nature and the man. God is the spir- figure of this philosophical direction in Ar- itual world, the nature is the sensual world, menia. the man is the spiritual and sensual world” (Arevshatyan, 1973, p. 128). REFERENCES While studying the issues of good and evil, Eznik Koghbatsi shows relations with Arevshatyan, S.S. (1973). Formirovanie filo- the Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus. Ez- sofskoi nauki v drevnei Armenii (V- nik is convinced that the man has free think- VI vv.) (The Formation of Philosoph- ing and he serves whom he wants. And this ical Science in Ancient Armenia (5th free thinking exists not for serving the evil, – 6th centuries), in Russian). Yere- but for good purposes. “God … gave him (the van. man) free thinking to deepen in good things, Cucak d’er’agrac Mashtoci anvan Matena- to be able to do what he wants, and recom- darani (Catalogue of the Mashtots mended to put free thinking at the service of Matenadaran Manuscripts, in Arme- good things” (Koghbatsi, 1970, pp. 48-49). nian), h. A. Yerevan. In his turn Hermes formulates this Eghishe. (1989). Vardani & hayoc paterazmi thought the following way: “The man has the masin (About the War of Vardan and same power as gods. Only the man is a free the Armenians, in Armenian). T’arg- creature, only he has power on good and evil” manut’yuny’ & c’anot’agrut’yun- (Manandyan, 1956, p. 307). nery’ (E. Ter-Minasyan Trans. into The philosophical and theological legacy Modern Armenian and Annot.). Ye- of Hermes Trismegistus keeps being interest- revan. ing for orientalists and those who study Antic Koghbatsi, E. (1970). Eghc’ aghandoc (Refu- philosophy. Nowadays, scholars continue to tation of the Sects, in Armenian). study the treasury of humanity’s ancient wis- T’argmanut’yuny’ & c’anot’agrut’- dom. Jean-Pierre Mahé, who knows the Ar- yunnery’ (A.A. Abrahamyan, Trans. menian translation of the Definitions by Her- into Modern Armenian and Annot.). mes Trismegistus, has published a series of Yerevan. works of this ancient man of wisdom, com- L’épée de Jean-Pierre Mahé (2002), Paris.

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ing to the completeness of the whole. All the paring them with Greek and Roman philoso- Mahé, J.-P. (1978). Hermès en Haute-Égypte. Narekatsi, G. (1979). Matyan oghbergut’yan multitude of things belong to these three phers (Mahé, 1978). Québec. (Book of Lamentation, in Armenian). worlds: two visible worlds, perceptible and The Armenian translation of Hermes Manandyan, H. (1956). Hermeay Er’amec’i Yerevan. perishable, which are the man, while knowa- Trismegistus’ work proves how much the sci- ar’ Askghepios «Sahmanq» (Defini- Nouveau Dictionnaire de la Langue Armé- ble invisible, i.e. immaterial God who is not entific thought was developed in Armenia still tions of Hermes Trismegistus to As- nienne (1836). vol. I. Venice. visible, but manifests Himself in the visible” in the 5th century. The fact of the translation clepius, in Armenian), Banber Mate- Zarbhanalyan, G. (1889). Haykakan t’argma- (Manandyan, 1956, p. 299). of the Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus nadarani, No 3. Yerevan. nut’iw’nq naxneac (IV-XIII darer) About this passage Sen Arevshatyan shows that in the 5th century Neo-Platonism Mokatsi, N. (1975). Banasteghc’ut’yunner (Armenian Translations of Ancient writes: “Using the thesis of Hermes Trisme- was among the fundamental directions of (Poems, in Armenian), (A.G. Dolu- Authors (5th – 13th centuries), in Ar- gistus, one of the predecessors of Neo-Plato- Armenian philosophy and it is not fortuitous khanyan, Ed.). Yerevan. menian). Venice. nism, Eghishe says: “There are three worlds: that David the Invincible became the greatest God, the nature and the man. God is the spir- figure of this philosophical direction in Ar- itual world, the nature is the sensual world, menia. the man is the spiritual and sensual world” (Arevshatyan, 1973, p. 128). REFERENCES While studying the issues of good and evil, Eznik Koghbatsi shows relations with Arevshatyan, S.S. (1973). Formirovanie filo- the Definitions by Hermes Trismegistus. Ez- sofskoi nauki v drevnei Armenii (V- nik is convinced that the man has free think- VI vv.) (The Formation of Philosoph- ing and he serves whom he wants. And this ical Science in Ancient Armenia (5th free thinking exists not for serving the evil, – 6th centuries), in Russian). Yere- but for good purposes. “God … gave him (the van. man) free thinking to deepen in good things, Cucak d’er’agrac Mashtoci anvan Matena- to be able to do what he wants, and recom- darani (Catalogue of the Mashtots mended to put free thinking at the service of Matenadaran Manuscripts, in Arme- good things” (Koghbatsi, 1970, pp. 48-49). nian), h. A. Yerevan. In his turn Hermes formulates this Eghishe. (1989). Vardani & hayoc paterazmi thought the following way: “The man has the masin (About the War of Vardan and same power as gods. Only the man is a free the Armenians, in Armenian). T’arg- creature, only he has power on good and evil” manut’yuny’ & c’anot’agrut’yun- (Manandyan, 1956, p. 307). nery’ (E. Ter-Minasyan Trans. into The philosophical and theological legacy Modern Armenian and Annot.). Ye- of Hermes Trismegistus keeps being interest- revan. ing for orientalists and those who study Antic Koghbatsi, E. (1970). Eghc’ aghandoc (Refu- philosophy. Nowadays, scholars continue to tation of the Sects, in Armenian). study the treasury of humanity’s ancient wis- T’argmanut’yuny’ & c’anot’agrut’- dom. Jean-Pierre Mahé, who knows the Ar- yunnery’ (A.A. Abrahamyan, Trans. menian translation of the Definitions by Her- into Modern Armenian and Annot.). mes Trismegistus, has published a series of Yerevan. works of this ancient man of wisdom, com- L’épée de Jean-Pierre Mahé (2002), Paris.

140 141 141 2(7), 2016 Armen T. MARSOOBIAN

UDC 1(091) Armen T. MARSOOBIAN

THE ECLIPSE AND REBIRTH OF AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL PLURALISM: A HISTORY LESSON ABOUT HISTORY

Abstract

The 1950s and `60s saw a struggle in American academic philosophy between a philosophical tradition that maintained a central role for the history of philosophy along with an openness to diverse philosophical methods and an ascendant analytic approach that marginalized its own history and restricted the scope of philosophy to self-generated philosophical problems. Columbia Univer- sity in this period, while marked by these tensions, still provided a fertile ground for generating teacher-philosophers whose pedagogy reflected a deep and serious respect for history and philosophical pluralism. John Herman Randall Jr. and Justus Buchler were two of the central figures who fostered such an environment in Columbia’s Philosophy Department. Joseph P. Fell was a product of this environment and brought these traits to his classroom at Bucknell University. Playing off of Hegel’s insights into history, this essay will reflect upon the philosophies of Randall and Buchler with an eye toward pedagogy, especially as recalled in classes taught by Fell. The subtext of these reflections will provide a commentary on trends within academic philosophy in America over the last 40 years.

Keywords: history of philosophy, pluralism, pedagogy, Columbia University, G. W. F. Hegel, John Herman Randall, Jr., Justus Buchler, Joseph P. Fell.

The 1950s and ‘60s saw a struggle in a fertile ground for generating teacher-phi- American academic philosophy between a losophers whose pedagogy reflected a deep historically grounded and pluralistic philo- and serious respect for history and philosoph- sophical tradition and an ascendant analytic ical pluralism. This respect was also reflected approach that marginalized its own history in the life and career of the Armenian Acad- and restricted the scope of philosophy to self- emician Georg Brutian. John Herman Randall generated philosophical problems. For half a Jr. and Justus Buchler were two of the central century American philosophy had maintained figures who fostered such an environment in a central role for the history of philosophy Columbia’s Philosophy Department. Joseph while at the same time demonstrating open- P. Fell, my first mentor in philosophy, was a ness to diverse philosophical methods. The product of this environment and brought these post-war years saw a significant shift taking traits to his classroom in Bucknell University. place. Columbia University in this period, This essay is a brief reflection upon the phi- while marked by these tensions, still provided losophies of Randall and Buchler with an eye 142 2(7), 2016 142 143 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 1(091) toward pedagogy. The subtext of these reflec- 1958 volume titled, Nature and Historical Armen T. MARSOOBIAN tions will provide a commentary on trends Experience, republished an essay first written within academic philosophy in American over in the mid-1930s. In that essay titled, “Histor- THE ECLIPSE AND REBIRTH OF AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL the course of the last 40 years. ical Naturalism,” Randall writes: PLURALISM: A HISTORY LESSON ABOUT HISTORY The mid-point of twentieth century mar- It is obvious we must inquire into our ked a fundamental moment of transition for world in its temporal dimensions: we Abstract philosophy as practiced in American academ- must understand our past, the past that ia. Partially as a result of the influx of Euro- made us what we are and still constitutes The 1950s and `60s saw a struggle in American academic philosophy between a philosophical pean philosophers in the post-World War II us, the past that is an essential part of our tradition that maintained a central role for the history of philosophy along with an openness to di- period and the rapid expansion of scientific present world. Our culture that is chang- verse philosophical methods and an ascendant analytic approach that marginalized its own history knowledge with its benefits and dangers, the ing is itself the precipitate of a long series and restricted the scope of philosophy to self-generated philosophical problems. Columbia Univer- categories of the American philosophical of changes; and these our materials and sity in this period, while marked by these tensions, still provided a fertile ground for generating landscape were changing. Idealism, Realism, our tools can only be understood in terms teacher-philosophers whose pedagogy reflected a deep and serious respect for history and philo- Naturalism, and Pragmatism, were no longer of the past changes that forced men to sophical pluralism. John Herman Randall Jr. and Justus Buchler were two of the central figures who sufficient to capture this landscape. Philoso- create them. To know what our ideas fostered such an environment in Columbia’s Philosophy Department. Joseph P. Fell was a product phy in America shifted its focus to issues and meant at their birth enables us to under- of this environment and brought these traits to his classroom at Bucknell University. Playing off of developments in logical and linguistic analy- stand better what they have become . . . Hegel’s insights into history, this essay will reflect upon the philosophies of Randall and Buchler sis that stemmed from the influence of the (Randall, 1958, pp. 4-5). with an eye toward pedagogy, especially as recalled in classes taught by Fell. The subtext of these Vienna Circle and from the work of philoso- Nearly 20 years later while still early in his reflections will provide a commentary on trends within academic philosophy in America over the phers such as Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore, career, Quine in sharp contrast writes: last 40 years. Ludwig Wittgenstein, and J. L. Austin in Philosophy is in large part concerned Great Britain. To a somewhat lesser extent, with the theoretical, non-genetic under- Keywords: history of philosophy, pluralism, pedagogy, Columbia University, G. W. F. Hegel, some philosophers in America turned their pinnings of scientific theory; with what John Herman Randall, Jr., Justus Buchler, Joseph P. Fell. attention to work in phenomenology and exis- science could get along with, could be re- tentialism that had its primary home in Ger- constructed by means of, as distinct from many and France. By the time this transitional what science has historically made use The 1950s and ‘60s saw a struggle in a fertile ground for generating teacher-phi- period ended in the 1960s, many philosophy of. If certain problems of ontology, say, American academic philosophy between a losophers whose pedagogy reflected a deep departments, especially in the major doctoral or modality, or causality, or contrary-to- granting institutions, had become less plural- historically grounded and pluralistic philo- and serious respect for history and philosoph- fact conditionals, which arise in ordinary istic and had relegated history of philosophy sophical tradition and an ascendant analytic ical pluralism. This respect was also reflected language, turn out not to arise in science to a less central role in the curriculum. approach that marginalized its own history in the life and career of the Armenian Acad- as reconstituted with the help of formal Illustrative of this shift are the remarks of and restricted the scope of philosophy to self- emician Georg Brutian. John Herman Randall logic, then those philosophical problems two of America’s leading philosophers of the generated philosophical problems. For half a Jr. and Justus Buchler were two of the central have in an important sense been solved: mid-twentieth century, John Herman Randall, century American philosophy had maintained figures who fostered such an environment in they have been shown not to be implicat- Jr. and Willard Van Orman Quine. The for- a central role for the history of philosophy Columbia’s Philosophy Department. Joseph ed in any necessary foundation of sci- mer, nearing the end of his distinguished ca- while at the same time demonstrating open- P. Fell, my first mentor in philosophy, was a ence. Such solutions are good to just the reer at Columbia University by the 1960s, ness to diverse philosophical methods. The product of this environment and brought these extent that (a) philosophy of science is while the latter rising to the first ranks of post-war years saw a significant shift taking traits to his classroom in Bucknell University. philosophy enough and (b) the refash- philosophical prestige at Harvard University, place. Columbia University in this period, This essay is a brief reflection upon the phi- ioned logical underpinnings of science do can be illustrative of this shift. Randall in a while marked by these tensions, still provided losophies of Randall and Buchler with an eye not engender new philosophical problems 142 143 143 2(7), 2016 Armen T. MARSOOBIAN

of their own (Quine, 1953, p. 446) [em- his seminal work, Experience and Nature, phasis added]. Dewey proposed retitling his book, “Culture In his more than half century of teaching, and Nature,” in order to avoid the ahistorical Quine only taught one course in the history of and narrowed appropriation of the term “ex- philosophy, a course on the philosophy of perience” endemic to the then rising tide of David Hume. Anglo-American empiricism. For Dewey, cul- Randall’s choice, maybe at Buchler’s ture has a history, while experience is often urging, to begin his volume with the above misinterpreted and limited to a here and now. quoted essay can be seen as a response to log- Justus Buchler, in this same period, was ical positivism and the narrow empirical basis developing metaphysics of experience that upon which it is founded. Randall’s prescient jettisoned some of the traditional vocabulary warnings in his reprinted 1930s essay were that was stymying the understanding of the certainly not being heeded as academic phi- broadened naturalistic philosophy of his Co- losophy “progressed” into the decade of the lumbia colleagues, Dewey and Randall. To- 1960s. He further writes in the same essay: ward a General Theory of Human Judgment Philosophies of experience which start in 1951 marked the introduction of his con- with experience as a subject-matter are in cept of “proception” as an alternative to the fact starting with certain ideas of experi- shopworn concept of experience. Buchler did ence, and that those which end with expe- not elaborate upon the genesis of this concept rience as a conclusion are in fact ending at the time but years later in a new introduc- with a certain experience of ideas. And a tion to the second edition of the book he con- whole range of philosophies, including ceptually tackled the history of the shortcom- most of those called empirical, stand ings of the concept of experience that necessi- condemned as inadequate, unenlightened, tated this reconceptualization (Buchler, 1979). and blind. We must start with tradition, Dewey’s own dissatisfaction with the term and we must end with tradition criticized, “experience” was mirrored, though on differ- clarified, and enlarged (Randall, 1958, p. ent metaphysical grounds, by Buchler’s own 10). criticism of the term and its replacement with Randall’s concerns with the growing ne- a more conceptually precise yet metaphysical- glect of history may well have motivated him ly general term, “proception.” The distinctly to explicitly examine the issue of how philos- human relationship with the world that would ophy deals with its own past. The resulting become his concept of proception was thus 1961 Machette Lectures, subsequently pub- based upon a deep critique of the history of lished under the title of How Philosophy Uses philosophy. Buchler had often taught a co- Its Past, is a small yet profoundly important urse, both at Columbia and then again at the book that should be essential reading for all State University of New York at Stony Brook, would-be philosophers. Another Columbia that examined the history of the philosophical colleague of Randall who voiced a similar use of the term “experience.” He approached concern in the 1940s was John Dewey. In a this concept historically, beginning with new, at the time not yet published, preface to Hume and Locke and tracing it through to

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of their own (Quine, 1953, p. 446) [em- his seminal work, Experience and Nature, twentieth century philosophers in both the ence Between Fichte's and Schelling's System phasis added]. Dewey proposed retitling his book, “Culture Anglo-American and Continental traditions. of Philosophy.” I now see that Hegel was ex- In his more than half century of teaching, and Nature,” in order to avoid the ahistorical Working out ideas through a critical examina- pressing his attitude toward how the history Quine only taught one course in the history of and narrowed appropriation of the term “ex- tion of the history of philosophy was a trait of philosophy should play a role in philoso- philosophy, a course on the philosophy of perience” endemic to the then rising tide of shared by both of my most important philo- phy itself. In this essay he calls those who David Hume. Anglo-American empiricism. For Dewey, cul- sophical mentors, Justus Buchler and Joseph misunderstand the historical approach to the Randall’s choice, maybe at Buchler’s ture has a history, while experience is often P. Fell. While Buchler rarely presented his history of philosophy, “the curious collec- urging, to begin his volume with the above misinterpreted and limited to a here and now. own philosophical system in his classroom tor[s] of information.” Those who have little quoted essay can be seen as a response to log- Justus Buchler, in this same period, was teaching, you could clearly see its origins in time or tolerance for philosophers who labor ical positivism and the narrow empirical basis developing metaphysics of experience that the careful analyses and critiques that consti- on the history of philosophy sometimes dis- upon which it is founded. Randall’s prescient jettisoned some of the traditional vocabulary tuted the core of the historical subject matter play a distained dismissal toward such activi- warnings in his reprinted 1930s essay were that was stymying the understanding of the we examined. ty captured in in Hegel’s characterization of certainly not being heeded as academic phi- broadened naturalistic philosophy of his Co- Joseph P. Fell’s courses also reflected the “curious collector.” History of philosophy losophy “progressed” into the decade of the lumbia colleagues, Dewey and Randall. To- this deep regard for the necessity of working is for them a collection of mostly false curios- 1960s. He further writes in the same essay: ward a General Theory of Human Judgment through the historical tradition in order to ities. Collecting opinions from the past is not Philosophies of experience which start in 1951 marked the introduction of his con- make sense of the contemporary philosophical the approach Hegel nor Fell and Buchler ad- with experience as a subject-matter are in cept of “proception” as an alternative to the problems that are the grist of the present-day vocated. Picking up from where the quotation fact starting with certain ideas of experi- shopworn concept of experience. Buchler did philosophical mill. In Fell’s introductory phi- left off, Hegel goes on to claim: ence, and that those which end with expe- not elaborate upon the genesis of this concept losophy course from the fall of 1970 one can It matters little to the spirit that it is rience as a conclusion are in fact ending at the time but years later in a new introduc- see this in evidence. The course titled, “Five forced to augment the extant collection of with a certain experience of ideas. And a tion to the second edition of the book he con- Types of Philosophy,” provided a historical mummies and the general heap of contin- whole range of philosophies, including ceptually tackled the history of the shortcom- approach to what Fell labels, “Spiritualism,” gent oddities; for the spirit itself slipped most of those called empirical, stand ings of the concept of experience that necessi- “Naturalism,” “Dualism,” “Idealism,” and away between the fingers of the curious condemned as inadequate, unenlightened, tated this reconceptualization (Buchler, 1979). “Pragmatism.” On the blackboard the first day collector of information. The collector and blind. We must start with tradition, Dewey’s own dissatisfaction with the term of class was the following quotation from G. stands firm in his neutral attitude towards and we must end with tradition criticized, “experience” was mirrored, though on differ- W. F. Hegel; a quote I could not fully appre- truth; he preserves his independence clarified, and enlarged (Randall, 1958, p. ent metaphysical grounds, by Buchler’s own ciate at the time and still today is well-worth whether he accepts opinions, rejects 10). criticism of the term and its replacement with pondering: them, or abstains from decision. He can Randall’s concerns with the growing ne- a more conceptually precise yet metaphysical- The living spirit that dwells in philoso- give philosophical systems only one rela- glect of history may well have motivated him ly general term, “proception.” The distinctly phy demands, in order to reveal itself, to tion to himself: they are opinions – and to explicitly examine the issue of how philos- human relationship with the world that would be born again by a kindred spirit. Be- such incidental things as opinions can do ophy deals with its own past. The resulting become his concept of proception was thus fore an historical attitude that, prompted him no harm. He has not learned that 1961 Machette Lectures, subsequently pub- based upon a deep critique of the history of by some interest, is after information there is truth to be had (Hegel, 1977, lished under the title of How Philosophy Uses philosophy. Buchler had often taught a co- about opinions, it passes by as a strange p.86). Its Past, is a small yet profoundly important urse, both at Columbia and then again at the phenomenon without revealing its in- These “mummies and the general heap of book that should be essential reading for all State University of New York at Stony Brook, side. contingent oddities” must have been what Fell would-be philosophers. Another Columbia that examined the history of the philosophical Hegel’s words have prompted me to probe had in mind when on our second class meet- colleague of Randall who voiced a similar use of the term “experience.” He approached further into what I did not understand at the ing he uttered: “Human outlooks are more concern in the 1940s was John Dewey. In a this concept historically, beginning with time. I have now discovered that the quoted determinate in a philosophy than are facts or new, at the time not yet published, preface to Hume and Locke and tracing it through to passage was from Hegel’s essay, “The Differ- data. They determine what facts are explored”

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(“Class lecture”, 1970) It is curious that these tradition, and we must end with tradition crit- two sentences are the only notes that I both- icized, clarified, and enlarged.” ered to write down that day; yet they do cap- This method of reading the philosophical ture the essence of Fell and Buchler’s ap- tradition with the goal of ending with “tradi- proach to philosophical pedagogy. tion criticized, clarified, and enlarged,” Contrary to Quine’s quip that “philoso- marked the philosophical pedagogy of Ran- phy of science is philosophy enough,” Hegel dall, Buchler and Fell. The brilliantly crafted goes on in this same passage quoted above to historical writings of Randall in his two- elaborate upon the connection between the volume tour-de-force, The Career of Philoso- history of philosophy and science: phy (Randall, 1962-65), epitomized this ap- The history of philosophy [seems to] ac- proach. This is a work that continues to play quire a more useful aspect, however, an important role in my career as professor of when the impulse to enlarge science takes philosophy and one that I would recommend hold of it, for according to Reinhold, the to others who teach historically oriented co- history of philosophy should serve as a urses. means “to penetrate more profoundly I would like to conclude on a personal than ever into the spirit of philosophy, note. I have had the fortune, though I some- and to develop the idiosyncratic views of times think the misfortune, of spending thirty one’s predecessors about the grounding years of my teaching career at one university. of the reality of human cognition further The fortunate side of my career comes from in new views of one’s own.” Only if this the fact that the philosophy department I sort of information concerning previous joined was both pluralistic in philosophical attempts to solve the problem of philoso- orientation and strongly committed to the his- phy were available could the attempt ac- tory of philosophy. We have a mandatory tually succeed in the end – if mankind is four-course sequence in history plus required fated to succeed in it at all (Hegel, 1977, courses that take up important figures in p. 86). twentieth century philosophy. We have man- The connections I have drawn between Ran- aged to maintain our commitment to history dall and Hegel could also have been made while at the same time building our strengths with other important philosophers in the tradi- in a variety of applied areas of philosophy tion. Randall was, as was his mentor and such as computer ethics, business ethics, bio- teacher, Frederick J. E. Woodbridge, a great medical ethics, environmental philosophy, admirer and exponent of the Aristotelian gender studies, etc. It is heartening to see that method of conceptual analysis. Whether it philosophers from across the philosophical was the concept of cause or that of human spectrum, whether they are trained in the arête, we always begin by first turning to our Pragmatist, Continental or Analytic traditions, predecessors and their “previous attempts to are contributing in important ground-breaking solve the problem[s] of philosophy.” As earli- ways to these applied areas in philosophy. er quoted from Randall: “We must start with While the academic profession of philosophy

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(“Class lecture”, 1970) It is curious that these tradition, and we must end with tradition crit- has become more pluralistic and relevant to ceived from the philosophers who trace them- two sentences are the only notes that I both- icized, clarified, and enlarged.” the global human predicament, its existence is selves back to philosophy as it was practiced ered to write down that day; yet they do cap- This method of reading the philosophical threatened now more than ever. As with many at Columbia University half a century ago. ture the essence of Fell and Buchler’s ap- tradition with the goal of ending with “tradi- disciplines in the humanities, the last decade proach to philosophical pedagogy. tion criticized, clarified, and enlarged,” has been one in which we have increasing REFERENCES Contrary to Quine’s quip that “philoso- marked the philosophical pedagogy of Ran- been forced to defend what we do and how phy of science is philosophy enough,” Hegel dall, Buchler and Fell. The brilliantly crafted we do it. As one who sees himself aligned to Buchler, J. (1979). Toward a General Theory goes on in this same passage quoted above to historical writings of Randall in his two- the Pragmatist school of philosophy, I have of Human Judgment (2nd revised elaborate upon the connection between the volume tour-de-force, The Career of Philoso- no problem with innovating our curriculum to ed.). New York: Dover Publications. history of philosophy and science: phy (Randall, 1962-65), epitomized this ap- achieve better outcomes for all our students, Class lecture, Philosophy 101B, Bucknell The history of philosophy [seems to] ac- proach. This is a work that continues to play whether they are majoring in philosophy or University, September 9, 1970. quire a more useful aspect, however, an important role in my career as professor of not. What I am troubled by is a deemphasiz- Hegel, G.W.F. (1977) The Difference Be- when the impulse to enlarge science takes philosophy and one that I would recommend ing of the humanities and a narrowing focus tween Fichte's and Schelling's Sys- hold of it, for according to Reinhold, the to others who teach historically oriented co- on what are called the STEM disciplines (sci- tem of Philosophy, (Translation of history of philosophy should serve as a urses. ence, technology, engineering and math). Pol- Differenz des Fichte'schen und means “to penetrate more profoundly I would like to conclude on a personal iticians and administrators who only have Schelling'schen Systems der Philoso- than ever into the spirit of philosophy, note. I have had the fortune, though I some- their eye on the financial bottom line and phie) (H. S. Harris & W. Cerf and to develop the idiosyncratic views of times think the misfortune, of spending thirty workforce training often decry the need for Trans.). Albany: SUNY Press. one’s predecessors about the grounding years of my teaching career at one university. courses in the liberal education core, calling Quine, V.W. (Oct., 1953). Mr. Strawson on of the reality of human cognition further The fortunate side of my career comes from them a luxury we can no longer afford. Under Logical Theory, Mind, Vol. 62, No. in new views of one’s own.” Only if this the fact that the philosophy department I this mindset, philosophy, art history, litera- 248. sort of information concerning previous joined was both pluralistic in philosophical ture, creative writing courses must make way Randall, J.H. Jr. (1958), Nature and Histori- attempts to solve the problem of philoso- orientation and strongly committed to the his- for courses that train our students for the cal Experience: Essays in Natural- phy were available could the attempt ac- tory of philosophy. We have a mandatory technological future they all will face. Yet it ism and in the Theory of History, tually succeed in the end – if mankind is four-course sequence in history plus required is precisely in these courses in the humanities New York: Columbia University fated to succeed in it at all (Hegel, 1977, courses that take up important figures in that we critically engage with history. The Press. The essay, “Historical Natu- p. 86). twentieth century philosophy. We have man- critical and creative response to how thinkers ralism” originally published in 1935. The connections I have drawn between Ran- aged to maintain our commitment to history have thought in the past is the source of inno- Randall, J.H. Jr. (1962-65), The Career of dall and Hegel could also have been made while at the same time building our strengths vation in the future. This is a lesson borne out Philosophy. Vol. 1 & 2. New York: with other important philosophers in the tradi- in a variety of applied areas of philosophy across many fields of human endeavor and Columbia University Press. tion. Randall was, as was his mentor and such as computer ethics, business ethics, bio- one that lay at the heart of the education I re- teacher, Frederick J. E. Woodbridge, a great medical ethics, environmental philosophy, admirer and exponent of the Aristotelian gender studies, etc. It is heartening to see that method of conceptual analysis. Whether it philosophers from across the philosophical was the concept of cause or that of human spectrum, whether they are trained in the arête, we always begin by first turning to our Pragmatist, Continental or Analytic traditions, predecessors and their “previous attempts to are contributing in important ground-breaking solve the problem[s] of philosophy.” As earli- ways to these applied areas in philosophy. er quoted from Randall: “We must start with While the academic profession of philosophy

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UDC 1(091) Silva PETROSYAN

DAVID THE INVINCIBLE: PHILOSOPHY AS A LIFESTYLE

Abstract

The most outstanding representative of the history of Armenian philosophy, Neoplatonic thinker of the V-VI centuries, David the Invincible continues the tradition reached the peak of its development in the Ancient Greece by Socrates and Plato, according to which philosophy is first of all a way of life, a means of transformation and perfection of the human being. Following the principles of the Greek Paideia David considers philosophy as a care of the soul, in which theory and practice are intertwined, and cognition of the world depends on the efforts of self-improvement by a subject. Author shows that in David’s definitions of philosophy is clearly seen the significance of self- formation, “zardarum” in the process of reality formation, comprehension or rethinking. It is also mentioned that we can use Michel Foucault’s notion of the “care of the soul” and Pierre Hadot’s notion of “spiritual practices’’ to characterize David’s optimistic philosophy, which was developed further in the theories of Armenian thinkers Grigor Narekatsi, Grigor Magistros, Hovhannes Imasta- ser, Arakel Sjunetsi, etc.

Keywords: David the Invincible, Socrates and Plato, Paideia, care of the soul, spiritual practices, Foucault, Hadot.

David the Invincible, Armenian great also known as one of the most outstanding Neo-Platonist philosopher of V-VI centuries, figures in Armenian intellectual history. His continues the tradition that reached the peak influence was so great that, as a rule, every of its development in the Ancient Greece by Armenian thinker attempting to make judg- Socrates and Plato, according to which phi- ments in the field of philosophy, started with losophy is first of all a way of life, a means of the interpretation of David’s main works. transformation and perfection of the human Nevertheless, his life, activities, and his phil- being. Following the principles of the Greek osophical writings are not fully investigated Paideia David considers philosophy as a care yet and there are many uncertainties and ques- of the soul, in which theory and practice are tions concerning his personality and philo- intertwined, and cognition of the world de- sophical heritage. pends on the efforts of self-improvement by a David the Invincible acted in the era subject. His epithet “Invincible”, according to called Golden Age of Armenian literature. Armenian tradition, David earned winning in That was an era generated by adoption of philosophical debates with representatives of Christianity as a state religion of Armenia in Hellenistic philosophy of the time. David is the beginning of the 4th century and by crea- 148 2(7), 2016 148 149 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 1(091) tion of Armenian alphabet by St. Mesrop nation in the light of Christianity, and devel- Silva PETROSYAN Mashtots in the beginning of the 5th century. oped Armenian Christian Identity; and only Armenian intellectual, literary and artistic life David was a philosopher whose survived DAVID THE INVINCIBLE: PHILOSOPHY AS A LIFESTYLE was developed simultaneously with estab- works are secular by their nature. For many lishment of Philhellene school which translat- researchers his canonization implies that he Abstract ed many ancient texts on grammar, rhetoric, must have made a significant contribution to and especially classical Greek philosophy. the Armenian Church and maybe he authored The most outstanding representative of the history of Armenian philosophy, Neoplatonic think- Works of Plato, Aristotle, Philo, Porphyry, other important works of a religious nature as er of the V-VI centuries, David the Invincible continues the tradition reached the peak of its devel- Dionysus of Thrace, Theon of Alexandria and well. We also know that at an advanced age, opment in the Ancient Greece by Socrates and Plato, according to which philosophy is first of all a others were rendered. The translations as well when David was already well-known and ac- way of life, a means of transformation and perfection of the human being. Following the principles as the original works of the Philhellene schol- cepted philosopher in the Alexandria and of the Greek Paideia David considers philosophy as a care of the soul, in which theory and practice ars laid the foundations for the secular scienc- Greek-speaking world, he returned to his are intertwined, and cognition of the world depends on the efforts of self-improvement by a subject. es in Armenia and paved the way for David homeland, Armenia, and devoted himself to Author shows that in David’s definitions of philosophy is clearly seen the significance of self- Anhaght’s (Invincible’s) unique contributions teaching philosophy. But he was met with formation, “zardarum” in the process of reality formation, comprehension or rethinking. It is also to the development of Armenian Philosophy displeasure and even opposition: his inde- mentioned that we can use Michel Foucault’s notion of the “care of the soul” and Pierre Hadot’s (Sanjian, 1986, p. 2). pendent thinking and belief in human abilities notion of “spiritual practices’’ to characterize David’s optimistic philosophy, which was developed David’s survived heritage contains of maybe contradicted with the dominant doc- further in the theories of Armenian thinkers Grigor Narekatsi, Grigor Magistros, Hovhannes Imasta- four works that are texts of his lectures wrote trine of the time. Medieval Armenian sources ser, Arakel Sjunetsi, etc. down by his students. Greek texts of David indicate that David “suffering many tribula- are published in Commentaria in Aristotelem tions, deprivations and persecution at the Keywords: David the Invincible, Socrates and Plato, Paideia, care of the soul, spiritual practic- Graeca (CAG), vol. XVIII, part 2 (Busse, hands of his fellow-countrymen” was comes, Foucault, Hadot. 1904), and one work, “The Interpretation of pelled to take refuge in the northernmost part Aristotle’s Analytics”, has survived only in its of Armenia, near the Georgian border Armenian version (David the Invincible, (Sjunetsi, 1797). David took refuge and later a, b David the Invincible, Armenian great also known as one of the most outstanding 1980 ). died in the monastery of Haghbat. His re- Neo-Platonist philosopher of V-VI centuries, figures in Armenian intellectual history. His In his works David states that “Human mains were subsequently removed to his na- continues the tradition that reached the peak influence was so great that, as a rule, every being is a rational, mortal creature, able to tive Taron and interred in the monastery of of its development in the Ancient Greece by Armenian thinker attempting to make judg- think and learn”, and salvation of the human Surb Arakelots at Mush. Of course, it was af- Socrates and Plato, according to which phi- ments in the field of philosophy, started with being, according to David, is connected with ter his canonization (Muradyan, 1981). losophy is first of all a way of life, a means of the interpretation of David’s main works. rational activities of humans, as we can see in The reason that David’s works were read a, b transformation and perfection of the human Nevertheless, his life, activities, and his phil- his texts (David the Invincible, 1980 ). Da- and reread many times by intellectual Arme- th being. Following the principles of the Greek osophical writings are not fully investigated vid the Invincible was elevated to the rank of nians since the 6 century till our days is that Paideia David considers philosophy as a care yet and there are many uncertainties and ques- saints by Armenian Apostolic Church. The he developed a theory of humanity, anthropo- of the soul, in which theory and practice are tions concerning his personality and philo- date and circumstances of the conferral of logical philosophy which is helping a person intertwined, and cognition of the world de- sophical heritage. sainthood upon David are unknown. But we to become stronger and more powerful pends on the efforts of self-improvement by a David the Invincible acted in the era can state, however, that among the numerous against uncertainty of circumstances. David subject. His epithet “Invincible”, according to called Golden Age of Armenian literature. ancient Armenian authors only Eghishe, considered philosophy as a lifestyle, as an on- Armenian tradition, David earned winning in That was an era generated by adoption of Movses Khorenatsi and David the Invincible going work of soul on its self perfection, and philosophical debates with representatives of Christianity as a state religion of Armenia in have been canonized. The first two were his- became a teacher for many generations of Hellenistic philosophy of the time. David is the beginning of the 4th century and by crea- torians, who wrote the History of Armenian Armenian thinkers as the challenges of the 148 149 149 2(7), 2016 Silva PETROSYAN

Armenian reality demanded a culture of inter- itself”: the person is changing him/herself, nal work, of self-improvement and cultivation transforming as a result of deliberate spiritual of soul. exercises to become a moral subject of his/her David solved the problem of human be- own behavior; and d) it is the telos, the will to ing considering philosophy as the care of the take such a care, which stands as a purpose of soul. This tradition is beginning from Hilo’s personality (Foucault, 1986). The co-author of and Socrates’ “Know thyself”, and as Michel this approach Pierre Hadot in his works re- Foucault mentioned, the demand of self- turns to the Plato’s notion of the philosophy cognition is based on the demand of the self- as an art to live, stating that nowadays there care (epimeleia) (Foucault, 2007). And self- are professors or teachers of philosophy, but cognition is the private case for the self-care. not philosophers (Hadot, 1995). In its turn the self-care consists of two as- Analogically David states that philoso- pects: the care of the body and the care of the phy is the care of the soul and the most enjoy- soul. David says that for the care of the body able and privileged activity for the human be- there are different things: hygiene, hairdress- ing. Philosopher is not the person who merely ing, gymnastics, etc., and for the care of the knows many things, but is the one who lives soul there is philosophy. “And philosophy philosophical life. In his main work, “Defini- deals with soul, because it revives and illumi- tions and divisions of Philosophy”, David nates the soul cleaning its muddy eyes capped represents six definitions of philosophy with bodily whishes. And now how much the earned from Greek philosophers: Pythagoras, soul is preferable than the body, that much the Plato and Aristotle, choosing these six defini- philosophy, beautifying the soul, is preferable tions because of their anthropological orienta- than other arts beautifying the body” (David tion. He defines philosophy by the nearest and the Invincible, 1980b, p. 124). David belongs the most distant subject, by the nearest and to the philosophical tradition of the self care the most distant purpose, by priority and as a of the soul which was investigated by Michel translation. As a translation “philosophy” is Foucault who tried to understand the tech- “love of wisdom” – “imastasirutyun” (in Ar- niques of the self in the Greek-Roman culture. menian). By priority David defines philoso- Foucault at the end of his life turned to the phy as an art of arts and a science of scienc- classical tradition of philosophizing with the es. David stresses this definition many times question how ancient thinkers were construct- saying that philosophy is the most important ing themselves as subjects. Eventually Fou- occupation, and other sciences and arts are cault concluded that the human being has the less important and respectable. Philosophy is moral responsibility towards him/herself in the most essential business for a person to the four aspects: a) there is a material, sub- make him/herself constant, vise and happy. stance, which is the object of the care; it is the Philosophy is mother and source for all other way the person constructs a part of him/her- sciences and arts according to David. He also self; b) it is the way by which the individual compares philosophy with the king: “As king states his/her relationship towards the law; c) does not directly talk with crowd, but assigns there are means by which the care is “training noble men to care for the needs of the neth-

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Armenian reality demanded a culture of inter- itself”: the person is changing him/herself, ermost people, in the same way philosophy affects; and cleaning the soul for ability to see nal work, of self-improvement and cultivation transforming as a result of deliberate spiritual puts forward the arts by means of which the God’s light (Petrosyan, 2000). David as- of soul. exercises to become a moral subject of his/her knows all the things” (David the Invincible, serts that the fundamental subject of philo- David solved the problem of human be- own behavior; and d) it is the telos, the will to 1980b: 88). But this is not the end, he also sophical concern is comprehension of divine ing considering philosophy as the care of the take such a care, which stands as a purpose of compares philosophy with the King of kings – logos. God illuminates everyone, but people soul. This tradition is beginning from Hilo’s personality (Foucault, 1986). The co-author of the God: “As the God has invisible power to who don’t have “an eye of soul” can’t see this and Socrates’ “Know thyself”, and as Michel this approach Pierre Hadot in his works re- care about mundane creatures, in the same light. The attainment of this objective presup- Foucault mentioned, the demand of self- turns to the Plato’s notion of the philosophy way philosophy puts forward the sciences in poses liberation from the sinful passions, the cognition is based on the demand of the self- as an art to live, stating that nowadays there order to know their subjects” (David the In- “death” or “mortification” of passions. David care (epimeleia) (Foucault, 2007). And self- are professors or teachers of philosophy, but vincible, 1980b, p. 88). speaks about “mortification” of passions and cognition is the private case for the self-care. not philosophers (Hadot, 1995). As every art and every science has a sub- negative aspects of the soul. He says that In its turn the self-care consists of two as- Analogically David states that philoso- ject and a purpose, philosophy as art of arts some critics misunderstood Plato’s judgment pects: the care of the body and the care of the phy is the care of the soul and the most enjoy- and science of sciences also has both a subject on the death as a desirable thing. They got it soul. David says that for the care of the body able and privileged activity for the human be- and a purpose. And each of these is divided in a direct way, but speaking about the death there are different things: hygiene, hairdress- ing. Philosopher is not the person who merely into two categories: a proximate subject and a Plato, according to Armenian philosopher, ing, gymnastics, etc., and for the care of the knows many things, but is the one who lives distant subject; a proximate purpose and a dis- means only cleaning of souls from impurities. soul there is philosophy. “And philosophy philosophical life. In his main work, “Defini- tant purpose. The proximate subject of phi- To see the daylight we clean our eyes, so for deals with soul, because it revives and illumi- tions and divisions of Philosophy”, David losophy is essences as such and distant sub- being able to see the God’s light we must nates the soul cleaning its muddy eyes capped represents six definitions of philosophy jects of philosophy are things or realities: clean and purify our souls. But a normal per- with bodily whishes. And now how much the earned from Greek philosophers: Pythagoras, human and divine. So defined by its distant son alone is not able to make such changes, soul is preferable than the body, that much the Plato and Aristotle, choosing these six defini- subject philosophy is knowledge of divine and h/she needs help. And philosophers, accord- philosophy, beautifying the soul, is preferable tions because of their anthropological orienta- human realities. David says that because phi- ing to Armenian thinker, are the most perfect than other arts beautifying the body” (David tion. He defines philosophy by the nearest and losophy concerns itself with human behavior, human beings who care about souls of other the Invincible, 1980b, p. 124). David belongs the most distant subject, by the nearest and it should not ignore the examination of the people helping them to find their way to the to the philosophical tradition of the self care the most distant purpose, by priority and as a divine state and that it must follow the exam- God. With the help of philosophers the care of of the soul which was investigated by Michel translation. As a translation “philosophy” is ples set by the God. On the basis of what it soul should become an everyday procedure: Foucault who tried to understand the tech- “love of wisdom” – “imastasirutyun” (in Ar- can learn from the God, it must attempt to el- we have to clean our souls from different niques of the self in the Greek-Roman culture. menian). By priority David defines philoso- evate human beings to a state of perfection. negative emotions, impressions, and resent- Foucault at the end of his life turned to the phy as an art of arts and a science of scienc- But for David the theory is practical and the ments. So soul needs cleaning as body does. classical tradition of philosophizing with the es. David stresses this definition many times praxis is theoretical, and the knowledge is The hygiene exists for the body’s needs and question how ancient thinkers were construct- saying that philosophy is the most important needed for the right action, which he de- philosophy exists for the soul’s needs. In his ing themselves as subjects. Eventually Fou- occupation, and other sciences and arts are scribes speaking about the proximate and the treatise David twice brings the same citation cault concluded that the human being has the less important and respectable. Philosophy is distant purposes of philosophy. The nearest from Plato’s Timaeus 47B to emphasize the moral responsibility towards him/herself in the most essential business for a person to purpose of philosophy is thinking about the importance of philosophy: “Such a thing, the four aspects: a) there is a material, sub- make him/herself constant, vise and happy. death and the most distant and ultimate pur- Theodorus, has neither been generated by stance, which is the object of the care; it is the Philosophy is mother and source for all other pose of it is becoming like the God to the best men nor bestowed by God”. way the person constructs a part of him/her- sciences and arts according to David. He also of human’s ability. The ultimate purpose of philosophy is self; b) it is the way by which the individual compares philosophy with the king: “As king The Invincible understood thinking about becoming like to the God. But human being states his/her relationship towards the law; c) does not directly talk with crowd, but assigns the death as the care of the soul and cultiva- can not be alike the God totally. David says: there are means by which the care is “training noble men to care for the needs of the neth- tion of virtues; as the death of passions and “We say that the philosopher is like the God

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in the same sense as when we say that Socra- about limits, borders that human’s desires tes’ image is the same as Socrates himself, must have. although Socrates’ image and Socrates him- The God is kind or good, because He self are two different things, because the one cares for humans and desires all of mankind’s is animate and the other is inanimate object. It welfare. Indeed, goodness is God’s essence. is in this sense that we say that the philoso- According to David goodness is not human’s pher resembles the God, although the God has primary essence; rather, a human being ac- one essence and the man has another essence” quires goodness. Armenian thinker explains (David the Invincible, 1980b, p. 67). David this contrast metaphorically, as follows: thinks that the God has three characteristics: God’s goodness is similar to the sun, which omnipotence, omniscience and unlimited can not co-exist with darkness (evil); whereas kindness. The God bears unlimited kindness man’s capacity for goodness is similar to the which means that He is unable to do anything air, which receives light when the sun rises unkind. The human being cannot fully be- and stayed in darkness when the sun sets. So come like to the God. But in his/her posses- the purpose of philosophy is cultivation of the sion is trying to strengthen his/her will, to be- light of kindness. come wiser and kinder as much as possible. The God is omniscient: He knows all and And this purpose is achievable only for phi- at all times. The human also aspires to omnis- losophers, the best representatives of man- cience, but his comprehension is dictated by kind, who care about their souls all the time. possibility and not reality, because he knows The philosopher is the perfect human be- different things at different times (David The ing (“mard”) who has similarities with the Invincible, 1980b, p. 69). The human acquires God in the three above mentioned features. wisdom, which is unity of the theoretical and The God is omnipotent and He can do and He the practical. The wise man is not the one does whatever He whishes. The perfect man who knows many things and is able to speak also can do whatever s/he wishes as the hu- about them; wise man is the one who lives man, because s/he never aspires to do that life full of goodness and virtues. The God which is impossible for him/her to do. David cares about the existing world because of his says that unfulfilled wishes cause a big sad- wisdom, and if wisdom exists so does philos- ness. This statement is very actual for con- ophy; hence human’s ability to resemble the temporary situation of the human being. God is granted to him through philosophy. Peace in the soul and happiness nowadays are The human is the most important actor in rare not because the conditions of life are dif- David’s philosophical system as a formulator ficult, but because today’s people want more of the “cosmos”, because even the God needs and are not satisfied. We don’t think on limi- the existence of the Human being. The human tation of our desires. But this is the way to being exists for appreciation of the God’s cre- become like to the God, according to David. ation and for attempt to create similar order in In Armenian the word “Definition’’ (“sah- the own world. The philosopher as the perfect manq”) also means limitation and David the human being is forming/ improving his/her Invincible says that philosophers are thinking soul and helping others to care about them-

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in the same sense as when we say that Socra- about limits, borders that human’s desires selves in order to be able to see the God’s can see that the titles “the most loving the tes’ image is the same as Socrates himself, must have. light of kindness. Forming (“zardarel”) can be God and godly-minded” are attributed only although Socrates’ image and Socrates him- The God is kind or good, because He understood in other meaning also. David says to David, while the leader of the Alexandrian self are two different things, because the one cares for humans and desires all of mankind’s that the God needs a human being as a crea- school Ammonius in the commentary of the is animate and the other is inanimate object. It welfare. Indeed, goodness is God’s essence. ture that will appreciate God’s creative en- “Categories” just is called a philosopher is in this sense that we say that the philoso- According to David goodness is not human’s deavor. Here David’s thinking is not merely (CAG IV, 4: 1), and in the commentary of pher resembles the God, although the God has primary essence; rather, a human being ac- medieval, it is evidently actual for us, and be- Porphyry’s Isagoge is called the son of Her- one essence and the man has another essence” quires goodness. Armenian thinker explains cause he says that a human being is the one meias (CAG IV, 3: 1), Olympiodorus is also (David the Invincible, 1980b, p. 67). David this contrast metaphorically, as follows: that can form (“zardarel”) not only his /her called a philosopher (CAG XVIII, 1:1), Dex- thinks that the God has three characteristics: God’s goodness is similar to the sun, which self but also the whole Universe. This means ippus is called a platonian philosopher (CAG omnipotence, omniscience and unlimited can not co-exist with darkness (evil); whereas that the human being is giving the meaning to IV, 2: 2) and Simplicius’s name merely is kindness. The God bears unlimited kindness man’s capacity for goodness is similar to the the whole existence, and philosophy is the written on the title of his commentary on Ar- which means that He is unable to do anything air, which receives light when the sun rises sphere of signification, and the care of the istotle’s “On the Soul” without any epithet unkind. The human being cannot fully be- and stayed in darkness when the sun sets. So soul is bringing meaning to this life. So peo- (CAG, XI: 1). Not having an opportunity to come like to the God. But in his/her posses- the purpose of philosophy is cultivation of the ple who like this love of wisdom live in a look at all the volumes of the CAG, just from sion is trying to strengthen his/her will, to be- light of kindness. meaningful reality and feel the wholeness of the mentioned above examples we can under- come wiser and kinder as much as possible. The God is omniscient: He knows all and the life. stand that David the invincible earned a high- And this purpose is achievable only for phi- at all times. The human also aspires to omnis- This is why David was highly appreciat- est respect from his followers. He was called losophers, the best representatives of man- cience, but his comprehension is dictated by ed by his students and followers. Although for not merely “theophilos” - a lover of the God, kind, who care about their souls all the time. possibility and not reality, because he knows some religious or ideological reasons silence but in the superlative degree - “Theophilesta- The philosopher is the perfect human be- different things at different times (David The surrounded the name of David in the VI-VII tos” - the person who loves the God more ing (“mard”) who has similarities with the Invincible, 1980b, p. 69). The human acquires centuries, the titles of his lectures maintain than anyone. Comparing the works of David God in the three above mentioned features. wisdom, which is unity of the theoretical and the signs of the highest appreciation of the and Ammonius we see the same six defini- The God is omnipotent and He can do and He the practical. The wise man is not the one thinker. David’s Greek texts preserved his tions of philosophy and the main approach to does whatever He whishes. The perfect man who knows many things and is able to speak titles “theophilestatos kai theofron”, that is philosophy as a likelinees to God, but why also can do whatever s/he wishes as the hu- about them; wise man is the one who lives “the most loving the God and godly-min- Ammonius, the head of the school, is not man, because s/he never aspires to do that life full of goodness and virtues. The God ded” (Busse, 1904). A. Muradyan noticed called “theophilos”? Question is remaining which is impossible for him/her to do. David cares about the existing world because of his that some Armenian manuscripts also contain open. Instead, David is called not anly “the- says that unfulfilled wishes cause a big sad- wisdom, and if wisdom exists so does philos- the mentioned titles (Muradyan, 1981, p. ophilos”, but also “theophron”, which means ness. This statement is very actual for con- ophy; hence human’s ability to resemble the 198). Contemporary researchers in contrast to “having divine mind, godly-minded, holy” temporary situation of the human being. God is granted to him through philosophy. the Armenian historical tradition consider (Dworetski, 1958), (Liddel & Scott, 1968). Peace in the soul and happiness nowadays are The human is the most important actor in David as “a figure of minor importance” These epithets are mentioning the importance rare not because the conditions of life are dif- David’s philosophical system as a formulator (Barnes, 2009, p. 14) or as one of the last rep- of David thinker and present him as a former ficult, but because today’s people want more of the “cosmos”, because even the God needs resentatives of the Alexandrian school of Ne- of a tradition not just merely as one of the last and are not satisfied. We don’t think on limi- the existence of the Human being. The human oplatonism (Sorabji, 1990, pp. 29-30). Trying followers. Of course, there are many uncer- tation of our desires. But this is the way to being exists for appreciation of the God’s cre- to understand this mismatch of the approaches tainties concerning David’s lifetime, heritage become like to the God, according to David. ation and for attempt to create similar order in and for comparative purposes I looked at the and view-points, but the fact he was highly In Armenian the word “Definition’’ (“sah- the own world. The philosopher as the perfect volumes of CAG, containing the works of the appreciated in the Greek philosophical cycles manq”) also means limitation and David the human being is forming/ improving his/her well noun philosophers of the time to see if cannot be denied. Invincible says that philosophers are thinking soul and helping others to care about them- they also bear such titles as David does. We

152 153 153 2(7), 2016 Silva PETROSYAN

REFERENCES Foucault, M. (1986). The Use of Pleasure, (R. Harley, Trans.) New York: Pantheon. Araqel Sjunetsi. (1797). Luc’munq Yaghags Foucault, M. (2007). Germenevtika sub’’ekta Sahmanacs Dawt’i Anyaght’ P’iliso- (The Hermeneutics of the Subject, in p’ayi, Girq Sahmanac srboyn Dawt’i Russian). The Course of Lectures ta- Anyaght’ P’ilisop’ayi Hayoc imasta- ught in the College de France in siri (Commentaria on David the In- 1981-1982 (Trans. from French). vincible’s Definitions of Philosophy. SPb. Definitions of Philosophy by David Hadot, P. (1995). Philosophy as a Way of the Invincible, Holy Philosoph of Life. In A.I. Davidson (Ed.), Spiritu- Armenians, in Armenian). Madras. al Exercises from Socrates to Fou- Barnes, J. (2009). David and the Greek Tradi- cault (M. Chase, Trans.). Oxford, tion. In V. Calzolari, & J. Barnes Cambridge. (Eds.). L’oeuvre de David L’Invin- Liddel, H.G., & Scott, R. (1968). A Greek- cible et la transmission de la pensee English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon grecque dans la tradition armenien- Press. ne et syriaque, Commentaria in Aris- Muradyan, A. (1981). Davit’ Anhaght’i an- totelem Armeniaca- Davidis Opera. dznavorut’yan, jhamanaki u gitakan Vol. 1. Boston: Brill, Leiden. jhar’angut’yan harci shurj, (Concer- Busse, A. (Ed.). (1904). Commentaria in Ar- ning the Person, the Time and the istotelem Graeca. Vol. 18, part 2. Scientific Heritage of David the In- Berlin. vincible, in Armenian), Patma-bana- David Anhaght (the Invincible). (1980a). Er- sirakan handes. No 1. kasirut’iwnq p’ilisop’ayakanq, ha- Petrosyan, S.S. (2000). Davit’ Anhaght’: P’il- mahavaq qnnakan bnagrery’ & isop’ayut’yuny’ vorpes hogu xnamq ar’ajabany’ S.S. Arevshatyani (Phil- (David the Invincible: Philosophy as osophical Tractats, Critical Texts and the Care of the Soul, in Armenian). Introduction by S.S. Arevshatyan, in Newsletter of the Yerevan State Uni- Armenian). Yerevan. versity. No 1. Yerevan. David Anhaght (the Invincible). (1980b). Erk- Sanjian, A.K. (1986). David Anhaght (the In- er, t’argmanut’yuny’, ar’ajabany’ ev vincible): An Introduction. In A.K. c’anot’agrut’yunnery’ S.S. Arevshat- Sanjian (Ed.), David Anhaght the yani (Works, Translation, Introdac- “Invincible” philosopher. Atlanta, tion and Notes by S.S. Arevshatyan, Georgia: Scholars Press. in Armenian). Yerevan. Sorabji, R. (1990). The Ancient Commenta- Dvoretskii, I. X. (1958). Drevnegrechesko- tors on Aristotle. In Sorabji R. (Ed.), russkii slovar’ (An Old Greek-Rus- Aristotle Transformed, The Ancient sian Dictionary, in Russian). Vol. 1. Commentators and their influence. Moscow. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Universi- ty Press.

154 2(7), 2016 154 155 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

REFERENCES Foucault, M. (1986). The Use of Pleasure, (R. Harley, Trans.) New York: Pantheon.

Araqel Sjunetsi. (1797). Luc’munq Yaghags Foucault, M. (2007). Germenevtika sub’’ekta Sahmanacs Dawt’i Anyaght’ P’iliso- (The Hermeneutics of the Subject, in p’ayi, Girq Sahmanac srboyn Dawt’i Russian). The Course of Lectures ta- Anyaght’ P’ilisop’ayi Hayoc imasta- ught in the College de France in siri (Commentaria on David the In- 1981-1982 (Trans. from French). vincible’s Definitions of Philosophy. SPb. Definitions of Philosophy by David Hadot, P. (1995). Philosophy as a Way of the Invincible, Holy Philosoph of Life. In A.I. Davidson (Ed.), Spiritu- Armenians, in Armenian). Madras. al Exercises from Socrates to Fou- Barnes, J. (2009). David and the Greek Tradi- cault (M. Chase, Trans.). Oxford, tion. In V. Calzolari, & J. Barnes Cambridge. (Eds.). L’oeuvre de David L’Invin- Liddel, H.G., & Scott, R. (1968). A Greek- cible et la transmission de la pensee English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon grecque dans la tradition armenien- Press. ne et syriaque, Commentaria in Aris- Muradyan, A. (1981). Davit’ Anhaght’i an- totelem Armeniaca- Davidis Opera. dznavorut’yan, jhamanaki u gitakan Vol. 1. Boston: Brill, Leiden. jhar’angut’yan harci shurj, (Concer- PSYCHOLOGY Busse, A. (Ed.). (1904). Commentaria in Ar- ning the Person, the Time and the istotelem Graeca. Vol. 18, part 2. Scientific Heritage of David the In- Berlin. vincible, in Armenian), Patma-bana- David Anhaght (the Invincible). (1980a). Er- sirakan handes. No 1. kasirut’iwnq p’ilisop’ayakanq, ha- Petrosyan, S.S. (2000). Davit’ Anhaght’: P’il- mahavaq qnnakan bnagrery’ & isop’ayut’yuny’ vorpes hogu xnamq ar’ajabany’ S.S. Arevshatyani (Phil- (David the Invincible: Philosophy as osophical Tractats, Critical Texts and the Care of the Soul, in Armenian). Introduction by S.S. Arevshatyan, in Newsletter of the Yerevan State Uni- Armenian). Yerevan. versity. No 1. Yerevan. David Anhaght (the Invincible). (1980b). Erk- Sanjian, A.K. (1986). David Anhaght (the In- er, t’argmanut’yuny’, ar’ajabany’ ev vincible): An Introduction. In A.K. c’anot’agrut’yunnery’ S.S. Arevshat- Sanjian (Ed.), David Anhaght the yani (Works, Translation, Introdac- “Invincible” philosopher. Atlanta, tion and Notes by S.S. Arevshatyan, Georgia: Scholars Press. in Armenian). Yerevan. Sorabji, R. (1990). The Ancient Commenta- Dvoretskii, I. X. (1958). Drevnegrechesko- tors on Aristotle. In Sorabji R. (Ed.), russkii slovar’ (An Old Greek-Rus- Aristotle Transformed, The Ancient sian Dictionary, in Russian). Vol. 1. Commentators and their influence. Moscow. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Universi- ty Press.

154 155 155 2(7), 2016 Armenuhi AVAGYAN Lilith BAGHDASARYAN Karine SARGSYAN

UDC 159.922.7:376:316 Armenuhi AVAGYAN, Lilith BAGHDASARYAN, Karine SARGSYAN

CHANGING STEREOTYPES WITH REGARD TO SPECIAL NEEDS THROUGH CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

Abstract

We had the idea of this research, when we learned, that the children’s book about special needs: R.J. Palacio “Wonder” was translated into Armenian for the first time. Books on this topic have not been written yet by Armenian authors. The point is that during Soviet years the working assumption was that all the people were “like each other”, perfect, beautiful, without problems, without disorders; all those, who did not meet those criteria (who had visual, auditory, physical, mental, even speech and communication limitations), grew up and spent their lives in special boarding institutions, segregated from their families and society. Being ashamed of their children, who were not ideal, the parents kept them at home, hidden from acquaintances, neighbours, sometimes even from relatives. Attitudes have begun to change since then, and inclusive education has been a goal in Armenia since 2001. Despite the 15-year history of efforts at inclusive education, acceptance of people with special needs is still not evident in all corners of Armenian society. One of the most prevalent shortcomings is the stereotyping of people with special needs. We decided to use the reading of the book R.J. Palacio “Wonder” for the purpose of helping people confront their attitudes and stereotypes about disabilities as they explored the lives in this unique book.

Keywords: inclusive education, bibliotherapy, self-esteem measurement, M. Rokeach Value Survey, pre-reading discussion, post-reading discussion, a meeting with children with special needs.

At the present stage of society develop- mentioned. However, the issue of preception ment, the attitude towards people with special of “different individual or white crow” is still needs is getting more and more humane. In open. Often classmates, who do not have ex- Armenia, steps are taken towards this as well. perience of communication with these kinds The transition to inclusive education is one of of children, and face them for the first time, indicators. The assessment of the child not can spontaneously react in various ways, from from the perspective of problems he/she has, rudeness and laughter to pity, that is equally but from the perspective of his/her resources unacceptable. The issue of regulation of per- and potential is the evidence of the above ception of “different” individual is becoming 156 2(7), 2016 156 157 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 159.922.7:376:316 actual, finding ways to teach the child to per- should not be read as a fiction, but applied as Armenuhi AVAGYAN, ceive the individual with deep respect towards a means of bibliotherapy, which includes the Lilith BAGHDASARYAN, his/her strong points, fully accepting his/her following stages: Karine SARGSYAN differences. The strategy of such an influence a) pre-reading discussion, led us to the idea of bibliotherapy application, b) post-reading discussion, CHANGING STEREOTYPES WITH REGARD TO SPECIAL NEEDS since reading is part of both learning and lei- c) a meeting with children with special THROUGH CHILDREN’S LITERATURE sure for schoolchildren. Tale and story can be needs. considered as natural way of information indi- After the pre-reading discussion, the

Abstract rect transfer, instead of direct instructions and children were given time for reading the book preachiness. It is typical for children to identi- and then discuss again after reading. Debates

We had the idea of this research, when we learned, that the children’s book about special fy themselves with the main story characters, were included as part of the discussions. The- needs: R.J. Palacio “Wonder” was translated into Armenian for the first time. and with the help of the book the child can se supported the children in identifying dif- Books on this topic have not been written yet by Armenian authors. The point is that during deeply experience the feelings of the main ferences of people, as well as perceiving the Soviet years the working assumption was that all the people were “like each other”, perfect, beauti- character. importance of equal rights and social inclu- ful, without problems, without disorders; all those, who did not meet those criteria (who had visual, Children’s literature can be a way to sion. Concepts, such as ''difference'', ''preju- auditory, physical, mental, even speech and communication limitations), grew up and spent their share powerful examples of how we all may dice'', ''tolerance'', ''justice'' in a relationship lives in special boarding institutions, segregated from their families and society. Being ashamed of or may not relate to individual differences. with people, who are different from them, their children, who were not ideal, the parents kept them at home, hidden from acquaintances, This can be especially true for understanding were discussed, as well as issues were ana- neighbours, sometimes even from relatives. how disabilities impact the lives of individu- lysed on how the person reacts, when the oth- Attitudes have begun to change since then, and inclusive education has been a goal in Armenia als and their families and friends. Reading er one is drastically different, and whether it since 2001. Despite the 15-year history of efforts at inclusive education, acceptance of people with children's literature can be instrumental in is possible to control the reaction. They also special needs is still not evident in all corners of Armenian society. One of the most prevalent short- changing readers' attitudes about stereotypes, identify the notion of friend, realize the diffi- comings is the stereotyping of people with special needs. and it is important for educators that these culties of Auggie's friends, describe Auggie We decided to use the reading of the book R.J. Palacio “Wonder” for the purpose of helping changes be beneficial (Kurtts & Gavigan, as a friend, and so on. people confront their attitudes and stereotypes about disabilities as they explored the lives in this 2008). Considering this fact, we decided to The organization of meetings with peers unique book. use the reading of the book R.J. Palacio is a critical component because not all the “Wonder” for the purpose of helping people schools carry out inclusive education in Ar-

Keywords: inclusive education, bibliotherapy, self-esteem measurement, M. Rokeach Value confront their attitudes and stereotypes about menia; hence, the children do not always have Survey, pre-reading discussion, post-reading discussion, a meeting with children with special needs. disabilities as they explored the lives in this experience interacting with their peers with unique book. The translation of Wonder to special needs. The accomplishment of this Armenian was published in 2015. The story is stage served as a base for research questions about a 10-year old American boy August At the present stage of society develop- mentioned. However, the issue of preception and the study. Pullman /Auggie/, who suffers from Treacher ment, the attitude towards people with special of “different individual or white crow” is still The research question was: Collins syndrome, which is characterized x needs is getting more and more humane. In open. Often classmates, who do not have ex- When to organize the meeting, before or by craniofacial deformities of the child. Armenia, steps are taken towards this as well. perience of communication with these kinds after reading the book with the purpose of In our work with this book, we were in- The transition to inclusive education is one of of children, and face them for the first time, making bibliotherapy effective? terested in looking at how children build posi- indicators. The assessment of the child not can spontaneously react in various ways, from With the intention of finding the answer tive understandings of disability from chil- from the perspective of problems he/she has, rudeness and laughter to pity, that is equally for the first question, we formed two groups dren's literature and how their attitudes, be- but from the perspective of his/her resources unacceptable. The issue of regulation of per- of 14-year old students, 15 participants for liefs, and stereotypes are changed. The book and potential is the evidence of the above ception of “different” individual is becoming each group. In one of the groups (group A), 156 157 157 2(7), 2016 Armenuhi AVAGYAN Lilith BAGHDASARYAN Karine SARGSYAN

participants met children with special needs claims, i.e. the development level of the same (peers) before reading the book and taking qualities that they would be satisfied with. part in the discussions. The meeting was ef- Each of them is offered a methodology form, fective and full of positive emotions; the chil- containing instructions and assignments. dren quickly got acquainted with their special needs peers and developed a warm relation- Accomplishment of the research ship. There was a long-lasting farewell, even some of the children wanted to go back after Instructions: "Everyone appreciates his/ leaving and continue the interaction. her abilities, capabilities, nature and etc. The The participants of the group B read the development level of each quality, aspect of book at first and took part in the discussions; human personality can be divided to represent afterwards they met children with special a vertical line, the lower point of which will needs. From the very beginning the children symbolize the lowest development level, and had hesitation with regard to the visit, they the top - the highest one. You are offered sev- thought it would be emotionally difficult, en such lines. They mean: some of them were excited during the meet- x health; ing. x intelligence, abilities; In order to explain the effectiveness of x character; bibliotherapy in the two cases we examined x reputation among peers; the behaviour of the above-mentioned chil- x the ability to do many things with your dren. Also, comparisons were examined of hands, capable hands; before and after scores on a self-esteem scale x appearance; (Dembo-Rubinstein) as well as a value system x self-confidence. scale (Rokeach Value Survey). Mark by a hyphen (-) on each line, how

you assess the development of that quality, Self-esteem measurement by the scale of the sides of your personality at a particular Dembo-Rubinstein in the modification of time. After that, put a cross (x) mark, men- A. M. Prichozhan. tioning the level of development of these

qualities, sides, you would be satisfied with or The methodology is based on direct as- would feel proud of yourself. sessment (scaling) of a number of personal The one being examined is given a form, characteristics of students, such as health, showing seven lines, the height of each one is abilities, character, and so on. The ones being 100 mm, with an indication of the top, bottom examined are offered to mark by certain signs and middle points of the scale. The upper and the level of development of the above men- the lower points are marked by notable tioned qualities they have on vertical lines (a stripes, the middle one – by a barely visible measure of self-esteem) and the level of dot.

158 2(7), 2016 158 159 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

participants met children with special needs claims, i.e. the development level of the same Processing and interpretation of the results (peers) before reading the book and taking qualities that they would be satisfied with. part in the discussions. The meeting was ef- Each of them is offered a methodology form, Quantitative characteristics (score) fective and full of positive emotions; the chil- containing instructions and assignments. Parameter low average high Very high dren quickly got acquainted with their special The level of claims Less than 60 60-74 75-89 90-100 needs peers and developed a warm relation- Accomplishment of the research ship. There was a long-lasting farewell, even The level of self-esteem Less than 45 45-59 60-74 75-100 some of the children wanted to go back after Instructions: "Everyone appreciates his/ leaving and continue the interaction. her abilities, capabilities, nature and etc. The For revealing the important values for the With the purpose of revealing the chang- The participants of the group B read the development level of each quality, aspect of child, the latter is given a list of values, with- es in value system of the same children, M. book at first and took part in the discussions; human personality can be divided to represent out enumeration, and he/she is asked to enu- Rokeach Value Survey was applied. The chil- afterwards they met children with special a vertical line, the lower point of which will merate them according to their importance. dren were given a list of values, and they had needs. From the very beginning the children symbolize the lowest development level, and to enumerate the values according to their im- had hesitation with regard to the visit, they the top - the highest one. You are offered sev- According to Dembo-Rubinstein scale, portance. It is well known, that the value sys- thought it would be emotionally difficult, en such lines. They mean: children where asked about both their actual tem, as a complex personality structure, is less some of them were excited during the meet- x health; self-esteem and its desired level. It is as- likely subject to change, though before and ing. x intelligence, abilities; sumed, that in this way the level of individual after the experiment, there were changes even In order to explain the effectiveness of x character; claims can be estimated. The aim of the fol- in it. bibliotherapy in the two cases we examined x reputation among peers; lowing research is to assess the correlation Before reading the book and meeting the behaviour of the above-mentioned chil- x the ability to do many things with your between the actual and desired levels of self- peers with special needs, the children of dren. Also, comparisons were examined of hands, capable hands; esteem and on this basis to draw the conclu- group A gave importance to health /95%/, before and after scores on a self-esteem scale x appearance; sion concerning the usefulness of this modifi- happy family life /44%/, wisdom /20%/, love (Dembo-Rubinstein) as well as a value system x self-confidence. cation of the method. /16 %/. scale (Rokeach Value Survey). Mark by a hyphen (-) on each line, how By the application of children from After reading the book and meeting with you assess the development of that quality, group A of Dembo-Rubinstein Method, it peers with special needs, health /97%/ and Self-esteem measurement by the scale of the sides of your personality at a particular turned out, that after the experiment there was happy family life /31%/ remained as im- Dembo-Rubinstein in the modification of time. After that, put a cross (x) mark, men- a significant increase in self-esteem of physi- portant values, but the presence of good and A. M. Prichozhan. tioning the level of development of these cal and mental health, decrease in health care, loyal friends was given importance to as well qualities, sides, you would be satisfied with or which means, that the child had real assess- /26%/. The methodology is based on direct as- would feel proud of yourself. ment of his/her possibilities. Before reading the book and meeting sessment (scaling) of a number of personal The one being examined is given a form, There was an increase of self-esteem peers with special needs, the children of characteristics of students, such as health, showing seven lines, the height of each one is with regard to abilities, authorship, happiness, group B mentioned health /93%/, the presence abilities, character, and so on. The ones being 100 mm, with an indication of the top, bottom appearance, and self-confidence as well. It is of good and loyal friends /29%/, happy family examined are offered to mark by certain signs and middle points of the scale. The upper and evident from the results, that the experiment life /21,4%/. the level of development of the above men- the lower points are marked by notable was successful and effective for the children’s After reading and the visit, health / 98%/, tioned qualities they have on vertical lines (a stripes, the middle one – by a barely visible emotional state and self-esteem. the presence of good and loyal friends measure of self-esteem) and the level of dot. It was obvious, that there was a decrease /36,5%/ and happy family life /18%/ remained in self-esteem of physical and mental health, as important values, but the children gave im- as well as happiness of children from group portance to self-confidence as well /15%/. B.

158 159 159 2(7), 2016 Armenuhi AVAGYAN Lilith BAGHDASARYAN Karine SARGSYAN

Conclusion Special Needs Project. (2006). Dolly Gray Award for children’s literature Hence, we come to the conclusion that in developmental disabilities. Arling- bibliotherapy is effective, especially if meet- ton, VA: Author. Retrieved Novem- ing and interacting with children with special ber 15, 2006, from needs before reading the book. The supposed http://www.dddcec.org/dolly reasons for this fact are the following: _gray_award.htm. x When reading the book, the child imagi- Davis, K., & Wilson, T.L. (1992). Bibliother- nes the one with special needs as ideal, apy and children’s award winning that is why meeting the latter causes dis- books. Retrieved November 15, appointment. 2006, from ERIC database (Item x When reading the book, the child identi- ED354470) fies himself with the personage, hence af- http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/eri ter reading, the meeting gives rise to neg- cdocs2/ content_storage_01 ative emotions. /0000000b/80/25/12/a9.pdf. x Meeting the children with special needs Derman-Sparks, L., & the ABC Task Force. before reading the book gives rise to the (1989). Antibias curriculum: Tools child’s emotions and empathy, though for empowering young children. reading the book supports in caring and Washington, DC: National Associa- focusing on the individual’s inner world, tion for the Education of Young strengths and potential, hence the book Children http://www.naeyc.org/. Re- has positive impact, and the attitude to- trieved November 15, 2006, from wards these children is positive as well. http://circleofinclusion.org/english/b As a matter of fact, effective bibliothera- ooks/section1/cklistblk.html. Educa- py is carried out in this case. tion Libraries: Childrens Resources, Volume 31, No. 1, Spring 2008 27. REFERENCES Dyches, T.T. (2006). The Dolly Gray Award for children's literature in DDD. Ar- Borders, S., & Paisley, P.O. (1992). Chil- lington, VA: Council for Exceptional dren's literature as a resource for Children’s Division on Developmen- classroom guidance. Elementary tal Disabilities and Special Needs School Guidance and Counseling, Project. Retrieved November 11, 27(2), 131-140. 2006, from Conly, J.L. (1993). Crazy lady! New York: http://www.dddcec.org/dolly_gray_a HarperCollins. ward.htm. Cook, K.E. (2006). Bibliotherapy. Interven- Galen, N., & Johns, J.L. (1979). Children in tion in School and Clinic. 42(2). 91- conflict. School Library Journal. 100. 26(3), 25-30. Council for Exceptional Children’s Division Gavigan, K. (2007). Teaching resources cen- on Developmental Disabilities and ter: Bibliographies. Retrieved March 160 2(7), 2016 160 161 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

Conclusion Special Needs Project. (2006). Dolly 23, 2007, from Kramer, P.A. (1999). Using literature to en- Gray Award for children’s literature http://www.uncg.edu/soe/trc. hance inclusion. Contemporary Edu- Hence, we come to the conclusion that in developmental disabilities. Arling- Gladding, S.T., & Gladding, C. (1991). The cation, 70(2), 34-38. bibliotherapy is effective, especially if meet- ton, VA: Author. Retrieved Novem- ABCs of bibliotherapy and school Kurtts, S.A. & Gavigan, K.W. (2008). “Un- ing and interacting with children with special ber 15, 2006, from counsellors. Elementary School derstanding (Dis)abilities through needs before reading the book. The supposed http://www.dddcec.org/dolly Counselor, 39(1), 7-12. children's literature.” Education Li- reasons for this fact are the following: _gray_award.htm. Haddon, M. (2003). The Curious incident of braries: Childrens Resources, Vol- x When reading the book, the child imagi- Davis, K., & Wilson, T.L. (1992). Bibliother- the dog in the night-time. New York: ume 31, No. 1, 23-31. nes the one with special needs as ideal, apy and children’s award winning Doubleday. Lears, L. (2002). Becky the Brave: A story that is why meeting the latter causes dis- books. Retrieved November 15, Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies about epilepsy. Morton Grove, IL: appointment. 2006, from ERIC database (Item that work: Teaching comprehension Albert Whitman. x When reading the book, the child identi- ED354470) to enhance understanding. Portland, Lenkowsky, R.S. (1987). Bibliotherapy: A fies himself with the personage, hence af- http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/eri MN: Stenhouse Publishers. review and analysis of the literature. ter reading, the meeting gives rise to neg- cdocs2/ content_storage_01 Herbert, T.P., & Kent, R. (2000). Nurturing The Journal of Special Education, ative emotions. /0000000b/80/25/12/a9.pdf. social and emotional development in 21, 123-132. x Meeting the children with special needs Derman-Sparks, L., & the ABC Task Force. gifted teenagers through young adult McCarty, H., & Chalmers, L. (1997). Biblio- before reading the book gives rise to the (1989). Antibias curriculum: Tools literature. Roeper Review, 22(3), therapy: Intervention and prevention. child’s emotions and empathy, though for empowering young children. 167-172. Teaching Exceptional Children, reading the book supports in caring and Washington, DC: National Associa- Hopkins-Best, M., & Wiinamiki, M. (1985). 29(6), 12-13. focusing on the individual’s inner world, tion for the Education of Young Bibliotherapy for disabled students Orr, L.E.; et al. (1997). Exploring develop- strengths and potential, hence the book Children http://www.naeyc.org/. Re- in school-to-work transition. Tech- mental disabilities through literature. has positive impact, and the attitude to- trieved November 15, 2006, from niques, 1(6), 490-496. Teaching Exceptional Children, wards these children is positive as well. http://circleofinclusion.org/english/b Iaquinta, A., & Hipsky, S. (2006). Practical 29(6), 14-17. As a matter of fact, effective bibliothera- ooks/section1/cklistblk.html. Educa- bibliotherapy strategies for the inclu- Pardeck, J.T. (1994). Using literature to help py is carried out in this case. tion Libraries: Childrens Resources, sive elementary classroom. Early adolescents cope with problems. Ad- Volume 31, No. 1, Spring 2008 27. Childhood Education Journal, 34(3), olescence, 70(114), 421-428. REFERENCES Dyches, T.T. (2006). The Dolly Gray Award 209-213. Penn, A. (2003). A.D.D. not B.A.D. Terre for children's literature in DDD. Ar- Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Sup- Haute, IN: Tanglewood Press. Prater, Borders, S., & Paisley, P.O. (1992). Chil- lington, VA: Council for Exceptional port Consortium. (2007) Interstate M.A. (2003).Learning disabilities in dren's literature as a resource for Children’s Division on Developmen- new teacher assessment and consor- children's and adolescent literature: classroom guidance. Elementary tal Disabilities and Special Needs tium standards. Retrieved March 26, How are characters portrayed? Le- School Guidance and Counseling, Project. Retrieved November 11, 2007, from arning Disability Quarterly, 26, 47- 27(2), 131-140. 2006, from http://www.ccsso.org/content/pdfs/co 61. Conly, J.L. (1993). Crazy lady! New York: http://www.dddcec.org/dolly_gray_a restrd.pdf. Riggio, A. (1997). Secret signs, Along the HarperCollins. ward.htm. International Council for Exceptional Chil- underground railroad. Honesdale, Cook, K.E. (2006). Bibliotherapy. Interven- Galen, N., & Johns, J.L. (1979). Children in dren. (2006). Professional standards. PA: Bodes Mills Press. tion in School and Clinic. 42(2). 91- conflict. School Library Journal. Arlington, VA: Author. Retrieved Roberts, A. (1984, May). Bibliotherapy: A 100. 26(3), 25-30. March 26, 2007, from technique for counseling blind peo- Council for Exceptional Children’s Division Gavigan, K. (2007). Teaching resources cen- http://www.cec.sped.org ple. Journal of Visual Impairment & on Developmental Disabilities and ter: Bibliographies. Retrieved March Blindness, 78(5), 197-199. 160 161 161 2(7), 2016 Vazgen POGHOSYAN

UDC 37.01:159.9:316 Vazgen POGHOSYAN

PSYCHOLOGICAL-PEDAGOGICAL CRITERIA FOR NEW GENERATION TEXTBOOKS

Abstract

The article dwells on the main psychological and pedagogical criteria which should lay the foundation for all the reforms in school textbooks of transformational societies in transition period. After having analyzed the criteria and aims of textbooks a manual is presented which, as the author suggests, may be valuable in directing high school students in their choice of careers.

Keywords: transformational societies, transition period, main purpose of education development, functions of a textbook, criteria of textbook evaluation, the overall psychological atlas.

The education system becomes especial- the acquisition of social behavioral standards, ly vulnerable within transformational socie- language skills, civic and moral codes (Po- ties as it fails to meet its main mission in the ghosyan, 1996; Imangozhina, 2015). maelstrom of changes (Dzhurinski, 1999; As an intermediary between “live learn- Yasvin, 2004). ing” and other means of knowledge acquisi- The project on “The State Education De- tion, a textbook acts on part of a range of velopment Programme” of RA 2016-2025” functions that are closely considered in the states that the main aim of education devel- process of evaluating the effectiveness of a opment is to provide every citizen, at any textbook. The suggested questions for such stage of his/her life, with qualified education evaluation should be designed as follows: in compliance with his/her requirements, does the textbook reflect the outlined peda- mental abilities and objectives; to meet the gogical functions; to what extent does it re- economic and public challenges, to serve the flect? What characteristics of a textbook re- national interests. In the maelstrom of tasks to solve most of the issues under question? achieve the main goal of education develop- The answers to these questions enable to ment, the qualitative improvement of educa- speak about the textbook effectiveness, the tional resources, such as the creation of text- latter being the fundamental purpose of the books, their correspondence to subject-based didactic evaluation process. The main criteri- curriculum and criteria, is of the primary im- on for the efficiency of the textbook is the ef- portance. fectiveness level of application of core func- As has been aptly stated, a good textbook tions. What are these functions and what text- is worth schooling. It allows a child to be well book characteristics conduce their implemen- educated, brought up, socialized adds up to tation? 162 2(7), 2016 162 163 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 37.01:159.9:316 Pedagogical and psychological sources sources of information, a positive attitude to Vazgen POGHOSYAN (Pogosyan, 2005; Imangozhina, 2015; Mona- learning. Such an approach can be achieved khov, 1997; “The issues on school textbook. through an attractive delivery of materials PSYCHOLOGICAL-PEDAGOGICAL CRITERIA XX century. Reviews,” 1996) most often sin- which, in their turn, would lead to the acquisi- FOR NEW GENERATION TEXTBOOKS gle out the following functions of a textbook: tion of skills for mental work. informational, transformational, research, The motivational function is responsible Abstract self-educational, coordinating, and self-cont- for emotional and inspiring background of rol - research and self-educational functions students which is, in the first run, should be The article dwells on the main psychological and pedagogical criteria which should lay the being of high interest, the preferable devel- implemented via a positive attitude to the sub- foundation for all the reforms in school textbooks of transformational societies in transition period. opment of which coincides with the overall ject matter. After having analyzed the criteria and aims of textbooks a manual is presented which, as the author tendencies of modern didactics. Along with The following observation is to illustrate suggests, may be valuable in directing high school students in their choice of careers. the abovementioned functions, the motiva- the importance of the given function. History tional and training functions are also strongly teachers in schools typically focus on the de- Keywords: transformational societies, transition period, main purpose of education develop- advised. velopment of verbal-logical skills embracing ment, functions of a textbook, criteria of textbook evaluation, the overall psychological atlas. The overall application of informational one side of the mental activity, thus very often function is to convey factual materials in text- neglecting not less important imaginary com- books. Unlike all other means, the provided ponent. Thus the study of history through The education system becomes especial- the acquisition of social behavioral standards, information here is given in a logical, subject- verbal means becomes formality with no il- ly vulnerable within transformational socie- language skills, civic and moral codes (Po- based and psychological manner defined by lustrations behind the facts. Historical con- ties as it fails to meet its main mission in the ghosyan, 1996; Imangozhina, 2015). the state educational standards. cepts and laws of social evolution which lack maelstrom of changes (Dzhurinski, 1999; As an intermediary between “live learn- The transformational function does not adequate and clear images do not communi- Yasvin, 2004). ing” and other means of knowledge acquisi- only orient a student in the cognition of the cate lively and precise contents to students, The project on “The State Education De- tion, a textbook acts on part of a range of reality but also in its alterations. This function while the latter with imaginary background velopment Programme” of RA 2016-2025” functions that are closely considered in the closely relates to the training function, the find it difficult to comprehend the historical states that the main aim of education devel- process of evaluating the effectiveness of a latter aimed at developing practical abilities notions and definitions. As a result, the deliv- opment is to provide every citizen, at any textbook. The suggested questions for such and skills among students and at the same ered material is explicit and comprehensive stage of his/her life, with qualified education evaluation should be designed as follows: time closely connected with the research for only one group of students, while the oth- in compliance with his/her requirements, does the textbook reflect the outlined peda- function the latter being introduced either in er part should struggle to understand it. the form of description of methods and direc- mental abilities and objectives; to meet the gogical functions; to what extent does it re- In our view, the perception and cognition tions, or in the form of assignments and ques- economic and public challenges, to serve the flect? What characteristics of a textbook re- of historical material should be based on emotions for a student’s autonomous activity. The national interests. In the maelstrom of tasks to solve most of the issues under question? tional experiences which, in its turn, may con- research function presupposes the implemen- achieve the main goal of education develop- The answers to these questions enable to tribute to the formation of students’ personal tation of research-related activities that are ment, the qualitative improvement of educa- speak about the textbook effectiveness, the attitudes. The emotional background of a per- easily handled by students as a result of which tional resources, such as the creation of text- latter being the fundamental purpose of the son is known to play an essential role in one’s students acquire basic methodological know- books, their correspondence to subject-based didactic evaluation process. The main criteri- life; thus, the outlines of history lessons ledge of each subject. curriculum and criteria, is of the primary im- on for the efficiency of the textbook is the ef- should take an emotional moment, a unique The self-educational function is aimed at portance. fectiveness level of application of core func- psychological phenomenon, into account. creating the conditions for students to inde- As has been aptly stated, a good textbook tions. What are these functions and what text- This task could be achieved through the rep- pendently use different sources of informa- is worth schooling. It allows a child to be well book characteristics conduce their implemen- resentations of historical figures with their tion. Thus, textbooks should promote new educated, brought up, socialized adds up to tation? true personality traits, positive and negative 162 163 163 2(7), 2016 Vazgen POGHOSYAN

sides of character, the true reasons for their particular school’s requirements and an au- achievements and failures. Any state policy is thor’s conceptions related to those require- aimed at emphasizing the most glorious ments. events of their historical timeline in history Apart from being methodically approved books consciously leaving out the defeats and in classroom, the application of textbook failures. This is not surprising since textbooks functions largely depends on other factors are called to nurture the spirit of patriotism such as theoretical, methodical, linguistic, among students. However, we strongly be- economic and publishing. lieve that such an approach, is deficient by Theory and practice are largely the main nature and the concealment of true reasons for groups to rely on when investigating textbook historical failures may lead to biased interpre- effectiveness. These two are closely interre- tations of historical events and false percep- lated; however, while theory can only be eva- tions about uniqueness of one’s nation. Last luated from a certain range of characteristics, but not least, the fair interpretation and analy- the assessment of textbook effectiveness is sis of unsuccessful pages of history may be fully found in its practical usage in schools. more educational and beneficial than those of As has been earlier mentioned the core success and glory. functions are underlying in the didactic crite- The remaining functions are linked to the ria of textbook evaluation. The question is coordinating function. The textbook should whether a textbook contains all the character- provide the development of an attitude to istics required to meet the mentioned func- knowledge system as a means of source of tions. This concept needs to be thoroughly self-education. Broadly speaking, the control analyzed and the primary question to answer of knowledge system presupposes the for- is to identify the characteristics of a textbook mation of the developing system of self-cont- which are linked to the implementation of rol and self-estimation, mutual control and some functions. mutual estimation. To illustrate this, a number of character- Would it be expected for one textbook to istics needed for a textbook to implement the meet all the functions and be evaluated from informational functions are given below: that perspective? The answer is not definite 1. Textbook content considering a big variety of textbooks. Ac- x Alignment with the content of modern cording to Okoni’s classification, the books scientific knowledge fall into the following categories: universal, x Classification in subject-based, logical systematized, practice and curriculum-based and psychological outline (as required textbooks each having their unique character- by a subject structure) istics. While a universal textbook is the only x Conformity with the curriculum aims example of the combination of all functions, of the curriculum guide the others are not necessarily to include all the x Consolidation of names and accuracy functions. Thus, the textbook may only ex- of terms emplify informational and research functions x Conformity with terms and names in or a group of other functions depending on a textbooks of interdisciplinary subjects 164 2(7), 2016 164 165 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

sides of character, the true reasons for their particular school’s requirements and an au- x Variety of information delivery (a user level achievements and failures. Any state policy is thor’s conceptions related to those require- word, picture, photo, graphics, etc.) x Accuracy and briefness of inscriptions aimed at emphasizing the most glorious ments. 2. Structure of textbook to illustrations, their appropriateness events of their historical timeline in history Apart from being methodically approved x A clear organization of structure; iden- in style and form to functions and na- books consciously leaving out the defeats and in classroom, the application of textbook ticalness of units (for example, texts, ture failures. This is not surprising since textbooks functions largely depends on other factors exercises, tests, summaries, etc.) x Appropriate accentuation (for exam- are called to nurture the spirit of patriotism such as theoretical, methodical, linguistic, x Implementation of core principles of ple, main notions, provisions, etc.) among students. However, we strongly be- economic and publishing. mental models in the structure of text- x Consistency of margins with the inclu- lieve that such an approach, is deficient by Theory and practice are largely the main books (Contents at the beginning of sion of core notions and images nature and the concealment of true reasons for groups to rely on when investigating textbook textbooks; inclusion of subject-related x Appropriate volume of reading historical failures may lead to biased interpre- effectiveness. These two are closely interre- terms, appendices, etc.) x Accurate emphasis of an author’s tations of historical events and false percep- lated; however, while theory can only be eva- 3. Methodical design of content name and last name, as well as that of tions about uniqueness of one’s nation. Last luated from a certain range of characteristics, x Conformity with modern didactic re- an illustrator, reviewer and editor. but not least, the fair interpretation and analy- the assessment of textbook effectiveness is quirements in the field of language A similar list of criteria can be drawn for sis of unsuccessful pages of history may be fully found in its practical usage in schools. (comprehensibility, accurate structure, all forms of functions. However, as has been more educational and beneficial than those of As has been earlier mentioned the core flexibility) mentioned earlier, the effectiveness of a text- success and glory. functions are underlying in the didactic crite- x Conformity with the methodical re- book can only be evaluated in comparison of The remaining functions are linked to the ria of textbook evaluation. The question is quirements of the subject matter theory with its practical application in coordinating function. The textbook should whether a textbook contains all the character- x Variety of examples reflecting an au- schools. provide the development of an attitude to istics required to meet the mentioned func- thor’s conceptions After analyzing the abovementioned knowledge system as a means of source of tions. This concept needs to be thoroughly x Inclusion of studied references and functions and criteria an attempt was made to self-education. Broadly speaking, the control analyzed and the primary question to answer students’ experiences come up with a manual that could, as we may of knowledge system presupposes the for- is to identify the characteristics of a textbook x Variety of core assignments and tasks envision, also be applicable for counseling mation of the developing system of self-cont- which are linked to the implementation of x Separation of educational materials high school students in their choice of careers. rol and self-estimation, mutual control and some functions. according to levels of complexity Entitled as Designed in a demonstrative- mutual estimation. To illustrate this, a number of character- x Management of speculative skills in figurative style “The overall psychological Would it be expected for one textbook to istics needed for a textbook to implement the problem-solving activities atlas” (Pogosyan & Pogosyan, 2012) is meet all the functions and be evaluated from informational functions are given below: 4. Design and publishing unique in its methodical approach which al- that perspective? The answer is not definite 1. Textbook content x Ease use of a textbook lows to facilitate students’ studies of the considering a big variety of textbooks. Ac- x Alignment with the content of modern “General Psychology” subject. The simple x Objectivity, esthetics and awareness in cording to Okoni’s classification, the books scientific knowledge the choice of a layout (a durable, hy- and easily comprehensible graphs of the man- fall into the following categories: universal, x Classification in subject-based, logical ual illustrate a full picture of core psychologi- gienic; attractive binding that reflects systematized, practice and curriculum-based and psychological outline (as required the content of a textbook) cal principles, main concepts and methods; textbooks each having their unique character- by a subject structure) the main psychic processes, descriptions of x Paper standards (a high-quality paper istics. While a universal textbook is the only x Conformity with the curriculum aims states as well as psychological personality with an appropriate color and shade) example of the combination of all functions, of the curriculum guide traits. The manual enables to apply modern x A wide range of illustrations (pictures, the others are not necessarily to include all the x Consolidation of names and accuracy approaches to the processes of delivery, photos, drawings, graphics) functions. Thus, the textbook may only ex- of terms teaching and revision, testing and control. x Inclusion of knowledge-based illustra- emplify informational and research functions x Conformity with terms and names in Considering the shortcomings of graphs given tions appropriate to the content and or a group of other functions depending on a textbooks of interdisciplinary subjects alone, each topic is accompanied with an in- 164 165 165 2(7), 2016 Vazgen POGHOSYAN

troductory text. The manual “The overall psy- and applied studies, in Russian). No12- chological atlas” has been in use for almost 5. three years and thus has proven to be practi- Monakhov, V.M. (1997). Kak sozdat uchebnik cally effective. To control and self-control the novogo pokoleniya (How to Create a knowledge of psychology “An overall psy- New Generation Textbook, in Russian). chological questionnaire” is suggested (Pogo- Pedagogy, No1. syan & Pogosyan, 2012). It consists of two Poghosyan, V.V. (1996). Nor serndi dasa- parts, the first designed by the authors them- grqerin nerkayacvogh hogebana- selves, the second referring to the well-estab- mankavarjhakan mi qani pahanj. Da- lished research materials in the field of psy- sagirqy barep’oxvogh dprocum. (A chology, which have been re-published for Number of Psychological-Pedagogical several times and the authors of which are Requirements for New Generation rightly the most outstanding in the field. Textbooks. A Textbook in a Reforming The article has related to the main psy- School, in Armenian). Materials of the chological and pedagogical requirements for scientific and applied conference. Yere- changes of textbooks to be considered for van. 17-19. transformational societies in a transition peri- Poghosyan, V.V. (2005). Patmut’yan dasa- od. The other requirements for educational grqasteghc’man & dasavandman means will be discussed in upcoming publica- gorc’yntaci hogebanakan ditankyun- tions. nery’ (Psychological Perspectives of Teaching Process and the History of REFERENCES Textbook Creation, in Armenian). Pat- mut’yun & k8y’ut’yun (History and Ed- Dzhurinski, A.N. (1999). Razvitie obrazova- ucation). 1-2, 194-204. niya v sovremennom mire (The Edu- Poghosyan, V.V., & Poghosyan, A.V. (2012). cation Development in the Modern Y’ndhanur hogebanut’yan atlas (The World, in Russian). Moscow: Vla- Overall Psychological Atlas, in Arme- dos. nian). Yerevan: Zangak. HH. Krt’ut’yan zargacman 2016-2025 t’t’. Poghosyan, V.V., & Poghosyan, A.V. (2015). Petakan c’ragir. Naxagic’ (Project of Y’ndhanur hogebanut’yan test-har- The State Education Development caran (The Overall Psychological Programme of RA 2016-2025, in Questionnaire, in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian) (2016). Yerevan: Ktak. Zangak. Imangozhina, O.Z. (1999). Osnovnye naprav- Problemy shkol’nogo uchebnika. XX vek. Ito- leniya razvitiya teorii shkol’nogo gi (The Iissues on a School Textbook. uchebnika. Mezhdunarodniy zhurnal XX Century. Reviews, in Russian). (19 prikladniyx i fundamentalnix issledo- 96). Moscow: Prosveshchenie. vaniy (The Main Directions of the Yasvin, V.A. (2004). Obrazovatel’naya sreda School Textbook Development. The (The Educational Environment, in Rus- International journal of fundamental sian). Moscow: Smysl.

166 2(7), 2016 166 167 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

troductory text. The manual “The overall psy- and applied studies, in Russian). No12- chological atlas” has been in use for almost 5. three years and thus has proven to be practi- Monakhov, V.M. (1997). Kak sozdat uchebnik cally effective. To control and self-control the novogo pokoleniya (How to Create a knowledge of psychology “An overall psy- New Generation Textbook, in Russian). chological questionnaire” is suggested (Pogo- Pedagogy, No1. syan & Pogosyan, 2012). It consists of two Poghosyan, V.V. (1996). Nor serndi dasa- parts, the first designed by the authors them- grqerin nerkayacvogh hogebana- selves, the second referring to the well-estab- mankavarjhakan mi qani pahanj. Da- lished research materials in the field of psy- sagirqy barep’oxvogh dprocum. (A chology, which have been re-published for Number of Psychological-Pedagogical several times and the authors of which are Requirements for New Generation rightly the most outstanding in the field. Textbooks. A Textbook in a Reforming The article has related to the main psy- School, in Armenian). Materials of the chological and pedagogical requirements for scientific and applied conference. Yere- changes of textbooks to be considered for van. 17-19. transformational societies in a transition peri- Poghosyan, V.V. (2005). Patmut’yan dasa- od. The other requirements for educational grqasteghc’man & dasavandman CHAIR OF YOUNG SCIENTIST means will be discussed in upcoming publica- gorc’yntaci hogebanakan ditankyun- tions. nery’ (Psychological Perspectives of Teaching Process and the History of REFERENCES Textbook Creation, in Armenian). Pat- mut’yun & k8y’ut’yun (History and Ed- Dzhurinski, A.N. (1999). Razvitie obrazova- ucation). 1-2, 194-204. niya v sovremennom mire (The Edu- Poghosyan, V.V., & Poghosyan, A.V. (2012). cation Development in the Modern Y’ndhanur hogebanut’yan atlas (The World, in Russian). Moscow: Vla- Overall Psychological Atlas, in Arme- dos. nian). Yerevan: Zangak. HH. Krt’ut’yan zargacman 2016-2025 t’t’. Poghosyan, V.V., & Poghosyan, A.V. (2015). Petakan c’ragir. Naxagic’ (Project of Y’ndhanur hogebanut’yan test-har- The State Education Development caran (The Overall Psychological Programme of RA 2016-2025, in Questionnaire, in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian) (2016). Yerevan: Ktak. Zangak. Imangozhina, O.Z. (1999). Osnovnye naprav- Problemy shkol’nogo uchebnika. XX vek. Ito- leniya razvitiya teorii shkol’nogo gi (The Iissues on a School Textbook. uchebnika. Mezhdunarodniy zhurnal XX Century. Reviews, in Russian). (19 prikladniyx i fundamentalnix issledo- 96). Moscow: Prosveshchenie. vaniy (The Main Directions of the Yasvin, V.A. (2004). Obrazovatel’naya sreda School Textbook Development. The (The Educational Environment, in Rus- International journal of fundamental sian). Moscow: Smysl.

166 167 167 2(7), 2016 Marianna AMIRAGHYAN

UDC 373.2:159.922.7 Marianna AMIRAGHYAN

THE METHODICAL PRINCIPLES OF CHILD'S SPEECH DEVELOPMENT CURRICULUM

Abstract

In the article child’s speech development process is observed, which, on the one hand, as- sumes the accounting of not only didactic, but also methodological principles, which let the preschool pedagogue choose appropriate means for speech development. On the other hand, the basis of the organization of speech development process is the preschool educational curriculum, where the volume of speech abilities and skills, the demands for different aged-groups are defined. But child’s speech development peculiarities and regularities should be taken into consideration, when the choice of self-realization and self-organization methods, ways and means of child’s speech becomes urgent.

Keywords: speech development, speech abilities and skills, preschool speech development curriculum.

The human society is continually devel- mechanically perception of the amounts of oping, social life, being in movement, is al- dates becomes unnecessary any more: the ways submitted changes and, as a result of consciously and comprehensibly acquisition this, new problems and demands are aroused of knowledge becomes a must, which means - full of contrasts. The solutions of these to find solutions via new ways and methods. problems bring development in social life. All the changes mentioned above, have It’s known, that human being intends not to their direct influences on educational system. adapt to new conditions, but to perceive sug- Proceeded from nowadays’ problems, the gested problems and find solutions for them. demands for younger generation’s breeding, Our society has social-communicative teaching and educational processes are being progress. All the sciences are developing, changed. It becomes important to improve too. The society - education, science - educa- educational contents, teaching ways and tion - society relationships are improving. methods. Pedagogue – psychologists have to And a discrepancy, among these spheres’ seek and systematize new teaching methods, demands, is aroused. An abrupt and rapid by using which it will be possible to develop growth of necessary knowledge for a human children’s cognitive activity, creative process occurs. It becomes important to orient quick- and be able to follow sciences’ developing ly, communicate rightly, organize own ac- motion. A necessity of educating, forming tions properly in the created situation. The and developing new generation as self- think- 168 2(7), 2016 168 169 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 373.2:159.922.7 ing people, who will be able to enrich know- resented. Of course, these curriculums some- Marianna AMIRAGHYAN ledge, express their thoughts literately and how lead preschool teachers to organize sen- speak coherently, logically and meaningfully, ior preschoolers’ speech development pro- THE METHODICAL PRINCIPLES OF CHILD'S SPEECH DEVELOPMENT becomes a must. cess, but we find that these curriculums need CURRICULUM From this, two urgent objectives are to be reviewed and recompleted, because the aroused: peculiarities of forming preschooler’s speech

Abstract 1. to seek new effective developing ways abilities and language capacities haven’t been and means for children’s breeding pro- taken into consideration. Especially the fol- In the article child’s speech development process is observed, which, on the one hand, as- cess, lowing factors aren’t systematized in the cur- sumes the accounting of not only didactic, but also methodological principles, which let the pre- 2. to review preschooler’s speech devel- riculum: x school pedagogue choose appropriate means for speech development. On the other hand, the basis opment methodology making it as a the linguistic-psychological points of of the organization of speech development process is the preschool educational curriculum, where means of solving recurrently problems, departure of child’s speech development, the volume of speech abilities and skills, the demands for different aged-groups are defined. But which occur during the communication. which can be bent by nowadays’ de- child’s speech development peculiarities and regularities should be taken into consideration, when These two urgent and mutually connect- mands, the choice of self-realization and self-organization methods, ways and means of child’s speech be- ed objectives should have their reflections in x the main principals of organizing speech comes urgent. the modern educational curriculums, which development process, rules, proceeded are the cornerstone of realizing education. from them, nowadays’ demands, Keywords: speech development, speech abilities and skills, preschool speech development cur- It is known that each human activity is x senior preschooler’s speech manifesta- riculum. realized successfully, if it has a properly or- tions – criteria, the analyze of which can ganized curriculum, where every step is care- promote the perfection of speech devel- fully worked out, if the means, ways of car- opment methodology, The human society is continually devel- mechanically perception of the amounts of rying out of a certain activity are represented x the methodical peculiarities for the les- oping, social life, being in movement, is al- dates becomes unnecessary any more: the (“Preschool Curriculum Framework,” 2010, sons of speech development. ways submitted changes and, as a result of consciously and comprehensibly acquisition p. 30). In order to realize preschooler’s From the lack of the factors, mentioned this, new problems and demands are aroused of knowledge becomes a must, which means speech developmental process, it is necessary above, the organization of child’s speech de- - full of contrasts. The solutions of these to find solutions via new ways and methods. to have a systematized, compact curriculum, velopment process suffers. problems bring development in social life. All the changes mentioned above, have which will promote the organization of There are a lot of theories for child’s It’s known, that human being intends not to their direct influences on educational system. child’s speech development process. Of speech development suggested by peda- course, we mean the speech development adapt to new conditions, but to perceive sug- Proceeded from nowadays’ problems, the gogues (Yan Am. Komensky, who connected section of the curriculum for senior pre- gested problems and find solutions for them. demands for younger generation’s breeding, the peculiarities of child’s development with schoolers aged of 5 – 6. Our society has social-communicative teaching and educational processes are being the speech process, Ye. Tikheyeva, who con- There are some educational complex progress. All the sciences are developing, changed. It becomes important to improve nected speech development with child’s ac- curriculums in our preschool establishments: too. The society - education, science - educa- educational contents, teaching ways and tivity and social environment), psychologisys ‘Preschool educational breeding complex tion - society relationships are improving. methods. Pedagogue – psychologists have to (A. Leontev, L. Vigotsky, who emphasized curriculum’, ‘Kindergarten’ preschool educa- And a discrepancy, among these spheres’ seek and systematize new teaching methods, social nature of speech), linguists (Noam tional curriculum’, ‘Educational complex demands, is aroused. An abrupt and rapid by using which it will be possible to develop Chomsky, who gave emphasized the role of curriculum for senior group in kindergarten’. growth of necessary knowledge for a human children’s cognitive activity, creative process transformational grammar, due to which The demands for child’s speech development occurs. It becomes important to orient quick- and be able to follow sciences’ developing children can make a lot of sentences (Peter, are reflected in these curriculums, where ly, communicate rightly, organize own ac- motion. A necessity of educating, forming 1986, pp. 282-284), pedagogue-methodists each objective of speech development is rep- tions properly in the created situation. The and developing new generation as self- think- (F. Sokhin, who mentioned that senior pre- 168 169 169 2(7), 2016 Marianna AMIRAGHYAN

schoolers are able to conscious language are reflected (Alekseeva & Yashina, 2000, units), Armenian pedagogues Kh. Abovyan, pp. 7-10). Language is an important means of Gh. Aghayan, A. Bahatryan, G. Edilyan, who communication and social mutual activity attached importance to the organization of among people, and is connected with think- child’s speech development process. ing. This philosophical approach reveals the Accepting the approaches above, we meaning of the perception of language as a consider, that during the organization of difficult human activity, during which know- child’s speech development process we ledge is acquired, abilities are formed. Lan- should emphasize the combination of inner guage, speech are aroused during human ac- and outer sides of speech. We find that, in or- tivity, and language, as a result of the activi- der to achieve success in child’s speech de- ty, reflects contents, conditions and results of velopment process, we should take into con- the activity. From this, an important principal sideration this factor, and the methodology of of methodology arouses: perception of lan- speech development must derive from this guage units, formation of speech abilities and point of view, when the analyze of child’s communicational skills among children occur speech manifestations will allow to reveal the during the activity, and the motive is the de- inner organization of child’s speech and find mand for communication. During communi- appropriate methods, means and ways to in- cation child perceives speech actively. crease the efficiency of speech development Though language and speech are united, they process. Children at preschool age, particu- are not the same. There is a great difference larly senior preschoolers /5–6 - year - old/, between language and speech. Language has can control their outer speech through inner been aroused during social-historical devel- speech. And we suppose, that at senior pre- opment, about which we have already men- school age developed speech standard is in- tioned above. Language is the form of the wardly controlled speech. Senior preschooler expression of peoples’ consciousness, where- is able not only to control his/her lexicon, as speech is the form of the expression of a coherent speech but also grammatical and person’s consciousness. Speech belongs to a phonetic structures of the speech. But this person. Language is a means of communica- occurs only during communication with tion, speech is the process of communication. peers, especially when children try to explain Speech is the usage of language. In our the rules of a game to their players. As a re- speech we use the units of language, make sult, senior preschooler master and estimate expressions, sentences, texts, we express our own speech, control language material inter- thoughts with the help of language units in nally and becomes a master and possessor of our speech. language system. The next methodical nature of language Methodological basis of speech devel- is reflected in its connection with thinking. opment is the material-philosophical ap- Language is the implement of thinking and proach, according which language is a result cognition. From this, during speech teaching of social-historical development, in its na- the methods will be productive, if they pro- tion’s culture, traditions, social relationships

170 2(7), 2016 170 171 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

schoolers are able to conscious language are reflected (Alekseeva & Yashina, 2000, mote both speech and thinking development priately in successful communication (Gleit- units), Armenian pedagogues Kh. Abovyan, pp. 7-10). Language is an important means of (Clark, 1984, pp. 28-32). man, 1983, pp. 226-232). Gh. Aghayan, A. Bahatryan, G. Edilyan, who communication and social mutual activity From this, five major properties of all Language is organized as a hierarchy of attached importance to the organization of among people, and is connected with think- human languages are distinguished. The first structure. At the bottom of the hierarch, lan- child’s speech development process. ing. This philosophical approach reveals the property is that language use is creative. Lan- guage consists of little snippets of sound, and Accepting the approaches above, we meaning of the perception of language as a guage is merely a complicated habit, a set of at the other end, of sentences and conversa- consider, that during the organization of difficult human activity, during which know- acts by ear and mouth that have been actions. From this, we’d like to introduce the child’s speech development process we ledge is acquired, abilities are formed. Lan- quired by memorization and practice. On this components of language: should emphasize the combination of inner guage, speech are aroused during human ac- view, the explanation of talking is simple: x phonology involves the rules about the and outer sides of speech. We find that, in or- tivity, and language, as a result of the activi- each of the memorized speech acts is simply structure and sequence of speech sounds, der to achieve success in child’s speech de- ty, reflects contents, conditions and results of performed whenever the appropriate circum- x semantics consists of vocabulary and velopment process, we should take into con- the activity. From this, an important principal stances arise. The next property of language how concepts are expressed through sideration this factor, and the methodology of of methodology arouses: perception of lan- is that language is highly structured, which words, speech development must derive from this guage units, formation of speech abilities and means that sentences are made in lawful, not x grammar involves two parts. The first, point of view, when the analyze of child’s communicational skills among children occur accidental way. We construct our sentences syntax, is the rules in which words are speech manifestations will allow to reveal the during the activity, and the motive is the de- in accordance with certain general principles arranged into sentences. The second, inner organization of child’s speech and find mand for communication. During communi- which are often called rules of grammar. The morphology, is the use of grammatical appropriate methods, means and ways to in- cation child perceives speech actively. third property is that language is meaningful. markers (indicating tense, active or pas- crease the efficiency of speech development Though language and speech are united, they Each word in a language expresses a mean- sive voice etc.), process. Children at preschool age, particu- are not the same. There is a great difference ingful idea, about something, action, abstrac- x pragmatics involves the rules for appro- larly senior preschoolers /5–6 - year - old/, between language and speech. Language has tion, relation, quality and so on. The purpose priate and effective communication. can control their outer speech through inner been aroused during social-historical devel- of language is to express all these meanings. The latter side of language involves oth- speech. And we suppose, that at senior pre- opment, about which we have already men- The next property is that language is referen- er three sides, and we are sure that especially school age developed speech standard is in- tioned above. Language is the form of the tial, that is, it refers to and describes things this side should be formed at preschool age. wardly controlled speech. Senior preschooler expression of peoples’ consciousness, where- and events in the real world. Language users The philosophical perception of lan- is able not only to control his/her lexicon, as speech is the form of the expression of a know more than how to put words together guage methodology, mentioned above, coherent speech but also grammatical and person’s consciousness. Speech belongs to a into sentences. They also know which words should be the basis of speech development phonetic structures of the speech. But this person. Language is a means of communica- refer to which things, events and scenes in curriculum. This approach allows us to de- occurs only during communication with tion, speech is the process of communication. the world. The problem of reference is a fine the following principles for the organiza- peers, especially when children try to explain Speech is the usage of language. In our complicated one: we refer not to what we see tion of speech development process: the rules of a game to their players. As a re- speech we use the units of language, make in the world. Rather, we refer to whatever it x the principle of mutual connection among sult, senior preschooler master and estimate expressions, sentences, texts, we express our is in the world that we think about. The fifth sensuous, mental and speech development own speech, control language material inter- thoughts with the help of language units in property of language is that it is interperson- of children. This principle is closely con- nally and becomes a master and possessor of our speech. al, involving the thoughts of more than one nected with the acknowledgement of sur- language system. The next methodical nature of language person at a time. The primary uses of lan- rounding. The perception of language ma- Methodological basis of speech devel- is reflected in its connection with thinking. guage are in functions that cross from one terial occurs through deciding mental opment is the material-philosophical ap- Language is the implement of thinking and individual to another. To accomplish these tasks. This means that preschool peda- proach, according which language is a result cognition. From this, during speech teaching social ends, speakers must know not only a gogue should use visual aids, means and of social-historical development, in its na- the methods will be productive, if they pro- language, but rules for using language appro- methods of teaching directed to child’s tion’s culture, traditions, social relationships cognitive development. 170 171 171 2(7), 2016 Marianna AMIRAGHYAN

x The principle of communication-activity of dialogue and monologue speech. These approach to the speech development, ac- parts of speech are isolated for didactic cording to which, speech is observed as an purpose, but they are interrelated parts of activity, where language is used for the a whole – the process of mastering lan- aim of communication. This principle al- guage system: during the development of lows kindergarten teacher to use such ma- one side, others develop too. But the aim terials which will promote the formation of kindergarten teacher should be the for- of children’s communicative abilities. mation and development of children’s co- This principle changes teaching methods, herent speech manifestations, where all where the formation of child’s speech the parts of speech are expressed. manifestations becomes initial. x The principle of enrichment of motiva- x The principle of language sensitivity, tions of speech activity. Enrichment of when the child perceives the rules of lan- motives of children’s speech activity dur- guage unconsciously. Preschoolers are ing learning process is very important, be- able to combine language units correctly, cause positive motivation of speech in- though they don’t realize these rules. Ped- creases the effectiveness of teaching. Dur- agogues should seek for such methods, ing speech development lessons peda- which will let develop children’s language gogue offers children to answer questions, sensitivity. This can be developed through retell stories, repeat something, but it is word games. not taken into consideration, whether the x The principle of forming child’s elemen- child need to do so. Hence, an important tary understanding of language phenome- task for pedagogue is the creation of posi- na. The basis of this principle is that chil- tive motivation for every action of the dren not only imitate adults’ speech, but child in the learning process, as well as they unconsciously generalize language the organization of situations that cause phenomenon as well. It forms an inner the need for communication. The usage of system of language rules, which allow the a variety of interesting techniques for the child to create new expressions. During child is very important, which will stimu- the teaching process kindergarten teacher late their verbal activity and contribute to should use methods directed to the devel- the development of speech creative abili- opment of child’s awareness of language ties phenomena (F.A. Sokhin). Language awa- x The principle of active speech practice. reness is an indicator of the degree of the The essence of this principle is that lan- formation of speech skills. guage is learned through its usage, in x The principle of complete approach to- practice. Reuse of language units in chan- ward teaching of different sides of speech. ging environments allows to develop a It’s known that speech development pro- strong and flexible language skills. Speech cess solves different objectives of speech: activity is not only speaking, it is also lis- mastering vocabulary, pronunciation tening, the perception of speech. There- skills, grammatical structure, development fore, it is important to teach children to 172 2(7), 2016 172 173 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

x The principle of communication-activity of dialogue and monologue speech. These perceive and understand others’ speech. that during speech development process all approach to the speech development, ac- parts of speech are isolated for didactic Thus, during lessons it is important to use the chosen methods and ways should be bent cording to which, speech is observed as an purpose, but they are interrelated parts of variety of factors providing speech activi- through the characteristics of child’s devel- activity, where language is used for the a whole – the process of mastering lan- ty for all children, positive emotional opment. These principles allow kindergarten aim of communication. This principle al- guage system: during the development of background, communication among chil- teachers to organize speech development lows kindergarten teacher to use such ma- one side, others develop too. But the aim dren. The usage of this principle provides process from the children’s speech specifi- terials which will promote the formation of kindergarten teacher should be the for- wide practice of language use for all the ties. Children’s speech developmental pecu- of children’s communicative abilities. mation and development of children’s co- children, not only during the lessons, but liarities dictate adults to choose appropriate This principle changes teaching methods, herent speech manifestations, where all during other activities as well (Alekseeva methods and ways for organizing their where the formation of child’s speech the parts of speech are expressed. &Yashina, 2000, pp. 48-50) speech development process. It’s without manifestations becomes initial. x The principle of enrichment of motiva- So, language acquisition by children oc- saying that children with well-developed oral x The principle of language sensitivity, tions of speech activity. Enrichment of curs during communication, which allows to language are likely to succeed in reading and when the child perceives the rules of lan- motives of children’s speech activity dur- perceive language structure and use it in the writing comprehension in later grade levels guage unconsciously. Preschoolers are ing learning process is very important, be- speech. This means that we can’t teach chil- than children with less well-developed oral able to combine language units correctly, cause positive motivation of speech in- dren language via traditional lessons, which language. though they don’t realize these rules. Ped- creases the effectiveness of teaching. Dur- are sometimes dull for preschoolers. And the agogues should seek for such methods, ing speech development lessons peda- principles, mentioned above, provide com- REFERENCES which will let develop children’s language gogue offers children to answer questions, municative environment for children in kin- sensitivity. This can be developed through retell stories, repeat something, but it is dergartens. The realization of this principles Alekseeva, M.M., & Yashina B.I. (2000). word games. not taken into consideration, whether the make kindergarten teachers use interactive Metodika razvitiya rechi i obucheni- x The principle of forming child’s elemen- child need to do so. Hence, an important methods and ways during language teaching. ya radnomu yazyku doshkol’nikov tary understanding of language phenome- task for pedagogue is the creation of posi- Hence, the preschool educational curricu- (Preschooler’s Methodology of na. The basis of this principle is that chil- tive motivation for every action of the lums, which are used in our preschool estab- Speech Development and Teaching dren not only imitate adults’ speech, but child in the learning process, as well as lishments should be worked out according to Mother Tongue, in Russian). Mos- they unconsciously generalize language the organization of situations that cause these principles mentioned above. The anal- cow: Akademiya. phenomenon as well. It forms an inner the need for communication. The usage of yses of those curriculums has proved, that, Clark, P.V., & Eschholz, A. P. (1984), Lan- system of language rules, which allow the a variety of interesting techniques for the though they express some demands for senior guage. New York. child to create new expressions. During child is very important, which will stimu- preschooler’s speech development , they are Gleitman, H. (1983). Basic Psychology. New the teaching process kindergarten teacher late their verbal activity and contribute to not systematized and defined, moreover, they York. should use methods directed to the devel- the development of speech creative abili- don’t help kindergarten teachers in the Preschool Curriculum Framework (2010). opment of child’s awareness of language ties choice of methods, ways and means. All the- California: Sacramento. phenomena (F.A. Sokhin). Language awa- x The principle of active speech practice. se principles derives from the peculiarities of Reich, P.A. (1986) Language Development. reness is an indicator of the degree of the The essence of this principle is that lan- children’s speech development. This means, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. formation of speech skills. guage is learned through its usage, in x The principle of complete approach to- practice. Reuse of language units in chan- ward teaching of different sides of speech. ging environments allows to develop a It’s known that speech development pro- strong and flexible language skills. Speech cess solves different objectives of speech: activity is not only speaking, it is also lis- mastering vocabulary, pronunciation tening, the perception of speech. There- skills, grammatical structure, development fore, it is important to teach children to 172 173 173 2(7), 2016 Anahit GHARIBYAN

UDC 324:316 Anahit GHARIBYAN

THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF ELECTORAL PROCESS OF ARMENIA IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT CHANGES IN THE ELECTORAL CODE

Abstract

A constitutional referendum was held in Armenia on 6 December 2015. The amendments to the constitution changed the country from having a semi-presidential system to a parliamentary republic, with the changes planned to take place during the 2017–18 electoral cycle. The results of the referendum determine not only the current changes in the electoral code, but also the necessity and effectiveness of the new electoral system. Particularly, by replacing the majoritarian system to the proportional system and by increasing the representativeness of the parliament for some groups, we can create basis for the further development of the country. Above all in the article we discussed the main factors that have a big impact on the voting behavior of the citizens.

Keywords: elections, electoral system, voter turnout, political network, clientelism, vote- buying, political support.

Introduction elections and their outcomes. The attention will be paid to the basic trends of electoral After the collapse of Soviet Union in system reforms in the country. This work will 1991 lots of countries which were under the include the main examples of Armenian elec- communist rule started the movements to- tions since the independence till now and the wards democracy: Armenia wasn’t the excep- main results will be analyzed in terms to find tion. On September 21 Armenia declared in- the negative and positive outcomes which dependence and started building new demo- force the states to change electoral system. cratic country after being under the Soviet This study of elections and current changes of dominance for seventy years. electoral code can help us not only to find out Obviously, one of the key elements for their prospective effects on society and poli- the politics of new independent state is the tics, but also to understand what challenges good structure of the electoral system and the bring the necessity of the changes. The article strong party competition. The aim of this pa- will be divided in several parts starting with per is to demonstrate the electoral processes the theoretical part of the issue, and with the in Armenia since 1991 to contemporary time, explanation of the very first independent elec- to identify the structure of electoral system tions and simultaneously the comparative and to make the comparative analyze of the analysis will be made with the latest elections 174 2(7), 2016 174 175 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 324:316 to identify the reforms and development achi- works in their daily, professional, personal Anahit GHARIBYAN eved since 1991. and political lives. In the recent years the analysis of politi- THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF ELECTORAL PROCESS OF ARMENIA Threads of political networks, clientelism cal and social networks becomes a basic field IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT CHANGES IN THE ELECTORAL CODE and vote-buying in elections in the social sciences. It maintains close association with the disciplines of sociology, so- Abstract The study of social networks has grown cial psychology, political sciences, history, noticeably across the social and natural sci- anthropology, even with physics. Furthermore A constitutional referendum was held in Armenia on 6 December 2015. The amendments to ences over the past years. Both in political now the network studies tend to have their the constitution changed the country from having a semi-presidential system to a parliamentary re- and social sciences articles and researches on own area of social experience to analyze, their public, with the changes planned to take place during the 2017–18 electoral cycle. The results of networks were very few, but recently network own theoretical and methodological develop- the referendum determine not only the current changes in the electoral code, but also the necessity theory, data and methodology are in use and ment, in some cases they have even their own and effectiveness of the new electoral system. very popular within researchers. Network stu- conceptual schemes to formulate and test the Particularly, by replacing the majoritarian system to the proportional system and by increasing dies cover the part of political science, that gathered information for truth. the representativeness of the parliament for some groups, we can create basis for the further devel- explores the effects of individuals, institu- Indeed, recent developments show that opment of the country. Above all in the article we discussed the main factors that have a big impact tions, groups and policies through both formal the interest in the original literature, with stu- 1 on the voting behavior of the citizens. and informal interaction . dies conducted on different community sam- Whereas the term of “network” for a long ples to investigate the effect of peer networks Keywords: elections, electoral system, voter turnout, political network, clientelism, vote- time has been considered in political science on vote choice, social communication, exper- as a way of thinking about systems of power, tise, and disagreement, has increased. It is buying, political support. influence, and communication, but nowadays then significant to know something about the

it becomes a formal model of political behav- structure of the social network if peer-to-peer

ior. There are several factors which determine communication affects political choices. Introduction elections and their outcomes. The attention will be paid to the basic trends of electoral such great attention on this issue. First of all, Taking this into consideration, we give current studies give interesting explanations After the collapse of Soviet Union in system reforms in the country. This work will particular attention to the fields in which so- 1991 lots of countries which were under the include the main examples of Armenian elec- of the concepts of social capital, sexual con- cial network analysis and political science are tacts, small worlds, power laws, and business communist rule started the movements to- tions since the independence till now and the connected. Whilst some of the initial exam- success. Secondly, the social network analysis wards democracy: Armenia wasn’t the excep- main results will be analyzed in terms to find ples of empirical political science were inu- becomes somewhat more accessible due to enced by the necessity to consider human in- tion. On September 21 Armenia declared in- the negative and positive outcomes which modern computer tools. teraction and interdependence, only recently dependence and started building new demo- force the states to change electoral system. Third, the appearance of on-line social the study of political networks was included cratic country after being under the Soviet This study of elections and current changes of networks attracted the attention to networks in the mainstream political science. The con- dominance for seventy years. electoral code can help us not only to find out by mass media and citizens across the world. cern of the gap between political science and Obviously, one of the key elements for their prospective effects on society and poli- Finally, the new innovations span through social network analysis is that there are a lot the politics of new independent state is the tics, but also to understand what challenges formal and informal networks, which deter- of thrilling opportunities to reconceptualize good structure of the electoral system and the bring the necessity of the changes. The article mine such huge attention on it. Gradually a and reanalyze the discipline with new disposi- strong party competition. The aim of this pa- will be divided in several parts starting with number of people are involved in this topic in tions. In addition there are essential gaps in per is to demonstrate the electoral processes the theoretical part of the issue, and with the order to see the applicability of social net- the concepts and tools used by social network in Armenia since 1991 to contemporary time, explanation of the very first independent elec- analysis that could benet from the insight of to identify the structure of electoral system tions and simultaneously the comparative 1 political science, particularly in thinking abo- and to make the comparative analyze of the analysis will be made with the latest elections See: http://www.polinetworks.org/ 174 175 175 2(7), 2016 Anahit GHARIBYAN

ut the meaning and consequences of power redistributive politics is well known as “pat- (Fowler, Heaney, Nickerson, Padgett, & Sin- ronage” or, more broadly, “clientelism” in clair, 2011). Yet, the investigation of social anthropology and political science. Thereby networks helps to explain why a great deal of the clientelism is a political exchange, when a political exchange involves neighborhood, politician (a “patron”) gives patronage in ex- associations and goods as a substitute to indi- change for the vote or support of a “client”. vidual-level material benefits. Indeed local As Weingrod articulated, “patronage refers to political brokers control the public goods. Ba- the way in which party politicians distribute sically the access to these local public goods public jobs or special favors in exchange for plays a crucial role in political exchange, both electoral support”. If this occurs, then it can in motivating members of neighborhood so- be detected that somehow the social network cial networks to monitor each other and in of individuals whose behavior politicians can ensuring that slum-level electoral support is observe somewhat well will determine who sufficiently strong to warrant access to neigh- politicians can credibly exchange with, seem- borhood-level benefits. On this terms, resi- ingly because they have social interactions dents in localities have incentives to coordi- with these individuals. Then, Turner and nate as a group and support the same candi- Young add that the “formation of a patron– date so that their community will be rewarded client relationship is based not only on recip- with local public goods (Rojo, Jha & Wib- rocal advantage, but on some principle of af- bels, “Political Networks, Clientelism and finity which supplies a social logic to the Public Goods”). At the same time politicians, network. Kinship and ethnic affinity are the be an incumbent government or the opposi- most frequent bases for network formation.” tion, wish to offer policies to groups of citi- Obviously, Clientelism thereafter becomes zens in exchange for political support. Since significant in countries with poor technology the law cannot be used to compel such politi- and high inequality. In case of low income cal exchanges, they must be self-enforcing. levels of citizens, the political loyalty of cli- As has been said, citizens must indeed give ents becomes cheaper for buying with job of- their support, and politicians, once in power, fers, and this brings about such condition, must pay for the support with the policies that when clientelistic redistribution is more ap- they promised. The politicians in order to en- pealing as a way of receiving support. This sure that they have the support of a group of model can be successfully applied for the sit- citizens, must be able to use polices that con- uation, when total productivity is low, or for nect the extension utility of a voter to their given productivity and average income level political success, or in their preference, if the becomes insufficient, when inequality in- behavior of voters is observable, let them to creases. Therefore, poverty not only causes, be punished if they deny on the exchange. On but also is caused by clientelism. Whether the other hand, for citizens to ensure that poli- there is clientelism, different factors have an ticians honor their promises, the policies must impact on the size of inefficiency (Robinson, be rational for the politicians to implement 2013). after elections. Overall this formulation of In the present, there are small attempts to

176 2(7), 2016 176 177 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

ut the meaning and consequences of power redistributive politics is well known as “pat- formulate a body of formal literature for pro- In general, vote buying tends to be even (Fowler, Heaney, Nickerson, Padgett, & Sin- ronage” or, more broadly, “clientelism” in viding the models of clientelism. One of the more uncertain offer. Meanwhile, when we clair, 2011). Yet, the investigation of social anthropology and political science. Thereby first authors, whose works concern these is- speak about secret ballot, vote sellers can ac- networks helps to explain why a great deal of the clientelism is a political exchange, when a sues is Susan C. Stokes. Stokes has pointed cept the payments and vote as they want. But political exchange involves neighborhood, politician (a “patron”) gives patronage in ex- the problem of liability of secret ballot, when then, we should find out how vote buying associations and goods as a substitute to indi- change for the vote or support of a “client”. voters probably can't guarantee to vote in the works. Some authors argue (Brusco, Naza- vidual-level material benefits. Indeed local As Weingrod articulated, “patronage refers to way they agree to in a clientelistic exchange. reno & Stokes, 2004) that certain kinds of political brokers control the public goods. Ba- the way in which party politicians distribute She tries to figure out the ways when patrons parties, especially clientelist parties, can get sically the access to these local public goods public jobs or special favors in exchange for may use punishment strategies to force the over the secret ballot and make clear conclu- plays a crucial role in political exchange, both electoral support”. If this occurs, then it can voters to keep their promises and stop clients sions about whether people whom they “paid” in motivating members of neighborhood so- be detected that somehow the social network reneging on promises. Actually, vote buying actually voted for them. Indeed we can ob- cial networks to monitor each other and in of individuals whose behavior politicians can let politicians and governments to ignore the serve the structural features of clientelist par- ensuring that slum-level electoral support is observe somewhat well will determine who interests of poor people, and in the same way ties. This kind of parties are bottom-heavy sufficiently strong to warrant access to neigh- politicians can credibly exchange with, seem- it can be disruptive for the autonomy of vote and relies on a group of local-level organiz- borhood-level benefits. On this terms, resi- ingly because they have social interactions sellers. Likewise, if a party wants to win ers, who live in the neighborhoods under their dents in localities have incentives to coordi- with these individuals. Then, Turner and enough votes to get elected at the lowest pos- political responsibility, know everyone’s nate as a group and support the same candi- Young add that the “formation of a patron– sible cost, it would start by giving the poorest name, know who went to the polls and who date so that their community will be rewarded client relationship is based not only on recip- person some benefits, then go on to the next didn’t, and know who was able to look them with local public goods (Rojo, Jha & Wib- rocal advantage, but on some principle of af- one, and so on until the party has obtained in the eye the day after the election. bels, “Political Networks, Clientelism and finity which supplies a social logic to the just as much votes, as needed to win. The in- The main feature of vote buying is its Public Goods”). At the same time politicians, network. Kinship and ethnic affinity are the formal policy of these relations is that vote more finegrained targeting of benefits to simi- be an incumbent government or the opposi- most frequent bases for network formation.” buying starts at the bottom, not the top of the lar voters. On the contrary, programmatic motion, wish to offer policies to groups of citi- Obviously, Clientelism thereafter becomes income distribution. In fact the party has to bilization has capacity to reach large varieties zens in exchange for political support. Since significant in countries with poor technology increase the income distribution and each next of the electorate. Thus vote buying has ad- the law cannot be used to compel such politi- and high inequality. In case of low income voter’s support has to be obtained at a higher vantages of correctness and leverage, but pro- cal exchanges, they must be self-enforcing. levels of citizens, the political loyalty of cli- price. grammatic mobilization has advantages of As has been said, citizens must indeed give ents becomes cheaper for buying with job of- Hence for the long perspectives of politi- scope. Consequently, we can find many polit- their support, and politicians, once in power, fers, and this brings about such condition, cal parties vote buying and programmatic ical systems with a mix of vote buying and must pay for the support with the policies that when clientelistic redistribution is more ap- mobilization have a lot of obstacles inasmuch programmatic appeals. They also use other they promised. The politicians in order to en- pealing as a way of receiving support. This they are not certain things. Moreover, the par- methods of political mobilization such as ide- sure that they have the support of a group of model can be successfully applied for the sit- ties that give public goods and believe that ological, charismatic, identity-based, etc. citizens, must be able to use polices that con- uation, when total productivity is low, or for they will have electoral support are acting The main expenses of vote buying are in nect the extension utility of a voter to their given productivity and average income level based on their trust. In some cases when peo- supporting a network of party organizers, be- political success, or in their preference, if the becomes insufficient, when inequality in- ple decide to vote according to a strict calcu- cause these people can help to reveal who has behavior of voters is observable, let them to creases. Therefore, poverty not only causes, lation of costs and benefits, programmatic failed the deal and defected, and the costs of be punished if they deny on the exchange. On but also is caused by clientelism. Whether mobilization becomes a feeble strategy, tak- the items actually used to buy the vote: be the the other hand, for citizens to ensure that poli- there is clientelism, different factors have an ing into account the fact that a person's vote cash, the food and drink, the building materi- ticians honor their promises, the policies must impact on the size of inefficiency (Robinson, never change the outcome of the election and als, the articles of clothing, and so on. The be rational for the politicians to implement 2013). even he/she calculates the benefits of party's expenses of the programmatic strategy are after elections. Overall this formulation of In the present, there are small attempts to program whether or not he voted for it. those of communicating programmatic ap-

176 177 177 2(7), 2016 Anahit GHARIBYAN

peals to voters: maintaining a party press, ad- At the first glance we can conclude that vertising, etc. Programmatic parties ought to the main cost for programmatic parties be- communicate not only when they are in the comes mass communications. When the costs opposition and want to win office, but also of broadcasting one's program is low, it's when they are incumbents and want to retain more attractive to use vote buying strategy. office. In the first case they have to inform Currently, when higher education becomes voters about the programs they will provide if more widespread and reachable in developing elected; in the second, they have to advertise countries, the capacity of knowledge-costs through the programs further achievements of decreases. In fact what parties buy is not votes their tenure. but expected votes. The more becomes uncer- In general, party organization may play a tainty, the more they tend to buy votes, con- special role in the relative advantages be- sequently, both strategies can work. If a given tween vote buying and programmatic strate- price in a program increased the probability gies. For this reason the main criterion of par- less of landing the vote, the effective cost of ty organization can be the degree of centrali- the vote per head would be higher than under zation. In this order, the decentralized parties vote buying. So we can assume that uncer- support personalized candidacies, which link tainty of results can raise average price per to clientelist appeals. Likewise, decentralized, vote of programmatic mobilization. machine-like party organizations also have a Yet we should take into consideration higher capacity to efficiently provide goods in that the impact of constituency size on the exchange for votes. Highly decentralized par- relative costs and effectiveness of vote buying ty organizations are crucial for vote buying and programmatic mobilization might not be because they are able to monitor voters and confused. On the whole, parties can control punish defectors. Overall, these organization- votes more easily in small communities than al costs usually are higher in wealthy coun- in large ones, because social relations in small tries than in poor ones, based on the resources communities are many-sided. This kind of that parties have, and that's why vote buying social relations allows party operatives to is mainly a phenomenon of the developing know who went to the polls and who didn't. world. We can also observe that the party Meanwhile, the technological features agents, who make vote buying work, are rela- ensuring the transparency of the vote influ- tively skilled people who, ultimately, find ence the effectiveness of vote buying. There more well-paid outlets for their skills and are many ways to detect the votes: people can whose work depends on country develop- have the ballot but be forced to vote on an ment. Once a party has ingratiated itself into open table, within the range of vision of party local social networks, there is a definite sta- operatives or ballots can be observable by bility to its presence in a community. Mean- color or by the weight of the paper; and nu- while for the party that hasn't made such in- meric codes can allow a ballot to be identified vestments, the costs of vote buying will be with those individuals who cast it. higher. In conclusion, there are two central ideas

178 2(7), 2016 178 179 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

peals to voters: maintaining a party press, ad- At the first glance we can conclude that in this theory. Initially the vote buying is proportional representation in a single na- vertising, etc. Programmatic parties ought to the main cost for programmatic parties be- more working strategy among voters who tionwide constituency with an electoral communicate not only when they are in the comes mass communications. When the costs strongly decry programmatic promises. Their threshold of 5 %. opposition and want to win office, but also of broadcasting one's program is low, it's life-conditions make them prefer a less valua- Presidential elections were held for the when they are incumbents and want to retain more attractive to use vote buying strategy. ble reward now over a more valuable reward first time in Armenia on 17 October 1991. office. In the first case they have to inform Currently, when higher education becomes later. Similarly, if a voter hesitates that the The result was a victory for Levon Ter- voters about the programs they will provide if more widespread and reachable in developing future reward will materialize, he/she will Petrossian, who won 83% of the vote. Turn- elected; in the second, they have to advertise countries, the capacity of knowledge-costs prefer certain and instant payoff. Secondly, out was 70%. On 22 September 1996 Levon through the programs further achievements of decreases. In fact what parties buy is not votes poor people used to take high discount rates Ter-Petrossian was re-elected (51.3% of the their tenure. but expected votes. The more becomes uncer- and to be ambiguous about future promised vote, turnout was 60.3%). Meanwhile both In general, party organization may play a tainty, the more they tend to buy votes, con- benefits (Stokes, “Is Vote Buying Undemo- Ter-Petrosyan and incumbent V. Manukyan special role in the relative advantages be- sequently, both strategies can work. If a given cratic?”). claimed victory. Official results by the Cen- tween vote buying and programmatic strate- price in a program increased the probability tral Electoral Commission recorded Ter-Pet- gies. For this reason the main criterion of par- less of landing the vote, the effective cost of The political situation and Historical back- rosyan's victory in the first round with just ty organization can be the degree of centrali- the vote per head would be higher than under ground of elections in Armenia above 50% of the total vote in favor of the zation. In this order, the decentralized parties vote buying. So we can assume that uncer- incumbent. Oppositional leader Vazgen Ma- support personalized candidacies, which link tainty of results can raise average price per Since achieving independence, Armenia nukyan officially received 41% of the vote to clientelist appeals. Likewise, decentralized, vote of programmatic mobilization. has held six presidential (1991, 1996, 1998, and denouncing them started mass demonstra- machine-like party organizations also have a Yet we should take into consideration 2003, 2008, 2013) and five parliamentary tions in the afternoon of 23 September claim- higher capacity to efficiently provide goods in that the impact of constituency size on the elections (1995, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2012). The ing electoral fraud by Ter-Petrosyan's sup- exchange for votes. Highly decentralized par- relative costs and effectiveness of vote buying president is elected for a five-year term. The porters. An estimated of 200,000 people gath- ty organizations are crucial for vote buying and programmatic mobilization might not be National Assembly (Azgayin Zhoghov) has ered in Freedom Square to protest the election because they are able to monitor voters and confused. On the whole, parties can control 131 members, elected for a four-year term, 41 results. punish defectors. Overall, these organization- votes more easily in small communities than members in single-seat constituencies and 90 On February 3 in 1998, the President of al costs usually are higher in wealthy coun- in large ones, because social relations in small by proportional representation. The seats en- the republic Levon Ter-Petrosyan had to re- tries than in poor ones, based on the resources communities are many-sided. This kind of visaged for the National Assembly by propor- sign and hand over the power after agreeing that parties have, and that's why vote buying social relations allows party operatives to tional representation are distributed among to a plan to resolve the Nagorno-Karabakh is mainly a phenomenon of the developing know who went to the polls and who didn't. those party lists, which have received at least conflict, which his ministers, including the world. We can also observe that the party Meanwhile, the technological features 5% of the total of the number of the votes. Prime Minister R. Kocharyan, had refused to agents, who make vote buying work, are rela- ensuring the transparency of the vote influ- Armenia has a multi-party system, with nu- accept. The resignation of Levon Ter- tively skilled people who, ultimately, find ence the effectiveness of vote buying. There merous parties in which no one party often Petrosyan was followed by the resignations of more well-paid outlets for their skills and are many ways to detect the votes: people can has a chance of gaining power alone, and par- the NA President, Vice-Presidents, Ministers whose work depends on country develop- have the ballot but be forced to vote on an ties must work with each other to form coali- and other officials. Thus, the power was ment. Once a party has ingratiated itself into open table, within the range of vision of party tion governments.2 passed on to the people who govern the coun- local social networks, there is a definite sta- operatives or ballots can be observable by The 150 members of the unicameral par- try today. On 16 March 1998, with a second bility to its presence in a community. Mean- color or by the weight of the paper; and nu- liament are elected through a mixed system: round on 30 March, Robert Kocharyan was while for the party that hasn't made such in- meric codes can allow a ballot to be identified 73 by two-round system in single-member elected President of the Republic of Armenia vestments, the costs of vote buying will be with those individuals who cast it. constituency with majority rule and 77 by in early presidential elections. He won 58.9% higher. In conclusion, there are two central ideas of the vote in the second round (turnout was

2 See: http://www.elections.am/ 63.5% in the first round and 68.1% in the se- 178 179 179 2(7), 2016 Anahit GHARIBYAN

cond). Prime Minister and acting President of the other candidates received less the 2.2% Robert Kocharyan and Karen Demirchyan, of the vote. the leader of Soviet Armenia from 1974 to Parliamentary elections to the National 1988, won the most number of votes: 38.5% Assembly of the Republic of Armenia of the and 30.5% respectively. first convocation were held on 5 July 1995, Following presidential election took with a second round on 29 July. There were place in Armenia on 19 February and 5 March 150 constituency seats and 40 elected on a 2003. No candidate received a majority in the national basis using proportional representa- first round of the election with the incumbent tion. The result was a victory for the Republi- President Robert Kocharyan winning slightly can Bloc (an alliance of the Pan-Armenian under 50% of the vote. Therefore, a second National Movement, Democratic Liberal Par- round was held and Kocharyan defeated Ste- ty, Christian Democratic Union and the Re- pan Demirchyan with official results showed publican Party), which won 88 of the 190 him winning just over 67% of the vote. How- seats. Overall voter turnout was 54.3%. The ever both the opposition and international ob- Republican Bloc parties ran separately in the servers said that the election had seen signifi- constituency elections, with Pan-Armenian cant amounts of electoral fraud and the oppo- National Movement winning 62 seats, the sition did not recognize the results of the elec- Democratic Liberal Party winning 4, the tion. Christian Democratic Union winning one and Thereafter, the election held on 19 Feb- the Republican Party also winning one. ruary 2008, resulted in Prime Minister of Ar- On May 30, 1999, the elections (131 Par- menia Serzh Sargsyan winning outright with liament Members: 75 majoritarian and 56 52.8 percent of the vote, and Ter-Pertossian proportional electoral systems) of the Nation- gaining 21.5 percent according to official real Assembly of the Republic of Armenia of sults, but this was disputed by former Presi- the second convocation were held. The result dent Levon Ter-Petrosyan, who officially was a victory for the Unity Bloc, which won placed second. Final results, released by the 62 of the 131 seats. Overall voter turnout was Central Electoral Commission on February 51.7%. 24, confirmed Sargysan's victory, crediting The Unity Bloc was an alliance of the him with 52.82% of the vote (862,369 votes), People's Party and the Republican Party of Ter-Petrosyan received 21.5% (351,222 Armenia. According to the results of the elec- votes) and Baghdasarian was said to have tions, six parties and an alliance overcame the won 17.7% (272,427 votes). barrier of the 5 % minimum vote requirement Finally, on 18 February 2013 the Arme- rule, as defined by the law. From the 129 Par- nian citizens participated in presidential elec- liament Members, 76 were partisan and 53 tion for the sixth and last time. At the end of nonpartisan (not belonging to any party). the election, incumbent Serzh Sargsyan was After the crime of October 27, 1999, by re-elected with 58.64% of the vote and Raffi the decree of the President of the Republic of Hovhannisyan received 36.74% of vote. Each Armenia, at the extraordinary sitting of the National Assembly convened on November 2,

180 2(7), 2016 180 181 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

cond). Prime Minister and acting President of the other candidates received less the 2.2% 1999, a new governing body of the National Party gained more majority of the parliament Robert Kocharyan and Karen Demirchyan, of the vote. Assembly was elected. Mr. Armen Khacha- seats. Six parliamentary factions were estab- the leader of Soviet Armenia from 1974 to Parliamentary elections to the National tryan was elected President of the National lished in the National Assembly of the Re- 1988, won the most number of votes: 38.5% Assembly of the Republic of Armenia of the Assembly, and Mr. Tigran Torosyan and Mr. public of Armenia of the fifth convocation: and 30.5% respectively. first convocation were held on 5 July 1995, Gagik Aslanyan were elected Vice Presidents "Republican Party of Armenia" faction (69), Following presidential election took with a second round on 29 July. There were of the National Assembly. "Prosperous Armenia" faction (37), "Armeni- place in Armenia on 19 February and 5 March 150 constituency seats and 40 elected on a In the elections of the third convocation an National Congress" faction (7), "Rule of 2003. No candidate received a majority in the national basis using proportional representa- of the National Assembly held on May 30, Law" faction (6), "Armenian Revolutionary first round of the election with the incumbent tion. The result was a victory for the Republi- 2003, were 56 constituency seats and 75 Federation" faction (5), and "Heritage" fac- President Robert Kocharyan winning slightly can Bloc (an alliance of the Pan-Armenian elected on a national basis using proportional tion (5). 2 deputies were not included in those under 50% of the vote. Therefore, a second National Movement, Democratic Liberal Par- representation. (131 Parliament Members: 75 factions. By the decree of the President of the round was held and Kocharyan defeated Ste- ty, Christian Democratic Union and the Re- proportional and 56 majoritarian electoral sys- Republic of Armenia, on April 13, 2014 Mr. pan Demirchyan with official results showed publican Party), which won 88 of the 190 tem). However, the elections were strongly Hovik Abrahamyan was appointed Prime him winning just over 67% of the vote. How- seats. Overall voter turnout was 54.3%. The criticized by international election monitors, Minister of the Republic of Armenia. Mr. ever both the opposition and international ob- Republican Bloc parties ran separately in the who cited widespread fraud and noted that Galust Sahakyan was appointed President of servers said that the election had seen signifi- constituency elections, with Pan-Armenian they fell short of democratic standards. the National Assembly of the Republic of cant amounts of electoral fraud and the oppo- National Movement winning 62 seats, the Elections of the fourth convocation held Armenia on April 29, 2014.3 sition did not recognize the results of the elec- Democratic Liberal Party winning 4, the in Armenia on 12 May 2007(131 Parliament A constitutional referendum was held tion. Christian Democratic Union winning one and Members: 90 proportional and 41 majoritarian in Armenia on 6 December 2015. The pro- Thereafter, the election held on 19 Feb- the Republican Party also winning one. electoral system). 1,364 candidates ran for the posed amendments to the constitution would ruary 2008, resulted in Prime Minister of Ar- On May 30, 1999, the elections (131 Par- 131 seats, 41 of which were constituency change the country from having a semi- menia Serzh Sargsyan winning outright with liament Members: 75 majoritarian and 56 seats with the remaining 90 being filled by a presidential system to being a parliamentary 52.8 percent of the vote, and Ter-Pertossian proportional electoral systems) of the Nation- proportional party-list system. Five parlia- republic, with the changes planned to take gaining 21.5 percent according to official real Assembly of the Republic of Armenia of mentary factions were established in the Na- place during the 2017–18 electoral cycle. The sults, but this was disputed by former Presi- the second convocation were held. The result tional Assembly of the Republic of Armenia referendum passed with 66.2% of voters sup- dent Levon Ter-Petrosyan, who officially was a victory for the Unity Bloc, which won of the fourth convocation: "Republican Party porting it. Voter turnout was 50.8%, passing placed second. Final results, released by the 62 of the 131 seats. Overall voter turnout was of Armenia" (64), "Prosperous Armenia" the 33% threshold to validate the results.4 Central Electoral Commission on February 51.7%. (25), "Armenian Revolutionary Federation" The new constitution of RA was adopted 24, confirmed Sargysan's victory, crediting The Unity Bloc was an alliance of the (16), "Rule of Law" (8), and "Heritage" (7). in July 1995 and revised in November 2005 him with 52.82% of the vote (862,369 votes), People's Party and the Republican Party of These factions were established on June 7, and 2015. Constitutional reforms to change Ter-Petrosyan received 21.5% (351,222 Armenia. According to the results of the elec- 2007. Eleven Parliament Members were not the system of government from a semi- votes) and Baghdasarian was said to have tions, six parties and an alliance overcame the included in those factions. On August 26, presidential to a parliamentary system were won 17.7% (272,427 votes). barrier of the 5 % minimum vote requirement 2007 and on August 24, 2008, by majoritarian approved in a referendum in December 2015 Finally, on 18 February 2013 the Arme- rule, as defined by the law. From the 129 Par- electoral system, additional elections were and are set to enter force at the end of the nian citizens participated in presidential elec- liament Members, 76 were partisan and 53 held. president’s term in 2018.5 tion for the sixth and last time. At the end of nonpartisan (not belonging to any party). And the last parliamentary elections of 3 See: http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php? the election, incumbent Serzh Sargsyan was After the crime of October 27, 1999, by the fifth convocation were held on May 6, id=parliament&lang=eng re-elected with 58.64% of the vote and Raffi the decree of the President of the Republic of 2012 (131 Parliament Members: 90 propor- 4 See: http://www.lragir.am/index/eng/0/politics/ Hovhannisyan received 36.74% of vote. Each Armenia, at the extraordinary sitting of the tional and 41 majoritarian electoral system). view/35046 National Assembly convened on November 2, President Serzh Sargsyan’s ruling Republican 5 See: http://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/ 180 181 181 2(7), 2016 Anahit GHARIBYAN

Under the amendments, Armenian Na- ister and fundamentals for government’s pro- tional Assembly is going to consist of at least gram. Furthermore, under the amendments, 101 deputies, instead of 131 deputies, of the NA may adopt a law on amnesty by ma- whom 41 are elected from single-member dis- jority vote of the total number of parliamen- tricts and 90 by party list. Next legislative tarians. election will take place in May 2017. The The constitutional reform intends a fun- president would be head of state, embodying damental change of the government system national unity and ensuring the observance of based on a transition to a parliamentary model the Constitution. They cannot be a member of with strong majoritarian institutions and weak a political party. Under the proposed changes power-sharing arrangements. The suggested the president is to appoint a candidate for system will effectively promote government prime minister of the party of party bloc that stability and may give stronger impetus for wins parliamentary elections. If parliamentary consolidation of political parties, but at the forces are unable to agree on the candidacy of same time, will evidently weaken the promise the head of government, parliament is to be of consensual governance and will result in dissolved. A vote of no-confidence in the further concentration of power and erosion of prime minister can be passed no sooner than a intern-institutional (horizontal) accountability year after their appointment. Moreover, ac- and will weaken checks and balances between cording to electoral law, seats for ethnic mi- the government agencies. The majority of ex- norities will be allocated. perts feared emergence of unrestrained ma- The NA shall be elected for a five-year joritarianism as an outcome, while a consider- term in proportional only elections and Presi- able number of domestic experts believed that dent will be elected by the National Assembly legitimization of a revived Soviet-styled “par- for a single seven-year term. The Electoral tocratic” governance would be among the Code shall guarantee the formation of a stable most expected macro-political effects of these parliamentary majority. If during the first reforms. round a clear majority for a political party and Ultimately, the proposed change of gov- stable parliamentary majority is not formed as ernment form will have intended, as well as a result of the election or by building a politi- unintended effects on consolidation of demo- cal coalition, then a second round of the elec- cratic institutions. The institutions of majori- tion may be held. In case a second round is tarian democracy may undermine the prospect held, it shall be allowed to form new allianc- for political dialogue between different parties es. Only two parties, which would receive the and social groups while strengthening the most votes in the first round, would then take prospects for consolidation of one party dom- part in the runoff. The parties which partici- inated majoritarian rule. The extension of the pate in the second round of the voting are list of legislation which is now to be adopted obliged to propose a candidate for Prime Min- in the National Assembly by 3/5 of the votes, including the so-called “organic laws”, is a

welcome improvement giving the parliamen- documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL- REF(2015)034-e tary minority groups a chance to veto a lim- 182 2(7), 2016 182 183 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

Under the amendments, Armenian Na- ister and fundamentals for government’s pro- ited number of decisions that are now passed the political situation of our country is far tional Assembly is going to consist of at least gram. Furthermore, under the amendments, by simple majorities, but is not able to com- from the so-called pre-electoral and there is 101 deputies, instead of 131 deputies, of the NA may adopt a law on amnesty by ma- pensate for the principally ceremonial role an ambiguous situation when nobody knows whom 41 are elected from single-member dis- jority vote of the total number of parliamen- granted to the political opposition under the what to expect. The authorities and party rep- tricts and 90 by party list. Next legislative tarians. proposed government model. resentatives haven’t done any steps in order election will take place in May 2017. The The constitutional reform intends a fun- Thereby the next parliamentary elections to address their political dispositions. In this president would be head of state, embodying damental change of the government system will be held in Armenia in April 2017.6 They case, they might appear as alliance, but still national unity and ensuring the observance of based on a transition to a parliamentary model will be the first elections after the constitu- we have a huge uncertainty related to the op- the Constitution. They cannot be a member of with strong majoritarian institutions and weak tional referendum in that approved reforms to position parties. The main reason of this va- a political party. Under the proposed changes power-sharing arrangements. The suggested become a parliamentary republic. gue situation is that we still don’t have any the president is to appoint a candidate for system will effectively promote government changes in our political system. Even it is dif- prime minister of the party of party bloc that stability and may give stronger impetus for Conclusions and considerations ficult to predict the polarization of the opposi- wins parliamentary elections. If parliamentary consolidation of political parties, but at the based on expert opinions tion. In addition, the current political situa- forces are unable to agree on the candidacy of same time, will evidently weaken the promise tion in our country will bring us to the chal- the head of government, parliament is to be of consensual governance and will result in Methodology lenging situation, actually to the absence of dissolved. A vote of no-confidence in the further concentration of power and erosion of For our research topic we use the method any political alternatives. Thus the shape of prime minister can be passed no sooner than a intern-institutional (horizontal) accountability of expert interviews. At the same time we the future parliament remains unpredictable.” year after their appointment. Moreover, ac- and will weaken checks and balances between conducted our comparative study based on the “…Seemingly, the ruling party “Han- cording to electoral law, seats for ethnic mi- the government agencies. The majority of ex- secondary analysis of existing reports and rapetakan” will take part in the elections un- norities will be allocated. perts feared emergence of unrestrained ma- documents related to the elections of Armenia der another name taking into consideration The NA shall be elected for a five-year joritarianism as an outcome, while a consider- and Georgia. The experts were selected from the negative attitudes toward the party. The term in proportional only elections and Presi- able number of domestic experts believed that different areas, in order to gain wide variety main problem still remains the starting point. dent will be elected by the National Assembly legitimization of a revived Soviet-styled “par- of opinions on issues and measures regarding The second problem is that the lists included for a single seven-year term. The Electoral tocratic” governance would be among the to our research questions. The aim of this re- a lot of artificial people. But these patterns Code shall guarantee the formation of a stable most expected macro-political effects of these search is to reveal the necessity and peculiari- are not unique only for Armenia. Indeed, Ar- parliamentary majority. If during the first reforms. ties of changing the electoral system in Ar- menia is much smaller, that’s why the stand- round a clear majority for a political party and Ultimately, the proposed change of gov- menia and Georgia. ards are much higher. The second mechanism stable parliamentary majority is not formed as ernment form will have intended, as well as In addition, a survey concerning the main is that the voters vote in other’s names. There a result of the election or by building a politi- unintended effects on consolidation of demo- themes was carried out among 6 experts (aca- is also a pressure on the workers of civil ser- cal coalition, then a second round of the elec- cratic institutions. The institutions of majori- demics, activists of socio-political organisa- vices, hospitals, schools etc. For example they tion may be held. In case a second round is tarian democracy may undermine the prospect tions, journalists and representatives from might be forced to vote for certain party. held, it shall be allowed to form new allianc- for political dialogue between different parties NGOs). Here, we can emphasize also administrative es. Only two parties, which would receive the and social groups while strengthening the recourses. I’d say that there are a lot of ad- most votes in the first round, would then take prospects for consolidation of one party dom- The socio-political situation in Armenia. vantages whoever sitting on the top using part in the runoff. The parties which partici- inated majoritarian rule. The extension of the networks and patronage over the acceptable pate in the second round of the voting are list of legislation which is now to be adopted Summary of experts’ comments: stage. Unfortunately the vote buying and obliged to propose a candidate for Prime Min- in the National Assembly by 3/5 of the votes, “Even though in Armenia the parliamen- bribe are common in Armenia as well. The including the so-called “organic laws”, is a tary elections will be held in a few months, main reason and misguided perception is that welcome improvement giving the parliamen- “One vote can’t change anything”. The se- documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL- REF(2015)034-e tary minority groups a chance to veto a lim- 6 See https://news.am/eng/news/315206.html cond is peer pressure, when we observe it in 182 183 183 2(7), 2016 Anahit GHARIBYAN

the villages and regions. Occasionally it be- the first election in the new political reality. It comes more dangerous, when the voters can’t gives an opportunity for Armenian govern- refuse it, because it’s given by the village ment to resolve the internal conflicts of the head. No one in the villages can contradict in country. In general, there is a huge concern such situations.” about improvements of the electoral institu- “…There is no desire among the politi- tions. But it’s crucial for Armenia, as we cians to earn the public trust. What we have, would see the new face of Armenian political even if the new parliament is elected, it’s still reality. The disadvantages of it might be the a parliament of individuals, much more than situation, when we see the same faces again. it’s an institution. Thus, this is the lack of So-called oligarchs can pass through these trust and incredibility. We can also argue that elections, which actually limit the effective- a great deal of influence on the results of ness of a new parliament. elections had civic activists and observers Compelling summary of expert opinions from Armenia.” shows that even though there are a lot of dis- “…Therefore, in order to figure out the advantages, but this is something new and features of elections in Armenia, we should different that we had in a past. So there is a also examine them in the historical back- hope for new positive changes. The reason ground. If we look at Armenian political his- might also depend on the new prime-minister, tory we can observe sudden and spontaneous whom some people believe. behavior of voters in certain key areas. Un- “…The current political situation in Ar- fortunately the parliamentary elections based menia is somehow complicated as there is no on the personalities, and in terms of power- show-up political process toward the elec- sharing, it is a very difficult concept in Arme- tions. The main concern in these elections is nia. In this situation there are some challeng- still remains the absence of real political al- es, because whoever is elected, in terms of ternatives. There is no conflict among politi- problems, expectations and promises, this cal parties and the oppositional parties actu- would be very difficult task for a new parlia- ally don’t have opportunities to win the elec- ment to face all these problems and figure out tions at all according to the new electoral the ways of solving them. People tired of the code. This is because the oppositional parties ruling party “Hanrapetakan” and I think 16- in Armenia couldn’t pass the defined barrier. year political experience approved their posi- There is also a lack of public trust in the election. That’s the main reason we have a great toral processes. Consequently the new elec- amount of absenteeism during the elections.” toral code of Armenia should solve the problem of the trust crisis among the people.” Elections and electoral processes in In addition, our country decided to Armenia change the electoral code taking into account the disadvantages of current political systems. The upcoming parliamentary elections in But an average voter in Armenia has histori- Armenia are very important for handling the cal memories from the communist Party of challenges of a new electoral system. It’s also the Soviet Union. There is a weak party cadre,

184 2(7), 2016 184 185 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

the villages and regions. Occasionally it be- the first election in the new political reality. It where too often there is a dominant party and second problem is the construction of constit- comes more dangerous, when the voters can’t gives an opportunity for Armenian govern- politics in general is strongly individualized. uency parties, which will bring about new refuse it, because it’s given by the village ment to resolve the internal conflicts of the Political parties are faced with the com- clans in separate districts. The following is- head. No one in the villages can contradict in country. In general, there is a huge concern mon difficulties of party development even sue is that the small parties can’t conquer in such situations.” about improvements of the electoral institu- after more than two decades of communism. the elections, because they don’t have as “…There is no desire among the politi- tions. But it’s crucial for Armenia, as we Furthermore, these challenges and difficulties much resources, as ruling parties. It’s a fact cians to earn the public trust. What we have, would see the new face of Armenian political are made by a new developing party culture. that the constitutional reforms in Armenia even if the new parliament is elected, it’s still reality. The disadvantages of it might be the Historically, after shifting the old party a new passed basically due to administrative re- a parliament of individuals, much more than situation, when we see the same faces again. party of power replaces it taking full control sources and electoral fraud.” it’s an institution. Thus, this is the lack of So-called oligarchs can pass through these of the government. For upcoming elections in Armenia most trust and incredibility. We can also argue that elections, which actually limit the effective- Meanwhile, party politics especially in of the experts were sure that the authorities a great deal of influence on the results of ness of a new parliament. Armenia needs a balance of forces as in every should assert their positions in the parliament elections had civic activists and observers Compelling summary of expert opinions democratic country, but the ruling party gov- after elections, we won't see second round of from Armenia.” shows that even though there are a lot of dis- erns over 16 years. Individual parties in Ar- the election, since in Armenia it usually “…Therefore, in order to figure out the advantages, but this is something new and menia have mostly failed to create a sense of brings to pre-revolutionary situation and they features of elections in Armenia, we should different that we had in a past. So there is a professionalism, regularity and diversity. will do their best not to permit it. In compari- also examine them in the historical back- hope for new positive changes. The reason Typical opinions of experts about the son with Georgian elections there will be ground. If we look at Armenian political his- might also depend on the new prime-minister, current changes in electoral system. more electoral fraud, but the state officers will tory we can observe sudden and spontaneous whom some people believe. “Although the authorities were eager to try to organize it before the elections and even behavior of voters in certain key areas. Un- “…The current political situation in Ar- make changes in electoral code and replaced we can observe quiet elections in Armenia. fortunately the parliamentary elections based menia is somehow complicated as there is no the majoritarian system to proportional, but “… The need of changes in electoral on the personalities, and in terms of power- show-up political process toward the elec- in my opinion it has still hidden majoritarian code was a must even a decade ago. But this sharing, it is a very difficult concept in Arme- tions. The main concern in these elections is construction. In other countries this system format of changes can’t create fresh political nia. In this situation there are some challeng- still remains the absence of real political al- might be ideal, but given into consideration environment and fair relations. Moreover it es, because whoever is elected, in terms of ternatives. There is no conflict among politi- the traditions and behavioral models of our helps the political parties to assert their posi- problems, expectations and promises, this cal parties and the oppositional parties actu- country, we can’t insist on the fact that it’s a tions. The parliamentary elections in Armenia would be very difficult task for a new parlia- ally don’t have opportunities to win the elec- proportional system. On the other hand the usually had less importance, than the presi- ment to face all these problems and figure out tions at all according to the new electoral majoritarian system which is functional for dential elections. After each presidential elec- the ways of solving them. People tired of the code. This is because the oppositional parties another country can’t be applied successfully tion we saw mass violence. In this point of ruling party “Hanrapetakan” and I think 16- in Armenia couldn’t pass the defined barrier. for us. The reasons are obvious: we have oli- view, the authorities of our country decided to year political experience approved their posi- There is also a lack of public trust in the elec- garchic system leading us to the depth. The avoid of this post-electoral mess with a hope tion. That’s the main reason we have a great toral processes. Consequently the new elec- name of this electoral system, call them ma- that in this case they can not only keep the amount of absenteeism during the elections.” toral code of Armenia should solve the prob- joritarian, proportional or ranked voting sys- power, but also ca avoid internal conflicts.” lem of the trust crisis among the people.” tem, won’t change the reality of the electoral Elections and electoral processes in In addition, our country decided to fraud. The main concern of the people is that REFERENCES Armenia change the electoral code taking into account the majoritarian system allows authorities to the disadvantages of current political systems. expand electoral fraud through bribe, net- Brusco, V., Nazareno, M., & Stokes, S.C. The upcoming parliamentary elections in But an average voter in Armenia has histori- works and patronage. But this electoral sys- (2004). Vote Buying in Argentina Armenia are very important for handling the cal memories from the communist Party of tem allows the community authorities form Latin American Research Review, challenges of a new electoral system. It’s also the Soviet Union. There is a weak party cadre, the parliament as easily, as it was before. The 39(2), 66-88.

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Fowler, J.H., Heaney, M.T., Nickerson, D.W., http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jrobin Padgett, J.F., & Sinclair, B. (2011). son/files/clientelism.pdf Causality in Political Networks. Rojo, G., Jha, S., & Wibbels, E., Political http://fowler.ucsd.edu/causality_in_p Networks, Clientelism and Public olitical_networks.pdf Goods: Robinson, J.A. (2013). The Political Econo- https://sites.duke.edu/wibbels/files/2 my of Clientelism. Scandinavian 014/10/Rojo_Jha_Wibbels.pdf%20 Journal of Economics, 115(2), 260- Stokes, S.C. Is Vote Buying Undemocratic? 291. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467- http://campuspress.yale.edu/susansto 9442.2013.12010.x kes/files/2013/10/Is_Vote_Buying_U ndemocratic.pdf

186 2(7), 2016 186 187 2(7), 2016 Mane KHACHIBABYAN

Fowler, J.H., Heaney, M.T., Nickerson, D.W., http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jrobin UDC 7.036:82.02:1/14 Padgett, J.F., & Sinclair, B. (2011). son/files/clientelism.pdf Mane KHACHIBABYAN Causality in Political Networks. Rojo, G., Jha, S., & Wibbels, E., Political http://fowler.ucsd.edu/causality_in_p Networks, Clientelism and Public THE CONCEPT OF TIME IN THE WORKS OF MODERNISTS olitical_networks.pdf Goods: Robinson, J.A. (2013). The Political Econo- https://sites.duke.edu/wibbels/files/2 Abstract my of Clientelism. Scandinavian 014/10/Rojo_Jha_Wibbels.pdf%20 Journal of Economics, 115(2), 260- Stokes, S.C. Is Vote Buying Undemocratic? Time is an important matter of study in science, religion, philosophy, art and literature. The is- 291. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467- http://campuspress.yale.edu/susansto sues that interest scholars and theorists are reflected in the art and literature as well, since those are 9442.2013.12010.x kes/files/2013/10/Is_Vote_Buying_U the embodiments of society, its mind, life and issues. Historical traditions, economic, social and po- ndemocratic.pdf litical features have huge impact on the perceptions of concepts and theories. This article aims to identify the relationship between the concept of time and art/literature. Through analysis of the works of modernist artists and authors the article will showcase the representations of the concept of time in the works of Charles Baudelaire, Salvador Dali, Walter Benjamin and Henri Bergson.

Keywords: time, modernism, science, philosophy, literature, art, Charles Baudelaire, Salvador Dali, Walter Benjamin and Henri Bergson.

Time has been a significant subject of tions of scientific experience are irreconcila- study in science, philosophy and religion. Art ble with lived practice. Bergson got to be and culture are the reflections of the society, mindful that it is impossible to measure the its mind and life. Thus, the issues that interest moment and once one tries to do that it will scholars, scientists and philosophers are re- already be gone. Duration, according to him, flected in art and literature as well. The per- is the stream of time. Despite the fact that we ceptions of different concepts tend to change can separate this continuous stream into sec- based on historical traditions, economic, so- tions of time or “states of consciousness” the cial and political life. This essay will discuss information that we have is only derived from the concept of time by referring to the works “concrete time” or the original source of dura- of authors and artists of modernism period, tion. Hence, length of time can't be known in such as: Henri Bergson, Charles Baudelaire, the typical feeling of "knowing." It requires a Salvador Dali and Walter Benjamin. specific sort of access or plunge into the self The expressions and symbols of evaluat- in order for the mind to experience this flux in ing the concept of time differ from writer to its creativity and originality (Bergson, 2001). writer or artist to artist. Each author has Duration in other words can only be seen his/her own perspective and style of present- through small fragments and can never make ing the ideas. French philosopher Henri Berg- a complete image. To grasp duration one can son, came up with the theory of “duree” or only rely on intuition. This theory of duration “duration” which is about time and con- was a product of need to understand the reali- sciousness. Bergson believed that the tradi- ty and change at that time and as a whole. 186 187 187 2(7), 2016 Mane KHACHIBABYAN

Bergson’s philosophy presents the scien- "Three thousand six hundred times an hour, tific explanations of time. It is interesting to Second explore how the concept of time was seen by Whispers: Remember! — Immediately not only scientists and scholars but poets of With his insect voice, now says: I am the Past the same time period as well. Charles Baude- And I have sucked out your life with my filthy laire (1821 – 1867), a French poet, had his trunk!" huge input in forming the modernist literature. He is most famous for his work “Les Fleurs Baudelaire presents time as something du mal” (The Flowers of Evil). This collec- superior to human beings. He sees no way of tion of poems expresses the change in the na- living without it or without the idea of pres- ture of beauty the modern and industrialized sure and rush. The only way to live with it is world. Baudelaire is special for his outstand- as he puts in the poem “Be Drunk” is to be ing style of prose-poetry writing and spread- actually drunk. ing the duty of art, which is according to him to capture human experience. In his prose- "Remember! Souviens-toi, spendthrift! Esto poem “Be Drunk” (Paris Spleen 1864), Bau- memor! delaire discusses time as a pressure that does (My metal throat can speak all languages) not let people fully enjoy their lives: “You Minutes, blithesome mortal, are bits of ore have to be always drunk. That’s all there is to That you must not release without extracting it — it’s the only way. So as not to feel the the gold!" horrible burden of time that breaks your back and bends you to the earth, you have to be "Remember, Time is a greedy player continually drunk.” Another poem from “The Who wins without cheating, every round! It's Flowers of Evil” – “The Clock” discusses the law. time as well. In this poem, Baudelaire pre- The daylight wanes; the night deepens; re- sents time as an evil and treat that reminds member! and creates our sorrows: The abyss thirsts always; the water-clock runs low." Clock! Sinister god, terrifying, impassive, Whose finger threatens us and says: "Remem- "Soon will sound the hour when divine ber! Chance, The quivering Sorrows will soon be shot When august Virtue, your still virgin wife, Into your fearful heart, as into a target; When even Repentance (the very last of inns!), When all will say: Die, old coward! It is too "Nebulous pleasure will flee toward the hori- late!" zon Time and duration are superior to men. Like an actress who disappears into the Going back to Bergson we can state that hu- wings; mans are never capable of fully grasping the Every instant devours a piece of the pleasure time, but just getting to know it through frag- Granted to every man for his entire season." ments. Thus, they feel inferior to it as writes

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Bergson’s philosophy presents the scien- "Three thousand six hundred times an hour, Baudelaire. Time can be seen as something matic subject matter and style. His most fa- tific explanations of time. It is interesting to Second unknown and unrecognizable. Time changes mous art work is considered to be The Persis- explore how the concept of time was seen by Whispers: Remember! — Immediately individuals’ whole life, yet never allows them tence of Memory (1931) or just “Clocks” as not only scientists and scholars but poets of With his insect voice, now says: I am the Past to experience the feeling of fully knowing many call it. The painting is a masterpiece of the same time period as well. Charles Baude- And I have sucked out your life with my filthy what time really is. Surrealist art that conveys multiple emotions laire (1821 – 1867), a French poet, had his trunk!" Time or the “clock” symbol for it helps and ideas. The concept of time is portrayed huge input in forming the modernist literature. people organize their life. Time is also re- with the symbols of melted clocks. What does He is most famous for his work “Les Fleurs Baudelaire presents time as something vealed in the concept of human age. But is the painting really say about time and Dali’s du mal” (The Flowers of Evil). This collec- superior to human beings. He sees no way of that all? The concept of time has had a signif- perception of time? The painting is open to tion of poems expresses the change in the na- living without it or without the idea of pres- icant influence on visual arts. Artists depict representations, however if one pays close ture of beauty the modern and industrialized sure and rush. The only way to live with it is different symbols for time in order to present attention the details it might actually give out world. Baudelaire is special for his outstand- as he puts in the poem “Be Drunk” is to be and reflect it as an important issue in human cues on Dali’s perceptions and idea of time. ing style of prose-poetry writing and spread- actually drunk. existence. The perspectives of artists are dif- In the painting, four clocks are on display in ing the duty of art, which is according to him ferent; hence the expressions of time differ as an empty desert, bent out of shape which to capture human experience. In his prose- "Remember! Souviens-toi, spendthrift! Esto well. conveys the impression of ongoing action poem “Be Drunk” (Paris Spleen 1864), Bau- memor! Salvador Dali, a Spanish surrealist paint- of melting. Dali defined art as “hand-pain- delaire discusses time as a pressure that does (My metal throat can speak all languages) er is famous for his unusual, weird and enig- ted” dream photographs” (Bradbury, 1999). not let people fully enjoy their lives: “You Minutes, blithesome mortal, are bits of ore have to be always drunk. That’s all there is to That you must not release without extracting it — it’s the only way. So as not to feel the the gold!" horrible burden of time that breaks your back and bends you to the earth, you have to be "Remember, Time is a greedy player continually drunk.” Another poem from “The Who wins without cheating, every round! It's Flowers of Evil” – “The Clock” discusses the law. time as well. In this poem, Baudelaire pre- The daylight wanes; the night deepens; re- sents time as an evil and treat that reminds member! and creates our sorrows: The abyss thirsts always; the water-clock runs low." Clock! Sinister god, terrifying, impassive, Whose finger threatens us and says: "Remem- "Soon will sound the hour when divine ber! Chance,

The quivering Sorrows will soon be shot When august Virtue, your still virgin wife,

Into your fearful heart, as into a target; When even Repentance (the very last of inns!), The photographic quality of the painting how able to keep track of time during the When all will say: Die, old coward! It is too and the fact that there are no humans in it day, but what happens with time when we "Nebulous pleasure will flee toward the hori- late!" make it even more complex. There are ma- are asleep is a matter of questions. Dali zon Time and duration are superior to men. ny diverse ways to interpret Persistence of suggests with his painting that the distorted Like an actress who disappears into the Going back to Bergson we can state that hu- Memory. One way to look at it is a depic- and melting clocks do not have power dur- wings; mans are never capable of fully grasping the tion of a dream state where the melting ing the dream state or in the dream world. Every instant devours a piece of the pleasure time, but just getting to know it through frag- clocks symbolize the time experienced The painting illustrates how delusional and Granted to every man for his entire season." ments. Thus, they feel inferior to it as writes while dreaming. Human beings are some- irrelevant the concept of time is during the 188 189 189 2(7), 2016 Mane KHACHIBABYAN

dream state. Hence, it can also symbolize of common ideas. One cannot be sure whet- the inferiority of it versus human beings. her the interconnectedness is because of the In 1930s Albert Einstein’s Theory of fact that artists were influenced by modern- Relativity brought a huge revolutionary ism, but one can guess that the modernism idea. Einstein’s theory proposed a whole as time period had significant impact on the new concept of time which characterized artists’ and theorists’ perceptions. Three of time as something complex and relative, them are absolutely different individuals not easy to track and not fixed. His theory from different backgrounds, however they undermined the ability of simple clocks or happen to perceive and discuss the concept pocket watches to keep track of time of time as something that can hardly be (Einstein, 1916). In the painting, Persis- grasped by human beings. Time was seen tence of Memory, Dali’s melting clocks can by them as superior to people, as well as be assimilated with Einstein’s idea of time. the simple technology created by them, be- The melting clocks symbolize the world, cause of its complex, not fixed, uncertain technology and its progressed society los- and partially unknown nature. ing power against time. Alike, Einstein’s theory, Dali might want to state with his REFERENCES painting that simple machines like clocks and pocket watches are too primitive to Baudelaire, C. (1970). Paris Spleen. New grasp time. Directions; F First Edition edition. The concept of time has been of much Baudelaire, C. (2008). The Flowers of Evil. importance for different scholars, scientists Oxford University Press. and artist all the time. We see that each and Bergson, H. (2001). Time and Free Will: An every of them has his/her own way of per- Essay on the Immediate Data of ceiving, expressing and presenting the ide- Consciousness. Dover Publications. as. Various factors effect on artists’ view- Bradbury, K. (1999). Essential Dali . points and ways of expression. Time peri- Dempsey Parr. od, socio-economic conditions, psychologi- Einstein, A. (1916). Rleativity: The Special cal state and even political life are features and General Theory. Translation influencing this or that idea and theory. 1920. New York: H. Holt and From the works of three modernists Henri Company. Bergson, Salvador Dali and Charles Baude- laire discussed, one can see the connection

190 2(7), 2016 190 191 2(7), 2016 Nelli MELKONYAN

dream state. Hence, it can also symbolize of common ideas. One cannot be sure whet- UDC 364:17 the inferiority of it versus human beings. her the interconnectedness is because of the Nelli MELKONYAN In 1930s Albert Einstein’s Theory of fact that artists were influenced by modern- Relativity brought a huge revolutionary ism, but one can guess that the modernism MECHANISMS OF OVERCOMING ETHICAL DILEMMAS idea. Einstein’s theory proposed a whole as time period had significant impact on the IN NOWADAYS SOCIAL WORK new concept of time which characterized artists’ and theorists’ perceptions. Three of time as something complex and relative, them are absolutely different individuals Abstract not easy to track and not fixed. His theory from different backgrounds, however they undermined the ability of simple clocks or happen to perceive and discuss the concept In social work, ethical principles have been important in several key respects, with regard to pocket watches to keep track of time of time as something that can hardly be the nature of its mission; the relationships that social workers have with clients, colleagues, and (Einstein, 1916). In the painting, Persis- grasped by human beings. Time was seen members of the broader society; the methods of intervention that social workers use in their work. tence of Memory, Dali’s melting clocks can by them as superior to people, as well as So, social work is situated between moral choice and professional ethical behavior, which al- be assimilated with Einstein’s idea of time. the simple technology created by them, be- lows orientating among the variety of moral requirements, evaluating activities taking into consid- The melting clocks symbolize the world, cause of its complex, not fixed, uncertain eration morality and in this way it contributes to the cohesion and stability of social relations. How- technology and its progressed society los- and partially unknown nature. ever, the implementation of professional duties is often hampered by objective circumstances, and ing power against time. Alike, Einstein’s as a result a social worker can’t always prevent the occurrence of ethical conflicts and facing ethical theory, Dali might want to state with his REFERENCES dilemmas. painting that simple machines like clocks In this article we'll discuss ethical conflicts of social work, which affect and determine the and pocket watches are too primitive to Baudelaire, C. (1970). Paris Spleen. New course of social assistance, social support at the present; it is also shown possible ways to overcome grasp time. Directions; F First Edition edition. those ethical dilemmas. The concept of time has been of much Baudelaire, C. (2008). The Flowers of Evil. importance for different scholars, scientists Oxford University Press. Keywords: social work, ethics; professional duty, ethical decision-making; ethical dilemma, and artist all the time. We see that each and Bergson, H. (2001). Time and Free Will: An mechanisms of overcoming ethical dilemma every of them has his/her own way of per- Essay on the Immediate Data of ceiving, expressing and presenting the ide- Consciousness. Dover Publications. as. Various factors effect on artists’ view- Bradbury, K. (1999). Essential Dali . The social work, being a unique condi- responsibility, are the cornerstones, on which points and ways of expression. Time peri- Dempsey Parr. tion for a person and society, their develop- social work is being constructed. Social wor- od, socio-economic conditions, psychologi- Einstein, A. (1916). Rleativity: The Special ment, perfection and self-realization, suppos- kers promote social justice and the emergence cal state and even political life are features and General Theory. Translation es comprehension of humanitarian motion. of the desired changes. They are very sensi- influencing this or that idea and theory. 1920. New York: H. Holt and It’s especially modern in current conditions, tive and careful towards cultural and ethnic From the works of three modernists Henri Company. when flaring of human existence problems differences and are against any discrimina- Bergson, Salvador Dali and Charles Baude- and undermining of values take place in the tion. laire discussed, one can see the connection society undergoing a crisis. Humanitarian Traditionally, the values that are basic

principles as outlook and behavior can be- for social work are very important for its come improvement guarantee, as humanitari- practice. These values distinguish social wor- an approach inspires people with faith for kers from the other professional groups. Val- overcoming boundaries and promotes flexibil- ues have several important attributes and per- ity of problematic situations. So, moral man- form several important functions: they are datory, i.e. humanism, compassion, kindness, generalized, emotionally charged conceptions love, prosperity, social justice, human dignity, of what is desirable; historically created and 190 191 191 2(7), 2016 Nelli MELKONYAN

derived from experience; shared by a popula- Logically, dilemma is a state, where tion or a group within it; and provide the choice of two possible contradictions is prob- means for organizing and structuring patterns lematic and where the third possibility is ex- of behavior (Williams, 1968). In social work, cluded (“Encyclopedia of Social Work”, ethical principles have been important in sev- 2008, p. 145). In everyday life, a person eral key respects, with regard to the nature of makes a choice from own values, persuasions its mission; the relationships that social work- and principles. ers have with clients, colleagues, and mem- Ethical dilemmas in social work occur in bers of the broader society; the methods of three domains: relationships with clients in intervention that social workers use in their direct-practice settings (individuals, families, work; and the resolution of ethical dilemmas and small groups); social work involving in practice. "macro" practice, such as community practice So, social work is situated between moral (community organizing and advocacy), admi- choice and professional ethical behavior. We nistration, management, and policy develop- should note that professional ethic has a huge ment and implementation; and relationships importance on creation of social worker’s among professional colleagues. moral knowledge, perceptions and demands, These problems are often vague, uncer- inner disposition, moral conscious (Medve- tain and generate the diffidence, and the de- deva, 1999, pp. 39-40). It gives an opportuni- sire to ignore, to evade them. The most diffi- ty for a person to combine own moral disposi- cult situation for the social worker occurs be- tion with actions that are expected from social cause of the necessity of choosing between worker, helps orientate in moral demands and two or more relevant, but contradictory, ethi- regulations diversity (Levy, 1973, pp. 34-42). cal directives in a constantly changing world. On the other hand, professional ethic of social However, dilemmas occurring in social work systemizes the entire experience, gener- work are always connected with orientation alizes and perfections it, contributing harmo- values of the work. Urgency of the choice is ny and stabilization of social relationships. conditioned with the fact that participant sub- Moral regulation of social work guarantees jects of the work have different but equivalent protection and realization of social worker’s interests, demands and values. Therefore, an rights and interests. However, the social work, ethical dilemma, by definition, is a circum- interacting with different sides of human ac- stance which occurs only when two or more tivity, can clash with contradictions and di- social work values are in conflict, i.e., an eth- lemmas during performance of professional ical dilemma involves a conflict between two duties. or more ethical principles. In this article, social work’s professional- Ethical conflicts can be a reason of the ethical conflicts or dilemmas are being exam- very society’s social-cultural, political, social- ined, which affect and predict the process of economic conditions. Studying social work’s social aid organization, as well as possible origin of morality and its scientific-methodic mechanisms of overcoming the latter are ob- literature, we can distinguish a group of moral served. dilemmas, which are special for mainly all

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derived from experience; shared by a popula- Logically, dilemma is a state, where societies (“Encyclopedia of Social Work”, On one hand, client is a self-governing tion or a group within it; and provide the choice of two possible contradictions is prob- 2008, pp. 145-146). They are the following: subject, who has to work, make decisions for means for organizing and structuring patterns lematic and where the third possibility is ex- Independence and manipulation: In so- life’s improvement; on the other hand social of behavior (Williams, 1968). In social work, cluded (“Encyclopedia of Social Work”, cial practice social workers use “indifference worker is responsible for protecting the client ethical principles have been important in sev- 2008, p. 145). In everyday life, a person and resistance of a client” or “help the client from their own inadequate understanding of eral key respects, with regard to the nature of makes a choice from own values, persuasions realize the need to overcome the situation” social reality. its mission; the relationships that social work- and principles. expressions, however these are euphemisms In modern world, the mentioned above ers have with clients, colleagues, and mem- Ethical dilemmas in social work occur in directed to importance radicalization of social model decreases gradually, giving its place to bers of the broader society; the methods of three domains: relationships with clients in work in social consciousness. It can be con- interaction of building partnership approach. intervention that social workers use in their direct-practice settings (individuals, families, sidered as a form of manipulation, managing Client and social worker are observed as work; and the resolution of ethical dilemmas and small groups); social work involving client’s behavior, restriction of circles of ac- equal subjects and client is responsible for in practice. "macro" practice, such as community practice tivity and movement. own life’s improvement. Social workers re- So, social work is situated between moral (community organizing and advocacy), admi- In similar situations, nevertheless, the spect and promote the right of clients to self- choice and professional ethical behavior. We nistration, management, and policy develop- main issue of restrictions of social worker by determination and assist clients in their efforts should note that professional ethic has a huge ment and implementation; and relationships the advisee, the right to make decisions and to identify and clarify their goals. importance on creation of social worker’s among professional colleagues. the level of social worker’s responsibility re- On the other hand, we shouldn’t forget moral knowledge, perceptions and demands, These problems are often vague, uncer- main without comments. How can they trust the level of client’s workload issues, as a re- inner disposition, moral conscious (Medve- tain and generate the diffidence, and the de- the client with the latter? sult of which the latter is displayed as cogni- deva, 1999, pp. 39-40). It gives an opportuni- sire to ignore, to evade them. The most diffi- And for that reason, it is important to re- tive, emotional and behavioral misfit. Social ty for a person to combine own moral disposi- cult situation for the social worker occurs be- strict possibilities of conscious and behavior workers may limit clients’ right to self- tion with actions that are expected from social cause of the necessity of choosing between manipulations, in order to orient to client to determination when, according to the social worker, helps orientate in moral demands and two or more relevant, but contradictory, ethi- display corresponding behavior. When the workers’ professional judgment, clients’ ac- regulations diversity (Levy, 1973, pp. 34-42). cal directives in a constantly changing world. client’s own values are in the center of their tions or potential actions pose a serious and On the other hand, professional ethic of social However, dilemmas occurring in social own attention, intensity of interference will imminent risk for clients themselves or for the work systemizes the entire experience, gener- work are always connected with orientation decrease. others. alizes and perfections it, contributing harmo- values of the work. Urgency of the choice is Professional paternalism and client self- This is a difficult dilemma that is created ny and stabilization of social relationships. conditioned with the fact that participant sub- determination: one of the key values for so- by the social worker's desire to act in the cli- Moral regulation of social work guarantees jects of the work have different but equivalent cial work is the welfare and dignified existent's best interest and the need to respect his protection and realization of social worker’s interests, demands and values. Therefore, an ence of the client, which makes the main issue right to act in a way that he feels is the best. rights and interests. However, the social work, ethical dilemma, by definition, is a circum- of paternalism modern. Paradigm of paternal- Credibility of moral conflict will de- interacting with different sides of human ac- stance which occurs only when two or more ism supposes a model of well-regarded rela- crease if social worker gets freedom, coming tivity, can clash with contradictions and di- social work values are in conflict, i.e., an eth- tionships between the social worker and cli- out of situation peremptory, orienting the cli- lemmas during performance of professional ical dilemma involves a conflict between two ent. Tradition of social practice is that in each ent towards the path of overcoming, stressing duties. or more ethical principles. case social worker decides which client is that it doesn’t suppose violation of advisee’s In this article, social work’s professional- Ethical conflicts can be a reason of the kind. Supposedly, guided by client’s best in- rights, but creates grounds for productive re- ethical conflicts or dilemmas are being exam- very society’s social-cultural, political, social- terest, paternalism gives an opportunity to realization. ined, which affect and predict the process of economic conditions. Studying social work’s strict client’s suicidal actions. Necessity to speak the truth: Truth is a social aid organization, as well as possible origin of morality and its scientific-methodic However, the issue of allowing the use of necessary condition for social interaction and mechanisms of overcoming the latter are ob- literature, we can distinguish a group of moral paternalistic approach is disputable in social communication. Kant’s study says that the served. dilemmas, which are special for mainly all practice and indefinite. truth is person’s debt against oneself as a

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moral creature (Vasilenko, 2004, pp. 100- concerning the latter) is meant for keeping the 101). Lying would mean demolishing human cell of the society from participants with un- dignity in oneself. Balance of values cannot authorized intrusion. Social worker must be predicted prior, only by the form of certain guarantee the client this confidentiality and rules. However, it’s always important to con- take all measures to ensure it. sider that the right of telling the truth is not a Aim of silence, on the one hand, is to must. The social worker is responsible for protect the trust of social worker towards the providing the completeness, quality and time- client, on the other hand, protection of civil- liness information to the client. Informing the ians’ legal rights. client is necessary in order to create favorable Although it is always justified, but in conditions for the revitalization of his person- some cases, for instance, trusted information al potential. Besides, the lack of information is socially harmful, social workers have to might adversely affect the quality of the cli- observe, discuss the probability of identifying ent’s decisions, because without knowing all information given by the advisee. In order to the facts and circumstances he can make a avoid similar moral contradictions, it is neces- wrong decision, which will lead to the result sary to inform the client about boundaries of which is opposite to the goal of social work secrecy in certain situations. In any case, this and his personal interests. information can be conveyed only with the It is the most important legal norm of client’s permission, and only the people who person’s immunity and a moral value in mod- are involved in the solution of its problems. ern civil communities. On one hand receiving Collegiality and awareness: In social correct information about own state, prosperi- practice there were cases, when social worker ty and opportunities is the right of an client, was obliged or consciously violated the law of on the other hand, however, in some cases it an agency, where actions were taking place. is so-called justified and even necessary to In similar situation he/she makes the col- hide the truth or change with “savior lie”, as leagues that are aware of the violation face the truth can put the entire staff into danger. moral choice. On one scale there are profes- In western practice of social work disposition sional ethic norms, on the other one profes- is primary. Nevertheless, in moral point of sional solidarity and loyalty, sense of friend- view it’s more correct to not tell a lie to the ship, authority and a threat of own position. client using doctor’s famous “placebo effect” Such kind of moral choice incites social and in the meantime keep high rank of mo- workers to avoid uncovering and voicing rality in profession. about legal violations in their profession. Privacy, confidentiality, and privileged While, it is social worker’s obligation to per- communication: If the truth provides the inform professional responsibilities during simi- tention and social interaction of the client and lar situations, moving force of their activity the social worker, then principle of secret has to be professional duty. In any case, the (morality of social work supposes that it is responsibilities of a social worker in a colle- social worker’s obligation to respect client’s gial relationship should be based on the pro- individuality and to not voice information fessional courtesies of respect and fairness. 194 2(7), 2016 194 195 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

moral creature (Vasilenko, 2004, pp. 100- concerning the latter) is meant for keeping the Priority of law and interest protection of holds certain religious or moral values about 101). Lying would mean demolishing human cell of the society from participants with un- client: Solution to this dilemma is one of the abortion may face an ethical dilemma when dignity in oneself. Balance of values cannot authorized intrusion. Social worker must main problems for social worker. Very often trying to assist a teen client who became be predicted prior, only by the form of certain guarantee the client this confidentiality and there are situations in social practice when pregnant and wishes to have an abortion. rules. However, it’s always important to con- take all measures to ensure it. state policy can cause damage to client, as it Nevertheless, it’s important for social sider that the right of telling the truth is not a Aim of silence, on the one hand, is to is not reflecting entirely the social life. This worker to be guided by professional values must. The social worker is responsible for protect the trust of social worker towards the makes the social worker face another hard and best interests of the client while protect- providing the completeness, quality and time- client, on the other hand, protection of civil- choice. Some consider fulfillment of any ac- ing the latter. In each case, the social worker liness information to the client. Informing the ians’ legal rights. tion permissible, and the aim is realization must think through the commitment to the client is necessary in order to create favorable Although it is always justified, but in and protection of the client, nevertheless ma- client, colleague, profession, third parties. conditions for the revitalization of his person- some cases, for instance, trusted information jority of social workers are guided by su- Moreover, social workers must constantly ex- al potential. Besides, the lack of information is socially harmful, social workers have to premacy of the law. In order to avoid the amine the nature of personal values and the might adversely affect the quality of the cli- observe, discuss the probability of identifying mentioned above, it is important to present ways by which these values have an impact ent’s decisions, because without knowing all information given by the advisee. In order to legislative changes concerning possibility of on understanding the client's problems and the facts and circumstances he can make a avoid similar moral contradictions, it is neces- interest protection of client. social problems, and strategies. wrong decision, which will lead to the result sary to inform the client about boundaries of For example, a social worker may per- In order to avoid similar difficulties the which is opposite to the goal of social work secrecy in certain situations. In any case, this sonally believe that a law that he is required hierarchy of social worker's responsibilities is and his personal interests. information can be conveyed only with the to enforce is wrong. However, under the Con- useful, which has developed by American so- It is the most important legal norm of client’s permission, and only the people who stitution of the Republic of Armenia, he is cial workers Lovenberg and Dolgoff (“Ency- person’s immunity and a moral value in mod- are involved in the solution of its problems. required to obey all lawful and reasonable in- clopedia of Social Work”, 2008, p. 147). Ac- ern civil communities. On one hand receiving Collegiality and awareness: In social structions to enforce that law unless there is cording to their concept the social worker's correct information about own state, prosperi- practice there were cases, when social worker good and sufficient cause to do otherwise. decision should contribute to an individual's ty and opportunities is the right of an client, was obliged or consciously violated the law of Conflicts between personal and profes- independence and personal development. The on the other hand, however, in some cases it an agency, where actions were taking place. sional values: Commonly professional ethics protection of human life has the highest prior- is so-called justified and even necessary to In similar situation he/she makes the col- refers to the ethics that a person must adhere ity over all other obligations of a social work- hide the truth or change with “savior lie”, as leagues that are aware of the violation face to in respect of their interactions and business er. The social worker's decision should con- the truth can put the entire staff into danger. moral choice. On one scale there are profes- dealings in their professional life. Personal tribute to improving the quality of human life In western practice of social work disposition sional ethic norms, on the other one profes- ethics refers to the ethics that a person identi- and etc. is primary. Nevertheless, in moral point of sional solidarity and loyalty, sense of friend- fies with in respect to people and situations Certainly, the hierarchy of the social view it’s more correct to not tell a lie to the ship, authority and a threat of own position. that they deal with in everyday life. In some worker's duties fully resolves ethical dilem- client using doctor’s famous “placebo effect” Such kind of moral choice incites social cases, personal and professional ethics may mas. It is an important guide which assists and in the meantime keep high rank of mo- workers to avoid uncovering and voicing clash and cause a moral conflict. social workers in making decisions. Over- rality in profession. about legal violations in their profession. Contradictions of personal and profes- coming ethical dilemmas is a serious problem Privacy, confidentiality, and privileged While, it is social worker’s obligation to per- sional values are based on the mentioned mo- in a social work. communication: If the truth provides the inform professional responsibilities during simi- ral inconsistencies. Social worker is an indi- When writing an ethical dilemma paper tention and social interaction of the client and lar situations, moving force of their activity vidual, civilian and as one, has a right for val- or when attempting to resolve an ethical di- the social worker, then principle of secret has to be professional duty. In any case, the ue orientations. Personal values are immanent lemma in practice, social workers should de- (morality of social work supposes that it is responsibilities of a social worker in a colle- to the profession and it is not always that the termine if it is an absolute or approximate di- social worker’s obligation to respect client’s gial relationship should be based on the pro- first system is harmonic and consistent to the lemma; distinguish between personal and pro- individuality and to not voice information fessional courtesies of respect and fairness. second. For example, a social worker who fessional dimensions; and identify the ethical, 194 195 195 2(7), 2016 Nelli MELKONYAN

moral, legal, and values considerations in the On the other hand a good social worker needs situation. After conducting this preliminary to be aware of the societal and professional analysis, an ethical decision-making model values underlying his or her work so as to can then be appropriately applied. empower individuals, families and communi- Ethical decision making is a process. ties. There are many instances in social work The realization of the issue mentioned where simple answers aren't available to re- above can make social worker’s ethic up- solve complex ethical dilemmas. Social wor- bringing possible, as the making of their pro- kers should take into consideration all the fessional important component. values, principles, and standards of their profession that are relevant to any situation in REFERENCES which ethical judgment is warranted. However, the future of social work can- Encyclopedia of Social Work. (2008). Terry not be predicted with precision, but it is cer- Mizrahi & Larry E. Davis (Eds.). tain that ethical and value issues will continue 20th ed. Oxford. to permeate the profession. Hence, it will al- Levy, C.S. (1973). The Value Base of Social ways be essential for social workers to exam- Work. Journal of Education for So- ine these issues, which in the end form the cial Work. 9(1) very foundation of the profession. Medvedeva, G.P. (1999). Etika sotsial’noi Summing up, we should note that in so- raboty: (Ethic of social work, in cial work ethical conflicts mentioned above Russian). Uchebnoe posobie dlya constantly demand reproduction of handling studentov vysshikh uchebnykh zave- mechanisms. denii. Moscow. Professional culture and moral conscious Reamer, F.G. (1990). Ethical Dilemmas in of social worker can serve as basis for over- Social Service (Znd ed.). New York: coming moral contradictions. The more edu- Columbia University Press. cated the person, i.e. has professional subjec- Vasilenko, N.Y. (2004). Osnovy sotsial’noi tive qualities, the richer the personal employ- meditsyny (Basis of Social Medicine, ment potential, hence the higher the profes- in Russian) Vladivostok. sional activity quality. Ethic, moral know- Williams, R.M., (1968). The concept of val- ledge, moral principles and values have their ues. In D. L. Sills (Ed.), Internation- own place in social work’s professional cul- al Encyclopedia of the Social Scienc- ture, which help orientating and avoiding poses (Vol. 16, pp. 283-287). New sible conflicting and contradictory situations. York: Macmillan/Free Press.

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moral, legal, and values considerations in the On the other hand a good social worker needs UDC 316:379.8 situation. After conducting this preliminary to be aware of the societal and professional Gohar MKOYAN analysis, an ethical decision-making model values underlying his or her work so as to can then be appropriately applied. empower individuals, families and communi- THE ROLE AND MEANING OF THE FREE TIME Ethical decision making is a process. ties. IN CONTEXT OF FORMATION OF SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES There are many instances in social work The realization of the issue mentioned IN MODERN ARMENIAN SOCIETY where simple answers aren't available to re- above can make social worker’s ethic up- solve complex ethical dilemmas. Social wor- bringing possible, as the making of their pro- Abstract kers should take into consideration all the fessional important component. values, principles, and standards of their pro- The article considers the problem of a culture of free time as a factor in the formation of mod- fession that are relevant to any situation in REFERENCES ern society that has entered the era of globalization – with the respective opportunities for a variety which ethical judgment is warranted. of leisure activities and, at the same time, it may assume problematic situations for the person relat- However, the future of social work can- Encyclopedia of Social Work. (2008). Terry ed to the effective use of leisure potential for the development of leisure culture of the person. not be predicted with precision, but it is cer- Mizrahi & Larry E. Davis (Eds.). The aim of this study was to examine the role and free time value in the formation of social and tain that ethical and value issues will continue 20th ed. Oxford. cultural values in our society between two generations - today's youth (18 to 30 years) and the older to permeate the profession. Hence, it will al- Levy, C.S. (1973). The Value Base of Social generation (56 to 66 years), to identify the particular preferences in the environment of two genera- ways be essential for social workers to exam- Work. Journal of Education for So- tions in the field of leisure, to provide a comparative analysis and assessment of the data. The au- ine these issues, which in the end form the cial Work. 9(1) thor had the task of considering the organization of free time as scientific and social problems, its very foundation of the profession. Medvedeva, G.P. (1999). Etika sotsial’noi effective implementation representatives of the two age groups, the disclosure of the content of free Summing up, we should note that in so- raboty: (Ethic of social work, in time of concept of culture. The research has used quantitative and qualitative methods of sociologi- cial work ethical conflicts mentioned above Russian). Uchebnoe posobie dlya cal research – unstructured data included observations, expert study using unstructured in-depth in- constantly demand reproduction of handling studentov vysshikh uchebnykh zave- terviews, the survey (questionnaires), interviews by stratificat sampling in compliance with the pro- mechanisms. denii. Moscow. portions of the population structure by sex and age. Professional culture and moral conscious Reamer, F.G. (1990). Ethical Dilemmas in In the analysis, we stopped on such objective indicators of the quality of free time as a variety of social worker can serve as basis for over- Social Service (Znd ed.). New York: of leisure activities, especially the preferences of two generations in leisure activities (the preva- coming moral contradictions. The more edu- Columbia University Press. lence of reading, resort to information and communication technologies, the frequency of visits to cated the person, i.e. has professional subjec- Vasilenko, N.Y. (2004). Osnovy sotsial’noi entertainment, cultural and leisure facilities, etc.). tive qualities, the richer the personal employ- meditsyny (Basis of Social Medicine, The article explains the idea that free time acquires its true value when it is directed to the full ment potential, hence the higher the profes- in Russian) Vladivostok. development of the person and the acquisition of their socio-cultural values, as well as with the sional activity quality. Ethic, moral know- Williams, R.M., (1968). The concept of val- growth of free time, the role of self-development and reduced the share of inactive leisure. ledge, moral principles and values have their ues. In D. L. Sills (Ed.), Internation- own place in social work’s professional cul- al Encyclopedia of the Social Scienc- Keywords: culture of spare time, generation, individual, values, society, activity, leisure. ture, which help orientating and avoiding poses (Vol. 16, pp. 283-287). New sible conflicting and contradictory situations. York: Macmillan/Free Press.

Free time takes a significant place in the people during holidays, the meaning of free socio-cultural life of a society. Nowadays, time and the problem of organizing leisure connected with the fact that people gain more have become especially actual. free time due to the technical household ap- It should be mentioned that the attention pliances, due to the growth of mobility of of scholars to this issue has been mentioned in

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all periods of development of theoretical period of time beyond the necessary work, knowledge- from the ancient world up to which is devoted to rest, pastime and devel- nowadays. opment of individuality, 3) as a period of In the works of ancient philosophers “self-evaluation” time, 4) as a period of time (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) we come across during which a person has the opportunity of with the same ideas and thoughts about free free action (Osipov, 2008, p. 443). time. The investigation of historical experi- As sociologist Kravchenko has it: “Lei- ence and the cultural heritage of antiquity sure is that period of time which a person show that one of the most important distin- spares as he/she wishes. Leisure is an activity guishing features of antiquity as civilization which is done for the sake of one`s own was the perception of leisure time, which was pleasure, fun, self-development or reaching widely accepted among Greeks and Romans. other goals by one`s own choice, and not for Leisure time meant a period of time free of the sake of material need” (Kravchenko, any kind of materially-essential employment, 2011, p. 30). as an important characteristic of civil condi- British sociologist Bauman mentions that tion. Free time and leisure were studied along the meaning of leisure strengthens also the with freedom, social state and self-develop- special meaning of information as the basic ment. economical resource of post-industrial socie- Thus in Plato’s pedagogical theory free ty. The main source of growth becomes the time was connected with cognitive activity. particular potential of a person who produces According to Plato “Cognition must bring information that is why researchers cross out joy, and the word “school” itself translated the special meaning of humanitarian factors in from Latin means “leisure” and leisure is al- modern society (Bauman, 2002, p. 30). ways connected with something pleasant. E.V. Sokolov mentions in his research, That is why it is important to make the cogni- that free time is not considered as an “empty tive process pleasant and useful in all rela- space” of a life period. It is the “resource” tions (Tadevosyan, 2011, p. 13). which is gained by special efforts, possesses A thorough scientific philosophical, sci- specific qualities and can be used with more entific- social research of a number of issues or less efficiency depending on the qualities referring to free time and leisure in foreign and the size of potential of a society and an and Soviet science is connected with such individual (Sokolov, 1981, p. 40). names as M. Weber, G. Spenser, P. Sorokin, It should be mentioned that leisure activi- V.A. Gross, S.N. Ikonnikova, M. Kaplan, ty is considered as a process of creation, dis- B.G. Mosalev, A.S. Orlov, V.D. Patrushev, semination and multiplication of cultural val- E.V. Sokolov, G.G. Boloshenko, V.A. Vo- ues. E.I. Tyurina writes “Badly organized lei- lovik and others. sure, unplanned free time serves the sources Today the term “free time” and “leisure” of “anticulture” (Tyurina, 2012, p. 8). In this are often used as synonyms. We can find var- case the notion of free time culture acquires a ious explanations of free time 1) as a time pe- special meaning. riod freed or “cleaned” of expenses, 2) as a

198 2(7), 2016 198 199 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

all periods of development of theoretical period of time beyond the necessary work, The term “free time culture” points to a and essential changes of values of two genera- knowledge- from the ancient world up to which is devoted to rest, pastime and devel- definite level of time usage, including not on- tions in modern society of Armenia. nowadays. opment of individuality, 3) as a period of ly size and structure, but also content and na- A pilotage was held during the first stage In the works of ancient philosophers “self-evaluation” time, 4) as a period of time ture- knowledge, values, norms, examples of of research which resulted in specifying and (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) we come across during which a person has the opportunity of life-activities. Free time is not only a private, eventually working out the instruments of our with the same ideas and thoughts about free free action (Osipov, 2008, p. 443). but also a social value and the attitudes to- upcoming sociological research. During the time. The investigation of historical experi- As sociologist Kravchenko has it: “Lei- wards leisure are considered to be important second stage we gathered information using ence and the cultural heritage of antiquity sure is that period of time which a person indicators of an individual`s culture (Ikonni- the methods of qualitative and quantitative show that one of the most important distin- spares as he/she wishes. Leisure is an activity kova, 1985, p. 32). According to V.Y. Surtae- analysis. In first quantitative research (2013) guishing features of antiquity as civilization which is done for the sake of one`s own va the culture of leisure is the extent of reali- took part198 citizens of Yerevan, and in the was the perception of leisure time, which was pleasure, fun, self-development or reaching zation of an individual`s socio-cultural poten- second research (2014) the students of Na- widely accepted among Greeks and Romans. other goals by one`s own choice, and not for tial in terms of leisure time. It is also the ex- tional Polytechnic University Of Armenia, Leisure time meant a period of time free of the sake of material need” (Kravchenko, tent of gained experience of regulating leisure and the students of Armenian state Pedagogi- any kind of materially-essential employment, 2011, p. 30). time, the ability of an individual to take part cal University after Kհ. Abovyan with 205 as an important characteristic of civil condi- British sociologist Bauman mentions that in socially important types of leisure (Surtaev, students. The participants of survey were stu- tion. Free time and leisure were studied along the meaning of leisure strengthens also the 1998, p. 28). dents from 18 to 30 years old and the repre- with freedom, social state and self-develop- special meaning of information as the basic The issue of free time, connected with sentatives of older generation, ex-students of ment. economical resource of post-industrial socie- the efforts of a society to organize leisure, the above mentioned universities from 55 to Thus in Plato’s pedagogical theory free ty. The main source of growth becomes the should be accepted as an actual one in condi- 66 years old. We used the method of formal- time was connected with cognitive activity. particular potential of a person who produces tions of modern society facing the era of ized interview (standardizing), questionnaire. According to Plato “Cognition must bring information that is why researchers cross out globalization. Many important issues and Statistical presentability was provided by giv- joy, and the word “school” itself translated the special meaning of humanitarian factors in growing interest towards the above mentioned ing each participant the chance to be chosen. from Latin means “leisure” and leisure is al- modern society (Bauman, 2002, p. 30). problems brought us to investigate the given The third qualitative research was held using ways connected with something pleasant. E.V. Sokolov mentions in his research, sphere, to elaborate corresponding methods, the method of expert survey between 56 ex- That is why it is important to make the cogni- that free time is not considered as an “empty to do comparative analysis, to describe and perts, with the help of unstructured in-depth tive process pleasant and useful in all rela- space” of a life period. It is the “resource” evaluate the results. interview method (2015). The choice of ex- tions (Tadevosyan, 2011, p. 13). which is gained by special efforts, possesses Sociological researches were held during perts was made taking into consideration the A thorough scientific philosophical, sci- specific qualities and can be used with more the last four years. One of them was qualita- fact of belonging to various social institutions entific- social research of a number of issues or less efficiency depending on the qualities tive (from March to May 2015) and the other (state, non-state, private, and public) and in- referring to free time and leisure in foreign and the size of potential of a society and an three were quantitative, held from 2013 up to dependent experts. The type of retrieval was and Soviet science is connected with such individual (Sokolov, 1981, p. 40). 2016. goal-directed, and the criteria of the choice of names as M. Weber, G. Spenser, P. Sorokin, It should be mentioned that leisure activi- The aim of our research was to study the experts were experience, the level of being V.A. Gross, S.N. Ikonnikova, M. Kaplan, ty is considered as a process of creation, dis- transformations of socio-cultural values in educated, the sphere of involvement, the de- B.G. Mosalev, A.S. Orlov, V.D. Patrushev, semination and multiplication of cultural val- Armenian modern society. The objects of our gree of perception from the point of view of E.V. Sokolov, G.G. Boloshenko, V.A. Vo- ues. E.I. Tyurina writes “Badly organized lei- research were two age groups, today`s youth society and etc. lovik and others. sure, unplanned free time serves the sources (from 18-30 years old) and the representatives In the present article the results of the Today the term “free time” and “leisure” of “anticulture” (Tyurina, 2012, p. 8). In this of older generation (from 55 to 66 years old) fourth research are represented (2016), which are often used as synonyms. We can find var- case the notion of free time culture acquires a who actively take part in the political and was held among two different age groups of ious explanations of free time 1) as a time pe- special meaning. public life of the country. The objects of our our population. The general totality of retriev- riod freed or “cleaned” of expenses, 2) as a research were valuable priorities, continuity al of inhabitants of Yerevan, 33.5% are above 198 199 199 2(7), 2016 Gohar MKOYAN

mentioned age groups. During the three were involved, who all were citizens of Yere- months of research about 250 inhabitants van (table1).

Table 1. Selective Totality of Participants by Age and Gender (person, %)

№ Age structure of Participants Results Including Results Including (%) of Sur- of survey vey 1. Young people from 18 to 30 Male Female 100,0 Male Female years old 143 65 78 45.2 54.7

2. Older generation from 55 to 107 61 46 100,0 57.2 42.5 66 years old

52.2% of respondents were representa- generation, which enabled us to get trusty da- tives of youth from 18 to 30 years old (45.3% ta in order to hold objective comparative were male and 54.7% were female) 42.7% of analysis with the aim of bringing out conti- respondents were representatives of older nuity or changing valuable orientations of two generation from 55 to 66 years old (57.5% generations under study. We carried on a cal- were male and 42.5% were female). We used culation of selection extent for the provision the method of quantitative research- survey of presentability. We also defined the interval (questionnaire) interviewing taking into con- confidence as well as the possibility of incor- sideration gender and age. The questionnaire rectness up to 5.0%. In the third stage we an- included 58 questions from which 14 revealed alyzed all the results and data of above men- the interests of respondents about the culture tioned researches. As a result of sociological of organizing free time. Besides, respondents research we found out that the representatives were given a number of questions which re- of these two groups, despite their occupancy, quired logical thinking, finding out the mean- try to find free time and to find ways to use it ings, points of view and evaluation in terms rationally. While answering the question of the issue under study. Selective totality was “How much free time do you usually have?” calculated by the principle of proportionality 5.6% of young people answered “quite from the number of overall population. After much”, 24.5% “enough”, 32.8% “have no free that we implemented the principle of random time”, 3.96% “very little free time” and 3.7% choice. The general totality was divided into “not much”. The representatives of older gen- age groups using the method of stratified eration answered the same questions the fol- choice. Unproportionality was examined tak- lowing way “quite much”, 13.0% “enough”, ing into account age, education and gender. In 12.7% “have no free time”, 25.5% “very little the process of research were included all age free time” and 21.8% “not much” 23.6%. The categories – young people as well as older results of our research show that this kind of 200 2(7), 2016 200 201 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

mentioned age groups. During the three were involved, who all were citizens of Yere- percentage is due to the fact that very often spite some percentage variations, we can state months of research about 250 inhabitants van (table1). young people do not perceive the process of that in our society family and friendship are education as a free time and do not identify greatly valued. There were also coinciding Table 1. Selective Totality of Participants by Age and Gender (person, %) the time spent with their fellow-students as a opinions in the sphere of culture and litera- leisure time. As the famous philosopher I.T. ture, issues referring to cloth styles while at- № Age structure of Participants Results Including Results Including (%) Frolov mentions free time also includes edu- tending cultural places. In all cases the prefer- of Sur- of sur- cation and self-education, contact with culture ences were given to classical styles. Undoubt- vey vey (reading, attending theatre, museum, cinema edly, it represents the continuity of genera- 1. Young people from 18 to 30 Male Female 100,0 Male Female and etc.) social-political activity, scientific- tions, handing over cultural traditions and years old 143 65 78 45.2 54.7 technical amateur creations, artistic-aesthetic values of formed orientations and mecha- creativity, dealing with children, even anticul- nisms from generation to generation. 2. Older generation from 55 to 107 61 46 100,0 57.2 42.5 tural activities (Frolov, 1991, pp. 400-401). In the list of fun activities 35.2% of rep- 66 years old The answers of respondents “have no resentatives of youth prefer TV programs, free time” points out the fact that in our socie- watching videos and various programs on In- ty free time is usually associated with that pe- ternet. 15.0% attend disco clubs and cafes, 52.2% of respondents were representa- generation, which enabled us to get trusty da- riod of time when a person does nothing or 14.0% go in for sports and take part in sport tives of youth from 18 to 30 years old (45.3% ta in order to hold objective comparative rests. As an answer to this particular question competitions. Lower percents were as fol- were male and 54.7% were female) 42.7% of analysis with the aim of bringing out conti- 21.8% of respondents of older generation lows-9.5%attended cinemas, concerts and respondents were representatives of older nuity or changing valuable orientations of two (compared to young people 3.96%. 6 times 7.5% read literature. And the results of our generation from 55 to 66 years old (57.5% generations under study. We carried on a cal- less) answered that they have very little free survey among people of older generation re- were male and 42.5% were female). We used culation of selection extent for the provision time. It can be explained by the fact that a vealed the following data. In the column ''do the method of quantitative research- survey of presentability. We also defined the interval person of that particular age bears a rational not attend'' on the first place are going in for (questionnaire) interviewing taking into con- confidence as well as the possibility of incor- character, a person starts to realize that for sports and taking part in sport competitions sideration gender and age. The questionnaire rectness up to 5.0%. In the third stage we an- objective and subjective reasons must refuse (76.3%), on the second place is attending dis- included 58 questions from which 14 revealed alyzed all the results and data of above men- definite roles and purposefully strive to co clubs and cafes (65.5%), on the third place the interests of respondents about the culture tioned researches. As a result of sociological achieve all his/her goals, thus exhausting is attending restaurants (41.8%), on the forth of organizing free time. Besides, respondents research we found out that the representatives himself/herself as a sexual, parental and wor- place are going to the cinema, theatre and were given a number of questions which re- of these two groups, despite their occupancy, king subject. As a rule a person at this age concerts (36.4%), and TV programs, watching quired logical thinking, finding out the mean- try to find free time and to find ways to use it tries to stay in his/her vital and occupational videos and Internet (24.5%) are only on the ings, points of view and evaluation in terms rationally. While answering the question positions. fifth place. Most of older people prefer to stay of the issue under study. Selective totality was “How much free time do you usually have?” The results of the survey formed as at home and maintain household problems, calculated by the principle of proportionality 5.6% of young people answered “quite “How do you prefer to spend your leisure look after domestic animals, and attend librar- from the number of overall population. After much”, 24.5% “enough”, 32.8% “have no free time” showed that the two age groups gave ies and order books. Our observation revealed that we implemented the principle of random time”, 3.96% “very little free time” and 3.7% their preferences to family (30.2% of young that 65.0% of respondents among two genera- choice. The general totality was divided into “not much”. The representatives of older gen- people, 49.1% of older generation), as well as tions due to the lack of money can afford only age groups using the method of stratified eration answered the same questions the fol- to friends (54.7% of young people, 43.6% of particular kinds of free time. It should be choice. Unproportionality was examined tak- lowing way “quite much”, 13.0% “enough”, older generation) and only after that to col- mentioned that connected with the socio- ing into account age, education and gender. In 12.7% “have no free time”, 25.5% “very little leagues (9.4% of young people, 3.6% of older economic state of the country, today we have the process of research were included all age free time” and 21.8% “not much” 23.6%. The generation) and finally to relatives (5.7% of such kinds of leisure activities as shopping, categories – young people as well as older results of our research show that this kind of young people, 3.7% of older generation). De- fast driving and etc. First of all the given situ- 200 201 201 2(7), 2016 Gohar MKOYAN

ation affects such a socio-demographic group on Internet). The difference in the percentage as youth. referring to electronic literature can be ex- Love towards book, the culture of read- plained by the fact that many representatives ing play an important role in our society. of older generation are not able or partially However, we can state that lately we are hav- are not able to use a computer or Internet. We ing a decline in interests towards reading come to assume that today on the one hand among young people compared to representa- Internet has its advantages (a large amount of tives of older generation. (Table 2, 3) We can stored information, as well as the speed of its conclude that this kind of results can be con- transmission) and on the other hand negative ditioned by the fact that compared to older impact on national traditions – relationships generation; young people do not have the cul- in a family, discussions, friendship relations, ture of everyday reading. 35.8 % of young the desire to discuss a recently read book, to people and 23.6% of older generation read pass it to each other (because it is available on science books or press (including electronic, Internet and there is a speedy E-mail).

Table 2. Interests towards Reading among Young People at the Age of 18-30 (%)

Amount № Activity Do not Several Several Several attend/ Every times times times in Seldom do not day in a in a a month read/ do week year not buy You read fiction (including electron- 5.7 20.8 24.5 - 30.2 18.8 1. ic on Internet) You read science books or press (in- 22,6 18.9 15.1 13.2 15.1 15.1 2. cluding electronic on Internet) You read entertaining magazines and 3. journals (including electronic on In- 35.8 15.1 17.0 5.7 17.0 9.4 ternet) You read socio-political newspapers 4. and journals, analytical articles (in- 24.5 11.3 15.1 13.2 22.6 11.3 cluding electronic on Internet)

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ation affects such a socio-demographic group on Internet). The difference in the percentage Table 3. Interests towards Reading among Armenian Citizens at the Age of 56-66. (%) as youth. referring to electronic literature can be ex- Love towards book, the culture of read- plained by the fact that many representatives Amount ing play an important role in our society. of older generation are not able or partially № Activity Do not However, we can state that lately we are hav- are not able to use a computer or Internet. We Several attend/ Several Several ing a decline in interests towards reading come to assume that today on the one hand Every times do not times in times in Seldom among young people compared to representa- Internet has its advantages (a large amount of day in a read/ a week a month tives of older generation. (Table 2, 3) We can stored information, as well as the speed of its year do not conclude that this kind of results can be con- transmission) and on the other hand negative buy ditioned by the fact that compared to older impact on national traditions – relationships You read fiction (including electronic 20.1 21.8 16.4 12.7 14.5 14.5 generation; young people do not have the cul- in a family, discussions, friendship relations, 1. on Internet) ture of everyday reading. 35.8 % of young the desire to discuss a recently read book, to You read science books or press (in- 23.6 18.2 14.5 11.0 10.9 21.8 people and 23.6% of older generation read pass it to each other (because it is available on 2. cluding electronic on Internet) science books or press (including electronic, Internet and there is a speedy E-mail). You read entertaining magazines and 3. journals (including electronic on In- 23.6 10.9 21.8 10.9 29.2 3.6 Table 2. Interests towards Reading among Young People at the Age of 18-30 (%) ternet) You read socio-political newspapers Amount 4. and journals, analytical articles (in- 36.4 10.8 9.1 5.5 25.5 12.7 № Activity Do not cluding electronic on Internet) Several Several Several attend/ Every times times times in Seldom do not Analyzing the peculiarities, the role and attract older people. Their free time passes day in a in a a month read/ do the meaning of free time in formation of so- less interesting, and as a matter of fact they do week year not buy cio-cultural values in our society among two not try to change this situation, they rarely You read fiction (including electron- generations- today`s youth (from18 to 30years think about its meaning and do not express 5.7 20.8 24.5 - 30.2 18.8 1. ic on Internet) old) and the representatives of older genera- any unsatisfication. Besides, their free time, You read science books or press (in- tion (from 56 to 66 years old) we arrive at the though monotonous, differs by its high intel- 22,6 18.9 15.1 13.2 15.1 15.1 2. cluding electronic on Internet) following conclusions: lectuality (the level of interest towards read- You read entertaining magazines and This research is actual both from theoret- ing, attending cultural-leisure institutions and 3. journals (including electronic on In- 35.8 15.1 17.0 5.7 17.0 9.4 ical and practical point of view, it gives the etc.). ternet) opportunity to understand thoroughly the It can be mentioned that during the last You read socio-political newspapers phenomenon of leisure, free time. We should few years Armenian youth, while choosing 4. and journals, analytical articles (in- 24.5 11.3 15.1 13.2 22.6 11.3 accept that it is not only practical source of the types of free time, gives the advantage to cluding electronic on Internet) opportunities, but also a special range of val- the orientations of values of pastimes (hedon- ues. The analysis of answers shows that free ism), success (achievements) and novelty time today becomes a problem for young (stimulations) without counting the deep people as well as for older generation. Its sub- meaning of values, traditions and conformi- jective quality is almost the same for both age ties. Young people spend their free time with groups, but objective quality of their free time friends. They prefer to attend cultural events – differs. Most free time activities even those concerts, exhibitions, disco clubs and etc. All which are free of financial expenses, seldom those things abet on the fact that on the one 202 203 203 2(7), 2016 Gohar MKOYAN

hand it makes students different from other of Sociology, in Russian). Moscow: youth groups and on the other hand it forms Prospekt. in them such kind of distinguishing feature as Osipov, G.V., & Moskvichev, L.N. (Ed.), reciprocal help, a kind of “collectivism”. scient. secret. Chernoshek, O.E. At the same time it should be taken into (2008). Sotsiologicheskii slovar’ consideration that in the sphere of free time (Sociological Encyclopedic Diction- culture these two generations have preserved ary, in Russian). Moscova: Norma. valuable attitudes towards family and friends, Sokolov, E.V. (1981). Svobodnoe vremya I national and independent peculiarities, as well kul’tura dosuga: filosofsko-sotsiolo- as traditions of spending leisure and holidays. gicheskoe issledovanie (Free Time and the Culture of Leisure: Sociolog- REFERENCES ical and Philosophical Research, in Russian). Leningrad. Bauman, Z. (2002). Individualizirovannoe ob- Surtaev, V.Y. (1998). Sotsiologiya molodezh- shchestvo (Individualized Society, in nogo dosuga (Sociology of Youth Russian) (V.L. Inozemtseva Trans.). Leisure, in Russian). Rostov na/D, Moscow: Logos. St. Petersburg: Hephaestus, St. Pe- Frolov, I.T. (Ed.). (1991).Filosofskii slovar’ tersburg state Academy of Culture. (Philosophical Dictionary, in Rus- Tadevosyan, G. (2011). Social-mshakut’ayin sian). Moscow. gorc’uneut’yun (Socio-Cultural Ac- Ikonnikova, S.N. (1985). Sotsiologiya o molo- tivity, in Armenian). Yerevan. dezhi (problemy vospitaniya dukhov- Tyurina, E.I. (2012). Tekhnologii sotsial’noi nogo oblika) Sociology about Youth raboty s sem’ei (Technologies of So- (problems of upbringing of spiritual cio-cultural Work with Families, in image, in Russian). Leningrad. Russian), St. Petersburg.: State Uni- Kravchenko, A.I. (2011). Kratkii sotsiolog- versity of Psychology and Social icheski slovar’ (Concise Dictionary Work.

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hand it makes students different from other of Sociology, in Russian). Moscow: UDC 316.3:32.019.5 youth groups and on the other hand it forms Prospekt. Astghik PETROSYAN in them such kind of distinguishing feature as Osipov, G.V., & Moskvichev, L.N. (Ed.), reciprocal help, a kind of “collectivism”. scient. secret. Chernoshek, O.E. METHODOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION At the same time it should be taken into (2008). Sotsiologicheskii slovar’ INDICATOR EVALUATION TOOLS consideration that in the sphere of free time (Sociological Encyclopedic Diction- culture these two generations have preserved ary, in Russian). Moscova: Norma. Abstract valuable attitudes towards family and friends, Sokolov, E.V. (1981). Svobodnoe vremya I national and independent peculiarities, as well kul’tura dosuga: filosofsko-sotsiolo- The article analyzes issues of political participation. The article discusses main stages and fea- as traditions of spending leisure and holidays. gicheskoe issledovanie (Free Time tures of formation of the concept of political participation in sociology and political science. Defini- and the Culture of Leisure: Sociolog- tion of political participation is offered based on the analysis of the interpretations available in pro- REFERENCES ical and Philosophical Research, in fessional literature. Political participation is involvement of citizens (in the broader sense including Russian). Leningrad. public subjects like organizations, groups, etc.) in political processes, decision making ceremonies, Bauman, Z. (2002). Individualizirovannoe ob- Surtaev, V.Y. (1998). Sotsiologiya molodezh- as well as citizen influence on the formation of political systems and institutions, their operation, shchestvo (Individualized Society, in nogo dosuga (Sociology of Youth drafting political decision. Several classifications of political engagement are observed: convention- Russian) (V.L. Inozemtseva Trans.). Leisure, in Russian). Rostov na/D, al and unconventional; orthodox and unorthodox, offensive; latent and evident; individual and col- Moscow: Logos. St. Petersburg: Hephaestus, St. Pe- lective; direct and indirect; acceptable active, acceptable passive, unacceptable active and unac- Frolov, I.T. (Ed.). (1991).Filosofskii slovar’ tersburg state Academy of Culture. ceptable passive, and so on. (Philosophical Dictionary, in Rus- Tadevosyan, G. (2011). Social-mshakut’ayin Based on logical operationalization, the toolkit for political participation types and index as- sian). Moscow. gorc’uneut’yun (Socio-Cultural Ac- sessment is analyzed. Proposal is made to implement a more comprehensive and sensitive chart. Ikonnikova, S.N. (1985). Sotsiologiya o molo- tivity, in Armenian). Yerevan. Some attractive results gained after employing a survey in the RA are presented. dezhi (problemy vospitaniya dukhov- Tyurina, E.I. (2012). Tekhnologii sotsial’noi nogo oblika) Sociology about Youth raboty s sem’ei (Technologies of So- Keywords: political participation, political behavior, types of political participation, political (problems of upbringing of spiritual cio-cultural Work with Families, in institutions, political participation evaluation chart. image, in Russian). Leningrad. Russian), St. Petersburg.: State Uni- Kravchenko, A.I. (2011). Kratkii sotsiolog- versity of Psychology and Social icheski slovar’ (Concise Dictionary Work. Ideas about democracy have been chang- Participatory democracy supposes active ing and evolving. Yet, the core idea has re- involvement of citizens in discussions and mained the same: participation of wider socie- decision making process in various areas of tal layers in the processes of governance and public and political life. In countries with par- political decision making. ticipatory democratic system citizens are po- The concept of Participatory Democracy litically relevant; they are to be involved in has a central role in modern theories on de- the political system as active participants (see mocracy. The idea of participatory democracy Almond & Verba, 1963, p. 4). was developed by modern political theorists The issue of engaging citizens in political Carol Pateman (author of the term “participa- processes was a matter of analyses even for tory democracy” and the book “Participation ancient thinkers. In his work “Politics” Aris- and Democratic Theory”), Crawford Mac- totle wrote: “… man is by nature a political pherson, Joseph Zimmerman, Benjamin Bar- animal; and the person who, by nature and not ber and others (see Fuchs, 2011, p. 260). under consequences, lives beyond a state is 204 205 205 2(7), 2016 Astghik PETROSYAN

either morally infantile or a superman” (Aris- G. Almond and S. Verba highlight that totle, 1983, p. 378). political participation is “first of all instru- Although the issues of behavior and par- mental activeness through which citizens try ticipation were among the interest areas of to influence the government for it to act to researchers during the centuries to follow, their wish” (Vasilik, 2000, p. 213). namely during the new and modern eras, the Thus, political participation is in- notion of political participation got its aca- volvement of citizens (in the broader sense demic status only in the second half of the including public subjects like organizations, 20th century. groups, etc.) in political processes, decision Some authors define three stages of evo- making ceremonies, as well as citizen influ- lution of the term “political participation”: 1) ence on the formation of political systems study of individual aspects of political and and institutions, their operation, drafting civic participation until the mid-nineteenth political decision. century; 2) study of participation issue in the Forms and methods of political participa- context of state governance and participation tion vary. Among them are participation in in elections within political sociology and po- elections; active support for a candidate; par- litical science (19-20th centuries); 3) use of ticipation in demonstrations and protests; or- the idea “political participation” as an inde- ganization of the latter; membership in politi- pendent academic category in concepts of cal parties; submitting proposals, and so on. modern political science (second half of the Several classifications of the term “polit- 20th century) (see Pfetser, 2013, p. 105). ical participation” can be found in profession- The success of sociological research tar- al literature. geting assessment of political participation American scientist A. Marsh identifies indices is largely conditioned by the level of three main types of political participation: or- development and logical analyses of notions thodox, unorthodox and political offense. By reflecting the phenomena under consideration. the orthodox form of political participation he However, as M. Kholmskaya notes, in understands legal activities providing stable modern professional literature there is no functioning of the political system (engage- unique and universally accepted definition of ment in voting, sanctioned demonstrations the notion “political participation.” and protests, actions of lobby and interest American political scientists Gabriel Al- groups). Unorthodox participation is an unau- mond and Sidney Verba define political par- thorized action (strike, boycott, civic disobe- ticipation as a citizen activity aiming to im- dience) or that of protest against the political pact directly or indirectly public administra- system. And political offence (crime), accord- tors and their activities (see Almond & Verba, ing to Marsh, denotes political activities in- 1992, p. 123). Political participation is per- volving violence (unauthorized demonstra- ceived as a tool through which a citizen influ- tions, seizure of buildings, damage to proper- ences the authorities, formation of institutions ty, hostage taking, unrest, civil war, etc.) (see and their activities (Pfetser, 2013, p. 104). Vasilik, 2000, p. 214).

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either morally infantile or a superman” (Aris- G. Almond and S. Verba highlight that Somewhat similar classification is of- 1. Formed reaction towards the actions totle, 1983, p. 378). political participation is “first of all instru- fered also by another American analyst W. of the political system, institutions Although the issues of behavior and par- mental activeness through which citizens try Millbright. He singles out conventional and and/or their representatives; ticipation were among the interest areas of to influence the government for it to act to unconventional forms of political participa- 2. Engagement in actions related to rep- researchers during the centuries to follow, their wish” (Vasilik, 2000, p. 213). tion. Conventional political participation is resentational powers (electoral behav- namely during the new and modern eras, the Thus, political participation is in- legal functioning regulated by law (involve- ior); notion of political participation got its aca- volvement of citizens (in the broader sense ment in elections and parties, interaction with 3. Participation in political parties and demic status only in the second half of the including public subjects like organizations, officials, etc.). And unconventional political non-governmental organizations; 20th century. groups, etc.) in political processes, decision participation entails illegal actions denounced 4. Exercise of functions in institutions Some authors define three stages of evo- making ceremonies, as well as citizen influ- by major public (involvement in unsanctioned within the political system or acting lution of the term “political participation”: 1) ence on the formation of political systems demonstrations, unrest, violence, terrorism, against it; study of individual aspects of political and and institutions, their operation, drafting etc.). W. Millbright also differentiates be- 5. Direct involvement in political actions civic participation until the mid-nineteenth political decision. tween active and passive types of political (demonstrations, elections, petitions); century; 2) study of participation issue in the Forms and methods of political participa- participation based on involvement intensity, 6. Active, leading activity in political context of state governance and participation tion vary. Among them are participation in also between acceptable and unacceptable movements directed against the exist- in elections within political sociology and po- elections; active support for a candidate; par- forms based on the type of involvement. ing political system and seeking to litical science (19-20th centuries); 3) use of ticipation in demonstrations and protests; or- Thus, Millbright identifies four groups of po- achieve radical changes (see Melnik, the idea “political participation” as an inde- ganization of the latter; membership in politi- litical participation: acceptable active; ac- 1999, p. 345). pendent academic category in concepts of cal parties; submitting proposals, and so on. ceptable passive; unacceptable active, unac- This chart can be completed under the modern political science (second half of the Several classifications of the term “polit- ceptable passive (see Vasilik, 2000, pp. 214- criteria set for similar charts and concerning 20th century) (see Pfetser, 2013, p. 105). ical participation” can be found in profession- 215). accuracy, comprehensiveness, relevant sensi- The success of sociological research tar- al literature. In their article “Political Participation tivity, exactness and reliability (see Gorshkov geting assessment of political participation American scientist A. Marsh identifies and Civic Engagement: Towards a New Ty- & Sheregi, 1990, pp. 52-55). indices is largely conditioned by the level of three main types of political participation: or- pology”, Joakim Ekman and Eric Amna offer The following should as well be set as a development and logical analyses of notions thodox, unorthodox and political offense. By to differentiate between latent (not evident or precondition of integration into political and reflecting the phenomena under consideration. the orthodox form of political participation he highlighted) and evident, individual and col- public processes: a) citizen awareness about However, as M. Kholmskaya notes, in understands legal activities providing stable lective, legal and illegal forms of political and interest in these processes and realities; b) modern professional literature there is no functioning of the political system (engage- participation (see Ekman & Amna, 2012, pp. certain assessment of, attitude towards and unique and universally accepted definition of ment in voting, sanctioned demonstrations 283-300). Taking account of the considered approach to these processes. the notion “political participation.” and protests, actions of lobby and interest specter of definitions of political participation Radical or non-conventional manifesta- American political scientists Gabriel Al- groups). Unorthodox participation is an unau- and forms of that participation, it is vital to tions (participation in unauthorized, demon- mond and Sidney Verba define political par- thorized action (strike, boycott, civic disobe- work out some scale allowing to note various strations, pickets, insurgencies, etc.) of politi- ticipation as a citizen activity aiming to im- dience) or that of protest against the political manifestations and levels of participation for cal and citizen engagement should also be in- pact directly or indirectly public administra- system. And political offence (crime), accord- all the above mentioned types of political par- volved in this mode of classification. Finally, tors and their activities (see Almond & Verba, ing to Marsh, denotes political activities in- ticipation and activeness. From this perspec- this chart should include to some extent moti- 1992, p. 123). Political participation is per- volving violence (unauthorized demonstrative the classification of participation and ac- vated and acknowledged inertness, apathy or ceived as a tool through which a citizen influ- tions, seizure of buildings, damage to proper- tiveness offered by Russian political theorist inactivity of citizens, often referred to as ences the authorities, formation of institutions ty, hostage taking, unrest, civil war, etc.) (see A.V. Melnik, is worth mentioning. He pro- ''immobile'' form of political engagement. So and their activities (Pfetser, 2013, p. 104). Vasilik, 2000, p. 214). poses the following types of forms and levels this diagram will comprise ten characterizing of participation: features of citizen and political participation:

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1. Interest in and awareness about political menting this set of tools has revealed rather processes; interesting outcomes. 2. Assessment of, attitude towards and ap- According to the data obtained, women proach to these processes; are less (45,5%) interested in political goings- 3. Formed reaction towards the actions of on than men (54,9%). On the whole women the political system, institutions and/or are less aware of political realities than men. their representatives; Finally, women are less involved in non- 4. Engagement in actions related to rep- conventional political engagement forms resentational powers (electoral beha- (4,2%) than men (8,2%). (see Hovhannisyan, vior); Zakaryan & Osipov 2011: 8, 56) 5. Participation in political parties and A major part of the respondents demon- non-governmental organizations; strated significantly passive (33,7%), some- 6. Exercise of functions in institutions times inert, apathetic and immobile (16,5%) within the political system or acting positioning towards social-political events. against it; Women not interested in social-political 7. Direct involvement in political actions events comprise 17,5% and men – 15,3%. In- (demonstrations, elections, petitions, ertness is more observed among the young: etc.); 19,8% among people of 18-30; 17,8% among 8. Active, leading activity in political mo- 31-45 age limit. (see Hovhannisyan, Zakaryan vements and organizations; & Osipov, 2011, p. 10). 9. Demonstrations of radical or non-con- Another major and fundamental index of ventional political engagement; political and civic activeness is participation 10. Acknowledged inertness, immobile par- in elections of various government levels. ticipation and abstsenteizm. Survey results prove that the participation in- The large-scale survey held by Scientific dex is increasing among the public depending Research Center “Caucasus” in 2010 imple- on the significance and importance of the elections. See Diagram 1.

Diagram 1. Respondents' engagement in elections for different levels.

From comparative analysis of research yan, 2006, p. 152; Hovhannisyan, Zakaryan & held by various research centers (see Poghos- Osipov, 2011, p. 14) it becomes clear that

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1. Interest in and awareness about political menting this set of tools has revealed rather since 1995 there is an obvious increase in the http://www.polisportal.ru/index.php? processes; interesting outcomes. citizen participation in political and social page_id=51&id=28 (latest view 2. Assessment of, attitude towards and ap- According to the data obtained, women processes. If only 2,9% of the questioned in 06.12.2016). proach to these processes; are less (45,5%) interested in political goings- 1995-96 said they belonged to some political Aristotle. (1983). Politika (Politics, in Rus- 3. Formed reaction towards the actions of on than men (54,9%). On the whole women party, that number has definitely grown reach- sian), Sochineniya v 4 T., T 4. the political system, institutions and/or are less aware of political realities than men. ing 10,7% in 2011. However, the number of Мoscow. their representatives; Finally, women are less involved in non- members of non-governmental organizations Ekman, J., & Amna, E. (2012). Political Par- 4. Engagement in actions related to rep- conventional political engagement forms has remained almost the same – 5% and 5,2% ticipation and Civic Engagement: resentational powers (electoral beha- (4,2%) than men (8,2%). (see Hovhannisyan, respecttively (see Poghosyan, 2006, p. 152; Towards a New Typology, Human vior); Zakaryan & Osipov 2011: 8, 56) Hovhannisyan, Zakaryan & Osipov, 2011, p. Affairs, 22. DOI: 10.2478/s13374- 5. Participation in political parties and A major part of the respondents demon- 14). 012-0024-1 non-governmental organizations; strated significantly passive (33,7%), some- Besides structural operationalization of http://link.springer.com/article/10.24 6. Exercise of functions in institutions times inert, apathetic and immobile (16,5%) the concept political participation in its differ- 78/s13374-012-0024-1; within the political system or acting positioning towards social-political events. ent manifestations, it is also important to file:///C:/Users/Asus/Downloads/HA against it; Women not interested in social-political make its factorial analysis; to reveal the role -D-12-00001[1].pdf (latest view 7. Direct involvement in political actions events comprise 17,5% and men – 15,3%. In- and impact of such factors as the subject's 19.11.2016). (demonstrations, elections, petitions, ertness is more observed among the young: gender, age, level of education, profession, Fuchs, Ch. (2011). Foundations of Critical etc.); 19,8% among people of 18-30; 17,8% among marital status and social conditions, place of Media and Information Studies. Lon- 8. Active, leading activity in political mo- 31-45 age limit. (see Hovhannisyan, Zakaryan residence (rural or urban), membership in or don and New York: Routledge. vements and organizations; & Osipov, 2011, p. 10). support for some political organization, stere- Gorshkova, M.K., & Sheregi, F.E. (Ed.) 9. Demonstrations of radical or non-con- Another major and fundamental index of otypes of public opinion. In order to compre- (1990). Kak provesti sotsiologiches- ventional political engagement; political and civic activeness is participation hend and interpret modern political processes koe issledovanie. (How to Conduct 10. Acknowledged inertness, immobile par- in elections of various government levels. it is desirable also to expose and analyze the Sociological Study, in Russian). ticipation and abstsenteizm. Survey results prove that the participation in- motivation of involvement in politics because Moscow: Izdatel'stvo politicheskoi The large-scale survey held by Scientific dex is increasing among the public depending most profound information about any phe- literatury. Research Center “Caucasus” in 2010 imple- on the significance and importance of the nomenon lies in its determination, in this case Hovhannisyan, H., Zakaryan, L., & Osipov, elections. See Diagram 1. in the motivation. V. (2011). Hayastanum hasarakakan-qaghaqakan masnakcut’yan Diagram 1. Respondents' engagement in elections for different levels. REFERENCES genderayin ar’and’nahatkut’yunnery’ (Gender Dimension of Civic and Almond, G., & Verba, S. (1963). The Civic Political Participation, in Armenia), Culture: Political Attitudes and De- zekuyc sociologiakan hetazotut’yan mocracy in Five Nations. New York: ardyunqneri veraberyal. Yerevan. Princeton University Press. Melnik, V.A. (1999). Politologiya (Politolo- Almond., G., & Verba, S. (1992). Grajdans- gy, in Russian), Minsk: Vyshaya kaya kul'tura i stabil'nost' demokratii shkola. (The Civic Culture: Political Atti- Pfetser, S.A. (2013). Teoretiko-metodologi- tudes and Democracy, in Russian). cheskie osnovaniya analiza problemy From comparative analysis of research yan, 2006, p. 152; Hovhannisyan, Zakaryan & Politicheskie isledovaniya. Polis. No politicheskogo uchastiya (Theoreti- held by various research centers (see Poghos- Osipov, 2011, p. 14) it becomes clear that 4, cal and Methodological Bases of An-

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alyzing the Problem of Political Par- analiza-problemy-politicheskogo- ticipation, in Russian), Vestnik Ke- uchastiya (last viewed 19.11.2016). merovskogo gosudarstvennogo uni- Poghosyan, G.A. (2006). Hay hasarakut’yuny versiteta, No3 (55) Т.1, DOI: XXI daraskzbin (Armenian Society at 10.21603/ the Beginning of the XXI Century). 2078-8975-2013-3-103-110, Yerevan: Lusabac. http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/teoreti Vasilik, M.A. (2000). Politologiya (Polito- ko-metodologicheskie-osnovaniya- logy, in Russian). Moscow: Garda- riki.

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alyzing the Problem of Political Par- analiza-problemy-politicheskogo- UDC 27:94(479.25) ticipation, in Russian), Vestnik Ke- uchastiya (last viewed 19.11.2016). Nelli PETROSYAN merovskogo gosudarstvennogo uni- Poghosyan, G.A. (2006). Hay hasarakut’yuny versiteta, No3 (55) Т.1, DOI: XXI daraskzbin (Armenian Society at CULTURAL CHARACTERISTIC OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY 10.21603/ the Beginning of the XXI Century). 2078-8975-2013-3-103-110, Yerevan: Lusabac. Abstract http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/teoreti Vasilik, M.A. (2000). Politologiya (Polito- ko-metodologicheskie-osnovaniya- logy, in Russian). Moscow: Garda- The article presents the cultural characteristic of early Christianity in Armenia. In the end of riki. the 3rd century Christianity had a large number of followers. Christianity gave an opportunity to resist with national unity the external invaders and protect national independence and autonomy. As- sessing correctly the situation, in 301 Tiridates III (287-330) by the initiative of Gregory the Illumi- nator declared Christianity as a state religion in Armenia. Gregory the Illuminatore could show that only due to Christianity it was possible to ensure the further history of Armenian people. He also explained the philosophical-anthropological bases of that religion, contrasting that with the visible simplicity of polytheism. The adoption of Christianity was a powerful twist in country’s external and internal policy but it rejected by the religious aspect the faith of the centuries, the pagan culture and literature. But nevertheless, remained only pre-Christian spiritual and cultural values which were created by people. Christianity created its culture, literature, school. In Armenia constructed Christian churches, next to them were opened Christian churches in Greek and Assyrian languages. In the history of the Christian culture 4th and 5th centuries historical situations were the most important factors for the development of Early Medieval Armenian art and ecclesiastical literature and oriented its essence and uniqueness giving impetus to the creation of high bibliographic monuments.

Keywords: St. Gregory the Illuminator, Tiridates III, Constantine the Great, Constantinopole, Mesrop Mashtots, Armenian alphabet, Christianity, polytheism, historiography, ideology, religion, Christian churches, theology, natural science, rhetoric, local culture, cultural characteristic, philosophical-anthropological, socio-political, historian’s testimony, ecclesiastical literature, bibliographic monuments.

In the end of the 3rd century Christianity People, 1982, pp. 71-72; Gevorgyan, 2001, p. had a large number of followers (Hacuni, 15) and therefore it has promoted to the most 1927, p. 574). How it was seen in Armenian important preconditions of national agree- historiography, as a monotheistic religion it ment, unity and solidarity. Besides, Christian- was important to strengthen the centripetal ity gave an opportunity to resist with national monarchy and unite Armenian ministers unity the external invaders and protect nation- around Arshakuni king (History of Armenian al independence and autonomy. Assessing 210 211 211 2(7), 2016 Nelli PETROSYAN

correctly the situation, in 301 Tiridates III religious upheaval, it was Christianity. In the (287-330) (Manandyan, 1978, p. 131) by the name of his political and religious neutrality, initiative of Gregory the Illuminator declared Tiridates III leaned against Christianity de- Christianity as a state religion in Armenia. claring it as a state religion, of course regard- Gregory the Illuminatore could show that on- less of his personal religious sympathies or ly due to Christianity it was possible to ensure antipathies. In this case, the king prefers the the further history of Armenian people. He independent statehood interest and not per- also explained the philosophical-anthropolo- sonal preference and it is better if both coin- gical bases of that religion, contrasting that cide1. And indeed, the policy of religious neu- with the visible simplicity of polytheism. In trality was spread in Virq and Aghvanq and it declaration of Christianity in Armenia it is gave its beneficent results in development of important to take into account a delicate polit- the country, till 40-year-old peace ended the ical circumstance – the Peace Treaty between formalization of Christianity by Constantine Rome and Persia in 298, Mcbin. The fact is the Great in the new capital Constantinopole that Armenia was a bone of contention be- (337). tween two superpowers and according to that The adoption of Christianity was a pow- contract Armenia was recognized in borders erful twist in country’s external and internal of 66 BC, the Armenian king was committed policy but it rejected by the religious aspect to promote peace accepting a crown from the faith of the centuries, the pagan culture Rome but maintaining neutrality. Judging by and literature. Nevertheless, only pre- further events they probably have forced the Christian spiritual and cultural values – creat- same to Virq and Aghvanq and the general ed by people – proved to be persistent. responsible of the solution became Tiridates Christianity created its culture, literature, III. It is clear that the religious situation of the school. In Armenia constructed Christian end of the 3rd century could not promote to churches, next to them were opened Christian the neutrality policy, because Tiridates III churches in Greek and Assyrian languages. even though had an obvious neutral position In this regard, the spiritual culture of Ear- anyway Persia would think that in Armenia ly Medieval interweaving with the cultures of dominated Greco-Roman pagan cults and Christian and not only Christian countries but Rome would see that Armenia was predomi- also Western Asia’s, became a new cycle of nantly Zoroastrian. In these conditions, the national mentality shaped in previous centu- Armenian king as a statesman and diplomat ries. The period of 4-5 century in Armenian had to add religious neutrality to the military- history was a period when the national culture political and economic neutrality. was on a new rise, being active in historical- And the religion, which wasn’t officially social movements. In that problem the Chris- accepted either in Rome or in Persia but 1 Due to the “History of Armenian church”- un- which had an informal registration as a com- printed lecture of A. Sahakyan we have infor- munity form in both countries and at the same mation about the revelation of the new reason time had a sufficient distribution in Armenia of Christian nationalization in Hayq. Other and could serve as a social support for a new reasons see in “History of Armenian people”. 212 2(7), 2016 212 213 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

correctly the situation, in 301 Tiridates III religious upheaval, it was Christianity. In the tianity had an important role too as a new and ing to popularize the new religion and streng- (287-330) (Manandyan, 1978, p. 131) by the name of his political and religious neutrality, perhaps more progressive ideology. But it then it and make a big power (Araqelyan, initiative of Gregory the Illuminator declared Tiridates III leaned against Christianity de- does not mean that it is required to create a 1949, p. 7). And the church became not the Christianity as a state religion in Armenia. claring it as a state religion, of course regard- barrier between Christian and pre-Christian support of the people but of the centralized Gregory the Illuminatore could show that on- less of his personal religious sympathies or periods and connect the Armenian new cul- state. ly due to Christianity it was possible to ensure antipathies. In this case, the king prefers the ture of the 4th century with the fact of accept- The situation was changed at the time of the further history of Armenian people. He independent statehood interest and not per- ing the Christian faith. Arshak II (345-367) and his son Pap (369- also explained the philosophical-anthropolo- sonal preference and it is better if both coin- The spiritual and material culture of the 374). They made great efforts to centralize gical bases of that religion, contrasting that cide1. And indeed, the policy of religious neu- Early Medieval was a result of national men- and strengthen the state but they had different with the visible simplicity of polytheism. In trality was spread in Virq and Aghvanq and it tality in its new period of history. In this re- methods. The father wanted to involve the declaration of Christianity in Armenia it is gave its beneficent results in development of gard, it is required to consider the Armenian church in the policy of strengthening the cen- important to take into account a delicate polit- the country, till 40-year-old peace ended the culture of the 4-5 centuries as its continuation. tral power and the son seeing the political ical circumstance – the Peace Treaty between formalization of Christianity by Constantine Actually, in the Middle Ages the national method’s failure of his father, wanted to achi- Rome and Persia in 298, Mcbin. The fact is the Great in the new capital Constantinopole art and cultural attributes got a new formula- eve the same goal at the expense of the that Armenia was a bone of contention be- (337). tion which allowed to impersonate the des- church, reducing its ownership which also did tween two superpowers and according to that The adoption of Christianity was a pow- tined difficult and at the same time full of he- not have any success2. Soon, due to the deli- contract Armenia was recognized in borders erful twist in country’s external and internal roic existence. cate and flexible policy of Pap king, the Ar- of 66 BC, the Armenian king was committed policy but it rejected by the religious aspect In Armenian history, in terms of policy, menian Church became independent from the to promote peace accepting a crown from the faith of the centuries, the pagan culture the 4th century was a period of centralization universal power creating a new level and clar- Rome but maintaining neutrality. Judging by and literature. Nevertheless, only pre- and collapse of Armenian state also a period ified the relationship between state and further events they probably have forced the Christian spiritual and cultural values – creat- of struggle of autonomy and independence of church and laid the foundation of the further same to Virq and Aghvanq and the general ed by people – proved to be persistent. Armenia. In terms of public mentality it was a autonomy. As a result, however they could responsible of the solution became Tiridates Christianity created its culture, literature, period of a Christian religious mindset. not fight against Sassanid conqueror and III. It is clear that the religious situation of the school. In Armenia constructed Christian In the history of Christian culture 4-5 Rome. Therefore, the country was divided end of the 3rd century could not promote to churches, next to them were opened Christian centuries are characterized as a period of for- into two parts (387) and then both were de- the neutrality policy, because Tiridates III churches in Greek and Assyrian languages. mation and development of local culture, throned one after another, Western in 390, even though had an obvious neutral position In this regard, the spiritual culture of Ear- when Armenian culture having remarkable Eastern in 428 bringing the end to the Arme- anyway Persia would think that in Armenia ly Medieval interweaving with the cultures of achievements reached a considerable level nian independent statehood. Armenia became dominated Greco-Roman pagan cults and Christian and not only Christian countries but (Azaryan, 1975, p. 9). Western and Eastern regions of superpowers Rome would see that Armenia was predomi- also Western Asia’s, became a new cycle of In Armenia after the establishment of (Yeghishe 1904: 12). nantly Zoroastrian. In these conditions, the national mentality shaped in previous centu- Christianity the culture would be succumbed Under the current heavy historical condi- Armenian king as a statesman and diplomat ries. The period of 4-5 century in Armenian to the ideology of that time but even the views tions, in the 5th and 6th centuries were started had to add religious neutrality to the military- history was a period when the national culture and perceptions of people preserved stubborn- insurrections against Persian and Byzantine political and economic neutrality. was on a new rise, being active in historically got into the new emerging culture having dominions (451, 481-484, 536, 571-572). And the religion, which wasn’t officially social movements. In that problem the Chris- their success in almost all branches (Sahaky- Sassanid Persia during its domination could accepted either in Rome or in Persia but an, 2014, pp. 21-25). not suppress Armenians and dominated ad- 1 Due to the “History of Armenian church”- un- which had an informal registration as a com- The royal court supported Armenian ministrative, military and financial affairs of printed lecture of A. Sahakyan we have infor- munity form in both countries and at the same church in ideological, political and economic mation about the revelation of the new reason time had a sufficient distribution in Armenia ways. The royal court took methods to keep 2 of Christian nationalization in Hayq. Other A. Sahakyan, Lectures from the history of Ar- and could serve as a social support for a new reasons see in “History of Armenian people”. people closer. Thus, the ruling class was try- menian church (unprinted). 212 213 213 2(7), 2016 Nelli PETROSYAN

the country. In fact, Armenia was independent of writers which surpasses each other and and the Persian dominion sometimes was be- was decorated the holy church cult… coming nominal, especially after the rebellion The churches brightened, added splendor of 481-484 years and almost till the beginning to Saints evidence and were restored by of the Arab domination, the middle of the 7th flourishing with the testament’s offering century (Araqelyan, 1949, p. 7). which always were renewed…” (Parpeci, The Armenian people losing the state- 1907, pp. 35-36). hood and the political independence, they With the creation of the Armenian alpha- surprisingly were always at the highest level bet, indeed, were opened new horizons for of civilization, survived not only physically strengthening the foundations of substantive but also maintained and developed their na- national culture and its further advancement. tional spiritual culture. In Armenia was started a literary and cul- In the conditions of the similar political tural power which was unique scale for its relations, when Armenians were seeking to period. For the sake of the idea and spiritual regain the country’s independence they also identity, the creation of the Armenian litera- were making big steps towards the rise of civ- ture became imperative of the century which ilization and culture. First, in the 4th century, was destined to become a powerful bulwark when due to Gregory the Illuminatore’s cul- against the policy of foreign domination and tural activity and Tiridates III king’s support assimilation. the Christianity became the state religion and The beginning of the Armenian school- during the following centuries it had a role of ing was not gradually but in the way of pow- national preservation in the Armenians life. erful flight. In the case when we take into ac- Almost after a century, in the beginning of 5th count two factors: first the serious political century happened the second most significant situation of Armenia which was deprived of step, Mesrop Mashtots created the Armenian independent statehood and second when com- alphabet which was immediately followed by paring with the next few centuries, we re- the rapid development of the Armenian cul- member that the initial phase of the national ture and appeared translated literature (Ter- schooling was at the highest level of school- Mkrtchyan, 2011, pp. 129-151). From the ing. middle of the 5th century the Armenian liter- After the invention of the Armenian al- ary mind gave its own first creations. Inde- phabet, the beginning of a new period of the pendent and translated literature was expand- Armenian history commenced – Christian in ed so fast that soon it included almost all of its culture and literature. As we saw, the Ar- its time branches – theology, philosophy, menian literature of the 5th century developed rhetoric, grammar, astronomy, natural science in two directions: first translation, then na- etc. It is very appropriate the historian’s tes- tional. Mashtots personally participated in timony: translation turmoil and as the author of the “Then, for the tuition of flocks were es- first translation he was the initiator of the Bib- tablished schools, increased the number liography of the 5th century. Along with translations with a few decades of difference ap-

214 2(7), 2016 214 215 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

the country. In fact, Armenia was independent of writers which surpasses each other and peared the first Armenian famous monu- Sculptures in V-VII Centuries, in and the Persian dominion sometimes was be- was decorated the holy church cult… ments, especially classical works of historiog- Armenian), Yerevan. coming nominal, especially after the rebellion The churches brightened, added splendor raphy, the historical works of Parpetsi, Azaryan, L. (1975). Vagh mijnadaryan hay- of 481-484 years and almost till the beginning to Saints evidence and were restored by Pavstos, Khorenatsi, Yeghishe, Agatange- kakan qandaky’ (The Armenian of the Arab domination, the middle of the 7th flourishing with the testament’s offering ghos, Koryun, as well as the famous philo- Sculpture of Early Medieval, in Ar- century (Araqelyan, 1949, p. 7). which always were renewed…” (Parpeci, sophical-theological work of Yeznik Kogh- menian), Yerevan. The Armenian people losing the state- 1907, pp. 35-36). batsi and by means of those marked the birth Gevorgyan, H. (2001). Qristoneut’yan y’ndu- hood and the political independence, they With the creation of the Armenian alpha- of the great national literature. numy’ Hayastanum patmut’yan p’ili- surprisingly were always at the highest level bet, indeed, were opened new horizons for The main trends of the ideological con- sop’ayut’yan tesankyunic (Adoption of civilization, survived not only physically strengthening the foundations of substantive tent of the classical works of the initial period of Christianity According to Philos- but also maintained and developed their na- national culture and its further advancement. of Armenian literature, their historical- ophy, in Armenian), “Armenian ar- tional spiritual culture. In Armenia was started a literary and cul- philosophical and aesthetic principles were my” military journal N 1-2 (27-28), In the conditions of the similar political tural power which was unique scale for its imposed on the unique complex circumstanc- 15-31.Yerevan. relations, when Armenians were seeking to period. For the sake of the idea and spiritual es of the socio-political and religious life. The Hacuni, V. Father Archimandrite. (1927). regain the country’s independence they also identity, the creation of the Armenian litera- first substantive works were little different Karewor xndirner hay ekeghecwoy were making big steps towards the rise of civ- ture became imperative of the century which from the translated literature, as the ruling patmut’ene’n (The Main Problems of ilization and culture. First, in the 4th century, was destined to become a powerful bulwark ideas were religious. That is why the style of Armenian Church, in Armenian), when due to Gregory the Illuminatore’s cul- against the policy of foreign domination and the substantive works was similar to translat- Venice, St. Lazarus. tural activity and Tiridates III king’s support assimilation. ed. Hay jhoghovrdi patmut’yun (History of Ar- the Christianity became the state religion and The beginning of the Armenian school- It is quite obvious the enormous signifi- menian People, in Armenian). during the following centuries it had a role of ing was not gradually but in the way of pow- cance of the Bibliography of the 5th century. (1982). Ch. II, Yerevan. national preservation in the Armenians life. erful flight. In the case when we take into ac- But it is equally indisputable its huge influ- Manandyan, H. (1978). Erker (Narratives, in Almost after a century, in the beginning of 5th count two factors: first the serious political ence on the all aspects of the national spiritual Armenian). Ch.2, Yerevan. century happened the second most significant situation of Armenia which was deprived of culture of the further centuries even until the Parpeci, Gh. (1907). Hayoc patmut’yun (His- step, Mesrop Mashtots created the Armenian independent statehood and second when com- late Middle Ages , as it is actually defined the tory of Armenia, in Armenian). Tif- alphabet which was immediately followed by paring with the next few centuries, we remain thought process of history, artistic de- lis. the rapid development of the Armenian cul- member that the initial phase of the national velopment, theology, philosophy and aesthet- Sahakyan, A. (2014). Jhoghovrdavarakan ture and appeared translated literature (Ter- schooling was at the highest level of school- ics. qristoneut’yuny’ mijnadaryan Ha- Mkrtchyan, 2011, pp. 129-151). From the ing. These mentioned historical situations yastanum (National Christianity in middle of the 5th century the Armenian liter- After the invention of the Armenian al- were the most important factors for the devel- Medieval Armenia, in Armenian), ary mind gave its own first creations. Inde- phabet, the beginning of a new period of the opment of Early Medieval Armenian art and Yerevan. pendent and translated literature was expand- Armenian history commenced – Christian in ecclesiastical literature and oriented its es- Ter-Mkrtchyan, K. (2011). Hayoc ekeghecu ed so fast that soon it included almost all of its culture and literature. As we saw, the Ar- sence and uniqueness giving impetus to the patmut’jun (History of Armenian its time branches – theology, philosophy, menian literature of the 5th century developed creation of high bibliographic monuments. Church, in Armenian). Part 1, St. rhetoric, grammar, astronomy, natural science in two directions: first translation, then na- Etchmiadzin. etc. It is very appropriate the historian’s tes- tional. Mashtots personally participated in REFERENCES Yeghishe. (1904). Patmut’iwn Vardananc timony: translation turmoil and as the author of the (The Story of Vardanants, in Arme- “Then, for the tuition of flocks were es- first translation he was the initiator of the Bib- Araqelyan, B. (1949). Haykakan patkeraqan- nian). Tpghis. tablished schools, increased the number liography of the 5th century. Along with trans- daknery’ V-VII darerum (Armenian lations with a few decades of difference ap-

214 215 215 2(7), 2016 Kristine TANAJYAN

UDC 316 Kristine TANAJYAN

CIVIL SOCIETY AS AN AREA OF A PERSONALITY SELF-REALIZATION

Abstract

In this article we will discuss the mechanisms of self-realization, and civil duties. The author considers the civic society as a socio-cultrural field for effective self-realization. From this point of view, self-realization can be considered as a skill of creative discovery of truth and social justice. Through self-realization a person can gain self-determination – socially, culturally and historically. This paper overviews several mechanisms for realization in Civic society. Civic society supposes protection and acceptance of human rights and freedoms. It creates conditions for manifestation of a person and self-realization, providing the person’s active and responsible participation in social processes. Self-realization is a reproductive and identity specification mechanism of a person.

Keywords: civil society, subject of social activity, self-existence, self-realization, mechanisms of self- realization, types of self-realization.

Person-society is an eternal issue. Any lutions to such issues in social constructive person being a social structural element is level, corresponding self stage is needed and formulated by social features, skills and quali- today the civic society can be the one. ties. Civil society is one of the most important Concurrent to changes of social envi- value and culture-forming phenomena of ronment, a person also changes, acquires a modern society. Civil society in its generally certain group of features and affecting on so- accepted sense, acts as a set of social for- cial environment, changes both oneself and mations (groups or teams), joined together by the environment. specific interests (economic, ethnic, cultural, Shakespeare said: “Life is a multilayered etc.), implemented beyond the government theatrical play, where the person is the bearer activity area and allowing, in conditions of a of social roles, the player, the audience and democratic system of social life arrangement, the expert”. “Staged society” phrase perfectly to control actions of state authorities as hier- expresses the essence of today’s society. archies of power and political institutions. Today a person appears more as a social Civil society is a sphere of public activi- governing active subject, as creator and con- ty, free from the direct influence of the state sumer of material and spiritual values. On the and its officials. other hand, people, masses, nations, peoples, Civic society supposes protection and states keen to be acknowledged, overcome acceptance of human rights and freedoms. It inferiority and vulnerability. For gainful so- creates conditions for manifestation of a per- 216 2(7), 2016 216 217 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

UDC 316 son and self-realization, providing the per- x Through principle of voluntary imple- Kristine TANAJYAN son’s active and responsible participation in mentation of other’s interests, that is So- social processes. cial Altruism. CIVIL SOCIETY AS AN AREA OF A PERSONALITY SELF-REALIZATION In social-philosophical point of view, Taking into consideration the mentioned person’s realization supposes display of hid- above, we must remember that individual in- Abstract den potential of person’s mental, social- terest is not the impetus for the society; it be- psychological, characteristic features and comes one only when the interest of the In this article we will discuss the mechanisms of self-realization, and civil duties. The author qualities. Self-realization is displayed in satis- whole coincides. considers the civic society as a socio-cultrural field for effective self-realization. From this point of faction of self-existence. Civil society is a human political-social view, self-realization can be considered as a skill of creative discovery of truth and social justice. In one overview, Mortimer Adler defines lifestyle, unity of civilians, within the frames Through self-realization a person can gain self-determination – socially, culturally and historically. self-realization as freedom from external co- of which each individual is interested in This paper overviews several mechanisms for realization in Civic society. Civic society supposes ercion, including cultural expectations, politi- providing dignified life for everyone, and protection and acceptance of human rights and freedoms. It creates conditions for manifestation of a cal and economic freedom, and the freedom each civilian realizes his/her political activity, person and self-realization, providing the person’s active and responsible participation in social from worldly attachments and desires etc interests, satisfies natural needs and social processes. Self-realization is a reproductive and identity specification mechanism of a person. (Adler, 1995, pp. 137-138). interests (Konoplin & Nagayeva , 2008, p. A number of ways of person’s self-rea- 51). In modern world, prevailing opportuni- Keywords: civil society, subject of social activity, self-existence, self-realization, mechanisms lization can be pointed out, each of which ties of manifestation and self-realization of a of self- realization, types of self-realization. provide favorable conditions for productive person are in economic field. And in case of process of social society principles. Tradi- effective functioning conditions of the civil tional mean of self-realization is formation of society, a person has positive self-realization Person-society is an eternal issue. Any lutions to such issues in social constructive social-economic status, which is an ongoing and social development guarantees in eco- person being a social structural element is level, corresponding self stage is needed and process in person’s socialization progression. nomic field. formulated by social features, skills and quali- today the civic society can be the one. In this point, definition of civil society as lib- Each person has a right to use own abilities. Civil society is one of the most important eral, democratic, legal one becomes primary, ties in civil society, including entrepreneur- Concurrent to changes of social envi- value and culture-forming phenomena of where the person is principle and axis with its ship and other economic activities allowed by ronment, a person also changes, acquires a modern society. Civil society in its generally private interests, needs and expectations. A law, which supposes free market development certain group of features and affecting on so- accepted sense, acts as a set of social for- person can be relatively free only in case of (Orlova, 2005, p. 22), due to person’s social cial environment, changes both oneself and mations (groups or teams), joined together by possessing own life resources. Incontestably, activity. the environment. specific interests (economic, ethnic, cultural, the civil society is connected to the develop- In traditional societies interests of indi- Shakespeare said: “Life is a multilayered etc.), implemented beyond the government ment of private resources, which became viduals obtain political definition and provide theatrical play, where the person is the bearer activity area and allowing, in conditions of a stimulus for a person’s creative activity and high level of person’s self- realization. The of social roles, the player, the audience and democratic system of social life arrangement, interest in industry development. developed the civil society the harder the con- the expert”. “Staged society” phrase perfectly to control actions of state authorities as hier- Generally, we differentiate several mech- struction in means of interests and their reali- expresses the essence of today’s society. archies of power and political institutions. anisms for realization private interests, needs zation mechanisms. In order to act gainfully Today a person appears more as a social Civil society is a sphere of public activi- and expectations: in civil society, it is important for the person governing active subject, as creator and con- ty, free from the direct influence of the state x Through violation of other’s interests, to be distinguished as politically active and sumer of material and spiritual values. On the and its officials. which is Social Parasitism, ideally open person. Civil society requires a other hand, people, masses, nations, peoples, Civic society supposes protection and x Through mutual beneficial cooperation, certain political environment where individu- states keen to be acknowledged, overcome acceptance of human rights and freedoms. It in other words Target Sinergie, als are free to discuss and associate in the first inferiority and vulnerability. For gainful so- creates conditions for manifestation of a per- place. It likewise shows that socioeconomic 216 217 217 2(7), 2016 Kristine TANAJYAN

development is highly advantageous to na- is a construction of role players and their relations attempting to build a strong Western tionships. Attribute of that system is to pro- style democracy (Putnam and the Civil Socie- vide participants with wellness (Burt, 1992. p. ty Ian Fasel). 45). We can say that the civil society’s eco- On one hand civil society offers real pre- nomic, spiritual, moral conditions of life is a mises and equipments for person’s self- unique group, which promotes individual realization and creation, on the other hand a benefit, realization of interests, active increase person with its creative impact and innovative of economic, political, cultural fields. We can aspiration consolidates civil society’s organiz- say that the civil society is a unique combina- ing ideas, becoming the guarantor of legiti- tion of economic, religious, and moral aspects macy of authorities. In civil society’s condi- of life, which contributes to private benefit, tions, belief towards legitimate authorities realization of interests of a person’s activity in strengthens, as each person achieves legal sta- economic, political and cultural spheres. tus in any sub-system of the society for equal In this point of view, self-realization can self-realization, despite free social, domestic, be considered as a skill of discovering the professional, doctrinal and other statuses truth creatively and social justice. Through In 21st century, more frequent way of self-realization a person can self-determinate self-realization is constant search and change socially, culturally and historically. Self- of work and activity fields. This can be a rea- realization is a reproductive and identity spec- son of lack of institutional trust, as well as ification mechanism of a person. interchange of social-cultural high-speed pro- Types of person’s self-realization also cesses in post-transitional societies. Self- varies, according to activity fields, there are realization of a person can be observed as fo- scientific, religious, economic, legal-political, cused effort of person’s potential. And fo- etc... By choosing this or that field for self- cused efforts are fed from inner and outer rea- realization a person seeks possibilities (Tsvet- sons of self-realization. If person’s inner self- kova, 2008, p. 147) for solving important realization reasons are the demands and inter- problems of own self in certain historical and ests of an individual, which are defined as social periods of time. In such social-histori- orientations in civil society, then outer rea- cal conditions a unique way for self-realiza- sons are person’s tendency to freedom and tion becomes strong social bonds and en- social activity level, which are reinforced and larged circle of social relationships. From this stabilized through civil society. In this regard, point of view bridged social capital is im- we should note that the civil society primarily portant, as an additional opportunity of self- is a society of free people, where the civil realization. freedom is guaranteed by law in all its senses. Social capital is an effort resource of in- And the latter is a necessary condition for stitutionally based social relationships chain person’s perfection, as a guarantor of person’s in certain historical time, which benefits the dignity uphold. More than that, a person is an existence of the best option of social system. owner here, who has an opportunity to choose Despite other types of a capital, social capital the form of ownership and dispose it. And

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development is highly advantageous to na- is a construction of role players and their rela- property is an existence of freedom (Gegel, and laws. He believes that people are born as tions attempting to build a strong Western tionships. Attribute of that system is to pro- 1934, pp. 72-73). blank slates without any preordained ideas or style democracy (Putnam and the Civil Socie- vide participants with wellness (Burt, 1992. p. x Liberated owner is the constructive cor- notions. This state is known as the State of ty Ian Fasel). 45). nerstone of democratic regime. Hence, Nature because it shows people in their most We can say that the civil society’s eco- On one hand civil society offers real pre- the civil society is the field of expressing barbaric form. As people grow, their experi- nomic, spiritual, moral conditions of life is a mises and equipments for person’s self- person’s social, political, cultural es- ences begin to shape their thoughts and ac- unique group, which promotes individual realization and creation, on the other hand a sence, constructive field for its self- tions. They are naturally in the State of Nature benefit, realization of interests, active increase person with its creative impact and innovative realization, self-assertion. Freedom of until they choose not to be, until something of economic, political, cultural fields. We can aspiration consolidates civil society’s organiz- ability manifestation of a person is guar- changes their barbaric nature1. say that the civil society is a unique combina- ing ideas, becoming the guarantor of legiti- anteed here, as well as freedom of choice As Aristoles says: “The truth is that tion of economic, religious, and moral aspects macy of authorities. In civil society’s condi- of activity type and professional selec- men's ambition and their desire to make mon- of life, which contributes to private benefit, tions, belief towards legitimate authorities tion. ey are among the most frequent causes of de- realization of interests of a person’s activity in strengthens, as each person achieves legal sta- x From this point of view, we should note liberate acts of injustice.” economic, political and cultural spheres. tus in any sub-system of the society for equal that the civil society is a collective form But Locke says that, civil government In this point of view, self-realization can self-realization, despite free social, domestic, of person’s dignified relationships and can remedy this anarchy. When it comes to be considered as a skill of discovering the professional, doctrinal and other statuses lifestyle. Civil society, based on a per- the Law of Nature, people are more likely to st truth creatively and social justice. Through In 21 century, more frequent way of son’s specifications, gives an opportunity act rationally when there is a government in self-realization a person can self-determinate self-realization is constant search and change to have a feeling of satisfaction for own place because there are laws and consequenc- socially, culturally and historically. Self- of work and activity fields. This can be a rea- achievements. es to abide by. It should be noted that per- realization is a reproductive and identity spec- son of lack of institutional trust, as well as In this sense, we must note that civil so- son’s political self-realization supposes con- ification mechanism of a person. interchange of social-cultural high-speed pro- ciety first of all is a society of liberal people, scious and pressure of law and “brutal” dis- Types of person’s self-realization also cesses in post-transitional societies. Self- where civil freedom is lawfully protected in plays of liberalism under legal patronage. varies, according to activity fields, there are realization of a person can be observed as fo- all its manifestations. And the latter is an im- From this point of view, purpose of civil scientific, religious, economic, legal-political, cused effort of person’s potential. And fo- portant component for person’s perfection as society in Armenia is not realized, more than etc... By choosing this or that field for self- cused efforts are fed from inner and outer rea- a guarantee of preservation of human dignity. that, its realization is still but an unclear mi- realization a person seeks possibilities (Tsvet- sons of self-realization. If person’s inner self- Moreover, a person is the owner, who has a rage. Turning that mirage to reality is due to kova, 2008, p. 147) for solving important realization reasons are the demands and inter- chance to choose the form of ownership and accepting a human being as the highest value. problems of own self in certain historical and ests of an individual, which are defined as direct it. And ownership is the existence (Ge- And in our reality a person’s value social periods of time. In such social-histori- orientations in civil society, then outer rea- gel, 1934, pp. 72-73) of availability of ac- measured with its blood or relative ties, posi- cal conditions a unique way for self-realiza- sons are person’s tendency to freedom and commodation. That is to say, liberalism is not tion in social system. In other words, a person tion becomes strong social bonds and en- social activity level, which are reinforced and a backbone democratic value (Harutyunyan, is valued not as being human, but as a con- larged circle of social relationships. From this stabilized through civil society. In this regard, 2003, pp. 8-9). nection complex, whose activity range is nep- point of view bridged social capital is im- we should note that the civil society primarily It can become such through active politi- otism. The only way for pressuring and denial portant, as an additional opportunity of self- is a society of free people, where the civil cal participation of civilians and through self- of abnormal nepotism in our society is realization. freedom is guaranteed by law in all its senses. realization in their demanding actions in polit- through considering political activity of legal- Social capital is an effort resource of in- And the latter is a necessary condition for ical system. From this point of view Joohn ly conscious people as propulsive force of stitutionally based social relationships chain person’s perfection, as a guarantor of person’s Locke discusses many ideas that are now at- self-realization. in certain historical time, which benefits the dignity uphold. More than that, a person is an tributed to Liberalism in Two Treatises of Go- existence of the best option of social system. owner here, who has an opportunity to choose 1 vernment (1689). Locke comments on society See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism Despite other types of a capital, social capital the form of ownership and dispose it. And and outlines the importance of natural rights (international_relations) 218 219 219 2(7), 2016 Kristine TANAJYAN

Surely, not everyone achieve complete such features as self-organization, self-reli- self-realization, but the upbringing of the will, ance and self-responsibility. The civil society developing ambitions to innovations and crea- with its values, basic aspects and guarantee of tivity are the very ways which lead to self- human rights and freedoms, benefits creation realization of a person. And the bases of un- of all ways for self-realization of a person. covering those ways are in the family. Family As a rule, non-compliance, social ine- is undoubtedly mandatory for civil society. quality and social injustice in traditional and We must note that a family can be the primary close societies prevent the self-realization and major stage for self-realization, making horizon of a person and become a reason for a self-determination and self-realization possi- number of crises. Result of a crisis is more ble, if a person holds the stamp of civil socie- tragic, especially in spiritual-cultural field of ty features, especially if his/hers human rights the society. and freedoms are protected in inner-family Meanwhile, results of positive self- relationships and is provided with quality as- realization are disposed by high level of self- pects of social development. respect, social construction of consciousness Most important features of a person in of own self, forth bringing of altruistic inter- civil society must be tolerance and social jus- ests and aims and activation of searches their tice. The heart of tolerance is self-control. solutions by accepting both own and others’ When we tolerate an activity, we resist our freedom, meaningful with purposeful and urge to forcefully prohibit the expression of aimed actions. activities that we find unpleasant. More ab- Self-realization of a person is construc- stractly, toleration can be understood as a po- tion and realization of a person’s development litical practice aiming at neutrality, objectivi- opportunities; certain historical time and pub- ty, or fairness on the part of political agents. lic management regime have their direct im- These ideas are related in that the goal of pact on the choice of means of person’s self- political neutrality is deliberate restraint of the realization. The latter can be observed as a power that political authorities have to negate way of expression, development and perfec- the life activities of its citizens and subjects. tion of person’s efforts. In this regard, it is Related to toleration is the virtue of tolerance, obvious that in civil society, person’s self- which can be defined as a tendency toward realization process depends on people’s legal toleration. Toleration is usually grounded up- conscious, focused efforts that result from the on an assumption about the importance of level of stability of civic identity the autonomy of individuals. This assumption Self-realization of a person depends both and the idea of toleration are central ideas in on terms of use of freedom and justice in the modern liberal theory and practice2. society and clarification of aims of social Person-civil-society relationships are am- structures, information level of wide strips of biguous and bipolar. the society and social structures and cultiva- Behavior of civilians must be led with tion of legal guarantees of civilians’ cooperation.

2 See: http://www.iep.utm.edu/tolerati 220 2(7), 2016 220 221 2(7), 2016 WISDOM

Surely, not everyone achieve complete such features as self-organization, self-reli- Level of a person’s self-realization is Hegel. (1934), Sochineniya (Works, in Rus- self-realization, but the upbringing of the will, ance and self-responsibility. The civil society measured by the level of satisfaction by own sian).Vol. 7. Moscow. developing ambitions to innovations and crea- with its values, basic aspects and guarantee of actions, number of their deeds and frequency Konoplin, Y.S., & Nagaeva, S.K. (2008). tivity are the very ways which lead to self- human rights and freedoms, benefits creation of responses social issues. Grazhdanskoe obshchestvo v politi- realization of a person. And the bases of un- of all ways for self-realization of a person. cheskom izmerenii (Civil Society in covering those ways are in the family. Family As a rule, non-compliance, social ine- REFERENCES Political Dimension, in Russian). is undoubtedly mandatory for civil society. quality and social injustice in traditional and Moscow. We must note that a family can be the primary close societies prevent the self-realization Burt, R. (1992) Structural Holes: The Social Mortimer, J.A. (1995). Liberty. and major stage for self-realization, making horizon of a person and become a reason for a Structure of Competition. Camb- Orlova, O.V. (2005) Grazhdanskoe ob- self-determination and self-realization possi- number of crises. Result of a crisis is more ridge: Harvard University Press. shchestvo i lichnost’: politico-pravo- ble, if a person holds the stamp of civil socie- tragic, especially in spiritual-cultural field of Frank, S.L. (1992) Dukhovnaya osnova ob- vye aspekty (Civil society and an in- ty features, especially if his/hers human rights the society. shchestva: Vvedenie v sotsial’nuyu dividual: political-legal aspects, in and freedoms are protected in inner-family Meanwhile, results of positive self- psikhologiyu (Spiritual bases of soci- Russian). Moscow. relationships and is provided with quality as- realization are disposed by high level of self- ety: Introduction of social psycholo- Putnam and the Civil Society pects of social development. respect, social construction of consciousness gy, in Russian). Moscow. http://www.la.utexas.edu/users/chenr Most important features of a person in of own self, forth bringing of altruistic inter- Goncharov, D.V., & Goptareva, I. (1996). y/civil/archives99/csspapers/0022.ht civil society must be tolerance and social jus- ests and aims and activation of searches their Vvedenie v politicheskuyu nauku (In- ml. tice. The heart of tolerance is self-control. solutions by accepting both own and others’ troduction of Political Science, in Sektova, N.A. (2011). Sotsial’nyi intellekt kak When we tolerate an activity, we resist our freedom, meaningful with purposeful and Russian). Moscow: Yurist. determinanta urovnya samoreali- urge to forcefully prohibit the expression of aimed actions. Harutyunyan, E.A. (2003). Qaghaqakan ha- zatsii lichnosti v professional’noi de- activities that we find unpleasant. More ab- Self-realization of a person is construc- makargi zargacman himnaxndirnery’ yatel’nosti (Social intellect as a de- stractly, toleration can be understood as a po- tion and realization of a person’s development ancumayin hasarakut’yunum (Main terminate of self-realization level and litical practice aiming at neutrality, objectivi- opportunities; certain historical time and pub- Issues in Political System in Transi- professional activity, in Russian) ty, or fairness on the part of political agents. lic management regime have their direct im- tional Societies, in Armenian). Yere- Humanitarian vector. N1 (25). These ideas are related in that the goal of pact on the choice of means of person’s self- van. political neutrality is deliberate restraint of the realization. The latter can be observed as a power that political authorities have to negate way of expression, development and perfec- the life activities of its citizens and subjects. tion of person’s efforts. In this regard, it is Related to toleration is the virtue of tolerance, obvious that in civil society, person’s self- which can be defined as a tendency toward realization process depends on people’s legal toleration. Toleration is usually grounded up- conscious, focused efforts that result from the on an assumption about the importance of level of stability of civic identity the autonomy of individuals. This assumption Self-realization of a person depends both and the idea of toleration are central ideas in on terms of use of freedom and justice in the modern liberal theory and practice2. society and clarification of aims of social Person-civil-society relationships are am- structures, information level of wide strips of biguous and bipolar. the society and social structures and cultiva- Behavior of civilians must be led with tion of legal guarantees of civilians’ cooperation.

2 See: http://www.iep.utm.edu/tolerati 220 221 221 2(7), 2016 NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS

NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS

MANUSCRIPT MUST BE SUBMITTED: ABSTRACT: x in English, x should be submitted in Armenian, English x printed and in electronic versions: the au- and Russian for the three lingual webpage thor is obliged to guarantee the compliance of the periodical, of the manuscript to the topics of the peri- x should not exceed 200 words, odical and provide the final copyright ver- x should be informative and not contain gen- sion, eral words and phrases, x in Microsoft Office Word, x the abstract should describe the research x page size - A4, and the results, x font face - Times New Roman, x should reflect the main content of the arti- x footnotes should be given at the bottom of cle taking into consideration the following the page, references - at the end of the arti- viewpoints: subject, purpose, research re- cle, sults and conclusions, x font size for the text of the article-12, for x information contained in the title should the footnotes - 11, not be duplicated in the abstract, x line spacing - 1.3, first line - 0.8 cm. x the abstract should provide a good perspective on the final message of the article. ARTICLE LENGTH: not longer than 8000 words. INTRODUCTION should x reflect the article’s contribution to the ARTICLE TITLE: scopes of philosophy and methodology of x should outline the general scope of the ar- science, ticle and not exceed eight words, x reflect the current concerns in the area, x uppercase, x specify the research objectives. x font size-14. CONCLUSIONS AUTHORS’ DATA: should be clearly formulated and present- x first name(s), last name(s), and CVs of the ed. manuscript author(s) in Armenian, English and Russian for the three lingual webpage KEYWORDS: of the periodical, x should be in Armenian, English and Rus- x full name and postal address of each au- sian for the three lingual webpage of the thor’s workplace, organization, periodical, x position, rank, academic degree, x should be up to ten, x e-mail and phone number, x should be separated by a comma. x the surnames and the first letter in names

of authors should be full and in uppercase.

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NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS REFERENCES For an article in a periodical: x The manuscript should be constructed ac- Bazac, A. (2016). The Concept of Social MANUSCRIPT MUST BE SUBMITTED: ABSTRACT: cording to the APA citation System. For Progress: An Epistemological Moment. x in English, x should be submitted in Armenian, English instance: (Soros, 2001, p. 10) (Toulmin, Wisdom, 6(1), pp. 6-15. x printed and in electronic versions: the au- and Russian for the three lingual webpage 1958, pp. 56-57) (Hilbert & Bernays, In case of citing various works of the same thor is obliged to guarantee the compliance of the periodical, 1934). author published in the same year, it is nec- of the manuscript to the topics of the peri- x should not exceed 200 words, x The Latin transliteration of all the non- essary to apply to a letter differentiation odical and provide the final copyright ver- x should be informative and not contain gen- Latin references should be included as method i.e. a, b etc. a sion, eral words and phrases, well. For instance: (Hovhannisyan, 2006 ; Hovhannisyan, b c x in Microsoft Office Word, x the abstract should describe the research Сорос, Дж. (2001). Открытое общество. 2006 ; Hovhannisyan, 2006 ). x page size - A4, and the results, Реформируя глобальный капитализм. For a website publication: x font face - Times New Roman, x should reflect the main content of the arti- М.: фонд «Поддержки культуры, об- Texts of the articles submitted in a website x footnotes should be given at the bottom of cle taking into consideration the following разования и новых информационных usually vary from their printed versions the page, references - at the end of the arti- viewpoints: subject, purpose, research re- технологий». that is why in case of citing the latter web- cle, sults and conclusions, Soros, G. (2001). Otkrytoe obshchestvo. site versions, it is necessary to indicate the x font size for the text of the article-12, for x information contained in the title should Reformiruya global'nyi kapitalizm (Open appropriate electronic address, moreover, the footnotes - 11, not be duplicated in the abstract, Society. Reforming Global Capitalism, in the citation of the printed version is not ac- x line spacing - 1.3, first line - 0.8 cm. x the abstract should provide a good perspec- Russian). Moscow: fond Podderzhki kul'- cepted: tive on the final message of the article. tury, obrazovaniya i novykh information- Djidjyan, R. (2015). Understanding Capac- ARTICLE LENGTH: nykh tekhnologii. ity as the Principle Difficulty in Building not longer than 8000 words. INTRODUCTION should Artificial Intellect. Wisdom, 4(1). Re- x reflect the article’s contribution to the For a book by a single author: trieved from ARTICLE TITLE: scopes of philosophy and methodology of Toulmin, S.E. (1958). The Uses of Argu- http://www.wisdomperiodical.com/index. x should outline the general scope of the ar- science, ment (updated ed., 2003; reprint, 2006). php/wisdom/article/view/115 ticle and not exceed eight words, x reflect the current concerns in the area, New York: Cambridge University Press. x uppercase, x specify the research objectives. For a book by two authors: GRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS x font size-14. Hilbert, D., & Bernays, P. (1934). Grund- If the manuscript contains non alphabetic cha- CONCLUSIONS lagen der Mathematik (Vol. 1). Berlin: racters (e.g. logical formulae, diagrams) then: AUTHORS’ DATA: should be clearly formulated and present- Springer. x the PDF version of the text should be at- x first name(s), last name(s), and CVs of the ed. For a book by an editor: tached for the demanded verification, manuscript author(s) in Armenian, English Ayer, A. (Ed.). (1959). Logical Positivism. x all the images (diagrams, line drawings and Russian for the three lingual webpage The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois. and photographic images) should be num- KEYWORDS: of the periodical, For an article in a journal: bered sequentially with Arabic numerals x should be in Armenian, English and Rus- x full name and postal address of each au- Hacking, I. (1979, June). What is Logic. and submitted in electronic form, sian for the three lingual webpage of the thor’s workplace, organization, The Journal of Philosophy, LXXVI(6), 55- x photo images should be of high quality, periodical, x position, rank, academic degree, 62. x all the images should be attached as sepa- x should be up to ten, x e-mail and phone number, For a book section: rate files, x should be separated by a comma. x the surnames and the first letter in names Quine, W. (1953). Two Dogmas of Empi- x diagrams, line drawings, charts should be of authors should be full and in uppercase. ricism. In W. Quine, From a Logical Point submitted in EXCEL or EPS format.

of View. Harvard Univerity Press. 222 223 223 2(7), 2016 NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS

VARIOUS KIND OF MANUSCRIPT x Translations and archive sources should FORMATTING PECULIARITIES have enough comments and full introduc- Publication of Archive Materials and Trans- tions, otherwise they could not be consid- lation Sources ered scientific publications and could not x Complete description of archive or publi- be submitted for publication. cation material, according to which the Essays of various symposiums and scientific translation has been made, should be com- events. prised in the manuscript. x Information about the symposium organiz- x A brief prologue under the title Publication ers, place and time should be included in Prologue may precede the publication (1-3 the essay. pages long, approximately 4000 charac- x The symposium members’ name, surname, ters). Long prologues are regarded articles workplace and city (in brackets) should be and should be written under separate titles. mentioned, and in case of international x If the publishing source contains refer- symposiums, the name of the city is also ences, they are presented as a part of a included. body text and are each numbered sequen- x Essays should not coincide with the sym- tially and precede the body text-source. posium projects or their final documents. x Publisher or translator may present refer- Reviews and bibliographical essays. ences about the publishing source at the x The length of a review should be from 5- end of a body text. 10 pages (10.000-20.000 characters). x Via the references one may present foreign x Final information, name of a publication word translations, explanations of abbrevi- and number of pages of a studied book ations etc. contained in the text may be should be presented before the body text. presented in the source text in square x References are not included in the review. brackets. Argumentative notes, essays, records. x It is advisable to choose up to 40.000 char- Materials that are written in a free style acter source for the publication materials in and are free of demands placed on scientific the periodical. In case of a large source, it articles are accepted for publication. Such is necessary to shorten (select) for prepar- kind of works cannot be submitted in the re- ing material for the periodical. ports about scientific works as scientific publication.

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VARIOUS KIND OF MANUSCRIPT x Translations and archive sources should AUTHORS FORMATTING PECULIARITIES have enough comments and full introduc- Publication of Archive Materials and Trans- tions, otherwise they could not be consid- Marianna AMIRAGHYAN Lecturer at the Chair of Preschool Pedagogy and Methodology of lation Sources ered scientific publications and could not Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University x Complete description of archive or publi- be submitted for publication. Phone: 0037494702593 cation material, according to which the Essays of various symposiums and scientific E-mail: [email protected] translation has been made, should be com- events. Georgia Professor (Em.) of Philosophy at the Department of Philosophy at prised in the manuscript. x Information about the symposium organiz- APOSTOLOPOULOU the University of Ioannina (Greece), Member of the International x A brief prologue under the title Publication ers, place and time should be included in Academy for Philosophy Prologue may precede the publication (1-3 the essay. Phone: 002651042285 pages long, approximately 4000 charac- x The symposium members’ name, surname, E-mail: [email protected] ters). Long prologues are regarded articles workplace and city (in brackets) should be Anna ASATRYAN Deputy Director of the Institute of Arts NAS RA, Doctor of Arts, and should be written under separate titles. mentioned, and in case of international Professor, Honored Artist of RA x If the publishing source contains refer- symposiums, the name of the city is also Phone: 0037493119119 ences, they are presented as a part of a included. E-mail: [email protected] body text and are each numbered sequen- x Essays should not coincide with the sym- Armenuhi AVAGYAN Dean of the Special Education Faculty at Khachatur Abovian Ar- tially and precede the body text-source. posium projects or their final documents. menian State Pedagogical University, Phd in Pedagogy, Associate x Publisher or translator may present refer- Reviews and bibliographical essays. Professor ences about the publishing source at the x The length of a review should be from 5- Phone: 0037494622557 end of a body text. 10 pages (10.000-20.000 characters). E-mail: [email protected] x Via the references one may present foreign x Final information, name of a publication Lilith BAGHDASARYAN Associate Professor of the Chair of Special Pedagogy and Psy- word translations, explanations of abbrevi- and number of pages of a studied book chology at the Special Education Faculty of Khachatur Abovian ations etc. contained in the text may be should be presented before the body text. Armenian State Pedagogical University, PhD in Psychology presented in the source text in square x References are not included in the review. Phone: 0037494333941 brackets. Argumentative notes, essays, records. E-mail: [email protected] x It is advisable to choose up to 40.000 char- Materials that are written in a free style Lilit BRUTIAN Head of the Chair of Russian Linguistics, Typology and Theory of acter source for the publication materials in and are free of demands placed on scientific Communication at the Yerevan State University, Faculty of Rus- the periodical. In case of a large source, it articles are accepted for publication. Such sian Philology, Doctor of Sciences (in Philology), Professor is necessary to shorten (select) for prepar- kind of works cannot be submitted in the re- Phone: 0037493408039 ing material for the periodical. ports about scientific works as scientific pub- E-mail: [email protected] lication. Ana BAZAC Professor at Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Vice-President of the Division of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science, Romanian Committee of the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, Romanian Academy, Deputy Editor of Noema, journal of Romanian Academy Phone: 00420597323273 E-mail: [email protected] Karine DANIELYAN Head of the Chair of Ecology and Sustainable Development at Armenian State Pedagogical University after Khachatur Abovyan, Doctor of Sciences (in Geography), Professor 224

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Phone: 0037410597032 E-mail: [email protected] Susanna DAVTYAN Associate Professor of the Department of Social Sciences at the Yerevan State Medical University after Mkhitar Heratsi, head of the Armenian Unit of the UNESCO Chair in Bioethics, Haifa, member of the Editorial Board " Bioethics" Federal Scientific- Practical journal (from 2014, Russia), member of the International Scientific Committee on Bioethics (from 2011, Haifa), member of the Coordination Council of the Regional Association for Bioeth- ics Teachers (from 2009, Kishinev), member of Forum of Ethics Committees of CIS Countries (from 2005, St. Petersburg, Kazan), Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Web page: www.susannadavtyan.am Phone: 0037491607013 E-mail: [email protected] Robert DJIDJIAN Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Armenian State Pedagogical Uni- versity after Khachatur Abovian, Academician of the International Academy for Philosophy, Doctor of sciences (in Philosophy) Phone: 0037495128724 E-mail: [email protected] Aelita DOLUKHANYAN Chair of the Department of Ancient and Medieval Armenian Lit- erature and its Teaching Methods at Armenian State Pedagogical University after Khachatur Abovyan, Doctor of Sciences (in Phi- lology), Professor, Corresponding Member of NAS RA Phone: 0037493885718 E-mail: [email protected] Anahit GHARIBYAN PhD researcher at the Faculty of Sociology at Yerevan State Uni- versity Phone: 0037493116486 E-mail: [email protected] Hovhannes Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Logic HOVHANNISYAN named after Academician Georg Brutian at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University and the Yerevan State University, Scientific Secretary of the Armenian Philosophical Academy, Head of the Chair of Humanities and Social Sciences at French University of Armenia, Chairman of the Committee of Civil Society Development of Public Council of RA, PhD in philosophy Phone: 0037460279641 E-mail: [email protected]

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Phone: 0037410597032 Mane KHACHIBABYAN Senior at American University of Armenia E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 0037494122177 Susanna DAVTYAN Associate Professor of the Department of Social Sciences at the E-mail: [email protected]; Yerevan State Medical University after Mkhitar Heratsi, head of [email protected] the Armenian Unit of the UNESCO Chair in Bioethics, Haifa, Sirine KOSYAN Research applicant at Armenian State Pedagogical University after member of the Editorial Board " Bioethics" Federal Scientific- Khachatur Abovyan at the Chair of Ecology and Sustainable De- Practical journal (from 2014, Russia), member of the International velopment, 1st grade teacher at secondary school N122 after Scientific Committee on Bioethics (from 2011, Haifa), member of A.Blok (Yerevan) the Coordination Council of the Regional Association for Bioeth- Phone: 0037491517588 ics Teachers (from 2009, Kishinev), member of Forum of Ethics E-mail: [email protected] Committees of CIS Countries (from 2005, St. Petersburg, Kazan), Hans KÖCHLER Professor (Em.) of Philosophy, University of Innsbruck, Austria, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Web page: President of the International Progress Organization, Co-president www.susannadavtyan.am of the International Academy for Philosophy Phone: 0037491607013 Phone: 004315332877 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Robert DJIDJIAN Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Armenuhi MANUKYAN Associate Professor of the Chair of Theory and History of Peda- Academician Georg Brutian at Armenian State Pedagogical Uni- gogy at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical Universi- versity after Khachatur Abovian, Academician of the International ty, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) of United Kingdom of Great Brit- Academy for Philosophy, Doctor of sciences (in Philosophy) ain, Associate Professor of Europe Phone: 0037495128724 Phone: 0037410245756 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Aelita DOLUKHANYAN Chair of the Department of Ancient and Medieval Armenian Lit- Mnatsakan MANUKYAN Professor-Consultant of the Chair of Theory and History of Peda- erature and its Teaching Methods at Armenian State Pedagogical gogy at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical Universi- University after Khachatur Abovyan, Doctor of Sciences (in Phi- ty, Honored Educator of RA, Doctor of Sciences (in Pedagogy) lology), Professor, Corresponding Member of NAS RA Phone: 0037411231600 Phone: 0037493885718 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Armen T. MARSOOBIAN Professor of Philosophy and Chairperson of the Philosophy De- Anahit GHARIBYAN PhD researcher at the Faculty of Sociology at Yerevan State Uni- partment at Southern Connecticut State University (New Haven, versity USA) Phone: 0037493116486 Phone: (203) 3926788 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Hovhannes Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Logic Nelli MELKONYAN Lecturer at the Chair of Sociology and Social Work at Khachatur HOVHANNISYAN named after Academician Georg Brutian at Khachatur Abovian Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, Postgraduate Armenian State Pedagogical University and the Yerevan State student of the Chair of Age and Pedagogical Psychology at Kha- University, Scientific Secretary of the Armenian Philosophical chatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University Academy, Head of the Chair of Humanities and Social Sciences at Phone: 0037477171054 French University of Armenia, Chairman of the Committee of E-mail: [email protected] Civil Society Development of Public Council of RA, PhD in Balázs M. MEZEI Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor philosophy of Sciences, Dr. habil., Chair and Professor of the Department of Phone: 0037460279641 Philosophy at PPCU, International Research Director at PPCU E-mail: [email protected]

2(7), 2016 226 227 227 AUTHORS

Phone: (26) 375375 /2934 E-mail: [email protected] Gohar MKOYAN Lecturer of the Chair of Sociology and Social Work at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, PhD Student Phone: 0037494183722 E-mail: [email protected] Tatevik PIRUMYAN Assistant of the Department of Social Sciences at the Yerevan State Medical University after Mkhitar Heratsi, PhD Student at the Department of Social Philosophy and Ethics at Yerevan State Uni- versity Phone: 0037498060063 Email: [email protected] Astghik PETROSYAN PhD Applicant at the Institute of Philosophy, Sociology and Law of National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia Phone: 0037410627576 E-mail: [email protected] Nelli PETROSYAN Lecturer at the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Armenian State Pedagogical Uni- versity after Khachatur Abovian Phone: 00374991494848 Email: [email protected] Silva PETROSYAN Associate Professor of the Chair of History of Philosophy at the Faculty of Philosophy and Psychology at the Yerevan State Uni-

versity, PhD in Philosophy Phone: 0037499339325 Email: [email protected] Tatevik POGHOSYAN Specialist of the Chair of Ecology and Sustainable Development at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University Phone: 0037410597032 Email: [email protected] Vazgen POGHOSYAN Associate Professor of the Chair of Psychology at Khachatur Abo- vian Armenian State Pedagogical University, PhD in Psychology Phone: 0037493561487 E-mail: [email protected] Will POGHOSYAN Professor at NAS RA International Scientific Educational Center, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Phone: 0037410558770 Email: [email protected] Karine SARGSYAN Psychologist at №6 Nersisyan primary school in Echmiadzin Phone: 0037477054787

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Phone: (26) 375375 /2934 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Kristine TANAJYAN Lecturer at the Chair of Sociology and Social Work at Khachatur Gohar MKOYAN Lecturer of the Chair of Sociology and Social Work at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, Postgraduate Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University, PhD Student Student at Yerevan State University at the Chair of Social Philos- Phone: 0037494183722 ophy and Ethics E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 0037498566817 Tatevik PIRUMYAN Assistant of the Department of Social Sciences at the Yerevan E-mail: [email protected] State Medical University after Mkhitar Heratsi, PhD Student at the Ashot VOSKANIAN Head of Asia-Pacific and Africa Department of the Ministry of Department of Social Philosophy and Ethics at Yerevan State Uni- Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia, PhD in Philosophy versity Phone: 0037499773318 Phone: 0037498060063 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Astghik PETROSYAN PhD Applicant at the Institute of Philosophy, Sociology and Law of National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia Phone: 0037410627576 E-mail: [email protected] Nelli PETROSYAN Lecturer at the Department of Philosophy and Logic named after Academician Georg Brutian at Armenian State Pedagogical Uni- versity after Khachatur Abovian Phone: 00374991494848 Email: [email protected] Silva PETROSYAN Associate Professor of the Chair of History of Philosophy at the Faculty of Philosophy and Psychology at the Yerevan State Uni- versity, PhD in Philosophy Phone: 0037499339325 Email: [email protected] Tatevik POGHOSYAN Specialist of the Chair of Ecology and Sustainable Development at Khachatur Abovian Armenian State Pedagogical University Phone: 0037410597032 Email: [email protected] Vazgen POGHOSYAN Associate Professor of the Chair of Psychology at Khachatur Abo- vian Armenian State Pedagogical University, PhD in Psychology Phone: 0037493561487 E-mail: [email protected] Will POGHOSYAN Professor at NAS RA International Scientific Educational Center, Doctor of Sciences (in Philosophy) Phone: 0037410558770 Email: [email protected] Karine SARGSYAN Psychologist at №6 Nersisyan primary school in Echmiadzin Phone: 0037477054787

2(7), 2016 228 229 229

ՎԻՍԴՈՄ 2(7), 2016

Լրատվական գործունեություն իրականացնող՝ Խաչատուր Աբովյանի անվան հայկական պետական մանկավարժական համալսարան հիմնադրամ Վկայական՝ № 03Ա1056715, տրված՝ 19.04.2016 թ. Հասցե՝ Երևան 010, Տիգրան Մեծի 17 Համարի թողարկման պատասխանատու՝ գիտական պարբերականի գլխավոր խմբագիր Հասմիկ ՀՈՎՀԱՆՆԻՍՅԱՆ Տպաքանակը՝ 200 Ծավալը՝ 229 էջ

GEORG BRUTIAN (1926-2015)

Professor of Philosophy, academician Georg Bruan was born in Sevqar village located in Tavush region (Armenia) on March 3, 1926. He graduated from 81 Armenian secondary school of Tbilisi (1942), Faculty of Construcon at K.Marx Yerevan Polytechnic Instute (1948), Faculty of Internaonal Relaons at Yerevan State University (1950), Lomonosov Moscow State University (1951). In 1961 he defended doctoral thesis and became the youngest (35 years old) Doctor of Philosophical Sciences in Soviet Union in his profession. In 1982 he was elected as academician. In 1977-1994 he was Academician-secretary of the Department of Philosophy and Philology of Social Sciences and Humanies at Naonal Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia (NAS RA). From 1994 to 2002 he was the Vice-President of NAS RA and from 2007 to 2015 the Councilor of the Presidium of NAS RA. Georg Bruan established number of chairs and scienfic organizaons. He was founder-chairperson of the Depart- ment of Social Sciences at Yerevan State Linguisc University aer V.Brusov (1962-1970) and Philosophy and Logic at Yerevan State University (YSU), (1970-1986). He had a great role in foundaon of the faculty of Philosophy and Sociology at YSU. Georg Bruan was the founder president of the Armenian Philosophical Academy (APA, 1987) and Internaonal Aca- demy for Philosophy (IAPh, 2001). Georg Bruan is an author of more than 60 books and booklets and about 200 arcles published in Armenia, Bulgaria, England, Greece, Hungary, Japan, Portugal, Russia, Tadzhikistan, The Netherlands, The Ukraine, USA, Uzbekistan and other countries in 20 languages. Georg Bruan's major scienfic achievements are in the following fields: Logic, Philosophy of language, Epistemology, Argumentaon theory, Theory and methodology of translaon, the history of Armenian philosophy and logical thought, Armenology. Georg Bruan has significantly contributed to the study of philosophy: he suggested the principle of linguisc complementarity; proposed concepon of poly-logic; created the concept Transformaonal logic; founded Yerevan School of Ar- gumentaon (1975); developed some methodological principles of Armenology (history of Armenian philosophy and logic). Georg Bruan was Editor in Chief and Member of the Editorial Board of dozen of Internaonal journals, including Philosophy and Rhetoric (Pennsylvania, USA). Georg Bruan was awarded State awards and honorary tles of many countries, leading universies and internaonal instutes.

The realizer of the publicaon acvity is Khachatur Abovyan Armenian State Pedagogical University Foundaon Cerﬁcate № 03A1056715, issued 19.04.2016 Address: 17 Tigran Mets Ave., Yerevan 0010, RA Phone: (+374 10) 59 70 65; Fax: (+374)59 70 08; E-mail: [email protected] Oﬃcial webpage of Periodical: hp://wisdomperiodical.com

Responsible for the publicaon of the issue: Editor-in-Chief of the scienﬁc periodical

Hasmik HOVHANNISYAN Print run: 200 Number of Pages: 229