IBN MADA's CRITICISM of ARABIC the Origin of the Arabic Grammar Is Lost in Obscurity. Traditionally Its Foundation Is Traced
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IBN MADA'S CRITICISM OF ARABIC GRAMMARIANS KOJIRO NAKAMURA The University of Tokyo The origin of the Arabic grammar is lost in obscurity. Traditionally its foundation is traced back to Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali (and further back to the fourth Caliph, 'Ali).(1) We cannot, however, be sure of this tradition, since none of Abu al-Aswad's works are extant (not to mention 'Ali).(2) It is certain, however, that in the course of the second century A. H. there appeared two groups of grammarians in Basra and Kufa, and that from the former group came out two eminent scholars: al-Khalil b. Ahmad (d. ca. 175) who was the first to compile an Arabic dictionary, entitled Kitab al-'Ain and to lay down the principle of the Arabic prosody ('arud), and Sibawaihi (d. ca. 177), one of his disciples, who composed a "Book," al-Kitab, which laid the foundation of the later theoretical development of the Arabic grammar. Although the grammar in this early period was already based on the theory of regent ('amil) as an explanatory principle for the change of the case-ending of word,(3) it was essentially no more than a list of the rules induced from the materials, or "une sorte d'inventaire des faits grammaticaux dont us s'efforcent d'expliquer chacun d'eux en lui-meme, pour un classement, une mise en ordre."(4) In due course, however, the grammarians became more concerned with systematizing the grammatical explanations, rationalizing the grammatical facts, and elaborating the logical construction-in short, philosophieren on the Arabic grammar in the process of commenting on Sibawaihi's al-Kitab.(5) G. Weil summarizes the philosophical premise of this process of rationalization as follows: Ebenso wie Allah selbst, so ist auch der Qur'an als Gottes Wort die Vernunft schle- chthin. Da aber die Sprache des Qur'an Reprasentant und Muster des Ausdrucks der arabischen Sprache ist, so muss die gottliche Vernunft and Vollkommenheit auch im Bau der arabischen Sprache allenthalben zum Ausdruck kommen. Identifizierten die Griechen bewusst Sprachen und Denken, Sprachgesetze und Denkgesetze, so schufen die Moslemeunbewusst die Gleichung von arabischer Sprache und absoluter Vernunft.(6) 89 Every single word or phrase has its own rationales for its form and place so that the whole is kept in harmony and balance.(7) There should not be any excep- tions to the rules (qawa'id). Seeming exceptions can be explained by finding out their rationales by means of qiyas (analogy) and taqdir (virtual assumption).(8) Generally speaking, once the grammatical rules, principles and systems are established, they are likely to be regarded as absolute and unalterable. And this is particularly true with the Arabic grammar, since it emerged and develop- ed, inextricably bound up with the interpretation of the direct Word of God (the Qur'an) and the theological presuppositions. There were some who raised an objection against such a development, but their efforts bore little fruit. Ibn Mada' was one of those few opponents.(9) It is our intention in this article to make an attempt to understand Ibn Mada's criticism of this "orthodox" grammatical tradition in relation to the development of the Islamic legal theory (usul al-fiqh). Life of Ibn Mada' The Almohad (al-Muwahhid) dynasty (515-668 A.H./1121-1270 A.D.) had its inception, like its predecessor, the Almoravids, in a religious reform movement in North Africa started by a Berber called Muhammad Ibn Tumart (d. ca. 524).(10) He was born in southern Morocco. Still in his youth he made a pilgrimage to Mecca, and stayed in the Muslim East for nearly ten years. During this period he studied the Ash'arite theology, particularly that of al- Ghazali (d. 505). He was also influenced at the same time by the writings of the great Spanish Zahirite, Ibn Hazm (d. 456).(11) This combination pro- duced a complicated character in his religious system (and also in that of the Almohad dynasty)(12)-that is to say, he was legally a Zahirite and theologic- ally an Ash'arite. Concerning his legal position, I. Goldziher describes as follows: Il ressort de sa dispute d'Aghmat avec les fouqaha, que l'element essentiel de sa doctrine sur les fondements du droit peut se resumer en cet axiome: al-'aql leisalahou fi al-char' madjal, c'est a dire "qu'on ne peut pas accorder au raisonnement la moindre place dans les lois de la religion." Ce sont les sources objectives, materielles,du droit, que l'on doit prendre pour base de la legislation,c'est a dire le Coran, la tradition tran- smise de facon authentique, er le consensus de la oumma,fonde sur des traditions qui, a travers toutes les generations, out ete soutenues par des autorites nombreusesformant 90 ORIENT IBN MADA'S CRITICISM OF ARABIC GRAMMARIANS une chaine ininterrompue (tawatour). Ainsi se trouve absolument exclu l'element sub- jectif, personnel, ce qu'il appelle dhann,hypothese, opinion, et qui, devons-nousajouter, a, sous la forme du consensus de la oumma,trouve sa place necessaire parmi les sources regulieres du droit, des le debut des speculations juridiques dans l'Islam.(13) Just as he discredited ra'y (in the above quotation, zann or 'aql), or qiyas, as one of the usul (legal "roots"), so he rejected the furu' (positive laws) of the establish- ed legal schools, which were deduced from the other usul and formulated by ra'y, and he attacked the taqlid (blind imitation) of those legal systems. Dependent on the Ash'arite theology,(14)he stressed the tawhid (unity) of God, but he went too far to the point that he denied the divine attributes.(15)-Thence came the appellation ("al-Muwahhid") of the dynasty. On his return to Maghrib with the reforming zeal, he set out to attack, from this standpoint, the "anthropomorphism" which was dominant among the Malikite Almoravids. He believed himself as sent by God to reform the corrupt religious situation and took the title of the Mahdi ("Messiah"). He declared jihad against the "unbelievers" of the Almoravids. The actual foundation of this dynasty, however, came with his successor, friend and general, 'Abd al-Mu'min b. 'Ali (d. 558), who carried out the master's enterprise and put his doctrine into practice. He successfully conquered Mar- rakesh and put an end to the Almoravid dynasty. He even sent the army to Muslim Spain and placed it under his control. And the whole coast from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean and Spain was united under a single creed and sceptre for the first time in the Islamic history. He took the title of Amir al-Mu'minin, and Friday prayers were delivered in the name of the Mahdi or his Caliph (instead of the 'Abbasid Caliph) in the whole empire. The second Caliph, Yusuf b. 'Abd al-Mu'min (reg. 558-580) was himself a well-educated eminent scholar, while he was in Spain as governor on be- half of his father, he met many scholars in the Arabic language, grammar and the Qur'an.(16) He also showed an extraordinary interest in learning and patro- nizing philosophy (falsafah). He ordered to collect books and invited scholars. Suffice it to mention the names of two philosophers: Ibn Tufail and Ibn Rushd (Averroes). During his reign the capital was transferred to Cordova in Spain. The third Caliph, Abu Yusuf Ya'qub (reg. 580-595) was also an eminent scholar like his father, and he himself wrote a book on hadith. He used to convene a debate by scholars and philosophers.(17) Thus Ibn al-Athir reports, "Er bekannte sich offentlich...zur Zahirijja und wandte sich von der malikitischen Vol. X 1974 91 Richtung ab; die Sache der Zahiriten nahm denn auch zu semen Zeiten einen grossen Aufschwung."(18) He ordered the jurists (fuqaha') to reject the furu' and not to follow (qalladu) any of the ancient Mujtahids of the orthodox schools, but to make legal decisions (ahkam) by their own efforts (ijtihad) based on the Book, the Sunnah of the Prophet, and Ijma'.(19) This policy was pursued to such an extent that the Caliph finally ordered to burn the fiqh-books of the orthodox schools. We see in this development a revolt against the established authority of the four legal schools (madhahib). And Ibn Mada' occupied the position of Chief Judge (qadi al-jama'ah) until he died in 592 A.H. under the two Caliphs, Yusuf b. 'Abd al-Mu'min and his son, Abu Yusuf Ya'qub. Ibn Mada' (Ahmad b. 'Abd al-Rahman b. Muhammad b. Sa'd b. 'Asim b. Mada' al-Lakhmi al-Qurtubi) was born in 513 (or 511) in Cordova. His family was of noble origin, and "he grew up, devoted to searching for knowledge and concerned solely with meeting the teachers and learning from them."(20) He learned the Arabic grammar, lexicography, and adab-literature from Ibn Mashkwal, Ibn Sahnun and others. His biographers particularly mention that he studied Sibawaihi's al-Kitab under Ibn Rammak. He learned hadith and fiqh under the Qadi. 'Iyad, a great hadith-expert and jurist at that time in Maghrib. In addition he studied speculative theology (kalam), medicine, arithmetics and geometry. It is also said that he was an eminent poet and a writer (katib). He was, however, most distinguished in the field of the science of the Arabic language ('ilm al-'arabiyah), in which he made most efforts and for- med his own independent opinions.(21) For this very reason, he is said to have been "isolated from the convention of scholars"(22) at that time.