DOCSLIB.ORG

Redalyc.Structural Isomorphism of Meaning and Synonymy

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Redalyc.Structural Isomorphism of Meaning and Synonymy Computación y Sistemas ISSN: 1405-5546 [email protected] Instituto Politécnico Nacional México Duží, Marie Structural Isomorphism of Meaning and Synonymy Computación y Sistemas, vol. 18, núm. 3, julio-septiembre, 2014, pp. 439-453 Instituto Politécnico Nacional Distrito Federal, México Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=61532067003 How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative Structural Isomorphism of Meaning and Synonymy Marie Duží VSB-Technical University Ostrava, Czech Republic [email protected] Abstract. In this paper I am going to deal with the questions like what the meaning of an expression phenomenon of synonymy from the logical point of is and how fine-grained meanings should be. view. In Transparent Intensional Logic (TIL), which is This is a pressing issue, because many my background theory, the sense of an expression is paradoxes and invalid inferences arise from a too an algorithmically structured procedure detailing what coarse-grained analysis of premises. The purpose operations to apply to what procedural constituents to arrive at the object (if any) denoted by the expression. of logic is to differentiate between valid and Such procedures are rigorously defined as TIL invalid arguments so that all valid arguments be constructions. In this new orthodoxy of structured provable and invalid ones rejected. This in turn is meanings and procedural semantics we encounter the closely connected with the granularity of problem of the granularity of procedure individuation. individuation of meaning. Though the identity of TIL constructions is rigorously Possible-world semantics (PWS) that arose defined, they are a bit too fine-grained from the around 1960 models meanings as mappings procedural point of view. In an effort to solve the defined on a domain of logical possibilities problem we introduced the notion of procedural isomorphism. Any two terms or expressions whose (‘possible worlds’). Possible-world semantics respective meanings are procedurally isomorphic are gained respectability and proved to be highly deemed semantically indistinguishable, hence deployable in various areas, in particular, in synonymous and thus substitutable in any context, modal logic and its variants like temporal and whether extensional, intensional or hyperintensional. deontic logics, by solving the granularity issue. The novel contribution of this paper is a formally Co-intensionality is tantamount to necessary co- worked-out, philosophically motivated criterion of extensionality. Hence, mappings that take the hyperintensional individuation, which is defined in terms same worlds to the same extensions come out of a slightly more carefully formulated version of - identical. Formally, let the variables f, g range conversion and -conversion by value, which amounts over intensions and w over possible worlds: to a modification of Church’s Alternative (A1). Keywords. Procedural semantics, -conversion by fg (w (f(w) = g(w)) f = g) value, procedural isomorphism, transparent intensional logic, synonymy. The basic thing to understand about this individuation of possible-world intensions is that it offers an extensional account of intensional 1 Introduction entities. If A, B are sets of possible worlds then if A, B share exactly the same elements then A is The phenomenon of synonymy has been of a identical to B. This principle of individuation is central interest for both linguists and logicians, generalized to properties, relations-in-intension, and though it is an important theoretical relation etc. The possible-world semantics for modal logic existing in language, a satisfactory criterion of is firmly and comfortably immersed in set theory. synonymy is still a hot issue. A seemingly simple Once necessary equivalence between intensions definition of synonymy as the identity of meaning has been established, lots of valid inferences can evokes many problems including, inter alia, be drawn, and many invalid inferences are blocked. Various mathematical properties, or their Computación y Sistemas Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 pp. 439–453 ISSN 1405-5546 DOI: 10.13053/CyS-18-3-2018 440 Marie Duží absence, of various formal systems of intensions substituends are hyperintensions. Indeed, any can also be established, like soundness and hyperintensional logic and formal semantics worth completeness. its name must be able to block various invalid So far so good; however, already in 1947 [3, inferences. But there is the other side of the coin, §§13ff] Carnap pointed out that there are which is the positive topic of which inferences attitudinal contexts that are neither extensional should be validated. That is, how hyper are nor intensional, because the substitution of hyperintensions? If there is one central question logically equivalent expressions for the permeating hyperintensional logic and semantics complement of an attitude fails here. For instance, then that is this one. one can easily believe that it is false that A The problem how fine-grained ‘intensional implies B without believing that A is true and B entities’ hence meanings should be was of the false. Yet the truth-conditions of these two utmost importance to Church who considered 1 embedded clauses are identical, hence they are several alternatives of constraining these entities. indiscernible in possible-world semantics. Senses are identical if the respective expressions are (A0) ‘synonymously isomorphic’, (A1) Moreover, possible-world semantics is out of 2 place in case of mathematics; all true mutually -convertible, (A2) logically equivalent. mathematical statements are necessarily (A2), the weakest criterion, was refuted already equivalent, hence identical from the PWS point of by Carnap, and was not acceptable to Church as view. For instance, the set of equilateral triangles well. The alternative (A0) arose from Church’s is identical with the set of equiangular triangles, criticism of Carnap’s notion of intensional but the property of being equilateral is not isomorphism, and it is synonymy resting on - identical with the property of being equiangular. equivalence and meaning postulates for Drawing an equilateral triangle is a task different semantically simple terms. from drawing an equiangular triangle, and one (A1) is presumably considered to be the right can be able to do the former without being able to criterion of synonymy. Yet it was subjected to a do the latter. fair amount of criticism in particular due to the Ludwig & Ray said: involvement of -reduction. For instance, Salmon "In general, one term can be substituted for in [17] adduces examples of expressions that another in 'that'-clauses salva veritate only if they should not be taken as synonymous yet their are synonymous. Perhaps the most popular meanings are mutually -convertible. Moreover, solution to the problem of providing a partiality throws a spanner in the works; - compositional semantics for natural languages reduction is not guaranteed to be an equivalent aims to exploit this fact by treating 'that'-clauses transformation as soon as partial functions are as referring to intensional entities – entities (at involved. Though Church’s formal apparatus in least) as finely individuated as the meanings which meanings are rendered is the typed - of sentences." calculus of total functions, we cannot avoid the Thus since the late 60s, the issue of work with partial functions, because there are structured, hyperintensional meanings has been meaningful terms like the ‘King of France’ that studied. The topic of hyperintensionality was born lack a reference in the actual possible world and out of negativity, as it were. As mentioned above, time. Or, in mathematics there are terms like ‘the Carnap noticed that there are attitudinal contexts that are neither extensional nor intensional, 1 The concept of hyperintensionality is not exactly new; the because the substitution of logically equivalent terms ‘hyperintensionality’ and ‘fine-grained intensionality’ expressions fails here. Cresswell defines any are. The standard term for this concept was simply individuation as hyperintensional that is finer ‘intensionality’ (maybe coined by Leibniz), and is still in use. than logical/necessary/strict equivalence. However, possible-world semantics has used the terms Hyperintensionality became originally a matter ‘intensionality’, ‘intensional logic’, etc., for its own concept of blocking unwanted and unwarranted of intensionality. inferences, by pointing out that the correct 2 For details see [1] and [4]. Computación y Sistemas Vol. 18, No. 3, 2014 pp. 439–453 ISSN 1405-5546 DOI: 10.13053/CyS-18-3-2018 Structural Isomorphism of Meaning and Synonymy 441 greatest prime’ that lack a reference regardless of extensional context they are values of the possible worlds and times, they do not denote functions denoted by the respective expression; in anything. Yet they have meaning. an intensional context they are the denoted Church also considered Alternative (A1’) that functions themselves; finally in a hyperintensional is (A1) plus -convertibility. Yet similar defects of context they are the displayed procedural -convertibility as those connected with - meanings themselves. Due to its stratified convertibility are evincible. ontology of entities organized in a ramified Thus the problem
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Use-Mention Distinction
    The Use-Mention Distinction The use-mention distinction is traditionally understood as the distinction between using an expression (or phrase, etc.) and mentioning it. Quoting from Wikipedia encyclopedia: In written language, mentioned words or phrases often appear between quotation marks or in italics. Used words or phrases, being more common than mentioned ones, do not have any typographic distinction. Making a statement mention itself is an interesting way of producing logical paradoxes. Violation of the use-mention distinction can produce sentences that sound and appear similar to the original, but have an entirely different meaning. For example, "The use-mention distinction" is not "strictly enforced here". is literally true because the two phrases in it are not the same. The general property of terms changing their reference depending on the context was called suppositio (substitution) by classical logicians. It describes how one has to substitute a term in a sentence based on its meaning—that is, what referent the term has. In general, a term can be used in several ways. For nouns, they are: • Properly with a real referent: “That is my cow” (assuming it exists). • Properly with a generic referent: “Any cow gives milk.” • Properly but with a non-real referent: “Ulysses’s cow was big.” • Improperly by way of metaphor: “Your sister is a cow”. • As a pure term: “Cow has only three letters”. The last use is what gives rise to the use-mention distinction. However, a lot of misunderstanding and many paradoxes arise also from confusing different ways in which a meaningful expression can be used.
    [Show full text]
  • INTENTIONALITY Past and Future VIBS
    INTENTIONALITY Past and Future VIBS Volume 173 Robert Ginsberg Founding Editor Peter A. Redpath Executive Editor Associate Editors G. John M. Abbarno Matti Häyry Mary-Rose Barral Steven V. Hicks Gerhold K. Becker Richard T. Hull Raymond Angelo Belliotti Mark Letteri Kenneth A. Bryson Vincent L. Luizzi C. Stephen Byrum Alan Milchman H. G. Callaway George David Miller Robert A. Delfino Alan Rosenberg Rem B. Edwards Arleen L. F. Salles Andrew Fitz-Gibbon John R. Shook Francesc Forn i Argimon Eddy Souffrant William Gay Tuija Takala Dane R. Gordon Anne Waters J. Everet Green John R. Welch Heta Aleksandra Gylling Thomas F. Woods a volume in Cognitive Science CS Francesc Forn i Argimon, Editor INTENTIONALITY Past and Future Edited by Gábor Forrai and George Kampis Amsterdam - New York, NY 2005 Cover Design: Studio Pollmann The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO 9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for documents - Requirements for permanence”. ISBN: 90-420-1817-8 ©Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam - New York, NY 2005 Printed in the Netherlands CONTENTS Preface vii List of Abbreviations ix ONE The Necessity and Nature of Mental Content 1 LAIRD ADDIS TWO Reading Brentano on the Intentionality of the Mental 15 PHILIP J. BARTOK THREE Emotions, Moods, and Intentionality 25 WILLIAM FISH FOUR Lockean Ideas as Intentional Contents 37 GÁBOR FORRAI FIVE Normativity and Mental Content 51 JUSSI HAUKIOJA SIX The Ontological and Intentional Status of Fregean Senses: An Early Account of External Content 63 GREG JESSON
    [Show full text]
  • Extensional Concepts in Intensional Type Theory
    Extensional concepts in intensional type theory Martin Hofmann Do ctor of Philosophy University of Edinburgh Abstract Theories of dep endent types have b een prop osed as a foundation of constructive mathematics and as a framework in which to construct certied programs In these applications an imp ortant role is played by identity types which internalise equality and therefore are essential for accommo dating pro ofs and programs in the same formal system This thesis attempts to reconcile the two dierent ways that type theories deal with identity types In extensional type theory the prop ositional equality induced by the identity types is identied with denitional equality ie conversion This renders typechecking and wellformedness of prop ositions undecidable and leads to nontermination in the presence of universes In intensional type theory prop os itional equality is coarser than denitional equality the latter b eing conned to denitional expansion and normalisation Then typechecking and wellformedness are decidable and this variant is therefore adopted by most implementations However the identity type in intensional type theory is not p owerful enough for formalisation of mathematics and program development Notably it do es not identify p ointwise equal functions functional extensionality and provides no means of redening equality on a type as a given relation ie quotient types We call such capabilities extensional concepts Other extensional concepts of interest are uniqueness of pro ofs and more sp ecically of equality pro ofs subset
    [Show full text]
  • (In)Definiteness, Polarity, and the Role of Wh-Morphology in Free Choice
    Journal of Semantics 23: 135–183 doi:10.1093/jos/ffl001 Advance Access publication April 4, 2006 (In)Definiteness, Polarity, and the Role of wh-morphology in Free Choice ANASTASIA GIANNAKIDOU University of Chicago LISA LAI-SHEN CHENG Leiden University Abstract In this paper we reconsider the issue of free choice and the role of the wh- morphology employed in it. We show that the property of being an interrogative wh- word alone is not sufficient for free choice, and that semantic and sometimes even morphological definiteness is a pre-requisite for some free choice items (FCIs) in certain languages, e.g. in Greek and Mandarin Chinese. We propose a theory that explains the polarity behaviour of FCIs cross-linguistically, and allows indefinite (Giannakidou 2001) as well as definite-like FCIs. The difference is manifested as a lexical distinction in English between any (indefinite) and wh-ever (definite); in Greek it appears as a choice between a FCI nominal modifier (taking an NP argument), which illustrates the indefinite option, and a FC free relative illustrating the definite one. We provide a compositional analysis of Greek FCIs in both incarnations, and derive in a parallel manner the Chinese FCIs. Here the definite versus indefinite alternation is manifested in the presence or absence of dou , which we take to express the maximality operator. It is thus shown that what we see in the morphology of FCIs in Greek is reflected in syntax in Chinese. Our analysis has important consequences for the class of so-called wh- indeterminates. In the context of current proposals, free choiceness is taken to come routinely from interrogative semantics, and wh-indeterminates are treated as question words which can freely become FCIs (Kratzer and Shimoyama 2002).
    [Show full text]
  • Metaphysics and Natural Kinds: Slingshots, Fundamentality, and Causal Structure
    METAPHYSICS AND NATURAL KINDS: SLINGSHOTS, FUNDAMENTALITY, AND CAUSAL STRUCTURE By ANDREW LEE MCFARLAND Submitted to the graduate degree program in the Department of Philosophy and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chair: John Symons ________________________________ John Bricke ________________________________ Armin Schulz ________________________________ Clif Pye ________________________________ Philippe Huneman Date Defended: May 16, 2014 The Dissertation Committee for Andrew Lee McFarland certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: METAPHYSICS AND NATURAL KINDS: SLINGSHOTS, FUNDAMENTALITY, AND CAUSAL STRUCTURE ________________________________ JOHN SYMONS Date approved: May 16, 2014 ii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Metaphysics and Natural Kinds: Slingshots, Fundamentality, and Causal Structure Andrew Lee McFarland My dissertation addresses a question relevant to metaphysics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science: What are natural kinds? I explore a view that holds that natural kinds are complex, structural properties that involve causal structure. Causal structure describes the idea that for the many properties associated with natural kinds, these properties are nomically linked – that is causally connected – in such a way that the properties of non-natural kinds are not. After criticizing arguments in favor of a nominalist theory of kinds – one that holds that a natural kind just is to be identified with its class of instances – and after defending the notion of a complex structural property from several prominent objections posed by David Lewis, I apply a causal account of natural kinds to a set of problematic cases, paying special attention to isomeric kinds from chemistry. iii Dedication I dedicate this doctoral thesis to my family and to the tireless support they have given me over the years.
    [Show full text]
  • Denoting Concepts, Reference, and the Logic of Names, Classes As As Many, Groups, and Plurals
    Denoting Concepts, Reference, and the Logic of Names, Classes as as Many, Groups, and Plurals Nino B. Cocchiarella Abstract Bertrand Russell introduced several novel ideas in his 1903 Principles of Mathematics that he later gave up and never went back to in his sub- sequent work. Two of these are the related notions of denoting concepts and classes as many. In this paper we reconstruct each of these notions in the framework of conceptual realism and connect them through a logic of names that encompasses both proper and common names, and among the latter complex as well as simple common names. Names, proper or com- mon, and simple or complex, occur as parts of quanti…er phrases, which in conceptual realism stand for referential concepts, i.e., cognitive capaci- ties that inform our speech and mental acts with a referential nature and account for the intentionality, or directedness, of those acts. In Russell’s theory, quanti…er phrases express denoting concepts (which do not include proper names). In conceptual realism, names, as well as predicates, can be nominalized and allowed to occur as "singular terms", i.e., as arguments of predicates. Occurring as a singular term, a name denotes, if it denotes at all, a class as many, where, as in Russell’s theory, a class as many of one object is identical with that one object, and a class as many of more than one object is a plurality, i.e., a plural object that we call a group. Also, as in Russell’stheory, there is no empty class as many.
    [Show full text]
  • Philosophy of Language in the Twentieth Century Jason Stanley Rutgers University
    Philosophy of Language in the Twentieth Century Jason Stanley Rutgers University In the Twentieth Century, Logic and Philosophy of Language are two of the few areas of philosophy in which philosophers made indisputable progress. For example, even now many of the foremost living ethicists present their theories as somewhat more explicit versions of the ideas of Kant, Mill, or Aristotle. In contrast, it would be patently absurd for a contemporary philosopher of language or logician to think of herself as working in the shadow of any figure who died before the Twentieth Century began. Advances in these disciplines make even the most unaccomplished of its practitioners vastly more sophisticated than Kant. There were previous periods in which the problems of language and logic were studied extensively (e.g. the medieval period). But from the perspective of the progress made in the last 120 years, previous work is at most a source of interesting data or occasional insight. All systematic theorizing about content that meets contemporary standards of rigor has been done subsequently. The advances Philosophy of Language has made in the Twentieth Century are of course the result of the remarkable progress made in logic. Few other philosophical disciplines gained as much from the developments in logic as the Philosophy of Language. In the course of presenting the first formal system in the Begriffsscrift , Gottlob Frege developed a formal language. Subsequently, logicians provided rigorous semantics for formal languages, in order to define truth in a model, and thereby characterize logical consequence. Such rigor was required in order to enable logicians to carry out semantic proofs about formal systems in a formal system, thereby providing semantics with the same benefits as increased formalization had provided for other branches of mathematics.
    [Show full text]
  • Truth and the Ambiguity of Negation
    10 Teresa Marques Truth and the Ambiguity of Negation 1 Introduction The concept of negation is intertwined with the most fundamental principles that appear to govern the notions of truth and falsehood. We need negation to express conditions for falsehood, or at least of untruth; moreover! whether the principle of bivalence holds or has genuine counterexamples depends on what truth and falsity require, and thus also on what negation is. Semantic paradoxes like the liar! but also other cases, from pre- supposition failure to borderline cases of vagueness, seem to offer putative counterexamples to bivalence. &ut how is a putative coun- terexample to be described? Prima facie, a counterexample to biva- lence is an item (of the relevant sort) that is neither true nor false. We need negation to express that something is a counterexample to the principle as much as we need negation to explain when some- thing is not true, or when something is false. +owever! as a simple argument purports to show , we will refer to it as ‘the Incompatibility Argument’ ,! the assumption that the very same principles for truth and falsehood are correct taken together with the assumption that there are counterexamples to bivalence leads to a contradiction. /// Teresa Marques Many believe that the principles for truth and falsehood are essen% tial for what truth is. The idea that the schemas are essentially correct can be understood in different ways. Each of these ways requires different commitments to the role the schemas are to play. One may just hold (i) that the truth-schemas are extensionally correct, and that all their instances must be true,1 or (ii) one can add that the schemas are not only extensionally correct, but also that they display something essential about truth, for instance that the meaning of ‘true’ is conveyed in instances of the schemas, or that grasping the concept of truth requires assenting to all their instances.
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture 18: Negative Contexts and Intensional Contexts: Similarities and Differences 1. Introduction to the Puzzle
    The Structure of Meaning, Lecture 18 Barbara H. Partee, May 22, 2006 Lecture 18: Negative Contexts and Intensional Contexts: Similarities and Differences 1. Introduction to the puzzle..........................................................................................................................................1 2. Background. “Scope ambiguity,” NP interpretations, and the semantics of operators.............................................2 3. Natural language patterns – strategies of marking different interpretations differently. ...........................................4 3.1. Some languages mark opaque readings, e.g. Romance languages - subjunctive................................................4 3.2. Negative Polarity Items (NPIs)...........................................................................................................................5 3.3. Russian Genitive of Negation and intensional verbs ..........................................................................................6 4. Hypotheses ................................................................................................................................................................7 4.1 Scope differences.................................................................................................................................................7 4.2 Possible non-uniform NP meanings. .................................................................................................................7 4.3 Property types and other “demotions”
    [Show full text]
  • On the Semantics of Propositional Attitude Reports
    GOTHENBURG MONOGRAPHS IN LINGUISTICS 13 ON THE SEMANTICS OF PROPOSITIONAL ATTITUDE REPORTS Mats DahllofÈ ¡¢ £ ¤ Department of Linguistics GoteborÈ g University, Sweden 1995 ABSTRACT This is a study on the truth-conditional semantics of propositional attitude attribution statements. It is suggested that attitude contents should be characterized in terms of abstract concepts, which are connected by way of a number of basic logical relations derived from a version of Quinean predicate-functor logic. This allows us to handle all logical relationships de®nable by ®rst-order predicate calculus in a way that does not exploit variable-like entities. Individual, predicate, and propositional concepts are recognized. These concepts provide the relata of various mental attitude relations and may denote (or may fail to denote) other kinds of object. The resulting framework is itself formalized in ®rst-order predicate calculus. This proposal is intended to give an account that is to a high degree independent of any particular view of the metaphysical, psychological or epistemological status of propositional attitude reports. An overview of different kinds of propositional and other conceptual attitude report constructions in English is given and it is suggested how the framework proposed can be applied to them. KEY WORDS: Meaning, Semantics, Logic, Propositional Attitudes, Truth Conditions, Intentions, Concepts, Reference, Predicate-Functor Logic, Intentionality Published by: The Department of Linguistics, GoteborÈ g University, 412 98 GoteborÈ g, Sweden.
    [Show full text]
  • Indicative Versus Counterfactual Conditionals, Classical Versus Non
    (to appear in Philosophical Issues 16 (2006)) Indicative versus Subjunctive Conditionals, Congruential versus Non-Hyperintensional Contexts Timothy Williamson §0. A familiar if obscure idea: an indicative conditional presents its consequent as holding in the actual world on the supposition that its antecedent so holds, whereas a subjunctive conditional merely presents its consequent as holding in a world, typically counterfactual, in which its antecedent holds. Consider this pair: (1) If you had starved as a child, you would have been as tall now as you actually are. (2) If you starved as a child, you are as tall now as you actually are. I do not know how tall you are; I doubt that you starved as a child. My empirical evidence tells strongly against (1), by indicating that childhood malnutrition tends to reduce adult height. In contrast, (2) is logically trivial. How things actually are includes your actual height, whether or not it also includes your childhood starvation; how things would have been if you had starved as a child does not include your actual height. A 1 similar contrast arises between metaphysical and epistemic modalities. As a claim of metaphysical possibility, (3) is obviously true, while as a claim of epistemic possibility (4) is obviously false: (3) You could have been less tall now than you actually are. (4) You may be less tall now than you actually are. Such differences are no mere curiosities of natural language. They exemplify a very general difference between two kinds of sentential context. This paper expounds the general difference, and uses it to derive constraints on the semantics of indicative conditionals.
    [Show full text]
  • Missing Modes of Supposition
    Missing Modes of Supposition '1 The Modes of Common Personal Supposition Supposition theory is a medieval account of the semantics of terms as they function in sentences. The word >supposition= is probably interchangeable with our word >reference=, but I=ll leave it as >supposition= so as to identify the medieval source of the theory I discuss here. Medieval writers had a great deal to say about supposition; this paper focuses on only one part of the theory, the study of what is now generally called the theory of modes of common personal supposition. The word >common= is used here as in >common term=, as opposed to >singular term=, but in fact, the theory focuses on common terms along with the quantifiers that accompany them. The word >personal= is a technical term indicating that the word in question is used in its normal way to refer to the things it is true of, as distinguished from occurrences in which it refers to itself (as in >Giraffe is a noun=) or refers to a particular thing intimately related to the things it is true of (as in >Giraffe is a species=). So we might describe this as a theory of the modes of reference of quantified common terms used normally. There are three such modes, illustrated as follows: DETERMINATE: The term >dingo= has determinate supposition in: Some dingo is a predator. Determinate supposition has something to do with existential quantification. Exactly what it has to do with existential quantification is a question to be discussed. 1 DISTRIBUTIVE: The term >dingo= has distributive supposition in: Every dingo is an animal.
    [Show full text]