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FAU Institutional Repository http://purl.fcla.edu/fau/fauir This paper was submitted by the faculty of FAU’s Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute. Notice: ©2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This manuscript is an author version with the final publication available at http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/ and may be cited as: Tucker, J. W., Jr., Venizelos, A., & Benetti, D. D. (2000). Grouper culture. In R. R. Stickney (ed.), Encyclopedia of Aquaculture. (pp. 418- 421). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 418 GROUPER CULlURE BIBLIOGRAPHY REPROD UCTIO N 1. N. Stone, E. Park, L. Dorm an, and H. Thomforde, Baitfish. Most groupers studied mature within 2 to 6 yrs (7). Many Culture in Arkansas: Golden Shiners, Goldfish and Fathead serranids are pro togynous hermaphrodites (8,9). Som e Minnows, Uni versity of Arkansas at Pin e Bluff, Pine Bluff, AK; species, as a rule, change from female to male with age, 1997. while others might change only if there is a shortage of 2. RG. Piper, LB. McElwain, L.E.Orm e, J .P. McCraren , L.G. males. In nature, Nassau groupers (Epinep helus striatus) Fowler, and J.R Leonard, Fish Hatchery Man agement, US spawn in large aggregations (100s to 1,000s of fish) Department of the In terior, Washington, DC, 1982. with a sex ratio near 1: 1. Gag groupers (Myc teroperca 3. N. Stone, E. Park, L. Dorman, and H. Thomforde, World microlepis ) spawn in harems, with a sex ratio often near Aquaculture, December 5- 13 (1997). 1 male : 10 females. For both species, individual spawning 4. J .T. Davis, in RR Stickn ey, ed., Cult ure of Nonsalmonid events usu ally involve small numbers of fish (e.g., 2 to 5). Freshwater Fishes, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1993, pp.307- 321. Small serranids often spawn in pairs without aggregating. A few species are simultaneou s hermaphrodites, but self fertilization seems to be rare. See also BAITFISH CULTURE . Voluntary spawning of captive groupers has occurred mostly with well-fed, uncrowded fish during the natural spawningseason under conditions of ambient temperature GROUPERCULT U RE and partial or total natural light (7,10). Day length seems to be a less important stimulus than temperature. At least J OHN W. TUCKER, J R. 27 serranid species have spawned voluntarily in captivity, Harbor Branch Oceanographic In stitution with groupers spawning in 1- to 21,200-m3 tanks or ponds Fort Pierce, Florida and 26- to 75-m3 cages. In Kuwait, 40 female and 9 male ARIETTAVENIZELOS orangespotted groupers (Epinephelus coioides) held in a National Marine Fish eries Service , NOAA concrete tank spawned almost continuously for 50 days Virginia Key, Florida during April to June (11). In the Philippines, 1 female orangespotted grouper with 2 males held in a 48-m 3 DANIELD. BENETTI cage spawned 5 to 10 times a month for 4 months (12). Uni versity of Miami In Singapore, during December 1989 to October 1990 , Miami, Florid a 10 fem ale and 10 male brownmarbled groupers held in a 75-m3 cage spa wned 2 to 5 times during each of O UTLINE nine periods of 2 to 6 days , usu ally starting between the last qu arter moon and new moon (13). In Taiw an, Reprodu ction 8 female leopard coral trout held in a pond produced Larval Foods eggs 110 times during May to October (Che n et al., 1991a, cited in 7). In Florida, 3 or 4 female Nassau Compound Feeds groupers and 2 males held in a 37-m 3 raceway spawned Raising Groupers to Market Size near the full moon in March and April, with each Health female spawning as many as 9 times a day for 1 to 4 Annual Production days (14). General Comments Hormone-induced ovulation of rip e, wild , or captive Bibliography groupers also is reliable (7,10). At least 31 serranid species have been induced to ovulate . Typically, a female with fully Groupers are classified in 14 gene ra of the subfamily yolked oocytes will ovula te within 24 to 72 hours (usually Epinephelinae, which comprises at least hal f the approxi 36 to 50 hours) after the first of 1 to 3 injections of 500 to mately 449 species in the family Serranidae. Throughout 1,000 IV human chorionic gonadotropin/kg body weigh t. most warm and temperate marine regions, serranids are Similar results have been obtained for several species highly value d for food, and both small and large sp ecies given 1 to 3 injections of 10 to 50 ug gonadotropin releasing are kept in aquariums. Maximum size ranges from 12 em hormone analog/kg body weight. GnRH-analogue implants (4.7 in .) total length (TL) for the Pacific creole-fish (Paran were effective for spa wning white groupers tEpinephelue thias colonus) to more than 4 m (13 ft) TL (440 kg, 968 lb) aeneus ). For six grouper species with egg diameters of 800 for the groper , or brindlebass, (Epinephelus lanceolatus ). to 1,000 urn, the minimum effective oocyte diameter before Several grouper species have been raised commercially inj ection was in th e range 41 to 61%. For Nas sau groupers, (mainly in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the Southeast Asian the time from ovul ation to overripeness is only 1 to 2 hours region), usually by growing out captured wild juveniles. at 26 °C. Some species can grow from 15-20 g (0.5- 0.7 oz) to 1 kg Nassau gro upers at 6 kg can produ ce about 900 ,000 (2.2 lb) in about a year. Research has been conducted eggs per day by natural or hormone-induced ovul ation. At on spaw ning and rearing of dozens of serranid species the same size, hormone-treated brownmarbled groupers (Table 1). Th e main accomplishments are reviewed here. can produce 1.7 million eggs. Hormone-treated 1.5-kg Additional information can be found in various publica squaretail coraltrout can produce 400 ,000 eggs. AI-kg tions (1- 7). (2.2 Ib) redspotted grouper can produce more than GROUPER CULTURE 419 Table 1. Some Characteristics of Representative Groupers Raised Commercially (C) and Experimentally (E) Egg Larval Market Maximum Type of Diam eter Duration Source of Size Maximum Age Species Culture" Locations (11 m) (d) Juveniles" (kg) Size" (yr) Polka dot grouper C SEAsia 890 W 0.5 90 em Cromileptes alt ivelis Redspotted grouper C J apan 825 45-50 H,W 0.5 5 kg,60 em > 6 Epinephelus akaara Hong Kong Squaretail grouper C Hong Kong W 60 em Epinephelus areolatus Orangespotted grouper C SE Asia 807 35-40 H,W 2:95 em Epinephelus coioides Middle Eas t Brownmarbl ed grouper C SEAsia 840 35- 40 H,W 0.6 120 em Epinephelus fuscoguttatus Malabar grouper C SE Asia 852 36-60 H,W 0.6 > 25 kg, 115 em Epin ephelu s malabaricus Sevenband grouper C J ap an 820 ~6 0 120 em Epinephelus septemfasciatus Nassau grouper E Carib bean 920 46-70 H 2 > 25 kg, 120 em 16 Epin ephelus striatus Greasy grouper C SE Asia 900 36-50+ H,W 0.6 75 em ~ 2 5 Epinephelus tau vina Leopard eora ltrout C SE Asia 875 ~5 5 H,W 2:20 kg, 80 em Plectropomus leopardus Chinese pereh C PR China ~2 0 00 H 0.45 > 5 kg S iniperca chuatsi · C = commercial, E = exper imental. bH = from a hatchery, W = from wild stocks. <Whole weight or tota l length. 5 million eggs in a season, and a 6-kg Nassau grouper are not digested well until at least 2 to 4 weeks. Weaning can produce 3.3 million eggs in a 4-day period. can be comp leted just before or during transformation into With good timing and luck, groupers have been cau ght the juvenile stage, which occurs at 35 to 70 days after just before spawning and held in tanks or cages until they hatching, depending on species. ovulate naturally. Th e eggs are stripped , or rarely, the fish are left in the tank for voluntary or accidental fertilization to occur. COMPOUND FE EDS In nature, juvenile and adult groupers eat mainly fish , LARVAL FOOD S crabs, shri mp, mantis shri mp, lobsters, and molluscs (16). Red groupers (Epinephelus mario) seem to prefer crabs With the notable exception of Siniperca spp., which have first, then shrimp. In Thai land and other areas , groupers large eggs and hatchlings ( ~5 mm) and are easy to feed have been fed mainly trash fish (with vitamins and and rear, grouper larvae usually are small and fragile and minerals) secondarily moist or semimoist pellets, and have relatively small mouths at first feeding. Yolk and oil rarely hi gh-protein dry pellets (17). A suitable starter tend to be exh austed quickly (7,15). Typically, the larval feed for gro upers would contain 50 to 60% high-qu ali ty period is long, and groupers tend to require live food longer protein, 12 to 16% fat, no more than 15% carbohydrate, than most marine fishe s that have been reared. less than 3% fiber, and less than 16% ash (7). Groupers Grouper larvae usually are raised in green water larger than 500 g (1.1 Ib) can be given a feed with (N annochloropsis, Tetraselmis, Chlorella spp.). At first approximately 45% protein, about 9% fat, and no more feeding, most species can eat small rotifers, bu t oyster or than 20% carbohydrate, 4% fiber, and 22% ash. Lower clam eggs and trochophore larvae sometimes are used as qu ality feeds likely would result in a higherfeed conversion a supplement.