Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

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Chapter© Jones & 1 Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Basic Concepts of © JonesOperating & Bartlett Learning, Systems LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

1.1 ©Introduction Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

The operating system is an essential part of a computer system; it is an intermediary component between the application programsand the hardware. The ultimate purpose of an operating system is twofold: (1) to provide various services to users’ programs © Jones & Bartlettand (2) toLearning, control the LLC functioning of the computer© system Jones hardware & Bartlett in an Learning, eﬃcient and LLC NOT FOR SALEeﬀective OR manner.DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Thischapter presentsthe basicconceptsand the abstract views of operating systems. This preliminary material is important in understanding more clearly the com- plexities of the structure of operating systems and how the various services are provided. General and brief referencesto Unix and Windowsare included throughout the chapter. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Appendix LLC A presents a detailed explanation© Jones & of theBartlett Linux commands.Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1.1.1 Software Components

A program is a sequence of instructions that enables a computer to execute a speciﬁc task. Before a program executes, it has to be translated from its original text form (source© Jones program) & Bartlett into a Learning, machine language LLC program. The program© thenJones needs & Bartlett to be Learning, LLC linkedNOT andFOR loaded SALE into OR memory. DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The software components are the collection of programsthat execute in the computer. Theseprogramsperform computationsand control, manage, and carry out other important tasks. There are two general types of software components:

1 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. ©✐ Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ✐ NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ✐ ✐ ✐ ✐

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2 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

System© Jones software & Bartlettisthe setof Learning, programsthat LLC control the activitiesand functionsof© Jones the & Bartlett Learning, LLC variousNOT hardware FOR components,SALE OR programmingDISTRIBUTION tools and abstractions, andNOT other FOR utilities SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to monitor the state of the computer system. This software forms an environment for the programmersto develop and execute their programs(collectively known asapplication software). There are actually two types of users: application programmers and end users. The most important part of system software is the operating system (OS) that © Jones directly& Bartlett controls Learning, and manages LLC the hardware resources© of Jones the computer. & Bartlett The OSLearning, also LLC NOT FORprovides SALE a OR set ofDISTRIBUTION services to the user programs. The mostNOT common FOR examples SALE of OR operating DISTRIBUTION systems are Linux, Unix, Windows, MacOS, and OS/2. Application software are the user programs and consists of those programs that solve speciﬁc problems for the users and execute under the control of the operating system. Application programsare developed by individualsand organizationsfor solvingspeciﬁc © Jones & Bartlett Learning,problems. LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1.2 Operating Systems

An operating© Jones system & Bartlett (OS) is aLearning, large and complex LLC set of system programs© Jones that control & Bartlett Learning, LLC the variousNOT operationsFOR SALE of a OR computer DISTRIBUTION system and provide a collection of servicesNOT FOR to other SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (user) programs. The purpose of an operating system involves two key goals:

• Availability of a convenient, easy-to-use, and powerful set of services that are provided to the users and the application programs in the computer system © Jones & Bartlett• Management Learning, of the computerLLC resources in the most© Jones efficient & manner Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Application and system programmers directly or indirectly communicate with the operating system in order to request some of these services. The services provided by an operating system are implemented as a large set of system functions that include scheduling of programs, memory management, device © Jones & Bartlett Learning,management, LLC file management, network© management, Jones & Bartlett and other Learning, more advanced LLC services NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONrelated to protection and security. TheNOT operating FOR SALE system OR is also DISTRIBUTION considered a huge resource manager and performs a variety of services as efficiently as possible to ensure the desired performance of the system. Figure 1.1 shows an external view of a computer system. It illustrates the programmers and end users communicating with the operating system and other system software.© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC TheNOT most FOR important SALE activeOR DISTRIBUTION resource in the computer system is theNOT CPU. FOR Other SALE OR DISTRIBUTION important resources are memory and I/O devices. Allocation and deallocation of all resources in the system are handled by various resource managers of the operating system. General-purpose operating systems support two general modes of operation: (1) user © Jones &mode Bartlett and (2) Learning, kernel mode, LLC which is sometimes called the© supervisor,Jones & protected,Bartlett Learning, or priv- LLC NOT FORilege SALE mode. OR A userDISTRIBUTION process will normally execute in userNOT mode. FOR Some SALE instructions, OR DISTRIBUTION such aslow-level I/O functionsand memory accesstospecial areaswhere the OS maintains

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1.2 Operating Systems 3

Application Other system programmers programs © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Operating System system programmers

Figure 1.1 An external view of a computer system.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC itsNOT data FOR structures, SALE can OR execute DISTRIBUTION only in kernel mode. As such, theNOT OS in FOR kernel SALE mode OR DISTRIBUTION has direct control of the computer system.

© Jones1.2.1 & Bartlett Operating Learning, System LLC Interfaces © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEUsers OR and DISTRIBUTION application programmers can communicateNOT with FOR an operating SALE OR system DISTRIBUTION through itsinterfaces.There are three general levelsof interfacesprovided by an operating system:

• Graphical user interface (GUI) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION• Command line interpreter (alsoNOT called FOR the SALE shell) OR DISTRIBUTION • System-call interface

Figure 1.2 illustrates the basic structure of an operating system and shows the three© Jones levels & of Bartlett interfaces, Learning, which are found LLC immediately above the© kernel. Jones The & highest Bartlett Learning, LLC levelNOT is FOR the graphical SALE OR user DISTRIBUTION interface (GUI), which allows I/O interactionNOT FOR with SALE a user OR DISTRIBUTION through intuitive icons, menus, and other graphical objects. With these objects, the user interacts with the operating system in a relatively easy and convenient manner— for example, using the click of a mouse to select an option or command. The most common GUI examplesare the Windowsdesktopand the X-Window in Unix. © Jones & BartlettThe Learning, user at this LLC level is completely separated© fromJones any & intrinsic Bartlett detail Learning, about the LLC NOT FOR SALEunderlying OR DISTRIBUTION system. This level of operating system interfaceNOT FOR is not SALE considered OR anDISTRIBUTION essential part of the operating system; it is rather an add-on system software component.

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4 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

System-call interface © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONProcess, memory, file, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and device management Kernel

Hardware control © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Figure 1.2 Basic structure of an operating system.

The© Jones second & level Bartlett of interface, Learning, the command LLC line interpreter, or shell,© Jones is a text-& Bartlett Learning, LLC orientedNOT interface. FOR SALE Advanced OR usersandapplication DISTRIBUTION programmerswill normallyNOT directlyFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION communicate with the operating system at this level. In general, the GUI and the shell are at the same level in the structure of an operating system. The third level, the system-call interface, is used by the application programs to request the various services provided by the operating system by invoking or calling © Jones &system Bartlett functions. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1.2.2 Multi-Level Views of an Operating System

The overall structure of an operating system can be more easily studied by dividing it into the various software components and using a top-down (layered) approach. This © Jones & Bartlett Learning,division includes LLC the separation of the© diﬀerent Jones interface & Bartlett levels, Learning, as previously LLC discussed, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONand the additional components of theNOT operating FOR system.SALE TheOR higherDISTRIBUTION the level of the layer, the simpler the interaction with the system. The top layer provides the easiest interface to the human operators and to users interacting with the system. Any layer uses the services or functions provided by the next lower layer. As mentioned previously, the main goal of an operating system is to provide services to the© variousJones user & Bartlett and system Learning, programs. LLC The operating system is structured© Jones into& Bartlett Learning, LLC severalNOT components, FOR SALE each OR one providingDISTRIBUTION its own group of services. ForNOT a more FOR clear SALE OR DISTRIBUTION understandingof the complexitiesof how the variousservicesareprovided, two abstract viewsof the OS are presented: (1) the external view and (2) the internal view.

1.2.2.1 External View of an Operating System © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORThe SALE external OR viewDISTRIBUTION of an operating system is the set ofNOT interfaces FOR discussed SALE OR previously. DISTRIBUTION These are sometimes referred to as the abstract views. Users of a computer system

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1.2 Operating Systems 5

directly© Jones or indirectly& Bartlett communicate Learning, with LLC the operating system in order© Jones to request & Bartlett and Learning, LLC receiveNOT FOR some SALE type of OR service DISTRIBUTION provided by the operating system. UsersNOT and FOR application SALE OR DISTRIBUTION programs view the computer system at the higher level(s) of the operating system interface. The low-level OS structures(internal view) and the hardware detailsare hidden behind the OS interface. Figure 1.3 illustrates the abstract views of a computer system. Only the upper- © Jones & Bartlettlevel abstract Learning, views are LLC important to users of the© OS. Jones The low-level & Bartlett OS view Learning, and the LLC NOT FOR SALEhardware OR DISTRIBUTION view are relevant only to system specialists.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

GUI Shell Abstract OS System views © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©call Jones interface & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Kernel Low-level OS view

Figure 1.3 Abstract views of a computer system. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OneOR ofDISTRIBUTION the main principlesapplied in the designofNOT theFOR external SALE view OR concept DISTRIBUTION is simplicity. The system interfaces hide the details of how the underlying (lower-level) machinery operates. The operational model of the computer system presented to the user should be relatively easy to use and is an abstract model of the operations of the system. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,The LLC abstractionprovided by the© OSJones interfacesgivesusersandapplication & Bartlett Learning, LLC programs NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthe appearance of a simpler machine.NOT The FOR various SALE programs OR alsoDISTRIBUTION convey the illusion that each one executeson itsown machine; thisabstractionissometimescalledthe abstract machine view.

1.2.2.2 Internal View of an Operating System © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC TheNOT system FOR servicesSALE interfaceOR DISTRIBUTION (or the system call interface) separatesNOT the FORkernel SALEfrom OR DISTRIBUTION the application layer. Located above the hardware, the kernel isthe core and the most critical part of the operating system and needs to be always resident in memory. A detailed knowledge about the diﬀerent components of the operating system, including these lower-level components, corresponds to an internal view of the system. © Jones & BartlettIn studyingLearning, the internalLLC view of the operating© Jones system, & it Bartlett becomes importantLearning, to LLC NOT FOR SALEidentify OR the DISTRIBUTION variouscomponentsof the OS that establishpoliciesforNOT FOR SALE the variousservices OR DISTRIBUTION they support and the mechanisms used to implement these policies.

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6 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

It© was Jones previously & Bartlett noted that Learning, the various LLC services provided by the operating© Jones systems & Bartlett Learning, LLC includeNOT process FOR management, SALE OR memoryDISTRIBUTION management, device management,NOT ﬁle FOR manage- SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ment, network management, and other more advanced services related to protection and security. The most important functional components of the operating system are asfollows:

• Resource manager

These components are actually modules of the operating system and are strongly related. In addition to these basic functions, most operating systems have some type of network© Jones management, & Bartlett security Learning, management, LLC and other more advanced© functions. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ProcessNOT Manager FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The process manager can be considered the most important component of the operating system. It carries out several services such as creating, suspending (blocking), executing, terminating, and destroying processes. © Jones & BartlettWith multiprogramming, Learning, LLC several active processes are© storedJones and & keptBartlett in memory Learning, at LLC NOT FORthe SALE same time.OR DISTRIBUTION If there is only one CPU in the system,NOT then onlyFOR one SALE process OR can DISTRIBUTION be in execution at a given time; the other processes are waiting for CPU service. The decision regarding which process to execute next is taken by the scheduler. The dispatcher allocates the CPU to a process and deallocates the CPU from another process. This switching of the CPU from one process to another process is called context switching © Jones & Bartlett Learning,and isconsideredoverhead LLC time. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Memory Manager The memory manager controlsthe allocation and deallocation of memory. It imposes certain policiesand mechanismsformemory management. Thiscomponent alsoin- cludespoliciesand mechanismsformemory protection. Relevant memory management schemes© Jones are paging, & Bartlett segmentation, Learning, and virtual LLC memory. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Resource Manager The resource manager facilitatesthe allocation and deallocation of resourcestothe requesting processes. Functions of this component include the maintenance of resource © Jones &tableswith Bartlett information Learning, such LLC asthe number of resourcesofeach© Jones type that& Bartlett are available Learning, LLC NOT FORand SALE the number OR DISTRIBUTION of resources of each type that have beenNOT allocated FOR to SALE speciﬁc OR processes. DISTRIBUTION The accessmode for the variousresourcesisanothertype of function.

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1.3 Categories of Operating Systems 7

File© Jones Manager & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC TheNOTfile FOR manager SALEallows OR users DISTRIBUTION and processes to create and delete filesNOT and FOR directories. SALE In OR DISTRIBUTION most modern operating systems, files are associated with mass storage devices such as magnetic tapes and disks. Data can be read and/or written to a file using functions such asopen file, read data from file, write data to file, and closefile. The Unix operating system also uses files to represent I/O devices (including the main input device and a © Jones & Bartlettmain output Learning, device such LLC as the console keyboard© and Jones video screen).& Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Device Manager For the variousdevicesin the computer system,the device manager providesan appropriate level of abstraction to handle system devices. For every device type, a device © Jones & Bartlett Learning,driver LLC program isincluded in the© OS. Jones The device& Bartlett manager Learning, operatesin LLC combination NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONwith the resource manager and fileNOT manager. FOR Usually,SALE OR user DISTRIBUTION processes are not provided direct access to system resources. Instead, processes request services to the file manager and/or the resource manager.

A common way to classify operating systems is based on how user programs are pro- cessed. These systems can be classiﬁed into one of the following categories: © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC • NOT FOR SALE ORBatch DISTRIBUTION systems, in which a set of jobs is submittedNOT FOR in sequenceSALE OR for processing.DISTRIBUTION These systems have a relatively long average turnaround period (interval from job arrival time to completion time) for jobs.

• Interactive systems, which support interactive computing for users connected to the computer system via communication lines. The most common type of op- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCerating systems that support© Jones interactive & Bartlett computing Learning, is time-sharing LLC. Figure 1.4 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONillustrates the general structureNOT of FOR a time-sharing SALE OR system. DISTRIBUTION A time-sharing system is an example of a multiuser system, which means that multiple users are accessing the system at the same time.

• Real-time systems, which support application programs with very tight timing © Jonesconstraints. & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Hybrid systems, which support batch and interactive computing.

The most general classiﬁcation of operating systems is regarding the application environment and includesthe following categories: © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE• ORGeneral DISTRIBUTION purpose, which are used mainly toNOT develop FOR programs SALE and OR execute DISTRIBUTION these on most types of platforms.

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8 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

User n © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Hardware

• Application-dependent, which are designed for a special purpose. An example of this type is a real-time operating system that controls a power plant for the ©generation Jones & of Bartlett electricity. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Systems can also be classiﬁed as being single user or multiuser. In single-user systems, the single user has access to all resources of the system all the time. In multiuser systems, several users request access to the resources of the system simultaneously. The term job refers to a unit of work submitted by a user to the operating system. © Jones &A typicalBartlett job Learning, consists of the LLC following parts: © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE• A sequence OR DISTRIBUTION of commands to the operating systemNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • A program either in a source language or in binary form • A set of input data used by the program when it executes © Jones & Bartlett Learning,The sequenceofLLC commandsin a job© includescommandsforJones & Bartlett compilingLearning, the LLC source NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONprogram provided (with an appropriateNOT compiler), FOR linking SALE the OR program DISTRIBUTION with appropriate libraries, loading the linked program, and executing the program with the input data provided. The term job was used in the early batch operating systems. The term process basically refers to an execution instance of a program. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1.4 SmallNOT and FOR Specialized SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Operating Systems NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

A mobile operating system, also known as a mobile OS, a mobile platform, or a handheld operating system, is the operating system that controls a mobile device. Compared to © Jones &the Bartlett standard Learning, general-purpose LLC operating systems, mobile© operating Jones systems& Bartlett are currently Learning, LLC NOT FORsomewhat SALE OR simpler, DISTRIBUTION and focus on wireless versions of broadbandNOT FOR and SALE local connectivity, OR DISTRIBUTION mobile multimedia formats, and diﬀerent input methods.

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1.5 Brief History of Operating Systems 9

© JonesMobile operating& Bartlett systems Learning, that can LLC be found on smartphones include© Jones Nokia’s & Bartlett Sym- Learning, LLC bianNOT OS, FOR Apple’sIOS, SALE OR RIM’sBlackBerry DISTRIBUTION OS, WindowsPhone, Linux,NOT Palm FOR WebOS, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Google’sAndroid, and Nokia’sMaemo. Android, WebOS, and Maemo are in turn built on top of Linux, and the iPhone OS isderived from the BSD and NeXTSTEP operating systems, which are all related to Unix. An embedded operating system is an operating system for embedded computer © Jones & Bartlettsystems. Learning, These operating LLC systems are designed to© be Jones very compact & Bartlett and eﬃcient, Learning, with LLC NOT FOR SALEsimilar OR functions DISTRIBUTION that non-embedded computer operatingNOT FOR systems SALE provide, OR DISTRIBUTION but which are more specialized depending on the applications they run. Most embedded operating systems are real-time operating systems. Examples of systems that use embedded operating systems include: Automated Teller Machines, cash registers, CCTV systems, a TV box set, a GPS, jukeboxes, and © Jones & Bartlett Learning,missiles. LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1.5 Brief History of Operating Systems

The© Jones development & Bartlett of operating Learning, systems LLC can be summarized as follows:© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1. Early computer systems had no operating systems and the programs had to directly control all necessary hardware components.

2. The ﬁrst types of operating systems were the simple batch operating systems in which users had to submit their jobs on punched cards or tape. The computer © Jones & Bartlettoperator Learning, grouped LLC all the jobsin batchesand© stacked Jones theseon & Bartlett the main Learning, input LLC NOT FOR SALE ORdevice, DISTRIBUTION which wasa fastcard reader or tape reader.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION One of the most important concepts for these systems was automatic job sequenc- ing. An important performance metric for these systems was the CPU idle time, which aﬀected the CPU utilization. The most important performance metric from © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCthe user point of view was© the Jones turnaround & Bartlett time, which Learning, is the interval LLC from the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONsubmission of a job until theNOT output FOR was SALE generated. OR DISTRIBUTION 3. The next types of operating systems developed were batch systems with multiprogramming. These systems were capable of handling several programs active in memory at any time and required more advanced memory management. When a © Jonesprogram & Bartlett stopped to Learning, wait for I/O LLC in these systems, the OS was© able Jones to switch & Bartlett very Learning, LLC rapidly from the currently executing program to the next. The short interval was NOTcalled FORcontext SALE switch OR DISTRIBUTION time. Multiprogramming normally improvesNOT FOR the processor SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and device utilization.

4. Time-sharing operating systems were the next important generation of systems developed. The most signiﬁcant advantage of these systems was the capability to © Jones & Bartlettprovide Learning, interactive LLC computing to the users© connected Jones & to Bartlett the system. Learning, The basic LLC NOT FOR SALE ORtechnique DISTRIBUTION employed on these systems was thatNOT the FOR processor’s SALE time OR was DISTRIBUTION uniformly shared by the user programs. The operating system provided CPU service during a small and ﬁxed interval to a program and then switched to the next program.

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10 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

5. ©Variations Jones & of Bartlett multiprogramming Learning, operating LLC systems were developed© Jones with more& Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTadvanced FOR techniques. SALE OR These DISTRIBUTION included improved hardware supportNOT for interruptFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION mechanisms and allowed implementation of better scheduling techniques based on priorities. Real-time operating systems were developed. 6. Advancesin hardware and memory management techniquesallowed development of operating systems with newer and more powerful features, such as paging and © Jones & Bartlettvirtual memory,Learning, multi-level LLC cache, and others. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Most of the development of modern operating systems has focused on networking, distribution, reliability, protection, and security. Several widely used operating systems are available today:

© Jones & Bartlett Learning,• Microsoft LLC Windows, a family of© systems Jones that & Bartlett includes Learning, 98, Me, CE, LLC 2000, XP, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONVista, Windows 7, and others NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Linux (LinusTorvalds,FSF GNU)

• OSF-1 (OSF, DEC) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC • Solaris (Sun Microsystems) NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • IRIX (Silicon Graphics)

• OS2 (IBM) © Jones & Bartlett• OS/390 Learning, (IBM) LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE• VMS OR (Dec/Compaq/HP) DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

• MacOS X (Apple)

The three most widely used operating systems are Linux, Unix, and Windows. These actually represent two diﬀerent families of operating systems that have evolved over the years:© Unix/Linux Jones & andBartlett Microsoft Learning, Windows. LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1.6.1 Unix

Unix wasoriginally introduced in 1974 by DennisRitchie and Ken Thompsonwhile © Jones &working Bartlett at AT&T Learning, Bell Labs. LLC The operating system was© developed Jones & on Bartlett a small computer Learning, LLC and had two design goals: small size of the software system and portability. By 1980, NOT FORmany SALE of theOR users DISTRIBUTION were universities and research labs.NOT Two FOR versions SALE became OR the DISTRIBUTION best known systems: System V Unix (AT&T) and BSD Unix (University of California at Berkeley).

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1.7 64-bit Operating Systems 11

© JonesUnix became & Bartlett the dominant Learning, time-sharing LLC OS used in small and large© Jones computers. & Bartlett It is Learning, LLC oneNOT of theFOR first SALE operating OR systems DISTRIBUTION written almost entirely in C, a high-levelNOT FOR programming SALE OR DISTRIBUTION language. The Unix family includes Linux, which was primarily designed and first implemented by LinusTorvalsand other collaboratorsin 1991. Torvalsreleasedthe source code on the Internet and invited designers and programmers to contribute their modi- © Jones & Bartlettficationsand Learning, enhancements.Today LLC Linux isfreely available© Jones and & hasbeen Bartlett implemented Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEin many OR small DISTRIBUTION and large computers. This operatingNOT system FOR has SALE also become OR DISTRIBUTION important in commercial software systems.

1.6.2 Microsoft Windows

© Jones & Bartlett Learning,Windows LLC operating systems are considered© Jones the& Bartlett most widely Learning, used family LLC of operating NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONsystems released by Microsoft. TheseNOT systems FOR SALE were developed OR DISTRIBUTION for personal computers that use the Intel microprocessors. This group of operating systems consists of Windows 95, 98, ME, and CE, which can be considered the smaller members of the family. The larger and more powerful members of the Windows family of operating systems are WindowsNT, 2000, XP, Vista,and Windows7. © JonesThe larger & Bartlett Windows Learning, operating systems LLC include a comprehensive© Jones security & model,Bartlett Learning, LLC moreNOT functionalityFOR SALE facility OR DISTRIBUTION for network support, improved and moreNOT powerful FOR SALE virtual OR DISTRIBUTION memory management, and full implementation of the Win32 API functions.

1.6.3 Mac OS © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Mac OS X is an operating system that is really a very good development platform. Mac NOT FOR SALEOS X OR is based DISTRIBUTION on BSD (Berkeley System Distribution)NOT UNIXFOR andSALE provides OR supportDISTRIBUTION for many POSIX, Linux, and System V APIs. Apple integrated the widely used FreeBSD 5 UNIX distribution with the Mach 3.0 microkernel. ThisOS supportsmultiple development technologiesincluding UNIX, Java, the proprietary Cocoa and Carbon runtime environments, and several open source, web, © Jones & Bartlett Learning,scripting, LLC database, and development© Jones technologies. & Bartlett MacOS Learning, X provides LLC several runtime NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONenvironments integrated under aNOT single FOR desktop SALE environment. OR DISTRIBUTION The system provides an object-oriented application framework, procedural APIs, a highly-optimized and tightly integrated implementation of Java Standard Edition (JSE), BSD UNIX APIsand libraries, and X11. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1.7 NOT64-bit FOR Operating SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Systems NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

These are operating systems for 64-bit processors and systems with 64-bit computer architecture. They appeared more than three decadesago for the large mainframesof the © Jones & Bartlett’70s. Less Learning, than 10 years LLC ago, microprocessors with© 64-bit Jones architecture & Bartlett were Learning, introduced. LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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12 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

1.7.1 Microsoft© Jones & 64-bit Bartlett Windows Learning, 7 LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC WithNOT Windows FOR 7 operatingSALE OR system, DISTRIBUTION more computers are able to use theNOT 64-bit FOR edition. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION One of the important benefitsof running a 64-bit OS isthat it can addressmoremem- ory. A 32-bit version of Windows can address only up to 4GB of RAM, and effectively use only around 3GB, since that extra gigabyte is reserved. A 64-bit OS can theoreti- © Jones cally& Bartlett address Learning, around 17 billion LLC gigabytes of RAM. In practice,© Jones the & more Bartlett expensive Learning, and LLC advanced versionsof64-bit Windows7 can handle up to 192GB, while the lower-end NOT FOReditionsare SALE OR more DISTRIBUTION limited. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Of course, 64-bit operating systems still pose some challenges. The 64-bit flavors of Windows 7 and Vista need specific hardware drivers written for them—their 32- bit counterpartswon’t work. And although manufacturershave been developing 64-bit © Jones & Bartlett Learning,drivers for LLC their newer peripherals, users© Jones with older & printers,Bartlett scanners, Learning, and otherLLC hard- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONware face a tougher time trying to findNOT 64-bit FOR drivers. SALE Microsoft’s OR DISTRIBUTION Windows 7 Compat- ibility page lets you browse or search for different hardware and software to determine whether it will run under 64-bit Windows.

1.7.2 Mac OS X © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Mac OSNOT X isFOR considered SALE not OR only DISTRIBUTION the world’s most advanced operating systemNOT FOR but also SALE OR DISTRIBUTION extremely secure, compatible, and easy to use. Mac OS X Snow Leopard incorporates new technologies that oﬀer immediate improvements while also smartly setting it up for the future. 64-bit systems provide all users the tools to apply the power of 64-bit to speed up © Jones &everything Bartlett from Learning, everyday LLC applications to the most demanding© Jones scientiﬁc & Bartlett computations. Learning, LLC NOT FORAlthough SALE OR Mac DISTRIBUTION OS X isalready 64-bit capable in manyNOT ways,Snow FOR LeopardSALE OR takesthe DISTRIBUTION next big step by rewriting nearly all system applications in 64-bit code and by enabling the Mac to address massive amounts of memory. Mac OS X is faster, more secure, and completely ready to support future applications.

The two basic components of a computer system are the hardware and the software components. An operating system is a large and complex software component of a computer© Jones system & that Bartlett controls Learning, the major operations LLC of user programs and© Jones manages & all Bartlett Learning, LLC the hardwareNOT FOR resources. SALE The OR main DISTRIBUTION type of system studied in this bookNOT is the FOR general- SALE OR DISTRIBUTION purpose operating system. This chapter has presented the fundamental concepts of operating systems. Discussions on the general structure, user interfaces, and functions of an operating system have also been presented. Two examples of well-known operating systems are Linux and Microsoft Windows. © Jones & BartlettThis chapter Learning, also described LLC various views of the operating© Jones system, & Bartlett the high-level Learning, LLC NOT FORexternal SALE view,OR DISTRIBUTION also called the abstract machine view, andNOT the FOR low-level SALE or internal OR DISTRIBUTION view. The abstract machine view is seen by the programs that request some type of service

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Exercises and Questions 13

from© Jones the operating & Bartlett system. Learning, The internal LLC details of the OS are hidden© Jones below & theBartlett in- Learning, LLC terfaces.NOT FOR The SALE internal OR view DISTRIBUTION includes the components that representNOT the modules FOR SALE of the OR DISTRIBUTION OS for carrying out various functions: the process manager, memory manager, resource manager, ﬁle manager, and device manager. The processmanagerisconsideredthe most important component of the OS.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Key Terms© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEabstract OR DISTRIBUTION view ﬁle manager NOT FOR OSSALE interface OR DISTRIBUTION access time hardware component process application software input process manager batch system interactive system processing © Jones & Bartlett Learning,command LLC job© Jones & Bartlett Learning,real-time LLC system NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONcomputer system kernelNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONsoftware components context switching Linux system software CPU Mac OS Unix external view memory manager Windows © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Exercises and Questions

1. Explain the main facilities provided by an operating system. Give examples. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 2. What type of computing do you normally use with your personal computer: batch NOT FOR SALE ORor interactive? DISTRIBUTION Explain and give examples. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

3. Explain when you would prefer time-sharing processing instead of batch processing. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,4. LLCDescribe the general type of© work Jones that & you Bartlett regularly Learning, do with Windows. LLC Explain NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthe type or level of operatingNOT system FOR interface SALE thatOR youDISTRIBUTION normally use. Describe any other possible interface level that you could use with Windows.

5. Get a Unix/Linux account and log in to the system; start experimenting with a small set of commands. Get acquainted with the system’s prompt, which is © Jonesnormally & Bartlett a dollar sign. Learning, Investigate LLC the use and purpose of the following© Jones commands: & Bartlett Learning, LLC , , , , , , , , , and . NOTwho FORcd SALEpwd ls ORfinger DISTRIBUTIONmkdir cp more cat pico NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 6. From the user point of view, list and explain the main diﬀerences between Win- dowsand Linux.

7. From your point of view, what are the main limitationsor disadvantagesof Win- © Jones & Bartlettdows? Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 8. From your point of view, what are the main limitationsor disadvantagesof Linux?

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14 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

9. ©Search Jones the & Internet Bartlett and, Learning, from the user LLC point of view, list and explain© Jones the main& Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTdiﬀerencesbetween FOR SALE Unix OR andDISTRIBUTION Linux. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 10. Explain the main advantagesand disadvantagesof usinginternal and external views for the operations of a computer system, such as the one presented in this chapter. Give good arguments.

© Jones &11. BartlettLog in toLearning, Linux. At theLLC command prompt, type ©man Jones ps to read& Bartlett the online Learning, man- LLC NOT FOR SALEual documentationOR DISTRIBUTION for the ps command. After readingNOT FOR thisdocumentation, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION type ps. How many programsare active? How are they identified? Are theseall the programsin the OS? Investigatewith the optionsin the ps command. 12. Search the Internet and write a brief report on the differencesbetween Windows7 © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Home LLC Edition and the Professional© Jones Edition. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION13. Search the Internet to find dataNOT on the FOR commercial SALE support OR DISTRIBUTION and commercial ap- plicationsdeveloped for Linux.