Acknowledgements 1 Europe – On Air TEHS7_handels.indd 1 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM 2 Europe – On Air TEHS7_handels.indd 2 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM Acknowledgements 3 Europe – On Air Interwar Projects for Radio Broadcasting Suzanne Lommers Amsterdam 2012 TEHS7_handels.indd 3 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM 4 Europe – On Air The research has been made possible by: Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). This publication is made possible by: Eindhoven University of Technology, Foundation for the History of Technology and the Unger – Van Brero Fund. ISBN 978 90 8964 435 0 e-isbN 978 90 4851 665 0 e-isbN 978 90 4851 666 7 (e-pub) © 2012, Suzanne Lommers No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Design and typesetting: Ellen Bouma, Alkmaar, the Netherlands Cover image: In 1936 European broadcasting experts working for the International Broadcasting Union (IBU) travelled to the United States to visit their American colleagues from the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). In the light of NBC’s tenth anniversary, the IBU experts visited the station and shared their knowledge. As part of the visit, the European broadcasters participated in a live NBC broad- cast. Source: Box 58 Photographies, IBU. Used by the courtesy of the European Broadcasting Union Amsterdam University Press, Herengracht 221, NL-1016 BG Amsterdam www.aup.nl TEHS7_handels.indd 4 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM Acknowledgements 5 Acknowledgements Sometimes things just fall into place. This is particularly true for the study in front of you. When I was young, I sometimes accompanied my father, who is an innovator, on his visits to clients. These clients were often working on technical projects in industrial areas that greatly resemble the campus at Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands. Walking across the campus to attend my job interview, I immediately experienced a sense of déjà vu. In the following years I examined the connection be- tween broadcasting activities and projects that aimed to unite Europe. Often I had to think of a postcard that I once bought at the age of sixteen and still have in my posses- sion today. The card quotes Albert Einstein and reads: Peace cannot be kept by force. It can only be achieved by understanding. Who would have guessed that both the man and his thought would ever have a place in my dissertation research more than fifteen years later? That quote keeps on inspiring me. I hope this study, which combines these childhood memories with my personal interests in people, culture, music, and identity formation, will inspire you too. My years at Eindhoven University of Technology have been an eye-opener in more ways than one. I came to Eindhoven with a background in economics and history. The combined practice of history of technology, science and technology studies, and philosophy has broadened my view on research and on life. I would like to thank the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research who funded the Transnational Infrastructures and the Rise of Contemporary Europe project (TIE) of which my research is a part. I also thank Eindhoven University of Technology, the Unger-Van Brero Fund, and the Foundation for the History of Technology for their generous support that enabled me to publish this book. I am particularly grateful to TIE project leader and supervisor Johan Schot. His guidance, his dedication, his enthusiasm and his faith in me have been inestimably valuable. Johan is an exceptional academic. Yet to me, he is above all an excep- tional person. I also cherish the discussions I had with my co-supervisor Erik van der Vleuten. His expertise in writing and his precision when it comes to concepts regularly drove me crazy, but were invaluable. It has been my pleasure to be part of the TIE project. Collaborating with people like Alexander Badenoch, Vincent Lagendijk, Frank Schipper, Irene Anastasiadou and our fantastic secretaries Lidwien Hollanders-Kuipers and Iris Custers-Houx TEHS7_handels.indd 5 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM 6 Europe – On Air gives an impetus to scientific debate in a way that could never happen in an in- dividual research environment. Ruth Oldenziel’s enthusiastic support and advice have been invaluable for rounding out the manuscript for publication. I am grateful to Jan Korsten for his help with the publication process. I thank Vincent Lagendijk for editing the figures in this book, and I owe Alison Britton and Val Kidd for editing my texts. My special thanks go to Alexander Badenoch with whom I have shared numerous good times in archives and cafes in Geneva. What is more, with- out his advice on broadcasting-related matters, this book would not be what it is now. Alec is my unofficial second co-supervisor. Historical research on international events requires extensive archive research. My many visits to Geneva have created lasting memories. I especially thank the European Broadcasting Union for allowing me to use their archives, for welcom- ing me with open arms, and for sharing with me their expertise. I am indebted to former Secretary-General Jean Réveillon, Director of the Radio Department Raina Konstantinova, Head of Communications Avril Mahon-Roberts, former Director of the Legal Department Werner Rumphorst as well as Armi Heikkinen, Eric Piraux, Georges Béry, Frans de Jong, Mathias Coinchon, David Wood, Pierre Duret, Pierre-Yves Tribolet, and all the girls in the communications department. Apart from the EBU, I have used the archives and library of the International Telecommunication Union. My thanks go to Heather Heywood and Kristine Clara who have done everything in their power to help me, even at a distance. For my visits to the League of Nations Archives, I thank Bernhardine Pejovic and Jacques Oberson. Finally, I could not have done without the archives of the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision. My gratitude goes to Erik Kappetijn for his enthu- siasm and his endless trips from the basement to the study corners with cart upon cart full of program guides. My participation in the Tensions of Europe network has further enhanced my thinking over the years. I found it particularly stimulating to be involved in the establishment of the Transmitting and Receiving Europe group. I thank Andreas Fickers for our discussions over the years and his suggestions on contextualiza- tion. I have enjoyed the numerous occasions where Nina Wormbs shared with me her insights on frequency allocation. I also thank Jennifer Spohrer for our corre- spondence on Radio Luxembourg and Karin Bijsterfeld for our discussions on the interwar canon for music. Last but not least, I am indebted to Christian Henrich- Franke, Alexander Badenoch, Christoph Classen, and Andy O’Dwyer for their enthusiasm, advice, and debate. For me, the Tensions network is about excellent research, wonderful friend- ships, great parties, but above all about the Tensations. I thank my fellow singers TEHS7_handels.indd 6 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM Acknowledgements 7 Judith Schueler and Alexander Badenoch, our drummer Andreas Fickers, our washtub base player Nil Disco, our sax player Donna Mehos, our keyboard player Frank Schipper, and our base player Paul Edwards for sharing with me the best months of my PhD research! Nothing is more important than the love and support I receive from my friends and family every day. I have the honor to be surrounded by beautiful and car- ing people. Dear Jo-Anne, Brechje, Renske, Inge, Ton, Kirsten, Bram, Sybren, Marjolijn, Martijn, Yolanda, Miranda, Sónia and Marieke, I am so happy to have you in my life. I would never have been where I am today without my parents Rob and Nadine and two of the strongest and most sensitive women I have ever known: oma Jowie and oma Miepel. The strength and sensibility that characterized my grandmothers made me who I am. Yet, my parents are the firm pillars in my life. What their love, support and trust mean to me cannot be expressed in words. I dedicate this book to them. Utrecht, December 6, 2011 TEHS7_handels.indd 7 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM 8 Europe – On Air TEHS7_handels.indd 8 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM Acknowledgements 9 Table of Contents Acknowledgements 5 List of Illustrations 11 Abbreviations 13 1 Introduction: European Broadcasting Visions 15 Unraveling European Broadcasting 21 Transnational Infrastructures in Europe 24 Broadcasting and Society-Building 29 Methodology and Outline 35 2 Elites on the Barricades for Broadcasting 41 Pioneering in the Private Sector 44 Lack of International Regulation 56 Establishing International Broadcasting Union 61 Conclusion 70 3 Europe in the Making 73 Invisible Interconnection 74 Wiring a Continent 98 Wireless World Visions 111 Conclusion 135 4 Battles over Europe’s Borders 137 Radio Moscow and Confining Europe in the East 139 Vatican Radio, Radio Nations, and Established Standards 152 Radio Luxembourg and Reluctant Experts 163 Conclusion 176 5 War and Peace in the Sky 179 Elites Doubting a Technology’s Virtue 182 Politicians Embrace Broadcasting 196 Nationalism Shatters Peace Regulation 216 Conclusion 232 TEHS7_handels.indd 9 5/9/2012 3:41:04 PM 10 Europe – On Air 6 Broadcasting a Musical Culture 235 A Cultural Policy for a New Medium 238 Solutions to “Discothèque” and Copyright Problems 250 The nternationalI Live Program Constructed 256 Translating Music for Radio 265 Success and Failure 279 Conclusion 285 7 Conclusion: Internationalism in Practice 289 Dreams of