FLIPPING AROUND THE DEVELOPMENT PARADIGM

RESEARCH ON THE ROLE OF NEW DONORS IN GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT Glocalisation - Contents Flipping Around The Development Paradigm

Research On The Role Of New Donors In Global Development Executive Summary 3

Towards an Inclusive Global Society 5 Editor: Ana Kalin Co-authors: Ana Kalin, Anna Karolin, Igor Loncarski, Katarzyna Szeniawska, Polland: How the State Decided to Support Energy Prosumerism 17 Kristīne Ļeontjeva, Tihomir Popovic Croatia: The Gap Between the Technical and Practical Aspects of Reconciliation 23

Text editor and summary: Vita Tērauda Slovenia: What Comes First – the Chicken or the Egg? 29

Layout: Anna Ceipe Estonia: A New Approach to Global Development 35

LAPAS, 2015 Latvia: Is Cooperation the New Development? 41

Conclusion: Time and Opportunity for a New Paradigm? 47

Bibliography 57

About Lapas 61

This research has been produced within the project of Latvian Platform for Devel- opment Cooperation (LAPAS)“Glocalization – a key to sustainable development from local to global level. EYD2015 and EU Presidency Project for the Latvian EU Presidency 2015”. The project is funded by European Union (90%), Society Integration Foundation (5,42%) and Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia (4,58%). The contents of this research are the sole responsibility of authors and Latvian Plat- form for Development Cooperation and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union. Executive Summary coherent action, effective use of re- society. One can think of such plat- sources, multi-stakeholder cooper- form as a brokerage venue for ideas, ation, transparency, accountability, funding, promotion, problem solv- ownership and sustainability, change ing, consulting and dissemina- In September 2015 a new global and Reconciliation efforts in Croatia illus- is possible at the local level. These tion of know-how and knowledge. principles would guide the creation universal agreement for the eradica- trate the crucial nature of local level What remains to be seen is whether of the platform. Through small steps, tion of poverty and achievement of sus- participation and engagement. Latvia the Governments of the examined coun- the platform would cater to immedi- tainable development will be adopted. offers a glimpse into three development tries will seize the opportunity, offered ate needs that cannot be met by the It aims to be transformative, but will it? cooperation projects, where private to them by the changing times, their own contacts and initiatives have played a authorities, while also paving the way This paper outlines a paradigm for national circumstances and the already crucial role, yet the individuals involved for changed patterns of behaviour a new global partnership and lays existing initiatives led by their members do not consider themselves to be en- both by community members and by out a case for transformative social of civil society. Will they be bold enough gaged in development cooperation. authorities. An overarching aim of the change, change that would find a bal- to show that there is not only a single Development cooperation implies a hi- platform would be reinstating com- ance between a minimum threshold path to development, currently known erarchy of one side teaching or helping munal trust and a sense of belong- of fundamental human rights and the as the existing development paradigm? the other, yet these individuals eschew ing in today’s highly individualised outer limits of environmental capac- hierarchy and are engaged in mutually ity. A new development agenda will beneficial cooperation. Estonia illus- need to tackle a number of difficulties: trates the potential of crowdsourcing in * the lack of a global ‘’we’’, a re- improving legislation and sparking civ- sult of dynamics between groups ic participation. Estonia also highlights (states) following national interests, the power of business as usual, and the inability to change entrenched political * a powerhouse of interests focused on habits such as pork barrel financing retaining some form of the status quo, in politics. Poland describes a policy * the vast gap between the language shift to energy prosumerism – where of international agreement and the im- consumers of energy become small plementation of these agreements. scale producers. The policy shift was brought about by well-organized NGO * the immense variance of interpreta- activism, working across traditional tion on poverty. Poverty is relative and issue area divides of environment and defined in relation to society, therefore development to counter the opposition minimum standards in rich countries of big business. Slovenian development are far higher than in poor countries. NGOs made the leap to impacting the This poses a great challenge to set- global debate, and brought the glob- ting standards perceived as fair by all. al post-2015 debate home to local de- The authors see a way forward to cision-makers and non-development end the current development cooper- NGOs, proving that ‘glocalisation’ is an ation model, described as exploitative apt term for existing NGO initiatives. and asymmetric, and losing its legit- The authors propose to create a plat- imacy. Local initiatives striving to by- form for change at the grass roots lev- pass the state and contribute to social el that will unite all actors that are al- change through active participation ready leading their separate battles for of members of society point the way. improving life in communities at home Examples of local level transformative and abroad. The case studies present- change that can provide lessons for glob- ed show that by respecting the under- al change are included as case studies. lying principles for global cooperation:

3 4 Towards an Inclusive Global Society Fifteen years after the adoption of as rising global tempera- Authors: Ana Kalin, Igor Loncarski the agreement for a global partner- tures, biodiversity loss or ozone ship to eradicate poverty and inequal- depletion know no borders. ities and to change the lives of peo- In the changed global context, the dy- ple around the world, we now have According to the social contract, in- And if that were not enough, we are namics that used to be attributed to the opportunity to rethink what went dividuals agree to give up some of faced with environmental degrada- North – South relations can today be wrong and why, and consider how to their freedoms and transfer them to tion that only exacerbates already related to the interaction between the tackle the challenges in a better way. the state in order to gain protection existing poverty, illnesses, famine, few (politically and/or military) pow- of their rights. While Hobbes believed competition for resources and so on. A New Global Partnership erful Western countries and their cor- that in the absence of the state, there porations, and the rest of the world. In addition, the balance of power is Before proposing any specific solu- would be anarchy and war, Locke and Development experts have been point- changing on more than one level. On tions, it would be opportune to explore Rousseau claimed that the aim of the ing to the importance of policy coher- one hand, the equilibrium in inter- the nature and scope of a new glob- state is to uphold and protect the natu- ence for development (PCD). They have national relations is starting to shift. al partnership that might be able to ral rights of its citizens.1 Regardless of been critical of the perception that The primacy of the Global North is in- address the less than optimal reality. the reasons behind the creation of the only development aid and its increas- creasingly put under question, be it There are numerous reasons speak- state, its aim is to ensure increased lev- es in quantity and quality matter when through the rise of emerging econo- ing against the continued pursuit of a els of safety and security for its mem- dealing with poverty eradication. Much mies such as China, or by challenging partial development model that focus- bers. This need for a sense of security more important than aid itself is the the untouchable security status of the es barely on the Global South. Poverty and safety is an essential part of being lack of coordination and coherence be- West. On the other hand, we observe a is not only a problem of the developing human. It “…emerges very early on in tween internal (fiscal, trade, migration, decrease in state sovereignty and the world, but of all countries in the world. the life of the child, and is ‘much more agriculture, etc.) and external policies emergence of non-state actors, fight- Poverty is not only a lack of material important in the human being than the of developed countries. The incoheren- ing for power and influence over global resources such as money or proper- impulses resulting from a feeling of cies have drastically reduced the po- governance. Especially strong among ty. According to Markuš, “poverty is a hunger, or thirst.’”2 In other words, the tential impact of aid policies, which can non-state actors is the private sector, complex web of disempowering rela- feeling of security is the basis for a sta- best be described with the expression which is playing an increasingly influ- tionships, which don’t work. House- ble, coherent, continuous and mean- that developed countries give with one ential role in shaping world politics. We holds trapped in this spider’s web ingful life narrative that enables the in- hand and take with the other. In addi- are in a sense living in rather schizo- suffer from material poverty, vulnera- dividual to enjoy platonic and intimate tion, global non-development rules and phrenic times, in which “markets are bility, powerlessness, physical weak- personal relations, as well as being a regimes are often disadvantageous for striving to become global, while the in- ness, isolation and spiritual poverty.”5 loyal and solidary member of the com- developing countries, which is certainly stitutions needed to support them re- munity that contributes to it. We live Governments worldwide have not the case with trade, financial and tax re- main by and large national.”4 A very rel- in an increasingly unstable environ- been devoting sufficient attention to gimes. Developing countries have thus evant question thus needs to be asked: ment. Global capitalism and globalisa- both domestic and international pover- been increasingly marginalized “in the for how long can a system, in which tion have led to rising inequalities. The ty, which is only exacerbated in the con- rapidly globalizing world economy, and the feelings of un-safety and insecurity gross concentration of wealth is clearly text of increasing inequalities. Inclusive much of this debacle can be attribut- are so pronounced, continue to exist? demonstrated by the fact that in 2014, and sustainable economic growth has ed to economic globalization, to the the richest 80 billionaires enjoyed the It would be safe to say that while not been high on the priority list. The processes of economic integration of same wealth as the bottom 50% of the not everybody is as outspoken about problem is not in the market economy trade, migration, technology, and finan- world’s population totalling 3.5 billion this described reality, almost every- itself, but rather in the arbitrary pow- cial flows around the world, that took persons.3 We are faced with a grow- one would agree that existing prac- er of the leading players to make and place during the second wave of global- ing frequency and severity of econom- tices can no longer be sustained. uphold rules that systematically bene- ization (1945 – 1980)”6, leaving the de- ic crises that leave many in perpetual 2015 is the “expiry date” of the Mil- fit the rich. While advancing the inter- veloped countries to harvest the bene- uncertainty and economic instability. lennium Development Goals (MDGs). ests of a privileged few, the limits of fits. It is important to understand that Adding to this instability is food price sustainable natural resource use have whilst developing countries are still volatility severely affecting food secu- been neglected. The consequences of rity and sovereignty, and energy crisis. this neglect have global implications,

5 6 at the bottom of the food chain, the the need for loyalty towards the state The Interconnected Social, Envi- internationalisation of human rights same power disparities hold true for and the desire for sustainable devel- ronmental and Economic Spheres was possible because of two world emerging economies and non-priv- opment, which can only be loyal to a wars and especially because of the In line with the proposed aims of the ileged developed countries. This “global we.” It is becoming increasing- atrocities of WWII. Human rights rheto- global mechanism, it should focus on can only lead to one conclusion: ly clear what a complex task the con- ric first found its place in the UN Char- the three pillars of sustainable devel- structural change is needed in or- struction of institutions that will guide ter, which implies that states no longer opment, namely the social, environ- der to ensure global development. all the countries with their different have the freedom to act or judge of their mental and economic. These three ar- norms, beliefs and values will be. The own will on human rights issues. Even Systemic change is required in the eas, however, cannot be approached as only way to succeed is to look for the more important is the actual codifica- social and economic structures at the stand-alones, as they all influence one root causes of development that are tion of human rights in the Universal global levels in order to inspire change another and the achievement of any independent from the stage of devel- Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), at national levels that will stimulate one of the three dimensions is depen- opment of society or its belief system. which together with the International further change at the global level. It dent on the support of the other two. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights goes without saying that any struc- If our goal is to have sustainability and This interconnectedness is therefore and its First Optional Protocol and the tural change must not infringe upon inclusive global development, we can- an important element of the proposed International Covenant on Economic, the carrying capacity of the planet. not escape establishing a new mecha- global mechanism. In addition to the Social and Cultural Rights form the In bringing about such change, two nism at the global level. Such a mech- three thematic areas, principles will be so-called International Bill of Rights.11 sets of difficulties can be expected. If anism needs to ensure human dignity introduced that ought to be followed in structural change is to be beneficial and equality within environmental lim- order to achieve the proposed aims. There are numerous criticisms of hu- for all, it ought to be based on the as- its. This can only be achieved through man rights, the biggest one being their In trying to connect the social and en- sumption of an inclusive global society. equitable and sustainable economic Western origin. The concept of rights vironmental arenas, the ideas of en- Without a “global we”, there can be no growth that exists not as an end in it- belonging to the human being indeed vironmental space9 and Oxfam’s safe broad global and inclusive develop- self but for the purpose of achieving stems from the West. In addition, de- and just space for humanity10offer a ment, but rather “pockets of growth.”7 sustainable development. Taking into veloped countries often use human very good foundation. They both try to Various discussions taking place at consideration the above mentioned rights as conditionalities. If that were find a balance between the minimum the United Nations (UN), whether on constraints, the global mechanism not enough, they themselves do not threshold of fundamental human rights the Sustainable Development Goals cannot be normative and prescriptive, fully embody the universal concept of and the outer limit of environmental (SDGs), the post-2015 development as states themselves need to choose human rights, the rights of migrants capacity. The space in between is the agenda or climate change, show the their own path to development based being a good example of this selective safe space in which both the rights of existence of a loose interdependent on their own history, culture, needs approach. All of the above only ampli- humans and of nature are not violat- global community. Nevertheless, this and other relevant circumstances. The fy the suspicions of sceptics about the ed. The two boundaries are intercon- community would best be defined as mechanism should rather be about true nature of human rights. Despite nected, as ensuring too many rights the interdependence of states as op- setting the minimum rules that enable these set-backs, and fully acknowl- can produce pressure on the environ- posed to an inclusive global society. all to have equitable sustainable hu- edging the importance of respecting mental ceiling, for example through man development. As the mechanism and accepting cultural diversity, it is The second concern relates to insti- pollution due to excessive comfort and pertains to all persons and all coun- crucial to recognise the existence of tutions that would be necessary for consumption, while policies aimed at tries, it should be at the core of glob- minimum standards of rights of every structural change to occur. Institutions environmental protection can push al and national decision-making, not human being that can under no cir- are not abstract structures that can people below the minimum set of hu- used optionally in times of economic cumstances by violated by anybody. be constructed overnight with a magi- man rights. A new dimension will be prosperity (as is most often the case for cal wand. “They are an outgrowth and added in this research to the minimum Human rights are divided into civil and development cooperation nowadays) expression of human development in limit of fundamental human rights, that political on one hand, and economic, so- or seen as the option of last resort. the society – of changes in the knowl- of structural equality. Human rights cial and cultural on the other hand. This edge, skills, attitudes and values of law is an important element of the so- unfortunate division, a consequence of people.”8 These institutions would need cial dimension of sustainable devel- Cold War politics and diverging per- to enable us to find a balance between opment. The institutionalisation and ceptions of different political systems, is neither beneficial to the acquisition of minimum standards of rights for all,

7 8 Table 1: The institutional responsibility matrix nor does it function in reality. If we The basic idea of social policy is the look at rights struggles in the UK, the creation of a state that provides a cer- fight for political citizenship was tak- tain level of protection to its citizens Domestic Supra-national ing place in parallel to the struggle for from raw market forces in order to trade union rights and rights to clean have a more equitable distribution of State Domestic governance International organisations, water and public health. The fight for social outcomes. The concept stems national donors rights in developing countries taking from Western political philosophy and place nowadays involves concurrent is based on two key assumptions: a le- struggles for political, social, cultur- gitimated (nation) state and a pervasive Market Domestic markets Global markets, multinational al and economic demands.12 It is thus (formal) labour market. Without look- corporations obvious that civil, political, econom- ing further into supportive assump- ic, social and cultural rights must be tions, needed to ensure the delivery of included in the minimum standards. socially accepted minimal standards of Community Civil society, NGOs International NGOs living, it is clear that the key supposi- In light of globalisation and an in- tions are not met in most developing creasing number of shared challenges, countries. When looking into the Af- the need arose to look beyond individ- rican continent, many of the least de- ual rights, as some problems can only Household Households International household strat- veloped countries have a very large be tackled collectively and in shared re- egies(i.e. remittances) informal sector. Furthermore, the na- sponsibility with states.13 These rights tion-state concept is in many countries are the most controversial of all, wheth- challenged by large insecurities due to er they are called collective rights or internal conflicts, famine or disease. third generation rights. There is no de- In the case of such states, are there nying that in order to curb environmen- appropriate systems in place to de- tal degradation, to stop the rise in global Wood expands the traditional welfare society plays an important role in to- liver social redistribution and what is temperatures or to reverse biodiversity triangle of state-market-family with day’s welfare system, especially in the the influence of interest groups on re- loss, joint efforts from various social the community dimension. He also role of identifying and satisfying the un- distributive systems?16 Unfortunately, and political institutions will be needed. adds the international dimension for met needs of the population, and con- the power of interest groups is an in- all four components. This global com- sequently as a critical player that warns The minimum threshold of fundamen- creasing problem all over the world, ponent indeed plays an important role about the state of affairs and attempts tal human rights satisfies the minimum which might be an important reason in the case of developing countries, to change it. While the influence of in- standards that provide human beings for the rising inequalities worldwide. and might even lead to the weakening ternational civil society is more present their dignity.14 It is an absolute must, To be able to apply the idea of the wel- of pressure on domestic structures in developing countries, it also plays a but in a world of immense inequalities, fare regime outside developed coun- to improve governance. This means watchdog role in developed countries. it cannot provide a sufficient solution. tries, Wood proposes the institution- that the domestic dimension needs to It is crucial for civil society not to forget The proportional distribution of goods al responsibility matrix (IRM), which remain the focus of attention, where its role in society and thus not to accept and rights is also relevant when dis- links the domestic to the global.17 the political commitment needs to be the ongoing and increasing transfer of cussing the minimum social foundation made, “the interaction therefore be- responsibilities from the state, related within sustainable development. “In tween social forces within an identifi- to ensuring welfare. fact, evidence from across the world, able political economy with which that The influence of global markets and including high-income countries, sug- population identifies as its site of pri- multinational corporations (MNCs) is gests that poverty levels are drastical- mary rights and responsibilities.”18 ly reduced after social transfers have substantial in all countries. Increasing been implemented, with the most sig- While Wood’s model offers an expla- inequalities all over the world can be nificant reductions occurring in coun- nation for developing countries, its attributed to a range of economic pol- tries with comprehensive social poli- functioning can be applied to the entire icies that have dominated the global cies that aim at universal coverage.”15 international community. Perhaps not arena in the past decades. all of its components are relevant in all countries to the same degree, but they still play a role in power relations. Civil

9 10 Anecdotal evidence speaks of a so- percent of employees have a wage in foreign markets (increase net ex- Financial markets in particular, but called “decoupling” between the me- higher than the median one. Inequal- ports), the other solution, which is not also other industries, have become dian wage and productivity. Proponents ity in wages implies that the mean only economically, but also politically more integrated. More specifically, while of this phenomenon argue that be- wage will be higher than the medi- appealing (as it makes people happy and insurance and banking industries were tween 1972 and 2010 US productivity an wage. If the mean wage increas- content), is to somehow enable people the two most segmented industries in grew by 84%, while the median wage es faster than the median wage, the to consume more today at the expense the period 1980-1984, they became one only grew by 21%. Something similar inequalities are increasing over time. of future disposable income (increase of the least segmented industries in the holds for the UK, for example, where Moreover, employee benefits, which consumption and investments in turn period 2001-2005, mostly due to regu- real productivity grew by 114% and me- some argue help explain the “decou- as well). Here enters financialization, latory changes (Bekaert, Harvey, Lund- dian real wage by 72%. The numbers pling” phenomena, are traditionally enabling people to borrow more heavily blad, and Siegel, 201121). Interestingly, imply that this so-called gross decou- more heftily received by employees in today against future income in order to Bekaert et al. find evidence that the pling was 63 percentage points in the higher income brackets, thus adding afford higher education, an increasing segmentation in several other indus- US and 42 percentage points in the UK. to the increasing wage inequalities. range of durable goods, and housing. tries has increased, predominantly in More recently, however, some authors At the same time, developed Western basic materials, food production, tech- The “decoupling” phenomena is an have argued (Pessoa and Van Reenen, industrial nations began a transition to- nology hardware and equipment, and important starting point to understand 201319; Feldstein, 200820) that the idea wards a service economy. Most of these pharmaceuticals. Moreover, Bekaert why and how we got to be where we of decoupling, at least at the aggregate services are non-tradable, or put dif- et al. corroborate most of the other are today in terms of current econom- level, is flawed due to measurement ferently, difficult if impossible to be out- research that focused on equity mar- ic conditions in developed Western errors. More specifically, one should be sourced. One of the important enablers ket returns when looking at the levels countries and the role (importance) of looking at the total employee compen- for this transition was the opening up of of integration among different coun- globalization, as well as the financial sation, which has remained stable as emerging economies to foreign invest- tries, as they show that an openness sector. As the modern market econo- a share of national income over time. ments. Most of these countries are very of equity markets to foreign investors my is very much driven by and based on Secondly, the structure of employee appealing to multinational corpora- is an important driver of integration. consumer demand (private consump- compensation has changed over time tions when it comes to cheap(er) labour In other words, “Wall Street” philos- tion), constant (long term) economic and simply looking at the pure wage is and low corporate tax rates. This start- ophy has taken over “Main Street”. growth can only be achieved through not comparable over time. Neverthe- ed the so-called process of “off-shor- increased demand, either domestic or This also holds from the perspective less, when looking at the disaggrega- ing”, where mostly dirty and low value foreign. Given the “decoupling” phe- of financial intermediation, as we have tion of the “decoupling wedge”, Pessoa added industries (to start with) were nomena and rising inequalities, the im- experienced a tremendous increase and Van Reenen, for example, show that moved to low cost locales. This was not mediate question relating to economic in the levels of financial intermedia- while employee benefits account for 16 only beneficial for MNCs from a cost growth is how to make people consume tion and the importance of financial percentage points of the difference in perspective (lower prices of goods and more, if their disposable income is institutions in the recent decades. The the UK, wage inequality captures an- more local consumption), but it also on average not rising fast enough to main driver in such a setup are short- other 16.6 percentage point difference. facilitated access to many new, large catch up with productivity growth. term earnings and there is little regard In other words, while it is true that the and promising consumer markets. for any long-term risks and impacts, “decoupling” can be accounted for by At this point we need to emphasize Integration reduces barriers to trade as the entire compensation-rewards including other employee benefits, the implicit assumption that the ex- and makes goods and services cheap- system is based on short-term incen- wage inequalities have nevertheless in- isting economic and social order cru- er for consumers. On the other hand, tives. Coupled with the innovation in creased over time. This can be observed cially depends on sustained economic it propagates spillovers of negative fi- financial instruments and enforced by comparing the mean and the median growth, which we typically measure nancial and economic shocks to other by behavioral biases of individuals, wage. The mean wage is the average by looking at the value of Gross Do- countries. In addition, it can push small- this has created several bubbles and wage in the economy, defined as the mestic Product (GDP). GDP is a sum er local producers and manufacturers bursts in financial markets over the sum of all the wages divided by the num- of investments, consumption (both (mostly those in developing countries) past several decades. However, the ber of employees. The median wage is private and government), and net ex- out of business. They cannot operate worst market failure culminated in the wage received by the median em- ports. GDP will increase if any of as efficiently as large MNCs (mostly the most recent global financial crisis ployee, where 50 percent of employees the components of GDP increase. located in developed countries) with in 2008. At the risk of experiencing a have lower wage than median and 50 One solution is to find new demand massive economies of scale and scope. repetition of a 1929-style depression,

11 12 central banks in the developed west- Environmental, or safe and just space, Various international institutions gov- which enables humanity to prosper, and ern countries stepped in with massive implies that the minimum level of hu- erning specific boundaries already ex- is comprised of material wealth (access monetary support. This calmed the man dignity must be achieved without ist. Some of them are effective, some to material assets, adequate housing, markets, but economic growth has not causing irreversible damage to our lack the capacity to ensure implemen- possession of land and livestock), invul- returned to the developed countries. ecosystem for the sake of today’s and tation and some are in need of global nerability (access to reserves, savings Even now, when the US Federal Re- future generations. Very often natural reform. There is no doubt that more and choices, good climate conditions), serve has changed its policy stance and resources and nature are perceived to coherence is needed in the environ- power (access to political participation, stopped the Quantitative Easing pro- exist for the purpose of serving and mental institutional landscape, which social power, influence, social connec- gram (QE), there are very weak signs of satisfying the needs of human beings, could be achieved either through a re- tions and bargaining tools and no cor- economic growth returning to the US. either to ensure their survival or for form addressing individual boundaries ruption), spiritual richness (trust, hope The European Central Bank (ECB) has use as a profit-generating commod- and their interactions or through a cre- for a better future, a clear picture of self only recently embarked on a similar ity. However, human beings depend ation of a new overarching institution. and personal value, good community mission of QE, driving not only the al- on nature for their existence. For the It is also important to understand that relationships, no fear of outside or su- ready low interest rates, but also credit past ten thousand years, we have lived non-environmental institutional ar- pernatural powers), inclusion (access spreads (that are supposed to capture in the Earth’s stable state, known as rangements also affect the outcomes to services, information and education, credit or default risk) to all-time lows. Holocene. In 2009, the Stockholm Re- of resource use, such as those related connection and inclusion into society) The hope of the policy makers is that silience Centre identified a set of nine to world trade.24 Keeping in mind the and physical strength (strength, good “cheap money” will spur spending planetary boundaries that must not global implications of natural resource health, adequate nutrition, number of and consumer demand. In the existing be crossed: ozone depletion, biodiver- use as well as their global trade el- dependants in line with opportunities). market mechanism, a prolonged de- sity loss, chemical pollution, climate ement, a global solution needs to be The safe and just space has its out- crease in demand causes production change, ocean acidification, freshwater found for shaping their governance. er limits or an environmental ceiling, overcapacity in many industries and a consumption, land use change, nitro- which consists of the nine planetary Figure 2: Empowering relations within consequent lack of new investments. gen and phosphorous cycles and at- boundaries that must not be crossed, the safe and just space mospheric aerosol loading. Overcon- and its inner limits, which represent the The views of economists over the role suming and thus exceeding nature’s minimum standards for a decent life.25 of the state are split. While some argue capacity could lead to irreversible en- that the state should further relinquish The Underlying Principles vironmental changes. Currently, we are its tasks to the private sector and cut breaching three of these boundaries, In order to ensure the functioning of state spending, some argue that with- namely biodiversity loss, climate change the proposed global mechanism, the out massive state spending and invest- and nitrogen and phosphorus cycles.22 following principles would need to ment intervention, we are facing a long be respected in its implementation: path of zero or low growth globally. Planetary boundaries shed light on Moreover, with the withdrawal of the the global perspective. This might be * Policy coherence for sustainable state, some see the increasing threat problematic due to two reasons. First development: policies must not be of the largest MNCs further infringing of all, critical local or national thresh- competing with one nother, but must on ecological and social values. Some- olds are not known, which presents an rather all work together with the thing has to give. Either the industries impediment in a world that still func- aim of ensuring the proposed goals restructure and reshuffle, with new, tions as a system of (nation) states. of sustainable development, both at fused, innovative, green and clean in- Even though the global outer limits the national and international levels; dustries emerging, driving demand and might not be yet breached, national or * Sustainable development effective- economic growth without sacrificing regional stress over the use of resourc- ness: development resources need to human rights and further environmen- es is already present. The second prob- be used as effectively as possible in tal deterioration, or we face a down- lem is that the global perspective does order to ensure sustainable results; ward spiral to the very bottom of eco- not reflect the vast inequalities that Figure 2 is a combination of the previ- * Multi-stakeholder cooperation: logical and social wellbeing. We believe exist worldwide with regards to where ously mentioned Oxfam’s safe and just 23 stakeholders need to cooperate in the that we are at the make or break point resources are used and by whom. space for humanity and Markuš’s pov- dialogue, decision-making and imple- in global growth and development. erty trap of disempowering relations. It mentation of the global mechanism; describes the safe and just space,

13 14 * Transparency: sustainable devel- It is important to differentiate between that stem from formal or informal inter- The second perception might be hard- opment resources are used in an effi- the proposed national strategies and national or regional agreements and/or er to overcome, because it is based cient manner and information about the existing Poverty Reduction Strategy rules. Only a small number of countries on the way people’s identity is cre- their use is disseminated openly; Papers (PRSP). The latter exist in de- is actually in the driving seat and has ated, always measuring ourselves veloping countries and are prepared by the luxury to act solely on their own ac- against others. But it is not impos- * Accountability: all stakeholders the country and its development part- cord. While the proposed model indeed sible to change and in the following must account for their activities, as ners. The proposed strategies for de- introduces globally binding principles, chapters, we present examples of how well as take responsibility for them. velopment, on the other hand, apply to it also presupposes development based this change can begin to take place. Transparency is crucial for disclosure all countries and result from exclusive- on national needs and circumstances, of information and results of activities; ly national efforts. In the case of devel- determined by countries themselves. 1. See Social Contract Theory by Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, http:// * National ownership: national au- oping states, they could still use ODA as For the majority of countries this ele- www.iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/ thority over development policies and 2. Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late one of the financial flows to their econ- ment of sovereignty is not in place to- Modern Age (Polity Press, 1991), p. 54 activities, achieved through the creation omy, but it should come in the shape day. The model also makes sure that 3. See Oxfam issue briefing, Wealth: having it all and wanting more, http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/ib- of national strategies for development. of donor support, their knowledge and wealth-having-all-wanting-more-190115-en.pdf that stem from formal or informal 4. D. Rodrik, One Economics, Many Recipes (Princeton University Press, assistance in achieving the national- 2007), p. 196 The Importance of Acting Locally international or regional agreements ly built development strategy plans, 5. P. Mosley and E. Dowler, ed, Poverty and Social Exclusion in North and and/or rules. Only a small number of South: Essays on social policy and global poverty reduction (Routledge, The proposed system can work only while leaving it to local actors to take 2005), p. 235 countries is actually in the driving seat 6. C. Dowlah, ed, Backwaters of Global Propserity: How Forces of Global- if countries embrace the concept. Its the lead. In circumstances where policy isation and GATT/WTO Trade Regimes Contribute to the Marginalization of and has the luxury to act solely on their the World’s Poorest Nations. Westpont (CT: Praeger, 2004), p.12 implementation thus implies acting lo- coherence for sustainable development 7. M. Kremer, P. van Lieshout, R. Went, ed, Doing Good or Doing Better: own accord. While the proposed mod- Development Policies in a Globalizing World (Amsterdam University Press, cally by adhering to the proposed glob- would be respected, alongside equi- 2009), p. 36-7 el indeed introduces globally binding al principles with the aim of bringing table and inclusive financial and trade 8. G. Jacobs, R. Macfarlane, N. Asokan, Comprehensive Theory of Social principles, it also presupposes devel- Development (International Center for Peace and Development, 1997), about development at home and glob- regimes, the need for ODA would be http://www.icpd.org/development_theory/comprehensive_theory_of_so- opment based on national needs and cial_development.htm#Three%20Stages%20of%20Dev ally. A crucial element of success is a drastically reduced. The solution there- 9. See J. Agyeman, Fair shares in environmental space? http://juli- circumstances, determined by coun- anagyeman.com/2010/11/fair-shares-in-environmental-space/ national strategy for development. It fore does not lie in development aid 10. See K. Raworth, A safe and just space for humanity: Can we live within tries themselves. For the majority of the doughnut? http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/dp-a- should be crafted by the country itself, perceived as charity, but in creating the safe-and-just-space-for-humanity-130212-en.pdf countries this element of sovereignty 11. L. Hajjar Leib, Human Rights and the Environment: Philosophical, The- based on its national circumstances, structure that actually leads to sustain- oretical and Legal Perspectives (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2011), p. 45-6 is not in place today. The model also namely its stage of development and able and just development for all. As 12. J. Grugel and N. Piper, Critical Perspectives on Global Governance: makes sure that our cultures and val- Rights and regulation in governing regimes (Routledge, 2007), p. 162-3 the developmental needs, while taking the problems in developing countries 13. L. Hajjar Leib, Human Rights and the Environment: Philosophical, The- ues are not undermined, while simul- oretical and Legal Perspectives (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2011), p. 55-7 into account national history and cul- will not cease to exist overnight, it is 14. W. Sachs, Environment and Human Rights (Wuppertal Institute for taneously respecting global equity. In Climate, Environment, Energy, 2003), p. 32 http://www.wupperinst.org/ ture. Attached to the national strategy important in the short run to continue globalisierung/pdf_global/human_rights.pdf other words, we are defending what 15. UNRISD, Social Drivers of Sustainable Development, p. 12 http://www. for development should be action plans with development aid, while applying unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/httpNetITFramePDF?ReadForm&paren- is ours and at the same time leaving tunid=BC60903DE0BEA0B8C1257C78004C8415&parentdoctype=brief&netit- and means of implementation. The lat- the proposed principles of the global path=80256B3C005BCCF9/%28httpAuxPages%29/BC60903DE0BEA0B- others to keep what is dear to them. 8C1257C78004C8415/$file/04%20-%20Social%20Drivers%20of%20 ter should include an appropriate mix mechanism. Donors can at best be fa- Sustainable%20Development.pdf 16. P. Mosley and E. Dowler, ed, Poverty and Social Exclusion in North and of financial means for the implementa- cilitators that can offer their best prac- It is possible for people, societies, na- South: Essays on social policy and global poverty reduction (Routledge, tion of the strategy: domestic resourc- tices, while the recipients need to be tions and countries to change. They can 2005), p. 83-6 17. Ibid, p. 92 es, foreign direct investment, loans, the ones adapting those best practices embrace the proposed concept that will 18. Ibid, p. 96 19. J.P. Pessoa and J.Van Rennen (2013). Decoupling of Wage Growth and remittances and Official Development to their reality, making it successful. improve the quality of life for the ma- Productivity Growth? Myth and Reality, CEP Discussion Paper No. 1246, Assistance (ODA). All countries should jority of the world’s population without http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1246.pdf Following globally agreed rules might 20. M.S. Feldstein (2008). Did Wages Reflect Growth in Productivity? NBER prepare national strategies for devel- doing irreparable damage to the nature Working Paper 13953, http://www.nber.org/papers/w13953.pdf be perceived as a renouncement of na- 21. G. Bekaert, C.R. Harvey, C.T. Lundblad, and S. Siegel. (2011). What Seg- opment, whether they are developed or that sustains us. But such a change ments Equity Markets, Review of Financial Studies, v.24, 12, p.3847-p.3890. tional interests of states or their right 22. http://www.stockholmresilience.org/21/research/research-pro- developing, middle-income or emerg- cannot happen overnight, because it grammes/planetary-boundaries/planetary-boundaries/about-the-re- to sovereign decision-making. When search/the-nine-planetary-boundaries.html ing economies. Their finance mix would demands a change in perception at var- considering this dilemma, the reali- 23. K. Raworth, A safe and just space for humanity: Can we live within the certainly differ, reflecting their stage of ious levels. The first level is the econo- doughnut? , p. 12 http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/dp-a- ty of international relations needs to safe-and-just-space-for-humanity-130212-en.pdf development and local circumstanc- my-centric view of the world in which 24. V. Galaz, F. Biermann, B. Crona, D. Loorbach, C. Folke, P. Olsson, M. be taken into account. In the current Nilsson, J. Allouche, A. Persson, G. Reischil, Planetary Boundaries - Ex- es. These specifics would, among oth- we live. The second level is the “us” and ploring the Challenges for Global Environmental Governance (http://www. balance of power system, most states beijer.kva.se/PDF/56865274_Disc230.pdf), p. 8-9 ers, be reflected in the country’s IRM. “them” divide that governs our world. 25. See K. Raworth, A safe and just space for humanity: Can we live are already following instructions within the doughnut? and P. Mosley and E. Dowler, ed, Poverty and Social Exclusion in North and South: Essays on social policy and global poverty reduction (Routledge, 2005), p. 236

15 16 How the State Decided to Support Energy Prosumerism satisfying these needs partially or ful- towns, like Kalundborg in Denmark.10 Case study: Poland, Author: Katarzyna Szeniawska ly. They might be the sole owners of The IEN approach was developed the installation (e.g. as a cooperative); in the early 2000s and its spread has co-owners together with an investor or rapidly increased since 2006. Accord- it can be an investment of a local au- Background and a threat to Poland’s economy ing to a report by the Joint Research thority. Recently there have even been and energy security, especially given Centre, by 2012 there were almost National energy policy should lie at the successful crowd-funding campaigns the current political crisis across Po- 300 IEN projects under development heart of Policy Coherence for Develop- for energy installations. In 2013 in Hol- land’s eastern border.5 Some analysts in 30 European countries. The most ment approach, given its strong links to land such a campaign collected 1, 3 mln referred to it as economic ‘suicide’.6 active in this domain are the UK, Ger- the level of carbon emissions and thus EUR in order to build a wind turbine, many, France, Italy and Denmark, the climate change, one of the five priority Many analysts consider reaching the now co-owned by 1700 individuals7. latter leading the pack. In the UK an areas of PCD listed by the EU,1 as well as new EU target of a 27% share of renew- The term ‘prosumer’ (as a mix of estimated 500 000 households pro- the importance it plays in foreign policy, ables by 2030 a challenge for the Polish the words ‘consumer’ and ‘produc- duce solar power and basic produc- often impacting strongly security policy. economy. The long-awaited renewable er’) was created in the 1970s and re- tion kits are available in IKEA. In Ger- energy bill, which was finally enacted The Polish energy market still strongly fers to a broader concept of consum- many, individual and group prosumers in early 2015 is supposed to offer bet- depends on fossil fuels: mainly national ers who engage in the production of account for almost half of the renew- ter support for the transition to these sources of coal as well as oil and gas the products they consume.8 The term able energy produced in the country.11 types of energy sources. An important imports. In 2012 energy consumption has also been applied to consumers element of the bill, in the opinion of Making it Happen in Poland was based on hard coal (41%), oil (26%), who actively research the market and many non-governmental groups, is the gas (13%), and lignite (11%), while re- share the knowledge they have with Making prosumerism work in Po- so-called ‘prosumer amendment’, put newables amounted to 11%2. But even other consumers9. In relation to ener- land requires parallel developments forward in November 2014 by the Mem- these numbers have been contested gy, prosumerism can go even further on three fronts: public attitudes and ber of Parliament Brambora based on by some of the environmental groups with individuals and groups selling interest, availability of technical solu- the proposal by the Institute for Renew- as inflated due to the broad definition the surplus energy they produce back tions and a conducive legal frame- able Energy (EC BREC IEO), an inde- of renewable energy in Poland, which to the energy network, thus making work. While over 70% of Poles support pendent Polish research institute. The for example includes energy produced the investments made in the instal- the development of renewable energy amendment creates more favourable in co-combustion of coal and biomass.3 lations more economically viable. sources,12 the concept of energy pro- conditions for the development of mi- The issue of energy policy and renew- sumerism is a very new one in Polish cro and small-scale energy producing Energy production for one’s own use able energy sources has been a delicate culture and has been growing slowly. installations. The struggle to keep the can already be relatively easily done in political debate for years. Polish depen- amendment in the final act is an inter- most EU countries. However, to allow The prosumer movement came to dency on coal has led the government esting case of success of environmental the prosumer to sell surplus energy on Poland in 2013, together with the dis- to be one of the strongest contesters groups’ advocacy and a missed opportu- the market, it requires the state to set up cussions on the new renewable energy of emission reduction commitments at nity for engaging and enhancing collab- so-called Intelligent Energy Networks act. The EU had been pressuring the the EU level. In 2012 Poland success- oration between environmental and de- (IEN), which ensure an ongoing com- Polish government to pass such an act fully blocked EU consensus on the am- velopment non-governmental groups. munication between energy producers since 2010. Several organizations such bitious emission reduction strategy by and consumers, include smart-meter- as the Polish Green Network, Zielony 2050.4 During the negotiations on the Power Plant in your Backyard - Energy ing and allow for a two-way energy flow Instytut and Greenpeace Poland have EU Climate Package in October 2014 Prosumer Movement (meaning that consumers can also be been promoting the prosumerism ap- Poland was again a difficult negotiator, ‘Energy prosumers’ means mi- producers). Smart-metering enables proach among schools and the wid- insisting on (and partially succeeding cro- and small-scale energy produc- the prosumer to communicate ener- er public through a range of projects. in obtaining) significant concessions tion, often by individuals and groups, gy use directly to the energy provider There has also been some interest in for the country. Even with the conces- independent from the large ener- (rather than depend on periodic meter renewable energy among local au- sions, the EU Climate Package was gy producing and supplying compa- verification), as well as to check at any thorities, supported by the federation reported by some in the mainstream nies. The groups are often organized given moment the energy use and cost. of local governments (Stowarzyszenie media as a failure of Polish diplomacy around housing communities as well Such meters and networks are grad- Gmin Przyjaznych Enrgii Odnawialnej). as schools and churches and pro- ually being introduced in European duce energy for their own needs –

17 18 In 2013 some two hundred thousand But not everyone was in favor of the —from invoking the polluter-pays prin- Lessons Learnt micro-installations were in place in Po- amendment. In the last discussions on ciple to divert fossil fuel profits into the There are several lessons to be drawn land. This number was attained due to the new bill, Parliament’s higher cham- green transition, to building decentral- from this example. For one, a posi- the decreasing costs of installations as ber proposed a new amendment practi- ized, community-owned solar and wind tive policy change, favoring citizens well as some financial support from a cally cancelling the ‘prosumer amend- systems, to reining in financial specu- over big business, is possible. With a public programme of the Fund for En- ment’ proposed earlier. After a short lation—and making sense of the world strong research and campaign base, ergy Protection. Research conducted in but intense lobbying effort and a public that they are already helping us build.”19 non-governmental groups were able 2013 showed that 45% of the respon- campaign by environmental groups, the Another important aspect is the dem- to put forward and carry through a dents declared interest in investing lower chamber of Parliament rejected ocratic principle and active citizenship policy solution they felt was needed. in a renewable energy installation13. the higher chamber’s amendments dimension of the energy prosumer A relatively well organized and united effectively approving the new bill with In order to grow, energy prosumerism movement approach. It teaches us, in non-governmental climate movement, the ‘prosumer amendment’. The vote requires not only access to know-how line with development education prin- represented by a strong coalition, has was a narrow win by the opposition and technology, but also specific en- ciples, that as individuals we have a also definitely been an asset in the over the central-right party in power.16 ergy market regulations that not only role to play in the economy and so- process. Creative campaigning and allow for this kind of a solution, but While overall the new regulation is ciety at the local and global level. It advocacy tools, including an extensive also create conducive environment for still far from perfect, according to the also weakens the oligopoly of energy and engaging use of social media have its development. Until recently, Pol- environmental groups, the prosumer companies, which dominate energy also contributed to success. While it ish regulations on renewable energy amendment has been declared a success production and distribution markets, might be argued that global develop- set the price of energy from renew- by the civic and democratic movement. strengthening democratic control20. ment topics are more difficult to cam- able sources sold by individuals 20% paign for, development groups, absent Energy Prosumerism and Develop- Probably the most important aspect below the average energy price on the in the process, can only learn from this ment – the Missing Link? is that energy prosumerism fits also market. To make prosumerism eco- experience on how to effectively orga- in the very center of systemic change nomically viable the Polish govern- How does this approach relate to nize, lobby and reach out to the public. (or ‘transition’) movements, which are ment needed to establish fixed and fa- global development? First of all, it in- increasingly of interest to develop- A missed opportunity throughout vorable prices for this kind of energy. creases the supply of renewable energy ment and environmental communi- the whole process is the creation of available and thus reduces countries’ The key component of the ‘prosumer ties around initiatives like degrowth, a link between energy and develop- dependency on fossil fuels — be it na- amendment’ in the new renewable en- Great Transition Movement and the ment policy as well as bringing in a tional or imported. It is widely accepted ergy act is fixed prices for fifteen years Rules.21 This democratically-owned, systemic change dimension. Environ- as one of the means of increasing the at a very favorable rate for the small- locally-managed and environmental- mental groups positioned the issue of share of renewable energy in the econ- est energy producers, guaranteeing ly-sustainable solution is just the kind the ‘prosumer amendment’ as a fight omy and reducing carbon emissions. economic viability of the installations. of change many of these groups would between citizens and big business24. This in itself is a strong contribution to According to different estimates, the like to see in the current socio-eco- Other language included energy secu- global development, with broad agree- amendment will help establish be- nomic paradigm and in the face of the rity and sovereignty. The arguments of ment in the international development tween 150 000 and 300 000 small-scale multiple crises we are experiencing.22 global commitments, responsibility or community that “climate change is a prosumers by 2020.14 The benefits of even fighting climate change have been fundamental threat to development in Many researchers and activists explor- prosumerism listed by its supporters largely missing from advocacy and com- our lifetime”17 and “the implications of ing this approach, just like Naomi Klein are many:15 job creation, energy inde- munication materials, not to mention renewable energy use for environmen- in the earlier quoted interview, say that pendence and security, public health of course possible references to PCD. tal sustainability do not need further decentralized sources of renewable en- (due to lower pollution), democratic explanation”18. As Naomi Klein puts it, ergy controlled by citizens and adapting Environmental groups, clearly aware ownership of energy sources and – of in response to a question about the pos- more flexibly and intelligently to chang- of the climate change angle, chose lan- course – more renewable energy, which sible solutions to tackling the climate es in energy demand and supply are guage that possibly seemed the most means a reduced dependence on fos- change crisis, “…[W]e certainly need fundamental for a new economy that effective for the campaign. It is unclear sil fuels and lower carbon emissions. smart frameworks for thinking and would respect planetary boundaries and whether other sorts of arguments and talking about the diverse set of solu- foster peoples’ well-being over the tra- framing would resonate at all with Pol- tions that we know can tackle the crisis ditional concept of economic growth.23 ish society.

19 20 Still, the campaign, which received a reasonable amount of media attention, 1. https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/policies/policy-coherence-develop- ment_en more than any development topics, 2. Country Reports, Accompanying the document: COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE might have been a good opportunity EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: Progress towards completing the Internal Energy Market, to introduce a new or broader fram- European Commission, 2014 3. Demokracja energetyczna, Zielony Instytut, 2013 ing of the issue. The lack of engage- 4. World-wise Europe. PCD study, CNCD, 2014 ment of development organizations 5. Przegrana unia energetyczna, Forbes.pl, 26.02.2015, http://www. forbes.pl/przegrana-unia-energetyczna,artykuly,190798,1,1.html in the struggle and process certain- 6. “Pakiet klimatyczny to samobójstwo”. Analityk: Nie łapiemy się na darmową emisję. Prąd zdrożeje. Chyba że zatrzymamy wzrost PKB, Radio ly did not help to expand the framing. TOK FM, 24.10.2014, http://www.tokfm.pl/Tokfm/1,103086,16859886,_Paki- et_klimatyczny_to_samobojstwo___Analityk__Nie.html Stronger cooperation between envi- 7. Demokracja energetyczna, Zielony Instytut, 2013 8. Kim jest prosument? To możesz być Ty!, http://dlaklimatu.pl/ ronmental and development organiza- kim-jest-prosument/, downloaded in April 2015 9. Nadchodzi era prosumenta, http://www.twoja-firma.pl/wiado- tions is needed if policy coherence and mosc/16781603,nadchodzi-era-prosumenta.html, downloaded in April 2015 10. Inteligentne sieci energetyczne w Europie, http://dlaklimatu.pl/ise-w- systemic change movements are ever europie/, downloaded in March 2015 11. Kim jest prosument? To możesz być Ty!, http://dlaklimatu.pl/ to gain more momentum. For devel- kim-jest-prosument/, downloaded in March 2015 opment organizations, the experience 12. Oto sześć argumentów za poprawką prosumencką, Beata Siemieniako, Krytyka Polityczna (http://www.krytykapolityczna.pl), 21.03.2015 and campaign base of environmental 13. Demokracja energetyczna, Zielony Instytut, 2013 14. Taryfy gwarantowane dla prosumentów? PSL zgłasza poprawkę do organizations would be a welcome as- ustawy o OZE, Chronmyklimat.pl, 2014-12-01 15. Oto sześć argumentów za poprawką prosumencką, Beata Siemieniako, set. For environmental organizations, Krytyka Polityczna (http://www.krytykapolityczna.pl), 21.03.2015 it might be an opportunity to gain new 16. According to the Parliamentary voting record from February 20th 2015. 17. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/climatechange/overview policy influence tools (PCD) as well as 18. From the introduction by LI Yong, Director General of UNIDO, Industrial develop a more holistic approach, going Prosumers of Renewable Energy, UNIDO, 2015 19. Climate: The Crisis and the Movement , Interview with Naomi Klein, towards more sustainable socio-eco- December 2014, http://www.greattransition.org 20. The energy transition to energy democracy, REScoop, 2015 nomic change. Both groups would 21. Civil Society in Transition report, Smart CSOs benefit from rethinking and possibly 22. The energy transition to energy democracy, REScoop, 2015 23. The Degrowth Alternative, Giorgos Kallis, February 2015, and Bounding realigning their narratives towards the Planetary Future: Why We Need a Great Transition, Johan Rockström, April 2015, http://www.greattransition.org more systemic change-oriented ones. 24. http://zielonyzysk.pl/petycja/ With the Sustainable Development Goals about to be adopted, coopera- tion between the two domains is more important and logical than ever. Pol- ish civil society remained quite pas- sive in the consultations and negoti- ation process. But with the relatively strong position Poland holds in the EU, Polish NGOs’ engagement in the monitoring of the country’s and the EU’s efforts in the implementation of the new framework will be crucial. While full integration of environmental and development groups’ narratives is probably not realistic – and possibly not useful, given that the diversity in ap- proaches and messaging enriches the debate and helps reach various audienc- es - both movements have a lot to share.

21 22 The Gap Between the Technical and Practical Aspects of Reconciliation Case Study: Croatia, Civil Society in Rural Areas These areas have a higher proportion of local councils under the ‘Area of Spe- Many areas that were, to a larger de- Author: Tihomir Popovic, Croatian Platform for International Citizen Solidarity CROSOL cial Concern’ label and cover areas that gree, affected by the war in Croatia are were strongly affected by the war, while predominantly rural areas. These ar- they also cover areas that have higher Introduction and Context Economic difficulties were not seen as eas are generally less developed, have proportion of Serb minority population. a joint problem, but rather served to lower incomes than the national aver- Croatia is the only EU member state single out some states. Progressive, age, significantly higher levels of un- In 2011, Osijek County had a 26.7% rate that has recent experience of a civ- but rapid rise of nationalist elements employment, an ageing population, and of unemployment, while in the counties il war, along with post-conflict recon- soon led to an escalation of conflict. a lack of opportunities, especially for of Vukovar, Požega and Slavonski Brod, struction and reconciliation efforts. the youth. A large proportion of them all of which are covered by Šalter, un- Given that many countries, which are Although the dynamics of conflict in belong to the Areas of Special State employment stood at 29.6%, 24.4%, recipients of EU development aid (be other parts of Yugoslavia were some- Concern (Područja od posebne državne and 31.8%, respectively. On the other it bilateral or multilateral), have often what different, in Croatia the conflict skrbi). These areas, whose status is re- hand, Step, which encompasses Split had recent post-conflict experiences, was essentially along ethnic/national viewed annually, usually have a higher County, had a rate of unemployment and still suffer the consequences of the lines between Croats and Serbs. To- proportion of Serb population. In or- of 21.8%, Šibenik 20.6%, Dubrovnik aftermath of armed conflict, Croatia’s day, there are less than five percent der to stimulate development of those 14.8%1, and Zadar 17.5%. The national understanding of the complex issues is Serbs in Croatia, compared to twelve parts, the state offers measures such unemployment average for 2011 was very important to share and learn from. percent of the population in 1991. In as tax breaks for employers and indi- 17% (Croatian Employment Bureau terms of post-conflict reconstruction All the ‘new’ EU member states have viduals. The tax breaks play a role in 2012:1). Although this illustrates the and development, the apparent eth- seen very significant social, economic stimulating entrepreneurship in a re- challenges these areas are facing, the nic divisions exuberated, added an and political changes in the last twen- gion, while also helping civil society unemployment situation in the more important element of reconciliation, ty five years. These changes were par- organisations retain existing and em- rural parts of the county is usual- which has been addressed to varying tially influenced by social demands for ploy new staff. In practice they have not ly grimmer, making the need for local degrees by both state institutions and change coming on the backdrop of the stopped the outflow of young people. level initiatives even more important. civil society, and with mixed success. ‘fall’ of mostly totalitarian regimes, One important initiative to strengthen In order to assist civil society devel- but were also very much driven by the Given that Croatia developed specif- CSOs in the more remote parts of Cro- opment in those areas, regional CSO prospect of EU membership. The extent ic post-conflict skills, a positive and a atia, was setting up regional networks networks work with CSOs and local of reforms required to become an EU negative example of post-conflict ex- of CSOs that divided Croatia into 5 re- councils to organise trainings around member state were huge, and a great perience will be looked at. These will gions. One of the main goals of these those regions providing know-how on challenge not only for the policy-mak- illustrate not only the processes, but networks (set-up in 2007, and receiving topics such as financial management ers, but also for the public, which was also more importantly the lessons significant funding through the Nation- of NGOs, fulfilling financial reporting sometimes found somewhat lost in the learnt from the multi-layered chal- al Foundation for Civil Society Devel- criteria towards state administration, reforms that significantly changed the lenges of post-conflict processes. One opment (Nacionalna zaklada za razvoj writing project proposals, finding part- political, social and economic arenas. example will focus on the practices of civilnoga društva)), is to improve the ners for projects, and other specific engaging civil society organisations In Croatia, reform challeng- capacity of NGOs and the flow of infor- skills. This not only builds capacity, but from the parts of Croatia that have es spanned across economic, po- mation on available funds for NGOs in it also means that CSOs don’t have to been more affected by the war. A more litical and social aspects, with an those regions. This continues to help lo- spend resources on travel and find- ‘negative’ example stems from the added element of post-conflict re- cal CSOs access calls about which they ing trainings, which can be better uti- EU accession process, during which construction and reintegration. Be- would otherwise not have had informa- lized elsewhere for project activities. efforts were made to ensure recon- ginning with the mid 1980s, tensions, tion. Two of those regional networks Between 2007 and 2013, Šalter re- ciliation. However, they put more em- which were manifested through the (Step and Šalter) are located in Split ceived approximately 490,000.00 EUR phasis on the technical aspects, as prism of economic difficulties, be- (south and south eastern Croatia) and for activities and operations, while in opposed to the practical implementa- came more apparent in Yugoslavia. Osijek (eastern Croatia), respectively. the same period Step received some tion, which did not contribute to effec- 294,000.00 EUR (Šalter Network). tive reintegration of the Serb minority.

23 24 It is important to mention that activi- Such an approach provides sup- In other words, inclusion of local level One of the key conditions that Croatia ties related to informing, education and port to local-level initiatives to ad- organisations helps in finding local lev- needed to meet for EU accession was advising of CSOs take up on average dress local and regional issues, el solutions to local problems, while at the reintegration of returnees. As of 80% of those budgets, and that over the and helps particularly in building the same time contributing to develop- 31/12/2014 Croatia ensured the return years, there has been an increase in the local level capacity over a longer ment and inclusiveness in those areas. of 133,705 Serbs to the country, which funds available. Today, the Šalter net- term with a focus on sustainability. is over 50% of those that had fled the Reconciliation Efforts work has 720 member organisations, country by 1995 (UNHCR internal doc- The Foundation, as well as certain oth- and in 2013 the network held 22 edu- Due to the specific post-conflict sce- umentation). Overall, reports indicate er national and international donors put cational events, while 70 organisations nario and the EU accession process that 370,000 Serbs escaped Croatia focus on ensuring inclusion of organisa- used their advisory services on 506 oc- Croatia has faced, and continues to during the war and in the aftermath tions from around the country. Some of casions (interview with Nikoleta Pol- face challenges in its reconciliation ef- of peaceful reintegration of Eastern the tenders require that organisations jak). Step, on the other hand, has near- forts. Although doubts remain about Slavonia (Minority Rights Group In- from a number of counties are partners ly 700 organisations on its mailing list the nature of the conflict – whether ternational). Along with the physical in the project, and that project activities (interview with Slobodan Škoplja), and it was civil, or inter-state, or whether return, measures were designed to take place in a number of locations to conducts similar activities to Šalter. it moved from one to the other – the ensure legal provisions for their rein- ensure a greater degree of inclusion. country nevertheless faced numerous tegration into the social and political The National Foundation for Civil So- Funding from local and regional gov- challenges in the reconstruction, rein- life of Croatia. The initial Association ciety Development, which was set-up ernment plays an important role in tegration and reconciliation processes. and Stabilisation Agreement with the in 2003, has also played an important social entrepreneurship. A good ex- EU, as well as successive Progress role in supporting individual NGOs at Given that the conflict was essential- ample is a honey producer close to the Reports produced by the EC, outlined the local level. The aim of the Founda- ly based on national/ethnic lines, there border with Bosnia and Herzegovina, that returnees and their families faced tion is to provide technical and financial was a need to develop mechanisms to some 90km from Split, which is regis- continued and remaining challeng- support to organisations that support foster post-conflict inter-ethnic rec- tered as a profit-making NGO. He took es in attaining their rights, including the sustainability of the non-for-profit onciliation processes. As a part of a part in ‘Step’s’ activities that helped issues falling under minority rights sector, with the ultimate goal of help- process to draw a line under the war him access local government funding more broadly (EC 2010, EC 2012). This ing develop a vibrant, democratic and crimes prosecution processes, the In- for developing his honey business in a remained a hot topic throughout the inclusive civil society in Croatia. The ternational Criminal Tribunal for For- formerly occupied, remote part of Cro- negotiation process, and was the last Foundation publishes an annual tender mer Yugoslavia (ICTY) recently passed atia. Having secured stable levels of chapter of the acquis communitaire to for operational grants for NGOs, pro- a judgment acquitting both sides of income, he reinvested his profits into be concluded, in 2011. Although there viding varying degrees of funding over the conflict on charges of genocide. the production of beekeeping equip- were many challenges in the process, 3 years to NGOs working broadly on Although such a judgment can help ment that he sold on to other produc- pressure created by the conditionality democratization issues. Through these shift the focus away from war crimes ers, while employing several members of the EU accession process, as well calls it supports organisations playing prosecutions, it is not clear how it of national minorities, and making as activities of UN bodies such as the an important developmental role in lo- will contribute to returnee reintegra- donations to renovate a local school. UNHCR played a crucial role in im- cal areas. Each year approx. five organ- tion and reconciliation processes. proving the human rights standards for isations receive the operational grant Local level NGOs play an important Of course, reconciliation efforts started national minorities, and consequently (which can be up to 52,000EUR per role in identifying local problems and long before the judgment. Some Croa- creating a framework that facilitated, year, for up to three years).They tend to working on solutions in the contexts tian NGOs began work on reconciliation and continues to facilitate voluntary re- be spread out around Croatia to ensure they are familiar with. In post-conflict mechanisms even during the war in co- turns and peaceful co-existence. The a greater degree of inclusiveness. One settings this is particularly important operation with NGOs from Serbia, or on Housing Care Programme developed grant is usually given to an organisation because local NGOs can raise aware- their own within Croatia. However the by the Croatian Government came into based in, or around the capital, Zagreb, ness and inform local, regional and/ majority of efforts began as part of the existence in 2003, but it was not until while the others are given to organisa- or national level authorities of the ex- EU pre-accession negotiation process 2006 that minorities could also take tions based and active in other areas istence of issues of concern, and of given that there was not much political advantage of this programme. Since its of Croatia. The types of NGOs that are ways to deal with those problems. or wider-public desire to work on rec- beginning, the Programme registered supported vary from NGOs dealing with onciliation in the post-conflict period. 17,500 family applications of former women’s rights, to minority issues. occupancy/tenancy rights holders;

25 26 of which 8,930 were approved. Since Perhaps this is partially down to the that are designed to protect cultural specificities and challenges, as well as 1995, Croatia has reconstructed 149,082 fact that some Serbs may not have heritage and identity, are taken to the a lot of work on sensitizing the public in family houses, of which some thirty five wished to identify themselves as Serbs extreme, and serve to continue rein- general and local-level decision mak- percent belong to the members of the in the census, while some have decided forcing divisions. A separate study con- ers in particular to the importance rec- Serb minority, whereas nearly all occu- that they do not wish to return to Cro- ducted by the Institute for Social Re- onciliation has for development. Most pied houses (19,280) were repossessed atia. However that only serves to cast a search in Zagreb and Friedrich Ebert of the Serb population lives in parts of by returnees or internally displaced shadow over the success of reconcili- Stiftung showed even more alarming Croatia that are poorer – further under- persons (19,271) (UNHCR). Although ation efforts. A worrying trend for rec- trends.. They illustrated that the youth lining the need for a regional approach there is no official data to support, or onciliation is observed by figures from in 2012 were less tolerant, more na- to CSO funding in order to assist rec- refute this, some commentators still the Croatian Bureau of Statistics and tionalistic and more xenophobic than onciliation efforts. Of course, reconcil- see a discrepancy between access to UNHCR Office in Croatia, which indi- the same age group some 15 years iation does not happen overnight, and rights in practice for the Serbs and cate that only 15% of a sample of mem- earlier, or only several years after the having strong institutional and legal Croats, and in particular with respect bers of the Serb national minority have end of the war (Ilišin V. et. al., 2013). It frameworks puts Croatia in a strong to the length of time taken to process a monthly income exceeding 4000HRK is therefore unsurprising that autumn position to continue work on reconcilia- requests. Clearly, this would make the (530EUR), while the national average is 2013 saw violent clashes in Vukovar tion efforts. However, more work needs reconciliation efforts more difficult. nearly 5500HRK (720EUR) (UNHCR 2, when local authorities placed bi-lin- to be done by all donors in engaging Croatian Bureau of Statistics 2012:1). gual signposts on state administration CSOs. CSOs possess the ‘softer’ recon- The established legal framework buildings. This move was particularly ciliation skills to ensure reconciliation ensured that parts of Croatia with a Difficulties in ensuring effective recon- unwelcome by parts of the war veter- doesn’t happen on paper only. They un- minority percentage greater than fif- ciliation between Serbs and Croats are an community of the Croatian forces, derstand the real needs on the ground, teen percent would have a right to a further underlined by the evident ten- whose subsequent efforts to redefine as well as the complex historical set- city vice-mayor, vice-county, or local sions in the Vukovar region, which has what percentage a minority is, failed. tings. Reconciliation is a process where council leader (Constitutional Law). seen the worst of the fighting. Today the incentives for cooperation need to be Although this provision is respected,, Vukovar-Srijem County population has Challenges of reconciliation efforts, actively created, rather than passively the practice of employment in state over 15% of Serbs, while the proportion and the difference between theory and hoping (or not) for it to simply happen. institutions, despite laws providing for of Serbs in Vukovar itself is around 35%. practice, are clear. Despite laws en- proportional employment of national As a part of the EU accession process, suring provisions for reconciliation, minorities, illustrates that only 2.38% the Serb minority was ensured rights to it is clear that to be a success, recon- of Serbs are employed in those bodies use their own language, their schools, ciliation needs to be taken out of le- (Croatian Government Office for Human and of course, proportional representa- galistic and institutional terms. Many Rights and Rights of Minorities), while tion in the city administration, meaning civil society organisations have fo- the percentage of Serb minority in the that they have a guaranteed place for a cused more on ensuring that human population in 2011 was 4.4% (Croatian vice-mayor of Vukovar. Although these rights standards are met, which has Bureau of Statistics 2012:1). Since the mechanisms are of immense impor- largely been a success. However, de- early 2000s, when mechanisms to pro- tance, they have not been implemented spite more isolated projects working mote the return of Serbs that had fled in a manner conducive to reconciliation. on reconciliation, there hasn’t been during the operations to free occupied As a part of a study that is being com- much focus on engaging mainstream territories (as well as the peaceful re- piled for the Croatian Ministry of For- Serbs and Croats in a constructive di- integration of Eastern Slavonia) were eign and European Affairs, it was found alogue that would foster reconciliation. beginning to take shape, there hasn’t that the rights attained and enshrined Conclusion been an increase in the proportion of in laws, in practice mean that Serb and Serbs in Croatia. Rather to the con- Croat children, living in a town with a Efforts are being made to ensure a trary, in 2001 the proportion of the Serb population of 26,000, by and large at- greater degree of local level partici- minority stood at 4.5%. This decline is tend separate elementary and sec- pation of CSOs. Despite reconciliation made more significant by the fact that ondary schools, with a separate teach- efforts, it is clear that this process 1. The unemployment rate for Dubrovnik County is somewhat below the national averge, largely due to the extended tourism season, and conse- Croatia has a declining population. ing of history. Consequently, the laws needs donor understanding of the real quently a higher potential for employment in tourism and related sectors..

27 28 What Comes First – the Chicken or the Egg? Or how a united civil society at the local level can be both the trigger for and the In accordance with regular practice, the A joint letter by the developmental and consequence of a global post-2015 development agenda Platform of Development and Human- environmental NGO platforms was Case Study: Slovenia, Author: Ana Kalin itarian NGOs at that point started to sent at the beginning of April 2013 to coordinate advocacy efforts on this im- the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) portant global policy issue, which at the and Ministry of Environment (ME).5 beginning of 2013 coincided with the ar- This joint approach was not utilised rival of a new advocacy and policy offi- Setting the Stage Slovene NGOs were not too involved in the creation of the first position of in the initial stages of global debates. cer, who for the first time since the exis- The year 2012 can be marked as the development and humanitarian NGOs Environmental NGOs were quite active tence of the Platform had the advantage beginning of the debate on the model with regards to the post-2015 frame- in the run-up to Rio+20. Development of working mainly on advocacy matters. of development after the MDGs frame- work, which was directed towards the NGOs were at first not involved in the 6 work will cease to exist. At that stage, Due to external events in the first MFA at the end of April 2013. Immedi- post-MDGs and/or post-2015 debates. the discussion was to a large degree half of 2013, namely the launching of ately before the meeting of EU Devel- However, separate from the global de- focusing on processes. At the be- the Communication from the Europe- opment Minister in May 2013, another bate on the future of development, a ginning of 2013, consideration of the an Commission A Decent Life for All: letter, emphasising the most important segment of Slovene environmental post-2015 development agenda start- Ending poverty and giving the world messages, was sent to the MFA in or- and development NGOs started a lo- 3 ed with a content-generating stage. a sustainable future, followed by the der to maintain momentum. After the cal campaign in 2012 called“Enough”.2 At the global level, parallel dialogues process that ended with the adop- adoption of the Council Conclusions, While in the first place focusing on ex- were taking place, one stemming from tion of the Council conclusions on the the State Secretary at the MFA, acting in isting consumption patterns, the aim of the Rio+20 sustainable development Overarching Post 2015 Agenda in May the role of Development Minister of Slo- the campaign was to start a critical dis- track, and the other one originating of the same year, Slovene NGOs need- venia, addressed the Platform and con- cussion on the concept of development from the post-MDGs process. This di- ed to direct their efforts at the region- firmed the commitment of Slovenia to a and the understanding of the respon- vision between development experts al and national levels simultaneously. universal post-2015 framework with a sibility of every individual for the fate 7 on one hand, and on the other hand At the regional level, energies were global partnership at its core. It is often of our societies and the environment. the environmental professionals, who concentrated on the work within the difficult to evaluate the exact impact of Simultaneously, developmental NGOs have been in the driver’s seat in the European Task Force (ETF) of Beyond advocacy work, as one can never claim started debating the meaning, purpose sustainable development field, was 2015, a CSO network open to all Eu- with certainty what actions were deci- and role of development cooperation in prominent also within the European ropean organisations, which in May sive for bringing a matter to its tipping overcoming inequalities and eradicat- Union (EU). Whereas some EU mem- 2013 launched its recommendations point. Nevertheless, the end result was ing poverty. The conditions were thus ber states had by then proclaimed the on the post-2015 framework entitled close to the position advocated by NGOs, set for a more systematic approach to 4 need for uniting the two tracks, oth- “Putting People and the Planet First.” therefore the efforts were not in vain. tackling global issues at the local level. ers were still in favour of retaining two Similarly, with the aim of influencing The participation of a development separate, yet coordinated processes. Linking the Global with the Local the EU position, advocacy efforts were NGO representative in the official del- Slovenia belonged to the group of In the Slovene non-governmental de- undertaken at the national level. As al- egation of the President of Slovenia at countries that at the end of 2012 de- velopment cooperation sector, advo- ready mentioned, Slovenia had at the the special event on MDGs in Septem- clared support for a united post-2015 cacy and policy issues are not at the end of 2012 declared itself in favour ber 2013 in New York was not only an framework. Nevertheless, in the spring forefront of activities. This is mainly a of a united post-2015 framework, but excellent opportunity for further ad- of 2013 some of the strongest players consequence of the size of this partic- due to on-going internal and regional vocacy efforts, but also confirmed the within the EU continued favouring a ular segment of the NGO sector, cou- uncertainties, it was of utmost impor- recognition by the Government of the two-track approach which preserved pled with its financing possibilities (or tance to secure continued support for role of civil society in shaping the new a certain level of division between the lack thereof), which are mainly orient- fusing the two tracks. It was at this framework. With the aim of continued developmental and environmental per- ed to short-term visible results. In line point that alliances were first built with awareness raising among Slovene deci- spective in other countries as well. It was with this reality, Slovene NGOs have environmental NGOs, aimed at showing sion-makers, but also among the broad- not until June 2013, when the General not been at the forefront of the global a united front in the non-governmen- er public, a special issue of the quarter- Affairs Council of the European Union civil society movement, but rather got tal sector, as well as hoping to create ly magazine of the Platform (Slogopis) adopted the conclusions on the over- involved in the post-2015 development additional pressure on Government. was devoted to the post-2015 develop- arching Post 2015 Agenda that the EU process only at the beginning of 2013. ment agenda, incorporating the state formally agreed to tackle the follow-up of affairs and political commitments of the MDGs and Rio+20 in unison.1 made at the special event on MDGs.8

29 30 In 2013, the core of activities of de- especially as the new framework EP members (out of eight members agenda. A substantive number of im- velopment NGOs were aimed primarily will most likely set the conditions for from Slovenia) and four members of portant positions advocated by devel- at advocacy efforts in securing a post- their future work; iii) the two-way con- the Slovene parliament. It is import- opment and environmental NGOs were 2015 framework that would be able nection between the global and lo- ant to mention that national elections incorporated into the official Slovene to tackle global challenges, eradicate cal levels: on one hand, local input is were held in July 2014, soon after the position on post-2015. Furthermore, global poverty, inequality and reverse crucial for an agenda that is aspiring EP elections. The civil society alliance, some politicians committed them- environmental degradation. The focus to be truly universal, and on the oth- formed for the EP elections, again selves to supporting the core and un- on ensuring the appropriate contents er hand, an excellent and universal joined forces and addressed all par- derlying principles that the Slovene of the new framework continued at the agenda means nothing without rec- ties running for the national elections CSOs believe to be necessary for both beginning of 2014 with the creation of ognition at the local level, which is with a list of demands. Furthermore, local and global development, envi- a second, more detailed and advanced crucial for effective implementation. the same coalition, joined by a few ad- ronmental sustainability and equality. NGO position regarding the new agen- ditional NGO platforms, proposed a The 2014 elections to the European As always, there is also a negative side da. In line with broader attempts of en- joint activity as part of a broader call Parliament (EP) presented an excel- to the story. While commitments were suring a cross-sectorial, and intercon- for proposals funded by the Euro- lent opportunity for the execution of indeed made, when the time came for nected framework, the second position pean Structural Funds and the Gov- the second stage of activities. A broad a first post-election meeting between was coordinated between development ernment of Slovenia in August 2014. coalition of NGO networks was formed, politicians and CSOs, the level of in- and environmental NGOs.9 In addition, which included platforms from the ar- Was the Global Successfully Linked terest within the alliance decreased the policy and advocacy officer of the eas of development cooperation, envi- with the Local and Vice Versa? significantly. The alliance itself there- Platform became a member of the ronment, education, social inclusion, fore made it easy for decision-makers Steering Committee of the ETF on Be- It is possible to say that there are el- health and volunteerism, as well as to go back on their commitments. In yond 2015. This was important from ements of success, as well as failure UNICEF. They joined forces for the first order to ensure continued support for two perspectives. Firstly, through the in the described activities, which took time and created a common civil soci- CSO demands, a constant dialogue with involvement at the European level, Slo- place over a period of one year and a ety Manifest for the EP elections. The decision-makers is needed, which un- vene NGOs were well informed about half. It is not common practice for di- already mentioned position of devel- fortunately did not happen in the de- global and EU developments. And sec- verse platforms to cooperate in Slo- opment and environmental NGOs on scribed case. In order to achieve the ondly, through the membership in the venia. While they have over the years the post-2015 agenda was used as a desired goals, CSOs need to sustain Steering Committee, a fresh and slight- joined forces in support of an improved basis for the creation of an even more coalitions, as larger numbers often ly different perspective from a so-called NGO status at the national level, they inclusive view on the future of Europe. have more impact. While the alliance new Member State was represented have rarely (if ever) worked togeth- The alliance called for a Europe that worked together on several occa- in the European CSO position, as well er on coordinating substantive issues. would be based on equality, where a sions during a short period of time, as the point of view of smaller NGOs. The joint Manifest can thus be counted healthy environment would be a prior- over time the momentum was lost. as a two-fold success. On one hand, a However, a new dimension was added ity and life would be decent, where the coordinated position of a broader sec- In order to bring about change, con- to post-2015 related activities in 2014, economy would support sustainable tion of civil society meant more pres- stant and long-term efforts are needed that of connecting the global mecha- development for all, where policies sure on decision-makers, especially on the side of CSOs, especially when dis- nism with activities at the local level. would be coherent and without nega- when compared to past experiences in cussing something as complex as a fu- This was a consequence of three real- tive effects on development, and where which politicians received numerous ture global development agenda, which isations: i) the agenda was low on the good governance and accountability positions from CSOs working in various calls for a changed perception of the priority list of Slovene decision-makers would be the order of the day.10 Under sectors. On the other hand, the elec- world in which we must all assume our and the only way to bring it closer to these overarching demands, the plat- tions to the EP were successfully used share of responsibilities. Unfortunately, their hearts was through raised levels forms included their specific requests as a tool to introduce concepts from an in the described case, despite a good of public understanding leading to pres- in their respective fields of work. overarching and universal development and relatively successful beginning, the sure for change; ii) knowledge about the Manifests were then sent to all one agenda to non-development CSOs. endeavours ceased too soon to ensure agenda among non-development actors hundred and eighteen candidates significant change. This was also a con- was practically non-existent, so there In addition, through the described for the EP elections, together with a sequence of a change in the structure was a need to raise their awareness, process, Slovene politicians and deci- pre-drafted pledge to be signed by of the Platform for development coop- sion-makers became acquainted with the candidates.11 Twenty-nine per- eration and humanitarian assistance. the contents of the global post-2015 cent of the candidates committed themselves to the CSO demands. Among them were three Slovene 31 32 This highlights an often-present prob- lem, namely that instead of creating a system to support change, too often change occurs due to engaged and en- thusiastic individuals. This can to a large degree be attributed to financial factors and a very small operating space, as de- velopment issues are a rather obscure topic in Slovenia. Notwithstanding the financial situation, the development NGO sector needs to invest more in its professionalization, as well as in pur- suing common goals instead of partial and, in the large scheme of things, in- consequential interests. In the long run, the existing setting often does not lead to sustainable and effective results. While the results of the exercise could have been better, they nevertheless rep- resent a step in the right direction. The example is a confirmation that through joining forces, more can be achieved. And no less important, the case shows how tightly connected the global and local levels are. In order to achieve progress, simultaneous efforts need to be undertaken. In other words, neither the chicken nor the egg came first.

1. The Overarching Post 2015 Agenda – Council conclusions http://www. consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/137606. pdf 2. http://www.dovolj.si/ 3. European Commission, A Decent Life for All: Ending poverty and giving the world a sustainable future http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/doc- uments/2013-02-22_communication_a_decent_life_for_all_post_2015_ en.pdf 4. Concord – Beyond 2015 European Task Force, Putting People and Planet First http://www.beyond2015.org/sites/default/files/Putting%20People%20 and%20Planet%20First.pdf 5. Sloga and Plan B, Pismo glede post-2015 agende http://www. sloga-platform.org/sloga/images/stories/PDF/pismo%20mzz%20in%20 mko%20o%20post-2015%20procesu%20sloga%20in%20plan%20b.pdf 6. Sloga, Stališče razvojnih in humanitarnih NVO do post-2015 agende http://milenijski-cilji.org/novice/28-novice-razvojni-cilji/187-stalie-razvo- jnih-in-humanitarnih-nevladnih-organizacij-glede-okvira-post-2015.html 7. Pismo državnega sekretarja dr. Cerarja Slogi http://www.milenijski-cil- ji.org/images/stories/dr.%20cerar%20-%20odgovor%20na%20poziv%20 sklepi%20fac.pdf 8. Slogopis No. 12 http://www.sloga.sloga-platform.org/images/stories/ PDF/slogopis%2012.pdf 9. Sloga and Plan B, Stališče razvojnih, humanitarnih in okoljskih NVO do post-2015 agende http://www.sloga-platform.org/images/stories/Stalisce_ NVO_post-2015_februar_2014.pdf 10. Sloga, Plan B, MINVOS, prostovoljstvo.org, vkljucen.si, Nacionalna mreža NVO s področja javnega zdravstva, UNICEF, Manifest civilne družbe pred volitvami v Evropski parlament http://gallery.mailchimp.com/1e69aaf- 7c73728dce6744d567/files/fe1f32ee-7d90-4ddb-929c-227fc223c0b9.pdf 11. http://www.sloga-platform.org/sloga/images/stories/PDF/maj14/ dr._Igor_%C5%A0oltes_zaveza.jpg

33 34 A New Approach to Global Development Case Study: Estonia, Author: Anna Karolin following operating procedures were The deliberation day concluded with agreed: i) gather ideas from society; ii) five topics, divided further into eigh- review them with experts and provide a teen proposals. Sixteen were accept- balanced expert opinion 3) organise an ed and two issues were voted down. assembly and thus hold a discussion The two rejected ideas were: 1) can- Successful case: The “Silvergate” scandal thus triggered day and 4) suggest the agreed propos- celling the requirement for candidates what was believed to be a “crisis in de- People’s Assembly Rahvakogu als to the Parliament. Organisational to submit a financial security deposit mocracy”6 and the exposed violations Background powers were given to the Estonian Co- for standing for election in case a cer- of party regulations created suspicion operation Assembly, and a large part tain number of signatures are collect- In 2012 several political scandals towards other political parties as well. rocked Estonian politics and together was played by (non-political) NGOs, ed and; 2) securing permanent state with the consequences of the global In order to break the impasse, in No- among them the Network of Estonian funding to the People’s Assembly. vember 2012 the Estonian president Non-Profit Organisations (NENO). financial crisis on the Estonian econ- The sixteen accepted proposals in- Toomas Hendrik Ilves undertook the Volunteers played an enormous role omy, caused widespread disappoint- cluded dividing public financial support role of an informal mediator and start- in the functioning of the Assembly. ment among the Estonian public. For a to parties in a more equal manner; im- ed a discussion between the activists, better understanding of the situation, The Assembly addressed five issues: proving regulations and monitoring of politicians and other relevant actors. it is necessary to point out that since the electoral system; competition be- political donations; not supporting the Thus began the so-called Ice Cham- 2009, strict budget cuts had been im- tween political parties and their inter- politicization of public offices; easing ber Process, named after the room plemented without big public protests nal democracy; financing of the po- the provisions on creating new political in which the first meeting took place. and that in 2011 the Estonian prime litical parties; strengthening the role parties; increasing direct democracy One of the important conclusions of minister caused public outrage by call- of civil society in politics between the and Parliament’s interaction with the the process was to create an online ing the opponents of the controversial elections; and stopping the politici- public.10 Among the most surprising civic platform,7 the People’s Assem- Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement zation of public offices. The Assem- adopted proposals was the one to reject bly Rahvakogu,8 to improve the cur- (ACTA) ratification bill conspiracy the- bly combined modern communication direct elections for the president. It was rent mood in politics and use crowd- orists wearing tin-foil hats and eating tools with traditional face-to-face dis- common knowledge that the majority sourcing as a way to get good ideas. strange seeds. The ACTA bill also led to cussions. During the first stage, which of the Estonian public otherwise sup- one the biggest public protests in the The Role of Rahvakogu/ People’s As- ended in January 2013, proposals and ported direct presidential elections and 1 history of newly independent Estonia. sembly comments were submitted online. In this result was thought to demonstrate February 2013, analysts grouped the the moderating effect of Rahvakogu. Then came the year 2012, when an The People’s Assembly Rahvakogu proposals and comments into bundles MP and former Reform Party Mem- (www.rahvakogu.ee) is an online plat- After the deliberation day, President of different possible scenarios and ber Silver Meikar admitted to funnel- form for crowd-sourcing ideas and Hendrik Ilves submitted the support- provided impact analysis. The “delib- ing roughly 7600 Euros in questionable proposals to amend Estonia’s electoral ed proposals to the Parliament. Until eration day” (one day or more, as nec- donations to the ruling Reform Party laws, political party law, and other is- today, three have been turned into law essary) followed in March selecting in 2009 and 2010(known as the “Sil- sues related to the future of democracy - Riigikogu decided to reduce the num- 2 the most preferred scenarios during vergate” scandal). This discovery was in Estonia. This form of direct democra- ber of recruited members required for public meetings. These were then followed by a series of dubious state- cy was new to Estonia, as was the idea the establishment of a political party presented to the parliament, Riigik- ments from party members with re- of individuals simply proposing new (from 1000 to 500), to reduce the can- ogu, by the President of the Republic. gards to the sources of their donations. legislation directly to the parliament, didate’s financial deposit to stand for An investigation was setup, but end- compared to the usual means through During the online phase, Rahvakogu elections by half, it established stricter 3 ed without any convictions . This also various kinds of protests. The concept received almost two thousand proposals punishments for accepting prohibited 4 led to public protests, a public letter of doing something constructive and in- over twenty five days.9 Out of those, the donations, extended the authority of and online petition by important public clusive, rather than protesting or oust- Assembly discussed six suggestions. the Political Party Financing Supervi- opinion leaders, including politicians, ing political leaders, was equally un- There were fears that the invited sample sion Committee and increased state fi- 5 writers and other social activists . known. To ensure the best results, the of citizens would not attend the deliber- nancing for political parties that failed ation day, but the turnout was relatively to achieve the election threshold. Legal good, as three hundred and fourteen amendments that require Parliament out of the five hundred invitees turned to start official procedures based on up for the discussion and deliberation. public petitions were also adopted.11

35 36 All in all, such legislation significant- Similar to rules on party regulation, Thirdly, the mechanism enables public suitable for discussing specific poli- ly simplified and eased the process development policies and the cost of awareness raising on topics tradition- cy options and on questions that are of creating new political parties and development aid often create pub- ally considered elitist or boring. Even up for majority vote. Assemblies held their participation in elections. As Es- lic controversy and provoke anger in though party regulations are not per- on very delicate issues (such as iden- tonia has historically had a fragment- the layman. This is particularly true ceived as a very exciting topic, as a con- tity, race, punishments etc.) might re- ed Parliament and thus unstable gov- for countries where issues of devel- sequence of Rahvakogu all the possible sult in deterring some participants or ernments, measures formerly in place opment and the legacy of colonialism options and expert opinions were rigor- not have a moderating effect. In the made it more difficult for new and are less well known—such as the EU ously discussed in the media. A parallel context of development, issues of na- small parties to formulate and com- 13 (Estonia in particular, as the coun- could be drawn with issues such as aid tional reconciliation are most likely pete in elections. However, such mea- try with the least public support within efficiency, priority recipient countries to be unsuitable for such a method. sures also meant that distrust towards the EU for development cooperation12). and other issues of development, which Unsuccessful Case: Pork Barrel established political parties could In both cases a public discussion is at first glance seem like highly techni- Financing in Estonia not so easily be channeled into creat- needed to raise public awareness. cal and unimportant topics, but in reali- ing new parties. As a result of these Rahvakogu and similar forms of de- ty have an impact on the quality of life of Background changes, a new political party—the Es- mocracy can not only be used to create citizens, just like party regulations do. The practice of pork barrel financing tonian Free Party—was created, which such public discussions, but also take Fourthly, highly political issues de- seems to stem from the first half of also succeeded in entering Parliament full advantage of their moderating ef- bated and proposed by politicians of- 1990s.14 According to one of the most in the 2015 parliamentary elections. fects as experts help to balance views ten take the form of a zero-sum game experienced Estonian parliamentari- and tackle ridiculous stereotypes. Evaluation of Approach and its among competing actors. The process ans Eiki Nestor, the tradition started Potential Contribution to Development Secondly, while the number of laws of activating a people’s assembly can for pragmatic reasons. As the gov- adopted by Parliament has been con- help de-politicise the debate and pres- ernment wanted to maintain a bal- During and after its creation Rahvakogu sidered modest by several opinion ent the issues at stake from a more anced budget, members of the par- received a lot of criticism from several leaders, it is the opinion of the author neutral perspective. As decisions are liament were in practice not allowed journalists and intellectuals for “suf- that abundant progress has nonethe- made based on discussion by laymen, to add additional expense items to focating” public protests and disrupt- less been achieved. The proposals en- political forces supporting unpopular the budget. Consequently, a separate ing the needed ousting of the political couraging the creation and sustain- policy options are no longer seen as itemized list of expenditures and an elite. However, Rahvakogu can also be ability of new political parties were losers. This takes away pressure from agreed sum of money was created for considered a success from many as- instrumental to the entry of two new parties, that prioritize voters’ views parliamentarians to spend according pects. As it was a civil initiative, the dis- parties into Parliament during the and thus under normal circumstances to their (mostly local) preferences .”15 course of civic activism allows for al- most recent parliamentary elections, usually succumb to following a pop- ternative proposals and mechanisms. According to the former Prime Min- thus invigorating the political space.13 ulist view rather than a professional ister Andrus Ansip initially the ma- Firstly, it was a good balance between While it is true that there has been one. Having a neutral ground with ex- jority of the money went to fixing the direct democracy and expert opinions. modest social pressure from society, perts proposing arguments, making roofs of kindergartens and schools The threat of purely direct democra- nonetheless several proposals from decisions and legitimizing issues pro- (this is why the practice is called as cy is the lack of public discussion and Rahvakogu have been implemented, vides a way for parties to give up their “roof money”, “katuseraha” in Esto- simplistic arguments, especially when demonstrating the value of public- position without losing face among nian).16 Despite its non-transparent civil society is not highly evolved. Rah- ly reviewed and evaluated proposals. their voters. Development policies can nature, pork barrelling until this day vakogu used public proposals, but also include such hot topics and are in Foreign policy and development aid remains a stable source of NGO financ- moderated and complemented them need of public, not party agreement. are highly political issues and are often ing, notwithstanding the otherwise with impact analysis from experts. guided by political, not evidence based The method of the People’s Assem- good reputation of Estonian civil soci- The proposals went back to the peo- decision-making. Thus a process, in- bly can be used in many contexts, for ety seen as generally transparent and ple, but gave them a chance to discuss creasing the value of merit based pol- both local and national issues, while prosperous among CEE countries.17 the possible impacts with experts. This icies, could also be used for better de- also being suitable in the context of in turn meant a more balanced and cision-making on development policy. development. However, people’s as- moderated form of direct democracy. The author would therefore recommend semblies should not be organized on using people’s assemblies for mak- topics concerning basic human rights, ing decisions on development policy. minority issues etc. The method is only

37 38 There have been serious reserva- Pork Barrelling in Estonia tions regarding the use of this money Evaluation of Approach and its Poten- tial Contribution to Development Pork barrel financing generally on ethical grounds or due to conflict of means “legislators’ incentives to ob- interest. Some financing goes to NGOs Often, countries who develop at a lat- However, as these steps will most tain funds, for example, for bridges where parliament members serve as er stage have a chance to avoid the likely be seen as hypocritical, devel- 20 and harbours, for the benefit of their board members or to their districts. A pitfalls of different political customs. oped countries themselves should home districts.”18 In Estonia not all vast majority of NGOs accept the money, Pork barrel financing in Estonia is be encouraged to end the custom. allocations go to local projects, but with few exceptions (such as, in 2015, an example of a political custom that also to various organisations based The Estonian Human Rights Centre). has evolved over time and is now dif- on political decisions and consensus. The practice has been condemned by ficult to ban. Pork barrel financing is a common practice among many de- Every year between the 2nd and 3rd many experts, such as Transparency 1. Internet Society Estonia, http://kogukond.org/in-english/ International Estonia, the Policy Centre veloped and also developing nations.28 2. Estonian Public Broadcasting (2012), „Reform Party Caught Up in reading of the new national budget law, ‘Dirty Money’ Scandal„, http://news.err.ee/v/660921d5-6410-43a1-b01e- Praxis and NENO. According to NENO- ec47e2d3550f parties allocate funding based on their As aforementioned, there are several 3. Estonian Public Broadcasting (2012), „Political Contributions Investiga- 21not everyone has equal access to fi- tion Ended for Lack of Evidence“, http://news.err.ee/v/politics/2487310e- own preferences, often to NGOs. Each reasons why this does not represent 1dbe-4d35-aa5c-d106a2223f7d nancing, the decision-making process 4. Estonian Public Broadcasting (2012), „Anti-Deceitfulness’ Demonstra- parliamentary party faction is allocated good management practices. To sum tions Draw Significant Turnout „, http://news.err.ee/v/politics/64bff71c- is not transparent and it is often based 3716-42a0-ad54-7724b8c43555 its share of finances in the state budget. them up, not everyone has equal ac- 5. Estonian Public Broadcasting (2012),„Charter 12 Signer: Division In 2014, this amounted to approximate- on personal beliefs and biases of party cess to financing, the decision-making Between Politicians, People Endangers Democracy „, http://news.err.ee/v/ members without public procurement politics/4bfe44c3-79ef-4702-8236-c370169266eb ly 10 million Euros and in 2015 - ap- process is not transparent and is often 6. Estonian Public Broadcasting (2012), „President Suggests E-Activism or other competitive award procedures. as Solution for Political Dispute„, http://news.err.ee/v/politics/9813ef5f- proximately 6 million Euros, less than based on party members’ personal be- 9fbf-4863-a289-df0a09c66bdf In addition, it has been claimed by some 7. Estonian Public Broadcasting (2012), President Suggests E-Activism 1% of the overall budget. The political liefs and biases without public procure- as Solution for Political Dispute“, http://news.err.ee/v/politics/5e8ce- parties then decide how to distribute of the members of parliament and ex- ment or other competitive awarding fad-7f11-45d7-9aaf-9af47cb12f30 perts from NENO and the Praxis Poli- 8. www.rahvakogu.ee the resources, and communicate their procedures. Also, it has been claimed 9. Estonian Public Broadcasting (2013),“ Organizer Happy with Quality cy Centre that there should be enough of Proposals in People’s Assembly“, http://news.err.ee/v/politics/5b- decision to the financing committee of there should be enough financing guar- de3ce6-adca-4451-a29f-8ff3f19fd7d0 financing guaranteed to the recipients 10. The precise conclusions and resolutions can be found on http://www. the Parliament, which without thorough anteed through other more transpar- kogu.ee/peoples-assembly-results-lower-election-threshold-but-no-to-di- of the pork barrel through other more rect-presidential-elections/ review prepares a final financial pro- ent means. Even when the purpose of 11. NENO (2014), „Three proposals of People’s Assembly became laws in a 22 23 19 transparent means. , Even when the year „, http://ngo.ee/ngo/247/article/8586 posal. The practice is a de facto cus- the allocation is noble or motivated by 12. EPB (2015), „Estonians less positive about development aid than other tom, with no specific legal provision. purpose of the allocation is noble or mo- public interest, the means of alloca- EU nations“ http://news.err.ee/v/society/e696c0d9-c894-493f-b246- tivated by public interest, the means of 423595cfe648 tion are unethical and cannot be de- 13. EPB (2015), „Ruling Reform Party wins Estonian election, fending off In order to receive financing, an or- allocation are unethical and do not con- challenge from archrival Center http://news.err.ee/v/main_news/4249bc- scribed as good management practice. ba-7176-4b74-af11-9e4812c78368 ganisation has to sign a contract with form to good management practices. 14. http://uudised.err.ee/v/eesti/d0778d22-90f8-41f2-a8b9-0a492b7a049d 15. Transparency International Estonia (2015), „Saadikud jagavad oma the responsible ministry, sometimes it As the custom allows for political and äranägemise järgi miljoneid eurosid “katuseraha”“, http://www.trans- has to submit a project proposal, and Despite its unpopularity in the media not transparent financing, it is even parency.ee/cm/artiklid/saadikud-jagavad-oma-aranagemise-jargi-mil- and among experts, pork barrel financ- joneid-eurosid-katuseraha in the end report the results. Howev- more dangerous in developing coun- 16. EPB (2013), „Ansip: katuserahad on vajalikud, väärkasutamine lubama- ing is supported by the main political tu“, http://uudised.err.ee/v/eesti/ac186bc0-f891-45f2-909f-c3ae4f54c1a0 er, there is no public procurement or tries, where the role of the media as 17. NENO (2012),“ NGO sustainability index“, http://www.ngo.ee/node/280 parties, both in the coalition and op- 18. Stratmann, Thomas; Baur, Martin (2002) : Plurality Rule, Proportional other competitive procedures and thus a watchdog is weaker and where po- Representation, and the German Bundestag: How Incentives to Pork-Barrel 24 position. The Reform Party and Pro Differ Across Electoral Systems, CESifo Working Paper, No. 650 http://www. the rules of public procurement do not litical culture is less evolved and cli- econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/76052/1/cesifo_wp650.pdf apply. The financing is disbursed for Patria and Res Publica Union have entilist incentives more prominent. 19. EPB (2014), „Selgusid nn katuseraha saajad“, http://uudised.err.ee/v/ pointed out several times that since eesti/1a69099c-7791-4584-b93c-7175e575a57c many different purposes. These in- 20. Delfi News(2013),“ Riigikogu liikmed kasutavad riigi antud katusera- decisions are made in the public inter- In the context of development, more hasid endaga seotud organisatsioonide hüvanguks“, http://www.delfi.ee/ clude local or national infrastructure news/paevauudised/eesti/riigikogu-liikmed-kasutavad-riigi-antud-katus- est, and the practice serves to keep the effort should be devoted to strength- erahasid-endaga-seotud-organisatsioonide-huvanguks?id=67244822 objects, schools and other municipal 21. http://www.transparency.ee/cm/artiklid/katuseraha-saa- budget in check, it is justifiable.25The ening the role of watchdogs—media, jad-soovivad-ise-et-selle-jagamine-lopeks or social buildings normally funded by 22. http://www.transparency.ee/cm/artiklid/katuseraha-saa- civil society and local protests. Also, local governments, national and re- former Prime Minister Andrus Ansip jad-soovivad-ise-et-selle-jagamine-lopeks considering potential hazards, work- 23. http://epl.delfi.ee/news/eesti/rahvasaadikud-peavad-katusera- gional NGOs ranging from national has pointed out that the practice is very ha-ebamoistlikuks?id=70441123 common among Western liberal de- ing on banning or deterring parlia- 24. Transparency International Estonia (2015), „Riigikogu katusepakkujad advocacy organisations to political or ei taha kriitikat kuidagi kuulda võtta“, http://transparency.ee/cm/artiklid/ mocracies and that such direct invest- ments from such financing practices riigikogu-katusepakkujad-ei-taha-kriitikat-kuidagi-kuulda-votta small NGOs with a very specific pur- 25. Transparency International Estonia (2015), „Riigikogu katusepakkujad ments are more effective.26 Social dem- through conditional aid could also be- ei taha kriitikat kuidagi kuulda võtta“, http://transparency.ee/cm/artiklid/ pose. Often the funds are directed for riigikogu-katusepakkujad-ei-taha-kriitikat-kuidagi-kuulda-votta considered. In countries, where this the support of national theatres, sports ocrats (a recent coalition party) have 26. http://uudised.err.ee/v/eesti/ac186bc0-f891-45f2-909f-c3ae4f54c1a0 said that the parliament needs to make practice has not yet developed, efforts 27. http://uudised.err.ee/v/eesti/ac186bc0-f891-45f2-909f-c3ae4f54c1a0 organisations etc., ensuring the exis- 28. For a thorough overview, see Baskin, M., & In Mezey, M. L. (2014). should be made to advise against it. Distributive politics in developing countries: Almost pork. tence of primary services for public. political and autonomous decisions and thus the practice is justifiable.27

39 40 Is Cooperation the New Development? Case Study: Latvia, Author: Kristīne Ļeontjeva These resources have been distribut- This is the general setting for devel- “I don’t think you should interview me, we were cooperating, not helping them.”1 ed by earmarked funding in accordance opment cooperation practices in Lat- with the Development Cooperation via - unstable funding, wide action Plan that supports the implementation areas, narrow geographical focus, of the Strategy, through calls for grant earmarked funding allocation, lack of Introduction The most recent Development Coop- proposals for which CSOs, business- needs assessments, focused on finding eration Policy Strategy for the period The case study from Latvia aims to es, local authorities and state institu- a niche and the special development of 2011-2015 (from now on Strategy) examine three practices of cooperation tions could all apply for, or through a product that only Latvia can offer. This states that Latvia, within its capacities between Latvian entities and their part- decentralized approach, financing de- means focusing on the input perspec- to engage in development cooperation ners in priority countries, as defined by velopment cooperation projects identi- tive (what can we offer), not necessar- activities, should focus on the effec- the official Strategy of Latvia for devel- fied by Latvian embassies in recipient ily the output (what are the needs of tiveness of aid, policy coherence and opment cooperation, yet not financed countries. The scope and thematic fo- recipient country), which is stressed sustainability of results achieved.3 The from the official development coopera- cus of the projects have been extreme- already in the Strategy. Against this document does not however provide tion funding and not labelled as such by ly diverse – from building courthouses general background the organizations any specific proposals or provisions for project implementers. The case study in Afghanistan to promoting non-for- that are included in this case study how effectiveness, coherence and sus- will discuss how the projects were initi- mal peer-to-peer learning in Belarus.5 have not applied for MFA funding / tainability could best be implemented. ated and implemented, what was their During the years 2009 – 2011 very few to MFA calls for proposals, but have effect on their target groups and what The priority countries within the Strat- projects were carried out. Among them turned to other donors for support. distinguishes them from “official” de- egy are Eastern Partnership countries, were a training in Riga for five Georgian The Three Practices velopment cooperation projects, finally countries in Central Asia and countries officials on migration and citizenship using this distinction to illustrate some where Latvian civil experts or military and a study visit in Riga for a repre- This paper presents three different shortcomings in the development co- missions are stationed. In terms of the- sentative of Georgian Adult Learning organizations and their cooperation operation field and identify opportuni- matic priorities, the Strategy invites de- association, carried out in 2009.6 projects in the above mentioned pri- ties for systemic improvements, which velopment agents to focus on any of the ority countries. The main characteris- Latvia’s development cooperation would be more in line with the newer priority fields defined by The Europe- tics of the projects are similar to those partner countries that have received thinking on development cooperation. an Consensus on Development. It also projects that receive funding from MFA the majority of financial support are states that Latvia will offer its transi- and thus qualify as development coop- The case study analyses available doc- Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus and tion experience to help implement po- eration projects. These main common uments on development cooperation in Afghanistan. The Ministry of Foreign litical and economic reforms in regions characteristics are the thematic focus, Latvia and provides data from five inter- Affairs (MFA) on their website states where this is necessary. Thus devel- types of interventions, and the coun- views conducted with people involved that “Latvia understands Georgia’s at- opment cooperation should be carried tries of action. However the people im- in the three practices of cooperation. tempts [at development] and needs”7 out in areas where Latvia as a donor plementing the projects looked at in the while in the case of Moldova “Latvia is Background state has comparative advantages and case study do not consider their projects interested in stability and development expertise to support development pro- as development cooperation projects. Latvia started planning and imple- in the region, as well as understands grammes in partner states. The neces- The reasons for that can be taken as a menting development cooperation pol- attempts and needs of Moldova.”8 The sity for a needs assessment in receiving good starting point for improvements icy in 2004 when it joined the EU, in line thematic focus of projects, as men- countries is either implied or not men- in the development cooperation field with the first document adopted for this tioned before, has been very varied and tioned, except for Moldova and Georgia and are discussed further in the paper. field of work - The Basic Principles for diverse. Generally most project funds for which there have been country strat- the Development Cooperation Policy of have been allocated for developing soft The projects that were chosen for egy papers prepared for 2006-2008. the Republic of Latvia (referred to as skills projects and reforms, and not for analysis are: Development Cooperation Principles)2. The budget for development co- infrastructure projects, which generally (1) “Non-formal education for all”9 In 2008 the World Bank’s Internation- operation over the years has fluc- require larger amounts of donor mon- was a project that was submitted to al Development Association changed tuated greatly, especially with re- ey. The Strategy sees the development and financed by the Youth in Action the status of Latvia to a donor country. gards to country programmable aid cooperation funding as an opportunity programme through Youth in the World - from over 800 000 Euros in 2008 to increase the capacity and experience (3.2.) action in 2010.10 The duration of to just over 1000 Euros in 2009.4 of Latvia’s experts to improve their the project was 12 months, the total success in obtaining other funding. grant amounted to over 80 000 Euros. The direct beneficiaries were 32

41 42 young people and 44 youth workers development cooperation funds for organization from wider work in Geor- but this is also not their main respon- and youth leaders from two European projects with local municipalities in gia itself, but at the same time taught sibility), all are involved with something countries and two countries in Central partner countries. However in recent them to look for and find other funding else, yet they responded to a need that Asia. The project included an advance years the organization has not applied sources. That was also one of the rea- was discovered in conversations and planning visit, a youth exchange, a for such grants anymore, financing its sons that was mentioned for not apply- cooperation with their contact persons training course and two job shadow- activities from the municipal budget. ing for MFA’s funding now when it has in their partner countries. Much of the ings – one in Europe and one in Cen- been re-established - “We are doing planning and implementation was thus When asked for the main reasons for tral Asia. It was coordinated by an ok just with private funding. We now do based on a people-to-people approach their activities and the circumstances organization that mostly works with what we know we should be doing, not and on trusting that local people knew under which they decided to implement youth projects, implementing train- what the Government has put in their best what their situation and needs the projects, all of the interviewed stat- ing courses and youth exchanges. plan. We don’t want to do projects just were. In none of the cases had the coun- ed a common sense of need and urgen- for the sake of doing them and getting try development strategies been con- (2) “Recommendations for policy mak- cy. The first organization had cooper- funding.” Being a rather small NGO it sulted or directly taken into account. ers” – this project brought together pol- ated for many years with organizations relies on information and intelligence icy and media experts from EU coun- in Russia that introduced them to their The contacts with partners in partner gathered in partner countries by part- tries, Russia, and Eastern Partnership partners in Central Asia. Having Rus- countries also were the reason why ners living and working there. Most countries to draft recommendations for sian as their mother tongue created a none of the three cases were seen as of the contacts were made long be- policy makers of all countries involved common interest to explore each oth- finished projects – all involved were fore the organization was established on improving media literacy, especially er’s realities. At the same time hav- planning to continue cooperation based through, for example, volunteering in in light of the hybrid war taking place ing brought with them a young person on needs. “We can react really quickly. Georgia, taking up a diplomatic post in Ukraine. The project also included with disabilities in one of the projects We know how to mobilize people and in Ukraine, working in international presentations of recommendations to and realizing the difficulties that she resources if such a need occurs. We missions to Ukraine and Georgia, etc. policy makers and media professionals was facing in her daily life, it became have done it before. In a way this is why in all countries involved. It was financed apparent that there were great similar- The third project was initiated through we established this organization – to be by three different funding sources, ities between the situations of people a meeting that took place several years able to react when the need comes.” none of them being governmental. The with disabilities in each of the coun- ago within a framework of a project sup- All felt they had to cooperate and work project was initiated and coordinat- tries, be it the Baltics or Central Asia. ported by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. together because of common historical ed by an NGO that focuses on cooper- Thus they decided to write a project It had become clear for both munici- memories and perceptions, common ation projects between Baltic States that was then submitted by the Latvian palities (in Latvia and Belarus) that this contacts stretching way back. None of and Eastern Partnership countries. partner to Youth in Action programme. kind of meetings were useful and bene- the cases mentioned common wider “This followed the idea that we are ficial for those involved. “It’s something goals to be achieved. Representatives (3) “Meeting of local municipalities” very similar and that both they and us new, we don’t really know how they live, of two of the cases also mentioned that - a long-term partnership was estab- had to learn about dealing with people it’s interesting to see. And for them as this feeling of an on-going cooperation lished between a small municipality with disabilities through non-formal well – in a way we’re similar, but at the also might be the reason why they had in Latvia and a municipality in Belar- learning. It was about giving ideas for same time – we are in the EU. Differ- not evaluated the outcomes and impact us. Over the past three years there financing activities that people were ent perspective to learn from. All par- of their projects. Lack of evaluation have been four study visits organized tired of doing voluntarily.” (from the ticipants really enjoyed it, and because and impact assessment of these cases (two for Belorussian officials, entre- interview with project coordinator) people liked spending time together are quite similar to how the MFA’s proj- preneurs and representatives of ed- and saw some benefits, we continued. ects are carried out – they are internal- ucational sector to Latvia and two for In the second case the organization It’s like holidays, but with a meaning.” ly evaluated, but there are no extensive Latvian officials, entrepreneurs and was established just after the bloody assessments done by MFA to see how educational professionals to Belarus). events in 2008 in Georgia to support It is through private contacts that all the projects contribute to the imple- Study visits were aimed at exchang- Georgian people in their struggles for the above mentioned practices were mentation of the Strategy and whether ing experiences, learning from each keeping their independence and terri- initiated and enacted. For none of the they contribute to any of the three ele- other, building future cooperation. All torial integrity. This was the same year people involved in the cases this is a ments that the Strategy invites to focus activities were financed jointly by both that budget cuts occurred in Latvia, not full or even part time job (except the on: aid effectiveness, policy coherence municipalities. Only representatives allowing the organization to receive any third example where the municipality and sustainability of results achieved. of the third case had been at some funding from the state. As the repre- employees are organizing meetings, point in the past receivers of MFA’s sentative of the organization mentioned in the interview, this prevented the

43 44 The projects funded under the devel- The MFA’s list of projects implemented results, as resources could be pooled The coordination mechanism should opment cooperation by the MFA since under development cooperation reflect together for a more effective response. provide a framework based on a wid- 2005 have been similar in form to the this understanding of hierarchical rela- As there is a lack of evaluation and wider er needs analysis of the partner coun- projects mentioned here – training tionships - the overwhelming majority impact assessments carried out for both tries; marked thematic areas; wide- courses, seminars, exchange of ex- of projects (about 82 of just over 100) these and MFA-financed projects, this spread invitation across sectors to perience, study visits. Except the very deal with one way knowledge sharing is only an assumption to be considered. plan cooperation activities in line with few projects focusing on infrastructure and skills training – from Latvia as a the Strategy even if with funding from While an in-depth study of charac- (about eight out of over 132 described in donor to recipient countries. The idea other sources; monitoring, review and teristics of development cooperation more detail in the yearly reports of the of hierarchy is reflected also in the De- impact assessment measures that projects financed by the MFA would be MFA), most of the projects offer to the velopment Cooperation Strategy, which could inform future strategies and an- very useful for a complete picture (for recipients skills trainings and recom- promotes Latvia’s involvement in those nual planning documents as well as example – the scope of needs analysis mendations for reforms. The difference, areas where it has the comparative ad- the inclusion of actors across all fields. done for each project, how the project however, according to the interviewed vantage and expertise as a donor coun- Thus the mechanism could offer effec- ideas originate and how involved are was in how these projects are initiated try. This risks to not take into account tiveness, coherence and sustainability. people of recipient countries in de- and therefore how involved the recipi- the idea that the best experts on devel- termining the content of the projects, ents are in the implementation phase. opment are those thoroughly familiar and the short and long-term impact with the local situation, not necessarily Development Cooperation or “just” Co- of the projects), this case study raises those that have already carried out re- 1. From an interview for the case study. operation? Evaluation of the Approach the question of what does the concept 2. http://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/policy/development-co-operation/basic-doc- forms - but at a different time, differ- uments/the-basic-principles-for-the-development-cooperation-poli- and its Potential Contribution to Devel- of “development” mean and imply. cy-of-the-republic-of-latvia ent place and in a different situation. 3. http://www.mfa.gov.lv/data/file/AS1.pdf opment 4. http://www.mfa.gov.lv/images/archive/development%20coopera- This case study shows that there are tion%20strategy%202011-2015_eng.pdf Another aspect of not calling these None of the people interviewed were cases when some projects similar in 5. http://www.mfa.gov.lv/aktualitates/zinas/42033-attistibas-sadarbi- development cooperation projects was bas-projekti-2008-gada calling these three projects develop- form and content will not be called 6. http://www.mfa.gov.lv/aktualitates/zinas/42112-attistibas-sadarbi- that the gains were seen to be mutu- bas-projekti-2009-gada ment cooperation projects, they were development cooperation projects be- 7. http://www.mfa.gov.lv/component/content/article/2-uncatego- al, so somehow not fitting with the rised/41898-gruzija-11034-lv-attistibas-sadarbiba-arhivs?Itemid=6512 always considered to be “simply coop- cause (1) the funding does not say it imagined concept of development co- 8. http://www.mfa.gov.lv/component/content/article/2-uncatego- eration” projects. When during the in- should be called that; (2) the recipients rised/41994-moldova-13418-lv-attistibas-sadarpiba-arhivs?Itemid=6512 operation of the people interviewed: 9. Names of projects and beneficiaries are changed. terviews the author enquired the rea- are contributing to the content and form 10. Through Youth in Action programme (2007-2013) the European Com- “they were not the only ones bene- mission funded projects in the youth field for youth policy development and sons for that, representatives of two of the project, so implementers don’t implementation in the EU Member States. As one of the dimensions of youth fitting and we were benefitting from policy is youth in the global world, projects aiming at developing EU’s youth of the cases said it was because they call it “development” cooperation. If we through meeting and cooperating with youth from the rest of the world were the cooperation not only in terms granted through the Youth in the World action. were not specifically doing something acknowledge that these cases are in of economic gains” (interview with good for the Belorussians/ Georgians/ fact development cooperation, it would representative of the second case). Ukrainians/ Central Asians. They were show the good example of recipient cooperating on an equal basis. This im- The cases mentioned in the study had ownership and widen the scope of what plies that development cooperation as a potential to reach wider audiences – could be called development coopera- a concept holds the hierarchy of some- through youth workers/ educators in the tion, stretching the boundaries of the one helping someone else, which a par- first case, policy makers in the second sector and also taking away the mo- ticipant of the first case, for example, case and municipalities implementing nopoly of funders (in this case the MFA) did not feel comfortable with: “I went new initiatives and reforms in the third to define development cooperation. there to learn how to work with people case. Sustainability currently seems There would need to be more actors in- with disabilities, but they straight away to be achieved by planning to continue volved in shaping development cooper- assumed I should teach them. But what the cooperation. Actions that are part ation strategy as it, along with the year- could I teach someone who’s been liv- of wider development strategies and ly plans of implementation, could be ing with a disability all their life? They that take advantage of development the coordinating mechanism for devel- took it as the European experience, strategy as a coordination mechanism opment cooperation efforts in all sec- but I refused to go down that road.” among many actors, however, could tors, which in the case of a very small have potentially more sustainable country with a small budget for devel- opment cooperation would be feasible.

45 46 Conclusion - Time and Opportunity for a New Paradigm? Problems of the outgroup are per- Secondly, changes in the rules of be- Authors: Ana Kalin, Igor Loncarski ceived as limited and not directly relat- haviour are not in the interest of elites, ed to the ingroup. As such they repre- may they be state elites or economi- sent little or no concern for the ingroup. cally powerful corporations or individ- Nevertheless, as already discussed in uals. Economically and politically pow- All eyes are turned to New York, where the other, global governance is recog- the first chapter, global changes rang- erful countries of the West have had in September of this year states will nized as a deeply political exercise, in ing from environmental (pollution and more leverage when important global supposedly adopt a new global and uni- which different actors seek to impose degradation of the environment) to so- decisions and agreements have been versal agreement for the eradication their vision of order and rights and cioeconomic (rising inequalities) and shaped, which in turn helped them gain of poverty and achievement of sustain- make use of unequal resources to get political (a multipolar and less “predict- more power. Nowadays, the emerging able development. Due to constant and their way.”1 Hence, when it comes to able” world) have brought the problems BRICS economies are challenging the rising economic, ecological, social and the creation of “yet another new glob- of the outgroup closer to the doorstep of status quo and their influence can to political tensions, there seems to be al” development agenda, it is possible the ingroup. While awareness and rec- some degree be seen in the shaping a sufficient degree of awareness that to envisage several difficulties with en- ognition of relevance and importance of of the new development agenda. As some sort of change is needed. But the suring a truly transformative top-down those issues by the ingroup is not nec- already mentioned in the first chapter, level of transformation in global power global approach that will eradicate pov- essarily sufficient (as is the belief of the corporations also have an increasingly relations and standard economic oper- erty (or at least improve the well-be- authors), the most recent economic cri- important role in today’s decision-mak- ating procedures that states are will- ing of the most vulnerable) and bring sis and the advent of speedy and more ing processes. When looking at the dis- ing to embark on remains to be seen. about environmental sustainability. free (less controllable) informational tribution of wealth, we observe that 80 Where We Stand Today The first difficulty is the lack of a glob- dissemination through the internet and of the wealthiest billionaires enjoy the al “we”, a result of dynamics between social media has made people in the in- same wealth as 3.5 billion persons on The agreement still in the making is ad- groups (states) followed by nation- group more likely to identify the outgrop this Earth. Increasing wealth inequali- dressed as transformative and intended al interests. According to social psy- problems as potential local threats. ties are not only a phenomenon of de- to put an end to business as usual. Its chologists, when a group is created, veloping countries. Saez and Zucman holistic and universal nature is certain- As mentioned in the first chapter, the it delineates itself from the outgroup. (2014)1 show that the share of house- ly a step in the right direction. However, need for a sense of security and safe- Norms and values determine the indi- hold wealth of the bottom 90 percent of only the future will show if all countries ty is essential for human beings and vidual’s conception of what is appropri- households has decreased in the past will truly implement it in its entirety the group is an important source for ate, which to a large extent establishes 30 or so years from around 35 percent and even more important, how devel- obtaining this feeling. With the cre- smooth and predictable social conduct to around 22.8 percent in 2012, while at opment and environmental experts and ation of a truly global, inclusive and and a cohesive society. With the pur- the same time the share of the top 0.1% ministers will convince their colleagues participatory agreement, the domain pose of simplification and ordering of of US households has increased from from other government spheres, such of national politics and national inter- the complex world and the constant around 10 percent to 22 percent. This as finance, trade, economy or agricul- ests would be significantly restricted. influx of information from the environ- implies that there seems to be very lit- ture, to put people and the planet first. Loyalty towards the group would have ment, stereotypes are applied to the tle interest per se among the so-called to be replaced by loyalty towards a Experience shows that “most de- outgroup, which are used to clearly economic elites to make any changes global village. However, this global vil- bates about global governance have distinguish between the groups.2Par- to the way how societies operate today. lage includes not only our ingroup, but tended to refer either to the remaking allel to the process of categorisation, also all outgroups with different norms Thirdly, even if the new development of (Western) authority, sometimes in a the process of social comparison takes and values of “dubious” nature, which agenda will in theory provide for ev- more acceptable fashion, or to the is- place, the purpose of which is to ob- means that levels of safety and security erything that it aims to accomplish, sue of policy-making and delivery in tain confidence of our beliefs through would be considerably diminished. Due there is always a gap in the implemen- an age, where states promise more comparison with the opinions of oth- to this dynamic, it is extremely difficult tation of international agreements. but seem able to deliver less.….On er group members. The combination to overcome the divide between groups Additionally, according to Hathaway, the one hand, ‘governance’ captures of both processes leads to the exag- (states) and create a global “we”. in case of rights-based regimes the the emergence of new forms of reg- geration of intragroup similarities and likelihood for compliance is much ulation and the technical difficulties intergroup differences.3 As a conse- lower than with security regimes or of providing order in an increasingly quence, there is an inherent positive regimes of economic governance. complex and globalized world. But, on bias towards the ingroup and a tenden- cy to dislike and mistrust the outgroup.

47 48 Neumayer introduces the importance existing solutions for individuals and While there are several definitions • Civil society alliances, as de- of civil society in relation to interna- societies to lead quality lives. While of active citizenship, in this paper it scribed in the Slovene case study, tional agreements: while states do not this paper surpasses the concept of will be perceived as people that take in which a broad coalition of NGO have a natural tendency to comply with development cooperation and tackles the initiative and play an active role networks working in various so- them, the likelihood of them doing so issues of global development, the dy- in the community with the aim of im- cial fields was created. Their pur- increases with a strong civil society1. namics between developed and devel- proving the well-being of the commu- pose can be manifold, but aimed The lack of accountability mechanisms oping or the rich and the poor, are cru- nity (at local, national or global lev- especially at creating a holistic that would safeguard the effective- cial for understanding the underlying els), while keeping in mind the idea approach to social issues, add- ness of the agreed rules only adds to forces that guide world developments that all persons have rights and re- ing credibility to the cause, and the gap between theory and practice. and events. Taking into consideration sponsibilities towards the community. increasing advocacy impact. the influence of large corporations on The following are the most commonly Fourthly, Oxfam6 itself in its propos- • Local partnerships, such as the the leading economies, with little or no known examples of active citizenship: al on safe and just space for humani- Downtown Denver Partnership1 consideration for other stakeholders ty warns that the proposed concepts - Crowdsourcing: obtaining ideas or in collaboration with the City in the society, and the domination of of social floors and an environmental services, developing original and/ and County of Denver, the Bill “Western” political and economic doc- ceiling are normative boundaries. Fully or new concepts and products from a and Melinda Gates Foundation trine in most supranational institutions, agreeing that poverty anywhere should large group of people that each contrib- and the Downtown Denver Busi- this combination leaves little space for be eradicated, poverty is nevertheless utes their small part in the creation of ness Improvement District, are nationally owned and culturally-spe- relative and defined in relation to so- the overall result. Usually this result is working together to design and cific development. Not only does this ciety. In rich countries, the minimum achieved through online communities. construct a network of bicycle development model lead to loss of standards below which nobody should There can be numerous forms of crowd- paths in Downtown Denver and cultural and linguistic diversity, but it fall are much higher than in poor coun- sourcing in any field, such as crowdvot- throughout the city. The partner- can lead to strong tensions between tries. It would thus be difficult to come ing or creative crowdsourcing to receive ship also raised part of the total the development model and societies to an overarching conclusion that could a creative solution in architecture. resources needed for the bicycle wanting to preserve their way of life. be accepted and perceived as fair by ev- network through crowdfunding. • People’s Assemblies, as de- eryone. Similarly, it is the perceptions Flipping the Traditional Top-to-bottom scribed in the Estonian case study, - A strong civil society: it is a crucial of risk and the wish to remain within “Father-knows-best” Government are also a form of crowdsourc- element of a society that truly under- the Holocene, as an objective descrip- Approach ing. The Rahvakogu is an online stands and meets the needs of its tion of the planet’s biophysical reality As much as the creation of an inclusive platform to obtain suggestions members. As illustrated in the Cro- as described by scientists, which will global community based on equality, de- aimed at improving the function- atian case study, a strong civil society influence where it is opportune to set cent living standards and sustainability ing of the Estonian political sys- can support local initiatives, address the boundaries of natural resource use. for all would be the optimal solution, it tem, which of course affects the local issues and provide employment It is impossible not to wonder if the is not very likely to happen. What is the overall quality of Estonian life. possibilities or possibilities to rein- new development agenda 1) will be possible solution to end the exploitative vest into the community. It is import- - Multi-stakeholder cooperation: the that much different from already ex- and asymmetric system that is losing ant to strengthen advocacy capaci- concept relates to any kind of co- isting documents, 2) will be based on its legitimacy? Due to growing tensions ties of civil society, as there are many operation that involves more stake- a collective “we” or 3) will loyalty re- within and between states, rising in- good examples of how advocacy ef- holders who join forces in order to main to national interests, in which equalities, decreases in social services forts improved legislation, one of them achieve a mutually beneficial cause. case the interests of the strongest and disempowerment of the average described in the Polish case study. will have disproportionate power in individual, there is an increasing num- • Co-working spaces, such as the - Global education: the aim of global its creation. Development coopera- ber of initiatives striving to bypass the Centre for Social Innovation,7 not education is to give young people the tion is a model that essentially aims state and contribute to social change only provide a shared space for var- tools to participate and shape a better at spreading the lessons learnt and through active participation of members ious organisations that previously world that will respect diversity, social the accompanying results from the of the society. These initiatives come worked as isolated units, but also justice, human rights, equality, jus- developed countries to the develop- in various shapes and sizes, but their create a culture of collaboration tice and a healthy environment. While ing world. This presupposes that the overall aim is to bring about change. and sense of community, joining in some countries global education or solutions from the Western countries non-profits, for-profits, entrepre- some of its elements are part of the are (at least at the moment) the best neurs, activists and so forth under official curriculum, in many coun- one roof in order to expedite idea ex- tries it still depends on the work of changes and amplify their impact. 49 50 civil society and enlightened teach- - Philanthropists: those that give their The more traditional funding sourc- consequence of the functioning of to- ers that recognize the importance of time, money and/or reputation in or- es for activities aimed at improving day’s world, which is highly special- educating the youth to become cre- der to help improve the lives of oth- the quality of life come from the gov- ised. Not so long ago, scientists were ative and curious thinkers that are ca- er people. Certainly the most known ernment, intergovernmental organi- proficient in a large number of related pable of forming their own opinions. philanthropists are Bill and Melinda sations, the private sector and philan- fields, for example physics, chemistry, Gates, but there have been lately an thropists. In addition, organisations mathematics and philosophy. Due to in- - Awareness raising: includes a broad increasing number of private foun- engage in fundraising initiatives as creasing amounts of knowledge, facts range of activities aimed at under- dations reinvesting into society at means for people to contribute to a and data in each of these fields, today’s standing issues and tackling them or home and globally. Philanthropists worthy cause that addresses a socie- researchers most often focus on a nar- seeing them in a different or new way. do not have to come in the shape of tal concern. Financial support can be row section within one professional There are different channels of com- wealthy businessman; they can also short or long term, while often the de- area, producing revolutionary solutions municating with target groups, such be actors, singers or Mother Teresa. sire is to keep the support of individu- for the very specific problems they are as directly addressing them, commu- als or organisations for the long run. addressing. But in most cases, there nicating through journalists or using - Social entrepreneurship: social entre- Crowdfunding is a relatively new and is little exchange of information and various forms of social media. There preneurs look for solutions to societal more innovative approach to fundrais- cross-referencing with related and rel- are also different means and purposes problems that are not being catered by ing tied to the internet and other means evant fields of work. In other words, a for communicating, for example writing the Government or the business sector. of digital communication, which allows truly holistic, coordinated and coherent petitions, using ambassadors to convey While they are committed to changing individuals and organisations to place approach is more of an exception rather messages, branding on posters or ad- something they believe is not function- their causes or projects up for scrutiny than general practice in today’s high- vertisements, doing stunts and so on. ing well, they are very much focused on of potential supporters who then de- ly specialised and competitive world. the practical side of implementing their - Professional networks in the hu- cide whether to support them or not. vision with the involvement of society. It is thus the proposal of this re- manitarian sector: in order to deliver The projects can be related to any field, search to create platforms for change specific expert solutions and services • The People’s Supermarket9 is a ranging from art, business or socie- at the grass roots level that will unite to victims of natural, technological social enterprise in the middle tal well-being. Crowdfunding usually all actors that are already leading and human catastrophes, profession- of London, which offers an al- relates to time-bound undertakings. their separate battles for improv- als from specific fields have united ternative food network that not From the description of the numerous ing life in communities at home and and used their professional expertise. only connects the urban and local forms in which individuals and organi- abroad. Such platforms would include farming communities, but aims at • Doctors Without Borders or Emer- sations can be actively involved in shap- non-governmental organisations from satisfying the needs of the local gency Architects are good exam- ing a more inclusive and sustainable a wide range of issue areas, research- community by providing high qual- ples of such networks, focusing future, it can be concluded that there ers, think tanks, social entrepreneurs, ity local food at reasonable prices. on medical assistance and recon- is not much that has not been thought philanthropists, enlightened busi- One way of achieving attainable structing architectural, cultural of as yet. And while all those activities nesses, journalists, public relation prices is through voluntary work and historic heritage respectively. contribute their share to a better world, agencies, teachers, professional net- in the supermarket, which leads it seems that the challenges keep on ac- works, opinion-makers, whistle-blow- - Activism: direct actions to achieve an to a 20% discount on all produce. cumulating and multiplying. Even if new ers, trade unions, activists and volun- end, which is usually social, political, Active participation for improved approaches are developed, they alone teers – a movement of active members economic or environmental in nature. well-being usually stems from be- will not be able to “save the world”. of the community for social change. • There are numerous forms of ac- liefs about the necessity of change and A Proposal for a New Platform The five case studies have shown that tivism, such as demonstrations, strong commitment to this change. As by respecting the underlying princi- boycotts, lobbying, whistle-blow- such, it is often perceived as charity or Existing examples of active citizen- ples stated in the first chapter, namely ing etc. Activists can be individuals, volunteer work. Instead of agreeing that ship have cooperation, coordination, coherent actions and cooperation, ef- varying from political representa- solidarity is a necessary precondition connecting and transforming the com- fective use of resources, multi-stake- tives, public officials, journalists, for a functioning and healthy society in munity at the core of their mission. holder cooperation, transparency, and members of the civil society or which the state delivers social justice, However, most eventually end up func- accountability, ownership and sustain- famous personalities such as Bono. we live in times where we accept that tioning within their operating borders. ability, change is possible at the local the state delivers security (whose and This can be a consequence of the in- • Activists can be individuals or level. These principles would guide from whom?), while the well-being of nate desire for safety and the known, there can also be group activ- the functioning of the platform. In or- society is provided either for free or as a and of the fight for limited financial ism, for example youth activ- der to establish the internal code of good will of “believers in social justice”. resources. But it is probably also a ists who get engaged in order conduct of the platform, crowdsourc- to bring about social change. ing mechanisms would be used.

51 52 The aim of the platform would be isting attempts of cooperation; 2) how suitable for attracting younger genera- Hence, it officially needs a desig- manifold: to ensure sustainability of the platform, tions who seem increasingly losing in- nated operator and oversight archi- why would it continue functioning as terest in the problems of today’s world tecture. While this might look like • Implementation of local projects, an overarching movement after the and are becoming more and more a conflicting principle given the ba- also in cooperation with local au- initial excitement, 3) how to make it a alienated (disconnected) from local po- sic starting points of the platform, it thorities; movement FOR and not a movement litical (low election turnouts of younger is necessary in order to assure sus- • Implementation of international AGAINST; 4) how to go beyond “like” age groups) and economic processes tainability. Of course, the governing projects in cooperation with in- campaigns onto real change move- (increasing uncertainty regarding em- body would need to be fully transpar- ternational partners, may they ments; 5) how to avoid taking up the ployment and life paths). And yet we ent and not become an end to itself. be from developed or developing responsibilities of the state and instead say that the future rests with the young. Here, we see two possible approach- countries; focus on being the motivator for change. For young generations (millenials) “vir- es. A “standard” approach would be for tual” is simply “real”, it is where they • Advocacy at the local and national Firstly, while the existing platforms a single founder to act as a governing communicate and interact. In fact, it is levels, aimed at improving legisla- of cooperation involve a fairly narrow body in the initial stage and as the plat- where they “live”. Such an open and ac- tion for the benefit of the commu- scope of aims, the suggested platform form develops and extends its scope cessible environment would also enable nity; would not try to invent something new, and reach, the governance would ac- individual ideas, funding and projects but rather strive to connect already commodate complexity as needed and • Awareness raising and global edu- “brokered” through the platform to be existing activities and thus achieve decided by the majority of participants. cation activities. highly customizable to specific needs. several different aims as already stat- It would, nevertheless, be based on the Activities of the platform would con- ed. It would address several issues at Although the concept of the plat- same principle of a limited number of sist of ongoing and new projects, con- a single, concentrated point, and act form is based on the “meeting” place, overseers. The advantage of such an nected into a joint mission and narra- as a generator and selector of ideas, a strong and well-defined governance approach lies in the forming of a group tive. Members of the platform would funds and people. At the same time is nevertheless needed in order to of activists within the active commu- use traditional funding sources to im- the mechanism of the platform would assure a long-term “survival” of the nity, who are not only highly motivat- plement their activities, and crowd- enable cooperation among stakehold- platform and its impact – ideas being ed and engaged, but are crucial for funding would also be applied. Mem- ers towards promoting and increas- transformed into observable and veri- the creation of a sense of communi- bers of the platform coming from the ing general awareness based on the fiable actions. Despite the fact that the ty and belonging, without which joint business sector would provide an ad- “glocalization” principle and would basic operating principle of the plat- projects can hardly be successful. ditional source of financing. Through operate based on the “think globally, form is based on very open principles An “alternative” approach would be small steps, the platform would cater act locally” approach. One can think and easy access to the platform, the to pitch the platform idea on one of to immediate needs that cannot be met of the platform as a brokerage venue governance mechanism needs to as- the existing “crowdsourcing/funding” by the authorities, while also paving the for ideas, funding, promotion, problem sure that the platform is perceived as venues and if successful, operate it way for changed patterns of behaviour solving, consulting and dissemination a safe, trustworthy and accountable as a “crowdgoverning” mechanism. both by community members and the of know-how and knowledge, a kind place. Simply put, while the platform In other words, “crowds” or “the peo- authorities. An overarching aim of the of specialized social network/media. would be open and accessible to ev- ple” provide and select ideas, provide platform would be reinstating commu- eryone, a governance mechanism of Of course, one of the key issues is the the funding and execution, the over- nal trust and a sense of belonging in the platform would nevertheless need sustainability of the platform. When sight over the execution and finally the today’s highly individualised society, a to impose certain requirements and we talk about the sustainability, we follow up. The benefit of this is “em- trust based not on fear, but rather on verification processes from the per- need to address two issues – financial powerment” of the “crowds” and the common beliefs. spective of both, process and outcome sustainability and the long-term “sur- feeling of deeper involvement, while accountability. As the platform would The proposal seems very simplistic vival” of the platform beyond financial the downside harbours potential ac- operate on the principle of crowdsourc- and easily achievable, but is in reality needs. Operationally speaking, such a countability effects. However, “crowds” ing (ideas, selection of ideas, funding, rather complex and ambitious. There platform can be set up and operated who want to participate and join such implementation, etc.), it needs to act are important dilemmas that need to be at a relatively modest cost and it does a platform would already have a selec- as a governing body of the “crowd”. answered for such a proposal to func- not require significant financial sup- tion bias in the sense that their aware- tion: 1) why would this platform be any port. The basic functioning principles ness of the global “we” and willing- different from previous and already ex- of the platform would also assure that ness to do something to contribute to the “overhead” costs of such a plat- small changes is sufficient. From that form would be minimal. The “virtual nature” of the platform is particularly 53 54 perspective we believe that while cer- of the platform, empowered support- immediate needs, while putting pres- excellent examples of how individ- tain verification processes should be ers that are willing to not only con- sure on our leaders to implement the uals change from bystanders to ac- put in place to prevent abuse (especially tribute ideas towards a better, more role for which they exist – to protect our tive players, delivering optimism and from the perspective of funding, use of innovative and ownership-based plat- rights. Or perhaps globalisation and the a perspective for the future. Building funds and abuse of the platform’s mis- form, but are also willing to work for battle for profits have caused perma- on these ideas and joining forces with sion and vision), the basic governance the common purpose of the platform. nent damage to the existing state-sys- new and similar ones can be the begin- would simply rely on the “people” and In addition, such a setup engages a tem, which is in a downwards spiral of ning of a new development paradigm. the concept of human rights. We believe large number of supporters, need- pessimism and distress. Could people It is no wonder that the concept of glo- that the only way towards sustainability ed to bring about systemic change. eventually rebel and stop paying taxes calisation is becoming ever stronger in of the platform is the direct link between to a state that no longer offers adequate The final issue on how to avoid tak- the so-called New Member States. By the efforts of the stakeholders and the dignity and safety for its inhabitants, ing up the responsibilities of the state receiving development aid and follow- observable and verifiable outcomes/ and instead direct their taxes towards a and instead focus on being the moti- ing strictly defined rules of development deeds made possible by the platform. cause they themselves are orchestrat- vator for change is probably the most yesterday, they are today’s new donors. ing? Could this form of self-organisation Such empowerment makes people challenging one. In practice states are Only after having joined the “developed be a beginning of something new, which behave more FOR than AGAINST, as organised in different manners with club”, however, they realised that both could replace potential drastic distress they are empowered to propose, ac- regards to their role as providers of the global balances of power, as well that seems to be coming our way? tively select, fund, implement and ob- social services and safety for their in- as their own national circumstances serve changes, albeit even the small- habitants. With the continued strength- The answer to this question depends are not conducive to the same pattern est ones. The idea of the platform is ening of neoliberal values, coupled on one’s beliefs: neo-liberals could of development that took place in the to make people active participants as with the economic crisis, the provision probably see this kind of a structure so-called Old Member States. Will the opposed to simply being “bystanders”. of social services and thus a decent as running parallel to the state; those New Member States be as responsi- With “big” and “intangible” ideas this is living has suffered tremendously. In- that believe in the welfare state sys- ble as their active citizens and support less likely to happen, perhaps impos- security is on the rise. So what exactly tem could see the platform as a means their bottom-up attempts at creating sible, while with smaller ideas, based are the taxes that individuals contin- of organised pressure to reinstate the inclusive and sustainable societies or in a local community or requiring rel- ue to pay (and numerous corporations functioning of the state; and supporters will they perpetually remain followers? atively modest funding or individual ef- continue to evade) being used for? of local sustenance systems might see fort (or many individuals), this is more the platform as a potential solution to It seems that we have come to accept likely to succeed. Initial success that a new world order. Regardless of what poverty as a norm. This is not only due truly empowers people is more like- group one might belong to, time has to the fact that over 2.2 billion people 1. J. Grugel and N. Piper, Critical Perspectives on Global Governance: ly to end up as not a single but many come for change: because in order to Rights and regulation in governing regimes (Routledge, 2007), p. 22 live near or in multidimensional pov- 2. See H. Tajfel, Human Groups and Social Categories – Studies in Social Psychology (Cambridge University Press, 1981) smaller (albeit local) real movements 10 sell and become rich, you need pur- erty or because of rising inequalities, 3. A. Hogg and D. Abrams, Social Identifications. A Social Psychology of towards change under one common chasing power; because the state needs Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (Routledge, 1998), p. 19 - 21 but also because we are constantly vision. Individuals could simply choose to once again eliminate destructive 4. E. Saez and G. Zucman (2014). Wealth Inequality in the United States searching to buy cheap clothing and since 1913: Evidence from Capitalized Income Tax Data, NBER Working what role they wish to assume – some forces of inequality; or because an end paper 20625, http://www.nber.org/papers/w20625 cheap food, which comes at the price 5. J. Grugel and N. Piper, Critical Perspectives on Global Governance: are good at pitching and formulating should be put to large social injustices Rights and regulation in governing regimes (Routledge, 2007), p. 8 of human rights violations, because 6. See K. Raworth, A safe and just space for humanity: Can we live within ideas, others can help with funding, yet and the destruction of the environment. the doughnut? http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/dp-a- we choose not to participate in shap- safe-and-just-space-for-humanity-130212-en.pdf others are willing to put in some work, ing our future, because we have let our Returning to the need for a sense of 7. http://nyc.socialinnovation.org/ etc. Each and every individual could 8. http://www.downtowndenver.com/ leaders offer us a future with constant security and safety of the individual, it 9. http://thepeoplessupermarket.org/ get involved as they can and see fit. 10. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014 fear of the known and unknown, with can easily be said that today’s world in This would ensure the mobilization of little prospects or hope, because food the majority of cases does not provide numerous individuals and would also sovereignty is decreasing and because for a stable, coherent, continuous and ensure sustainability of the platform. we are allowing the leaders and cor- meaningful life narrative. And it is for Having said that, the solution perhaps porations to destroy our environment. this reason that each one of us needs to lies in a third option, a mixture of both take responsibility for his or her actions There seem to be, therefore, only proposals. This combination offers the in order to create a future of hope and two possibilities. We can build advantage of having an engaged core, possibilities. The five case studies are a platform that will take care of needed to push forward the mission

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59 60 About LAPAS

Latvian Platform for Development Cooperation (LAPAS) is a platform joining 30 Latvian NGOs working or plan- ning to advance work in development cooperation or de- velopment education fields. LAPAS serves also as an idea community for those in- terested in global development issues - how can people across sectors and regions cooperate and work towards a more just and fair world for everyone. More on who we are and what we do: www.lapas.lv

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