The Kaskaskia/Absaroka Boundary in the Subsurface of Athens County, Ohio

Home , Cuyahoga Formation, Greenbrier Group, Maxville Limestone, Tumblagooda sandstone

A thesis presented to

the faculty of

the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Master of Science

Ryan P. Stobart

December 2019

This thesis titled

The Kaskaskia/Absaroka Boundary in the Subsurface of Athens County, Ohio

RYAN P. STOBART

has been approved for

the Department of Geological Sciences

and the College of Arts and Sciences by

Gregory Nadon

Associate Professor of Geological Sciences

Florenz Plassmann

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3

ABSTRACT

STOBART, RYAN P., M.S., December 2019, Geological Sciences

The Kaskaskia/Absaroka Boundary in the Subsurface of Athens County, Ohio

Director of Thesis: Gregory Nadon

The Kaskaskia/Absaroka boundary is an unconformable surface that separates the

Lower Pennsylvanian Sharon Sandstone from the Mississippian Maxville Limestone or

Logan Formation. Previous maps of the drainage pattern formed on the boundary lacked detailed spatial control or were of regional scale. This study examined 348 geophysical well logs from four townships in southwestern Athens County, which were used to create cross-sections, and isopach maps of the gross and net sandstone, the Maxville Limestone, and the total Mississippian interval. Correlation and isopach data show that thick sandstones present in the wells of the study interval were unambiguously Early

Pennsylvanian incised valley deposits of the Sharon Sandstone that were deposited in a braided fluvial environment. The fluvial sandstones are interbedded with mudstones that have gamma-ray and porosity values that differ from the underlying marine Mississippian sediments, suggesting a possible base level change associated with eustatic sea level rise.

The change from laterally continuous Mississipian marine strata to the incised fluvial valleys marks a shift in tectonic from dynamic to thrust loading. The location of the main channels of the drainage system formed on the older Mississippian strata was close to the boundary between the forebulge and backbulge regions of the Appalachian foreland basin.

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my family and friends whom have shown unwavering support.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to give my deepest thanks to my advisor, Dr. Gregory Nadon. His knowledge, guidance and support are truly what pushed me through to the end. Thank you to Cheri Sheets for making the days fun and enjoyable during the writing process. I would also like to thank those in the Ohio University Geological Sciences department who have supported me and given advice throughout my education. Thank you to the

Ohio Geological Survey for providing the geophysical well logs which made this thesis a possibility. And lastly, thank you to my friends and family for your unconditional love and support. This would not have been possible without any of you.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract ...... 3 Dedication ...... 4 Acknowledgments ...... 5 List of Figures ...... 7 Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 9 Chapter 2: Previous Work ...... 12 2.1 Introduction ...... 12 2.2 Tectonics ...... 12 2.3 Climate and Glacial Eustasy ...... 16 2.4 Stratigraphy ...... 18 2.5 The Mississippian-Pennsylvanian Unconformity Incision Pattern ...... 24 2.6 Geophysical Well Logs ...... 26 Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 31 3.1 Geophysical Well Log Analysis ...... 31 Chapter 4: Results...... 40 4.1 Type Well - Aid Township, Lawrence County ...... 40 4.2 Type Well - Alexander Township, Athens County ...... 41 4.3 Study Area Cross Sections ...... 45 4.4 Isopach Maps ...... 51 4.5 Topographic Maps ...... 56 Chapter 5: Discussion ...... 60 5.1 Introduction ...... 60 5.2 Location of Valley Axis ...... 60 5.3 Possible Amalgamation with the Black Hand Sandstone ...... 64 5.4 Controls on Fluvial Style ...... 65 Chapter 6: Conclusions ...... 74 References ...... 75 Appendix: Formation Tops ...... 80

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1.1: Study Area Location ...... 11 Figure 2.1: Foreland Basin System ...... 13 Figure 2.2: Interplay of Flexural Tectonics and Dynamic Subsidence ...... 15 Figure 2.3: Carboniferous Sea Level Change ...... 17 Figure 2.4: Generalized Stratigraphic Section ...... 19 Figure 2.5: Matchen and Kammer Black Hand Sandstone ...... 21 Figure 2.6: Mississippian Units in Southern Ohio ...... 23 Figure 2.7: Sloss Sequences ...... 25 Figure 2.8: Gamma Shape ...... 30 Figure 3.1: Location of Wells Used in This Study ...... 32 Figure 3.2: Type Well of Alexander Township ...... 33 Figure 3.3: Type Well of Aid Township ...... 34 Figure 3.4: Carthage Cross Section Tract ...... 36 Figure 3.5: Carthage Cross Section ...... 37 Figure 3.6: Net Sand Vs. Gross Sand ...... 39 Figure 4.1: Aid and Alexander Township Type Well Location ...... 43 Figure 4.2: Correlation of Aid and Alexander Township Type Wells ...... 44 Figure 4.3: Study Area Cross Section Tract ...... 46 Figure 4.4: Study Area Cross Section ...... 47 Figure 4.5: Black Hand Sandstone in Relation to the Sharon Sandstone ...... 50 Figure 4.6: Mississippian Isopach Map ...... 52 Figure 4.7: Maxville Isopach Map ...... 53 Figure 4.8: Gross Sandstone Isopach Map ...... 54 Figure 4.9: Net Sandstone Isopach Map ...... 55 Figure 4.10: Inferred Drainage Map ...... 57 Figure 4.11: Well Log Ground Elevation Topography Map ...... 58 Figure 4.12: Modern USGS Topography map of Study Area ...... 59 Figure 5.1: Utley, Two River Systems ...... 62 Figure 5.2: Forebulge Location and Valley Axis ...... 69 Figure 5.3: Utley Drainage System With Forebulge ...... 71 8

Figure 5.4: Rice and Schwietering Drainage System With Forebulge ...... 72 Figure 5.5: Archer and Greb Drainage System With Forebulge ...... 73

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The unconformity separating the Kaskaskia and Absaroka sequences of Sloss

(1963) occurs at the boundary of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian Periods. Previous attempts to reconstruct the fluvial drainage pattern formed on the exposed Mississippian strata (Meckel, 1967; Uttley, 1974; Rice and Schwietering, 1988; Archer and Greb, 1995;

Grimm et al., 2013) produced an axial drainage system that had very different locations depending on initial assumptions and the data sets used. Earlier studies (Meckel, 1967;

Uttley, 1974) were hampered by the lack of a tectonic context to synthesize the data. The large regional studies of Rice and Schwietering (1988) and Archer and Greb (1995) assumed that the basal Pennsylvanian sandstones were sufficiently contemporaneous to be also contiguous and that the western margin of the foreland basin was formed by the

Cinncinnatti Arch. Detailed correlations and a more accurate foreland basin model allowed Grimm et al. (2013) to construct a local model showing both axial and transverse fluvial systems. In the most recent reconstruction, the axial fluvial system was constrained on the western margin by a forebulge located in eastern West Virginia and western Maryland.

In Southeast Ohio the Kaskaskia/Absaroka sequence boundary separates the mainly marine Lower Mississippian units of the Maxville Limestone or Logan Formation from those of the predominantly terrestrial Lower Pennsylvanian Pottsville Group. The base of the Pottsville Group in northern and south-central Ohio locally contains the

Sharon Sandstone that was interpreted to be a braided fluvial deposit that filled valleys cut into Mississippian strata (Fuller, 1955). In Northeast Ohio, the Sharon Sandstone is a pebbly, coarse-grained, quartz arenite that is locally conglomeratic, which is up to 200 ft 10

(61 m) thick and rests unconformably on Mississippian strata (Fuller, 1956). In southeastern Ohio, the Sharon is a coarse grained conglomerate to a fine grained sandstone (Sturgeon, 1958). Pebbles and grains of the Sharon are comprised of 96% + orthoquartzite (Fuller, 1955) and has a reported thickness in Athens County of 5 to 60 feet in the subsurface (Sturgeon, 1958).

This study used data from 350 geophysical well logs from all or part of six townships in southeastern Athens County, Ohio (Figure 1.1) to map the drainage pattern on the Kaskaskia/Absaroka boundary. Once correlated, the well logs were used to generated isopach and isolith maps to test two hypotheses. First, that well logs alone can be used to differentiate between the Sharon Sandstone and a thick, Mississippian age, quartz arenite, the Black Hand Sandstone. Second, the fluvial channel pattern shown in

Rice and Schwietering (1988) and Archer and Greb (1995) was more consistent with the data than the detailed pattern proposed by Uttley (1974).

The results of this research are 1) well logs can be used to differentiate between the two arenite lithosomes by using a combination of both gamma-ray and porosity logs;

2) the Sharon Sandstone in Athens County includes previously unrecognized mudstone intervals varying in thickness from 5 ft to 26 ft (1.5 to 7.9 m); 3) the drainage pattern determined from the isopach maps of this study is consistent with that proposed Rice and

Schwietering (1988) and, to a lesser extent, Archer and Greb (1995), but the source area and tectonic control on sandstone location of the earlier studies was not.

CHAPTER 2: PREVIOUS WORK

2.1 Introduction

The stratigraphic succession within the study area spans the interval from the

Early Mississippian to the basal Pennsylvanian. Within the interval, most of the sedimentological studies are ODNR Survey reports and theses that mapped and refined the stratigraphy along the outcrop belt stretching from the Ohio River to Lake Erie through central Ohio (Fuller, 1955; Szmuc, 1957; Scatterday, 1963; Utley, 1974; Bebel,

1982; Vicarel, 1983). The closest surface exposures to this study area are a minimum of

48 km (30 mi) to the west. In order to put the previous work in context this chapter will briefly review of the tectonic and eustatic controls on sedimentation within the Late

Paleozoic Appalachian basin as it pertains to the Ohio stratigraphic section and then review the salient points of stratigraphic and sedimentological work that has been done on the study interval. This chapter concludes with a summary of the main characteristics of the geophysical well logs used in this study.

2.2 Tectonics

Foreland basins are formed by the downward flexure of the lithosphere in response to the mass loading of the adjacent migrating fold-thrust mountain belt

(Beaumont, 1981). The basins can be divided into four spatially distinct areas: the backbulge, forebulge, foredeep, and wedge-top (DeCelles and Giles, 1996) (Figure 2.1). 13

The Appalachian foreland basin formed as a result of multiple collisions of varying magnitudes along the eastern margin of North America from the Ordovician to the

Permian (Ettensohn, 2008). The location of the foredeep for each of the loading events is largely a function of locating the thickest sediment package of appropriate age. Barstow

(1996), placed the location of the Mid-Mississippian foredeep in eastern West Virginia.

Meckel (1967), placed the Early Pennsylvanian foredeep in eastern Pennsylvania; however, this location was not been palinspastically restored and so must have originally laid farther to the east.

The precise location of a forebulge is not always identifiable. The uplift associated with the flexure suggests either erosion or very low sedimentation rates over the bulge

(DeCelles, 2013). Early researchers (Quinlin and Beaumont, 1984; Root, 1999) placed the forebulge at major and minor arches in central and western Ohio. Based partially on stratigraphic arguments and partially on estimates of plate rigidity. Muslim (2014), using more resent estimates of plate rheology showed that at the end of the Devonian the forebulge was east of Ohio.

A forebulge is difficult to locate because subsidence in a foreland basin is not necessarily solely due to thrust sheet loading. Additional subsidence, which can effectively bury the forebulge in sediment, can occur through dynamic subsidence

(Catunaneau 2019; Figure 2.2). Dynamic subsidence is characterized by a long wavelength deflection of the lithosphere from subduction induced corner flows, which has the potential to subside the entire foreland system below sea level (Catunaneau,

2019). The result would be a much thicker sediment package in the backbulge region that could onlap and cover the forebulge (DeCelles, 2013). 15

2.3 Climate and Glacial Eustasy

The paleolatitude of the study area varied from 20°S to 5°S of the equator between the Early Mississippian and Early Pennsylvanian (Cecil, 2004). The winds of the equatorial system flow westward and north, spreading rain from east to west in the absence of mountains. The growth of a mountain range in near the equator could form an orographic rain shadow that would lead to drier conditions in regions normally expected to be everwet (Rowley et al., 1985). Data from the Appalachian basin suggest that rainfall was concentrated on the east coast of the North American continent with a rain shadow present during the Mississippian (Rowley et al., 1985). The absence of evaporites indicates that there was no significant aridity. Indication of the semiarid climate of the Late Mississippian is provided by the presence of lacustrine limestones and paleosols such as aridisols and vertisols (Cecil, 1990). Climates of the eastern United

States shifted from semiarid to seasonal during Late Mississippian to a tropical rainy to long wet/short dry climate during the Early Pennsylvanian (Cecil, 1990). The shift to a tropical rainy climate of the early Pennsylvanian can be illustrated by the production of coal beds and the influx of quartz arenties derived from spodosols (Cecil, 1990).

Both short-term and long-term variations in sea level occurred during deposition of the study interval. The onset of high frequency, high magnitude glacial-eustatic sea level fluctuations occurred in the latter half of the Middle Mississippian (332.8 Ma), which is the estimated age of the upper Maxville Limestone (Figure 2.3), and continued into the Late Pennsylvanian (300.5 Ma), which is after the deposition of the Sharon

Sandstone (Haq and Schutter, 2008, Ettensohn, 2008, Greb et al., 2008, and Menning et al., 2006) (Figure 2.3). The change in short-term/high frequency sea levels varied from 17

20 to 100 m (Rygel et al., 2008, fig. 2) and were superimposed on a longer term sea level change of up to 80 m during a period of widespread glaciation (Haq and Schutter, 2008;

Figure 2.3).

2.4 Stratigraphy

The Mississippian series in Ohio is composed of four formations that were deposited primarily in a shallow marine setting. In contrast, the overlying Pennsylvanian series is a more complex set of mainly terrestrial sediments with thin marine intervals

(Figure 2.4). Although much of the basal Mississippian section is not of direct importance to this study, recognition of those strata in the subsurface was important to finding an appropriate datum as well as local and regional correlation and is therefore outlined below.

The Sunbury Shale is the basal Mississippian unit in Ohio. The Sunbury consists of organic-rich marine shales that sit directly on the Devonian Berea Sandstone (Hyde,

1953; Figure 2.4). The overlying Cuyahoga Formation in central Ohio was divided into five units, which were termed facies by Hyde (1953), that contain a total of 11 different members. Most of the interval is marine and consists of interbedded mudstones, siltstones, and sandstones with rare limestone beds (Szmuc, 1957). The exception is the

Black Hand Sandstone, which caps the Cuyahoga in central Ohio (Hyde, 1953).

The Black Hand Sandstone is a coarse-grained, quartz to lithic arenite that is conglomeratic in places. The unit consists of three lobes, each of which has a limited lateral extent (16 km) and is oriented in a NW-SE direction. Finer grained, marine

Cuyahoga sediments separate the lobes. The thickness of surface exposures are reported

20 to be up to 90 m (Bork and Malcuit, 1979), however, thicknesses of more than 300 feet

(100 m) are reported from the subsurface (Matchen and Kammer, 2006). Matchen and

Kammer (2006) used the patterns obtained from a regional compilation of outcrop and surface data to interpret the Black Hand as an incised valley fill produced by a northerly flowing braided fluvial system (Figure 2.5). This sandstone is a prolific water producer in the shallow subsurface (Sturgeon 1958; Norris and Mayer 1972). Consequently, the first major water producer encountered in the subsurface during drilling is typically termed the Black Hand (Stout 1944; Sturgeon 1958).

The Black Hand Sandstone is capped by a series of interbedded sandstones, mudstones and thin conglomerates forming the Logan Formation, which is divided into four members (Hyde, 1953). The basal Berne Conglomerate has been placed in both the

Cuyahoga Formation (Hyde, 1953) and the Logan Formation (Stout, 1927; Matchen and

Kammer 2006) by different workers, and for this study the Berne is placed within the

Logan Formation. Szmuc (1957) described the unit as a transgressive lag of quartz pebbles in a bed typically 1-4 ft (0.3 – 1.2 m) thick and as much as 20 ft (6 m) thick in one location.

The overlying Byer Member consists of 50-100 ft (15-31 m) of bioturbated, very fine-grained sandstones and siltstones interbedded with laminated, fossiliferous, and bioturbated marine mudstones (Stout, 1927; Hyde, 1953), deposited on a shallow marine shelf during a rise in relative sea level (e.g., Klopfenstein, 2018). The Byer Member is overlain by the conglomeratic Allensville Member, which is composed of 8 - 16 ft (2. 4 -

4.6 m) of thin beds of conglomerate and coarse-grained sandstone interbedded with mudstone, siltstone, and very fine-grained sandstone (Merrill, 1950; Klopfenstein 2018). 21

The Allensville represents a stepped transgressive marine deposit that formed as relative sea levels rose after a brief relative sea level fall (Klopfenstein 2018). The Logan

Formation is capped by the Vinton Member, which is commonly described as a mudstone, however, it is considerably more heterolithic and contains laminated, thin bedded, bioturbated mudstones, and fine-grained sandstones and siltstones up to 230 feet

(70 m) thick (Bork and Malcuit, 1979).

The Maxville Limestone unconformably overlies the Logan Formation. The

Maxville is a complex amalgamation of marine limestones that are bounded by unconformities and contain at least two internal unconformities (Scatterday, 1963; Figure

2.6). The Maxville Limestone, which is the lateral equivalent of the Greenbrier Group of

West Virginia, is present as discontinuous exposures in central and southern Ohio

(Scatterday, 1963), with thicknesses reported up to 120 feet (37 m) (Scatterday, 1963).

The Maxville is reported to be Viséan in age (Scatterday, 1963; ICS, 2017) with an absolute age of 333 - 335 Ma (Ettensohn, 2009; Figure 2.6). The Maxville limestone is reported to vary from 1 - 45 ft (0 - 14 m) in thickness in the subsurface of Athens County

(Sturgeon, 1958).

The Pottsville Group is the basal Pennsylvanian unit in Ohio and varies significantly both laterally and vertically in composition and thickness. The unit is predominantly terrestrial in origin with scattered, thin marine intervals. The basal unit is termed the Sharon Sandstone at the surface and the Maxton Sandstone in the subsurface.

The type Sharon in northeastern Ohio is a pebbly, coarse-grained sandstone that is locally conglomeratic and up to 200 ft (61 m) thick that rests unconformably on Mississippian strata (Fuller, 1956). The Sharon sandstones were interpreted to be deposits of a braided 23

24 fluvial system that flowed from the east and north (Fuller, 1956; Meckel, 1967). Lateral variations in thickness were shown to be the result of deposition in paleovalleys. A similar sandstone in southern Ohio is exposed in Jackson and Pike Counties that is homotaxial with the type Sharon, is also up to 200 ft (61 m) thick (Stout, 1932), and is similarly interpreted to be the product of a braided fluvial system (Fuller, 1956; Bebel,

1982; Wells et al., 1993), which in this case flowed to the northwest. The minimum age of this southern Sharon is 315 -316 Ma based on pollen recovered from the overlying

Sharon coal in Jackson County (Kosanke, 1986; Peppers, 1996). Sturgeon (1958) reported thicknesses of the Sharon (Maxton) in Athens County of 5-60 ft (1 - 18 m). The younger Pottsville strata consist of marine and terrestrial mudstones, coals, and fluvial sandstones of variable thickness and lateral extent (e.g., Bebel, 1982).

2.5 The Mississippian-Pennsylvanian Unconformity Incision Pattern

The contact between the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments has long been recognized as a major unconformity (Siever, 1951; Sloss 1963) that separates the

Kaskaskia and Absaroka second order sequences of Sloss (1963; Figure 2.7). The time gap encompassed by the sequence boundary consists of both a hiatus in sedimentation and an erosional vacuity (sensu Wheeler, 1956). The hiatus can be estimated using the top of the Maxville and the Sharon coal to be 17 - 18 m.y. The erosional vacuity is represented by up to 250 feet (76 m) of incision prior to deposition of Pottsville Group sediments if the IVF interpretation of Matchen and Kammer (2006) is accurate.

Several workers have attempted to map the fluvial drainage pattern formed on the exposed Mississippian strata during the development of the unconformity. Uttley (1974) 25

26 drew a dendritic drainage pattern with two southward draining river systems, which was inferred from subsurface data in eastern Ohio. The axis of the eastern fluvial system, which he termed the Sharon, was east of Athens County with minor tributaries extending northward into the study area. The axis of Perry River system ran through western

Athens County. Rice and Schwietering (1988) extended the pattern found by Meckel

(1967) into southeastern Ohio with a prominent SW-NE oriented paleovalley axis through the study area as part of what they termed the Sharon-Brownsville River system.

Archer and Greb (1995) using the lithologic similarity of basal Pennsylvanian sandstones proposed a very large drainage system parallel to the axis of the Appalachians and extending from the Canadian Shield to the Gulf of Mexico. The western margin of that valley system was placed at the southwestern margin of Athens County. Grimm et al. (2013) inferred a fluvial system similar to that of Archer and Greb (1995) but placed it farther to the east along the western margin of the foredeep. The most recent study by

Kissok et al. (2018) used detrital zircon geochronology to determine potential source areas for the fluvial systems postulated by earlier workers. None of the studies examined the channel distribution of the fluvial system at the township scale.

2.6 Geophysical Well Logs

The data compiled for this study were obtained from the analysis of geophysical well logs. Well logs measure the physical properties of lithologies through sensors arranged on a tool termed a sonde, which is drawn upward through a borehole by a cable.

The well logs used in this study included gamma-ray, density, neutron, and to a lesser extent photoelectric (Pe or PEF). Gamma-ray logs are used to measure natural radiation emitted by potassium, thorium, and uranium decay. The tool response is reported in API 27 units and plotted in the left track with high values to the right side. Gamma-ray tools have a vertical resolution of approximately 2 ft (0.6 m) and a depth of penetration of approximately 1 ft (0.3 m) (Rider, 2002). Hole rugosity is not typically a problem with the gamma-ray tool. It is possible to use the different characteristic energies of the three elements to determine the abundance of each type, however, in this study the logs available contained only the total gamma readings. In general, high gamma ray values are associated with shales, whereas low readings are found in sandstones, limestones, and coals. Gamma-ray logs are typically accompanied by other log responses that show record variations in sediment porosity, such as density, neutron, sonic, and resistivity.

The density tool is used to determine bulk density, density porosity, and, in the case of the Pe (photoelectric) log, lithology. The density tool emits gamma-ray radiation that interacts with the lithology opposite the source. The gamma rays are absorbed and then re-emitted by the rock. The tool then measures the returning energy, which is a function of electron density. The election density is converted to bulk density using a standard formula (Rider, 2002). The value of bulk density then can be converted to density porosity if the lithology and fluids in the borehole are known. In practice, the tool is calibrated to either limestone or sandstone of known porosity with water in the pores. The porosity values must be corrected for all other lithologies. The density tool has a vertical resolution of approximately 3 feet (0.9 m) and a depth of penetration of 0.4 ft (0.13 m). The shallow depth of penetration makes this tool susceptible to error in areas of the borehole that have undergone caving, or which have extensive mudcake buildup.

The photoelectric effect uses the low energy portion of the energy returned to the sensor. Although suppressed in early density tools, it was later realized that the effect of 28

Compton scattering varies directly with the aggregate atomic number of the target lithology and therefore is the most accurate measure of lithology. The photoelectric log is presented as a separate curve along with bulk density and/or density porosity in units of

Barnes/electron. The response of the Pe log is not affected by porosity but can be affected by high density minerals, such as iron (Glover, 2013).

The neutron log is used to identify porous zones, determine porosity, and identify gas in porous zones by measuring the free hydrogen count of an interval. Neutrons are emitted by a radioactive source, which then collide with atoms in the adjacent rocks.

Repeated collisions reduce the energy of the neutrons until they are finally captured by atoms. This capture results in the release of a gamma-ray that is detected at a nearby sensor. The most efficient capture is by atoms with sizes similar to the neutron, i.e. hydrogen, which means the neutron log is essentially a measure of the hydrogen content of a formation. The results were initially displayed as raw counts made by the detector, then as porosity values, first on a non-linear and then linear scale. The porosity values were initially calibrated on site with cuttings, but later generation logs are calibrated to the same lithology and fluid as the density logs and neutron porosity values are shown alongside the density porosity values. Vertical resolution of the neutron tool is the same as the density tool (3 ft/0.9 m) and depth of penetration is 0.5-0.8 ft (0.15-0.25 m).

A sonic log is a display of the velocity of sound in the borehole. Early versions of the sonic tool had one transmitter and one receiver and were highly susceptible to hole rugosity. Modern tools have multiple transmitters and receivers that can compensate for moderate variations in hole width. The sonic tool has a vertical resolution of 2 ft (0.6 m) and a depth of penetration of 0.08- 0.16 ft (0.025- 0.25 m). The data are displayed as the 29 reciprocal of velocity (interval transit time, t) so that the curve deflects to the left for high porosity sediments.

The resistivity log measures the response of a formation to direct or induced electric currents. The spacing on the receiving electrodes determines the vertical resolution and depth of penetration of the tool. The resistivity log displays two or three traces showing shallow, intermediate, and deep responses. In all cases, the tool deflects to the left for high porosity zones.

The vertical variation in shape of a gamma-ray and porosity curves in response to increases or decreases in the amount of clay in the lithology is used to infer depositional processes. There are three basic shapes, which are termed bell, funnel, and cylinder

(Figure 2.8; Rider 2002). A bell shape occurs where the gamma-ray values show a sudden decrease and then a gradual increase up-section while the porosity tool shows a sudden decrease and then increase indicates a sharp lower contact and an increase in shale content. This pattern is generally interpreted as a channel deposit. The inverse pattern forms a funnel shape and the progressive decrease in shale content up-section is interpreted as progradation. Such a pattern is expected with beach or deltaic deposition.

A cylinder shape indicates a more or less constant gamma-ray value and shale content. 30

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Geophysical Well Log Analysis

The wells used in this study (Figure 3.1) were chosen based on completeness, age, and hole conditions. The primary criterion was the availability of a gamma log that penetrated into the Mississippian strata and preferably down to the level of the Berea

Sandstone. A log that includes the entire Mississippian section from nearby Alexander

Township (API # 34009217690000) was used as a type log for comparison and correlation to other wells (Figure 3.2). Of the 364 wells examined, 348 were chosen to be correlated to the type section, and formation tops from the Berea Sandstone

(Devonian) to the Maxton (Sharon) Sandstone were picked.

The wells were correlated using the Berea Sandstone as the initial datum and then choosing one or more intermediate datums up-section as required by changes in thickness. The top of the Berea Sandstone was used as a datum for the cross-sections.

Closed correlation traverses were used to ensure consistent picks of the formation tops.

The stratigraphic position of the Black Hand Sandstone was correlated from a region where the Maxville is present in a well from Aid Township in Lawrence County (API #

34087202340000) (Figure 3.3). The choice of this well was based on 1) the location within the Black Hand IVF of Matchen (2006), 2) the presence of a thick sandstone below a thick limestone, 3) similarity in distance between the top of the thick sandstone and the limestone to the Black Hand and Maxville. In the area of the type section of the

Maxville (Monday Creek Township, Hocking County), oil well data compiled from the 32

ODNR Well Completion Database show that the top of the Maxville is an average of 174

± 27 ft (53±8 m) above the top of the Black Hand Sandstone (Nadon, pers. comm.).

Initial cross-sections were made within the study area to determine the continuity of the Mississippian strata using the Berea Sandstone as the primary datum (Figure 3.4,

3.5). The top of Mississippian strata was determined using five criteria:

1) The top of the Maxville Limestone where present was the top of the Mississippian.

2) The base of blocky, very thick, and very low gamma-ray sandstones where the

Maxville was absent. Marine sandstones most commonly form coarsening

upward to blocky trends, whereas the terrestrial sandstones tend to have fining

upward to blocky log traces.

3) The change in overall vertical pattern of gamma logs from coarsening upward to

fining upward where both Maxville and thick sandstones were absent.

4) The base of any coal seam if all other criteria were absent. There are no coals in the

Mississippian section of Ohio, therefore any coal seam will be above the

Kaskaskia/Absaroka sequence boundary.

5) A more qualitative criterion is the continuity of strata. Marine sediments are

generally more laterally continuous than terrestrial sediments.

Once the top of the Mississippian was established, various maps were produced for analysis. These maps included a total isopach map of the Mississippian strata, a

Maxville isopach map, both gross and net sandstone maps of the basal Pennsylvanian unit interpreted to be the Sharon (Maxton) Sandstone, and finally a map of the ground elevations for the sites of the wells used in this study.

The total Mississippian isopach map is the thickness of the interval from the top of Berea Sandstone to top of Mississippian using the five criteria listed above. The

Maxville isopach map was made as a correlation test. A thick sandstone below the

Maxville must be at least homotaxial with the Black Hand Sandstone. Locations with a

Sharon Sandstone may or may not have a Maxville present depending on depth of erosion.

The gross and net sandstone isolith maps of the Sharon Sandstone were made by first determining an average maximum gamma ray response (a shale line) and the minimum gamma ray response (a sand line) for each gamma log (Figure 3.6; Rider,

2002). The highest gamma-ray response is not used for the shale line because of the random nature of radioactive decay. No two runs of a gamma tool produce the exactly the same result. The gross sandstone is the thickness of section within which the gamma- ray tool response lower than 50% of the range between the shale line and the sand line.

The net sandstone values are those that in the lower 25% of the difference between the sand and shale lines. The contour map of the ground elevations of the wells was compared to a compilation of the USGS topographic map of the study area to test the validity of the interpreted channel patterns at the Kaskaskia/Absaroka contact using well data with variable spatial resolution. All maps were hand contoured using Adobe

Illustrator rather than a computer program because of the uneven distribution of the data

(Bohling, 2005).

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

4.1 Type Well - Aid Township, Lawrence County

Description: The type well in Aid Township (Figure 3.3) records the interval from the Berea to the Pottsville Group. The low gamma sandstone at the base of the section is capped by a very high gamma zone from 1330-1314 ft (405.4- 400.5 m) that represents an organic-rich shale. The consumption of O2 by decaying organic rich layers commonly leads to higher uranium values and very high gamma ray readings. A unit of moderate gamma-ray response interbedded with thin low gamma-ray zones occurs from 1314 -

1124 ft (400.5-342.6 m). This interval also has widely separated density and neutron porosity values which are consistent with mudstones that were deposited subaqueously

(e.g., Rider, 2002). The mudstones are capped by a low gamma-ray, low porosity interval from 1124 - 1004 ft (342.6- 306 m) that represents thinly interbedded sandstones.

The overlying sediments show a gradual return to mudstones from 1004 - 896 ft

(306- 273.1 m). The gamma ray values then gradually decrease into an interval from 896

- 820 ft (273.1- 249.9 m) of low values consistent with sandstones. The gamma signal above this zone consists of five sandstone units with gradational gamma value decreases and abrupt increases. One of the high gamma zones is almost twice the usual reading suggesting an organic-rich mudstone at 799 ft (143.5 m). The zone of alternating low and medium gamma readings is capped by an interval of very low gamma and porosity values from 676 - 656 ft (206- 199.9 m). The combination of gamma-ray and porosity tools indicate that this zone is a limestone. Above this limestone there are additional interbedded units of sandstone and mudstone, however, there is a pattern shift from 41 sandstones with a gradual increase capped by a sharp decrease to those with a sharp decrease and then a gradual increase.

Interpretation: The basal high gamma zone is the organic-rich Sunbury Shale.

The Sunbury is overlain by mudstones and thin sandstones of the Cuyahoga Formation.

The lower sand-rich interval occurs in the middle of the Cuyahoga that then gradually returns to mudstones until 886 ft (270.1 m). The upper sandstone is interpreted to be the

Black Hand Sandstone based on the position above the underlying thick mudstones and below the Maxville Limestone. The 140 feet of siliciclastic sediments above the Black

Hand are the Logan Formation. The Logan is capped by the Maxville Limestone. The interval above the Maxville is the Pottsville Group (Fig. 2.4).

4.2 Type Well - Alexander Township, Athens County

Description: The type well (Figure 3.2) contains a readily recognizable sandstone interval between the depths of 1242–1350 ft (378 - 411 m). This sandstone interval is capped by a very high gamma zone between 1231-1242ft (375 - 378m). Above the very high gamma interval is a zone of medium gamma values to a depth of 1074ft (327m), followed above by a series of thinly imbedded sandstones and mudstone represented by medium and low gamma-ray intervals and a convergence of the porosity logs between

944 and 1074 ft (287 – 327 m). Above this serrated zone is an abrupt return to medium gamma-ray readings that terminate in a series of alternating sandstone and shale units in an overall coarsening and thickening upward trend. The sandstones generally have a coarsening upward profile, followed by a rapid change to mudstones. The exceptions to this pattern are the upper two sandstones that are capped by a fining upward succession.

In order to determine the top of the Cuyahoga Formation, the Alexander well was 42 correlated to the well in Aid Township, Lawrence County (Figures 4.1, 4.2). The

Mississippian section is capped by 50 ft (15.3m) of limestone at a depth of 588-638 ft

(179.2-194.5 m) with thin interbeds of siltstone or shaley sandstone near the base. Two sandstones lie within 147- 201 ft (44.8 - 61.3 m) of the top of the limestone. Above this limestone are a series of interbedded low gamma sandstones and thin limestones interbedded with shales. The sandstones may fine upward, coarsen upward or have a blocky signature.

Interpretation: The basal unit in the well is the Berea Sandstone (Muslim, 2014) that is capped by the high gamma zone corresponding to the Sunbury Shale. The top of the lower sandstone interval is present in both the Aid and Alexander wells and constitutes a useful mid-Cuyahoga marker bed. The equivalents to the Black Hand sandstone in the Alexander well are thin (8 ft, 3m) interbedded sandstones and mudstones at the base of the upper siliciclastic unit. The Cuyahoga Formation is a total of 446 ft

(136 m) thick. Although the Black Hand equivalent sandstone (hereafter simply referred to as the Black Hand Sandstone) is significantly thinner, it can be correlated throughout the northern and western portions of the study area. The interval between the top of the

Cuyahoga and the overlying limestone (689 – 796 ft (210 - 243 m) is interpreted to be the

Logan Formation with a total thickness of 107 ft (33 m). The Maxville Limestone extends from 638 - 689 ft (194.4 – 210 m) for a total thickness of 31 ft (9 m).

The interval above the Maxville Limestone is, by definition, the Pottsville Group.

The sandstone in contact with the Maxville Limestone is interpreted to be the Sharon 43

(Maxton) Sandstone with the overlying blocky sandstone equivalent to the Massillon based solely on stratigraphic position.

4.3 Study Area Cross Sections

Two cross-sections that show variations in lithologies in the study area were constructed. These cross sections were made for their perpendicular nature which cross cuts the lithologic trend. This allowed for the display of the valley wall and the extent of the depositional valley.

In cross-section 1 (Figure 3.4; 3.5) the marker within the Cuyahoga is present everywhere except for well C, where it is replaced by a thick, blocky sandstone. The

Black Hand Sandstone, Logan, and Maxville Limestone are present only in well A. In the remaining wells, there are thick blocky sandstones with sharp basal contacts. The top of the sandstones can be either blocky or fine upwards. There is little to no variation in either gamma or porosity responses within the thicker sandstone bodies suggesting that they are a constant lithology throughout with little clay content. The thinner sandstones show more variation in gamma and porosity responses. Where there are multiple sandstone layers, both gamma-ray response and porosity increase up-section.

Description: In cross section 2 (Figure 4.3; 4.4) the mid-Cuyahoga marker is recognized everywhere except in well D. The Black Hand Sandstone, the Logan

Formation, and Maxville Limestone can be traced from the Alexander type well (A) into wells B and C but is absent in wells D, E, and F. Where the expected Mississippian succession is absent, thick blocky sandstones separated by mudstones with high gamma- ray values replace it. The sandstones vary from 78 - 286 ft (23.2-87.2 m) in thickness. 46

The intervening mudstones differ from those of the underlying Cuyahoga marine mudstones in that they have lower gamma signatures and higher porosity/lower density.

The sandstones are commonly separated by mudstone intervals that vary in thickness from 5 ft to 26 ft (1.5 to 7.9 m). Gamma-ray values of the mudstones can range from 90 API to 180 API with an average of 100 API. Density values range from 2.45 to

2.75 grams/cc with an average of 2.65. Porosity values range from 2% to 12% with an average of 5%. Average gamma-ray and density porosity values of the Cuyahoga

Formation average 120 API and 2.5% respectively.

Interpretation: The laterally extensive, relatively thin, alternating beds of siliciclastics within the Cuyahoga Formation in the cross-sections are consistent with deposition in a shallow marine setting and similar to the surface exposures in southern and central Ohio (Hyde, 1953). The Black Hand Sandstone within the study area differs markedly from the nearest exposures in Hocking County, however, that thick coarse- grained lithosome is known to be laterally restricted (Smzuc, 1957; Matchen and

Kammer, 2006). The unit termed Black Hand in this study is in the same stratigraphic position as the IVF deposit interpreted by Matchen (2006) in Aid Twp., Lawrence

County.

The thin conglomerate beds of the Berne and Allensville Member of the Logan

Formation cannot be resolved with the well log data available, however the Logan

Formation strata interpreted to be present in the study area have well log signatures consistent with a shallow marine setting with more sandstone present that is common for the underlying Cuyahoga Formation. This increase in grain size up-section is also consistent with descriptions of surface exposures (Bork, and Malcuit, 1979). 49

The Maxville Formation limestones are restricted to the northern portion of the study area and are in some cases interbedded with sandstones. This mixture of lithologies is not typical in surface exposures in Ohio (Scatterday, 1963), but it is consistent with exposures of the laterally equivalent Greenbrier Group to the east (Cecil et al., 2004)

The thick, blocky, low gamma-ray sandstones are interpreted to be multi-story deposits of a braided river system; meandering fluvial deposits would have a bell-shaped log pattern (Rider, 2002). However, the mudstones separating the sandstones are atypical for a braided fluvial deposit. Based on log signatures alone it is not possible to determine if the mudstones are terrestrial or marine. However, the lower gamma-ray readings compared to the underlying Cuyahoga indicate a shift in mineralogy. Either there is more silt, or the clays have less potassium, e.g., chlorite instead of illite. The higher porosity in the upper mudstones implies a greater degree of compaction within the Cuyahoga lithologies.

The braided fluvial deposits are interpreted to be of the Sharon Sandstone based on the following criteria: 1) The top of the blocky sandstones occur above the Black

Hand strata, 2) The higher porosity in the interbedded mudstones is consistent with deposition above the Kaskaskia/Absaroka sequence boundary, and 3) The thick sandstones occur only where the Maxville is absent. It is unlikely that the braided fluvial facies of the Black Hand would be present only where erosion had removed the Maxville

(Figure 4.5). A test of this interpretation is the construction of isopach and isolith maps of the blocky sandstones. 50

4.4 Isopach Maps

Description: The total Mississippian isopach (Figure 4.6) varies in thickness from

264 –795 ft (80.5 – 242.3 m). A prominent east to west pattern of low values occurs in

Carthage and Troy townships to the southeast with thicker sections of the Mississippian to the northeast and southwest. Less prominent northwest-southeast trends intersect the thinnest values. The presence of Maxville Limestone (Figure 4.7) coincides with the largest values in the total Mississippian isopach.

The gross sandstone isopach map (Figure 4.8) shows the variations in the total sandstone present in the interpreted Sharon Sandstone. The thickest values occur in an east to west pattern throughout Carthage and Troy townships. The sandstone values thin in an irregular manner to the northwest and southeast of this trend. No locations have been found that exhibit anomalously thick values, which would appear as closed contours

(bullseyes). The net sandstone isopach (Figure 4.9) has the same east-west thick sandstone trend as the gross sandstone isopach. Values decrease to the north and south from the thick trend, but there are no locations with anomalously thick zones.

Interpretation: The total Mississippian isopach illustrates the erosional incision that occurred during and prior to deposition of the basal Pennsylvanian strata. The large thickness values coinciding with the presence of Maxville Limestone indicate the presence of a small escarpment. The more or less, east-west, linear trend of thin total isopach values is interpreted to be the axis of a fluvial system. The valley interpretation is consistent with the patterns present in both the gross and net sandstone isopach maps.

The similarity in trends between the two sandstone isopach is a function of the generally 52

56 blocky log signature of the sandstones. Up to three orders of streams in a dendritic drainage pattern can be interpreted from the contouring pattern (Figure 4.10). The combination of a reasonable drainage pattern combined with the absence of anomalously thick regions of sandstone is consistent with formation by a single fluvial system.

4.5 Topographic Maps

To test the drainage pattern interpretation a contour map was constructed using ground elevations from the wells used in the contour maps (Figure 4.11). The well location topographic map shows changes in ground level of up to 436 ft. A major tributary meandering from northwest to southeast with up to 4 orders of tributary streams can be identified. This map was then compared to a compilation of USGS 24" quadrangle contour maps with the same 100 ft contour interval (Figure 4.12).

Interpretation: Both topographic maps show the outline of the Hocking River, as well as 4th and 5th order tributary streams respectively. The modern Hocking River valley is similar in size and depth to the Pennsylvanian drainage pattern inferred from the isopach maps (Figures 4.6 - 4.9). The presence of the main trends on both topographic maps provides a measure of confidence in the interpretations of the paleo-drainage patterns.

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

The previous studies that mapped the fluvial channels present on the

Kaskaskia/Absaroka unconformity used very different data sets and spatial scales. Most workers assumed that the thick quartz arenite at the base of the Pennsylvanian strata is also Pennsylvanian in age, however, because of the combination of low accommodation in Ohio and the duration of the time gap represented by the Sloss sequence boundary, it is possible that the Pennsylvanian fluvial system incised into the Early Mississippian quartz arenite, the Black Hand Sandstone. The eight million year time gap represented by the hiatus is based on the age of the youngest portion of the Maxville Limestone and the oldest dated Pennsylvanian strata, which are typically coal beds lying upon the Sharon

Sandstone (Peppers, 1996; Sweezy et al., 2002; Ettensohn, 2009). The minimum depth of erosion recorded from surface exposures of the Sharon Sandstone is 200 ft (61 m;

Stout, 1921).

5.2 Location of Valley Axis

All of the previous workers concluded that the Sharon fluvial system flowed north to south. Meckel (1967) stated that most of the clastic material came from the

Appalachians and was mixed with a northern source before being dispersed by southerly flowing streams carved into an irregular erosional surface. This surface dipped to the southwest, obliquely to the axis of the basin. Meckel also stated that the sedimentary strike was east to west, i.e., normal to the pebble size gradient, and therefore paleoslope was normal to the basin axis. 61

Uttley (1974) used data from 205 wells in Ohio to map the Pennsylvanian pattern over an area covering all or part of 29 counties and up to 470 townships. He identified two separate north-south drainages with up to five orders of channel (3 orders for the western system and 5 for the eastern). The main axis of the eastern fluvial system, which he termed the Sharon, was in Washington County with tributaries reaching into southeastern Athens County (Figure 5.1). The axis of the western Perry system occurred in western Athens County with the drainage divide between the two systems forming a northeast-southwest trend through Lodi and Rome townships. Uttley concluded that there were sufficient differences between the Sharon and Black Hand Sandstone lithologies to be able to differentiate the two using well cuttings. The drainage divide

Utley located in Athens County is consistent with the location of the remnants of the

Maxville Limestone found in this study, however, the details of the drainage pattern are very different.

Rice and Schwietering (1988), used Early Pennsylvanian tectonics, along with stratigraphic and sedimentological data to suggest that, at the time, most of Eastern North

America had a paleoslope with a southwestern dip. Streams draining the Cincinnati arch eroded headward, capturing rivers of the southeastern section of the Canadian Shield which diverted them into the Appalachian Basin, resulting in a Lower Pennsylvanian paleovalley of conglomeratic quartz arenite, which links source areas of the Sharon drainage system to deposits of the Appalachian basin. (Rice and Schwietering, 1988).

Much of the data cited were from Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Kentucky, however, 62

63 the pattern of valley infill is similar. The quartz arenite lithosomes vary from 150 to 400 feet (46 – 122 m) in thickness and from 16 to 50 miles (26 to 80 km) in width. Rice and

Schwietering (1988) considered the Cincinnati Arch to be the forebulge of the

Pennsylvanian foreland basin and states that erosion of Mississippian shales formed a north-facing escarpment as the western margin of the Appalachian Basin.

Archer and Greb (1995) compiled data from multiple earlier studies to interpret the presence of a series of southward flowing valley fill lithosomes from 20-30 m thick and 60 – 90 km wide. The western end of the valley axis for the Central Appalachian

Basin coincides with the location of the Sharon system proposed by Uttley (1974). The authors also noted that in several cases the fluvial sandstones were overlain by estuarine sandstones, siltstones, and mudstones. The decrease in grain size up section would produce an increase in gamma-ray log response similar to that seen in the sandstone in well E in Figure 3.5. The estuarine deposits imply one or more transgressive events that could also explain the presence of the mudstones between the fluvial sandstones of the

Sharon in the present study.

Grimm et al. (2013) studied Lower Pennsylvanian transverse and longitudinal fluvial systems in the Pocahontas sub-basin of the Appalachian basin in Kentucky,

Virginia, and West Virginia. The longitudinal system deposits were described by Grimm et al. (2013) as multi-story, quartz pebble conglomerates, trough and compound cross- bedded sandstones that are 25-90 m thick, with a S-SW paleoflow. In contrast the transverse systems are composed of single and multistory bodies of siderite and mudstone conglomerates with trough and planer cross-bedded sandstones and siltstones that are 6 to

45 m thick. Paleoflow was to the west (Grimm et al., 2013). Detrital zircon ages from 64 this study suggest sediment sources in the Superior Province, which is consistent with the interpretation of Archer and Greb (1995). These data imply the presence of a very large,

SW flowing axial fluvial system in the Appalachian Basin during the Lower

Pennsylvanian. The western margin of the system was interpreted to be constrained by the forebulge.

Detrital zircon age dating of the Pocahontas Sub-Basin examines the source of

Lower Pennsylvanian of the Appalachian basin and support the theory of a large-scale drainage system (Grimm et al, 2013). Quartz arenites studied by Grimm et al (2013), include a range in age but contained a high amount of Superior and older Archean sources. Grim et al (2013), provide an age link to the Superior Province of the Canadian

Shield with the presence of Archean zircons. The distant origination of these zircons is what reaffirms the idea of a large-scale drainage system and, possibly links sandstones in the Lower Pennsylvanian of the Appalachian Basin (Grimm et al, 2013).

5.3 Possible Amalgamation with the Black Hand Sandstone

One of the goals of this study was to develop objective criteria for determining the differences between the Black Hand and Sharon sandstones from well log data. The map

Matchen (2004) produced of the Black Hand IVF facies, which was only partially reproduced in Matchen and Kammer (2006), was interpreted from 264 wells over a region spanning 19 counties and up to 311 townships in Ohio; 12 of the wells were within

Athens County. The thickest sandstones were assumed to be Black Hand Sandstone; however, no criteria were presented for how sandstone thickness was calculated or how to differentiate between the two quartz arenites in areas where there might be amalgamation. Nevertheless, the map produced by Matchen (2004) indicates that if the 65 two sandstones do overlap, they do so in areas to the southwest and northwest of the study area.

This study found no indication of the amalgamation of the Black Hand Sandstone with the Sharon Sandstone when the valley reached sufficient depth of incision to be a potential problem. The most significant well log data for differentiating the two sandstones appears to be the difference in the gamma-ray and porosity values between the mudstones within the Sharon and the underlying Cuyahoga or Logan Formation mudstones.

5.4 Controls on Fluvial Style

The Sharon fluvial system was affected by substrate, climate, and tectonics.

Archer and Greb (1995) concluded the primary driver was tectonics with eustasy contributing the least. The tectonic component controlled both accommodation and the location of the western margin of the fluvial sandstones along the forebulge. The effect of climate viewed in terms of orographic precipitation changes, variations in karst development and formation of the quartz arenites. Eustasy effects were limited to the fluvial to estuarine facies ratio. However, the identification of the thick mudstone intervals separating braided fluvial sandstones in the Sharon in this study requires a reappraisal of the effects of eustasy on sedimentation. The implications are that either the fluvial sandstone was not a braided system or that transgression could influence sedimentation in this part of the basin. As noted by Archer and Greb (1995), the location of the incised valley in southern Athens County provides some constraints on the location of the forebulge of the Appalachian basin during the Early Pennsylvanian. 66

The substrate which the fluvial system developed upon initially was the carbonates of the Maxville Limestone. The significant time gap at the base of the

Maxville coupled with the intraformational unconformities suggests it was likely of variable thickness and had already been affected by earlier erosional episodes. Once the carbonate cap was penetrated, the underlying Logan Formation lithologies were more easily eroded with the depth of erosion determined by base level.

Climate was a factor that controlled lithology and base level at several temporal scales. The paleolatitude of the study area changed from 20° S during the Lower

Mississippian to 5° S during the Morrowan. Archer and Greb (1995) considered tropical weathering to be a factor in the formation of multicycle quartz arenites. Johnsson et al.

(1988) showed that tropical weathering can form first generation quartz arenites through the dissolution of less chemically stable lithologies and minerals, such as carbonate and feldspar. However, the location of the basin relative to the Appalachian Mountains and the sediments preserved in the proximal portions of the basin suggest a decrease in precipitation due to orographic rain shadow (Rowley et al., 1985).

A second effect of climate was the variation in base level in response to Late

Paleozoic glaciations. Global sea levels underwent a long term drop of approximately 55 m from 334 – 317 Ma with a long-term increase of approximately 20 m from 213 to 314

Ma (Haq and Schutter, 2008). Superimposed on the long-term changes were glacial eustatic variations up to 60 meters in the Early Mississippian, 10 - 25 m in the Middle

Mississippian and 40 – 100 m in the latest Mississippian to Early Pennsylvanian (Rygel et al., 2008). 67

The questions raised by glacial eustasy are, 1) was the incision of the Sharon valley influenced by ultimate base level fall, and 2) were the mudstones deposited between the Sharon sandstones a result of sea level rise? The distance up-river that a change of sea level can influence a fluvial system is the subject of continued study.

Archer and Greb (1995) concluded that the Sharon was part of a continental-scale river system comparable in size to the modern Mississippi River. The paleogeographic reconstruction they provided places the study area approximately 1,100 km (straight line) upstream from the mouth of system. Initial estimates channel incision of the Mississippi

River by Saucier (1981, in Autin et al., 1991) indicated that that the Pleistocene variations in sea level, which produced a base level fall of approximately 130 m over a span of 10 kyr (Lembeck at al. 2014), affected the river only as far as Baton Rouge, a distance of only 418 km (straight line) up-river. More recent studies show that glacial eustatic effects on the Mississippi River during the Late Pleistocene reached approximately 800 km upstream (Shen et al., 2012).

The upstream influence on base level changes depends on both the regional slope and the change in sea level. Paleoslope values are difficult to estimate. Braided river systems are usually considered to form on higher slopes than meandering systems, however, large rivers, such as the Ganges, are braided where slopes area as low as

0.000066 (Wolman and Leopold, 1957). A sea level rise of 80 m on a slope of 0.000066 would be reach 1,200 km upstream. Therefore, it is possible that at least some incision of channels and deposition of mudstone occurred due to glacial eustasy. However, the bulk of the valley incision must have been a result of tectonics. 68

Total accommodation in a sedimentary basin, as measured by the section preserved, is controlled by tectonics. The subsidence during the formation of the

Maxville was both minimal and variable based on the presence of the intra- and extra- formational unconformities. The presence of the relatively thin limestones is consistent with formation in the backbulge region of the foreland basin where accommodation is low and siliciclastic sediment is trapped by the foredeep.

The incision of the landscape prior to deposition of the Pennsylvanian strata was up to 156.9 m (515 ft) thick, as indicated by the thickness of the subsequent valley infill

(Figure 4.6). Incision could have been augmented by eustatic base level fall, however, the total base level fall estimated for this time period is only on the order of 55 m, whereas the maximum incision of the Mississippian strata is approximately 170 m. It is more likely that the main incision mechanism was uplift along the forebulge related to a period of thrust loading within the Appalachians.

The location of the study area relative to the forebulge is a matter of debate. The forebulge has been placed at the Cincinnati Arch (Rice and Schwietering, 1988), the

Waverly Arch (Root, 1999), and east of the study area (Meckel 1967; Muslim 2013;

Grimm et al., 2013). The western locations are unlikely based on the onlap of strata noted in the Early Pennsylvanian (Grimm et al., 2013). Modeling suggests that a forebulge is approximately twice the width of the foredeep (Catuneanu, 2019). The location of the forebulge during the Early Pennsylvanian was 100 – 300 km west of the axis of the foredeep based on the descriptions of Meckel (1967) (Figure 5.2). The 69

70 location is in general agreement with the change in paleoflow direction from northwest to southwest reported by Meckel (1967). The location of Utley (1974) drainage systems flow from north to south across the foredeep (Figure 5.3), while the drainage system proposed by Rice and Schwietering (1988) flows along the axis of the forebulge (Figure

5.4). The main valley axis depicted by Archer and Greb (1995) cuts obliquely across the bulge (Figure 5.5). If the location of the bulge is accurate then the Sharon fluvial system was a separate drainage running more or less parallel to the axial flow within the forebulge. In this context the study area lay near the border between the forebulge and backbulge regions with the direction of the main valley axis obtained from the detailed isopach maps controlled by the location of the forebulge.

The exposure or burial of a forebulge is a function of the interaction of thrust loading and dynamic subsidence (DeCelles, 2013; Catuneanu, 2019), (Figure 2.2). The shift from more or less constant sediment thickness in the Early Mississippian to deep incision as part of the Kaskaskia/Absaroka sequence boundary indicates a brief change in tectonic control from dynamic to thrust loading. The system returned to being controlled by dynamic loading as the valleys in the back-bulge and forebulge were infilled and then finally buried by Middle Pennsylvanian sediments over the entire basin. 71

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS

This study was able to conclude that thick sandstone present in the wells of the study interval were unambiguously Early Pennsylvanian incised valley deposits of the

Sharon Sandstone based on detailed correlation with type wells in Athens and Lawrence

Townships. The drainage system on the older Mississippian strata had at least three orders of channel sizes with the resolution limited by the well density.

The Sharon Sandstone was deposited in a braided fluvial environment that was interrupted at times by deposition of mudstones as a result of base level rise associated with eustatic sea level rise. The mudstones differ from the underlying Mississippian marine mudstones in both gamma-ray and porosity values. The former may indicate a coarse grain size or change in source area, whereas the latter indicates less compaction than the underlying mudstones.

The study area was close to the boundary between the forebulge and backbulge regions of the Appalachian foreland basin. The location likely controlled the orientation of the incised valley. Current models of foreland basin dimensions suggest that the

Sharon fluvial system was likely a separate drainage system from the axial flow depicted by Archer and Greb (1995).

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APPENDIX: FORMATION TOPS

Maxville Locaton API # Berea Maxville Mississippian Base

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