Christianity State Religion

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Church History: the early church & middle ages

Fourth-century Christianity: From persecuted sect to official religion of the Roman Empire.

any Christians have become increasingly distressed by our nation’s secular turn. Schools no longer teach Christian values; Christian symbols (like crèches and crosses) are being removed from M government buildings and property; the popular media promotes a new paganism and often mocks Christian belief. Some Christians sigh, “I wish we lived in a Christian society.”

Christians in the early church got this wish. They watched their Roman society move from persecuting Christians to making Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. The Christian society that resulted was a mixed blessing. In this study, we’ll look at what happened in the fourth century. And we’ll examine our own society to see whether we really want our nation to become officially Christian.

Scripture: Psalm 72; Isaiah 2:2–5; Romans 13:1–7; Revelation 18; 21:1–4

Based on: The Christian History issue “The 100 Most Important Events in Church History,” including the article “The ‘Edict of Milan’”

Part 1 Identify the Current Issue Note to leader: Provide each person with the articles included at the end of this study. Ask everyone to read “Christianity: From Persecuted to Favored” before you begin.

Emperor Diocletian began the last great persecution of Christians in 303. People were so shocked by the treatment of Christians that Galerius, one of Diocletian’s successors, issued an edict of toleration, ruling that Christians were no longer to be persecuted. Emperor Constantine was converted in 312 while on military maneuvers. In a dream, he saw a cross in the sky and the words, “In this sign conquer.” When he was victorious the next day, he believed his success was proof of the power of Christ and the Christian religion.

Constantine favored Christianity openly:

• He allowed Christian ministers to enjoy the same exemption from taxes as the pagan priests.

• He abolished executions by crucifixion.

• He called a halt to the battles of gladiators as a punishment for crimes.

• He made Sunday a public holiday.

• He built magnificent church buildings.

Church historian Eusebius believed the emperor was the ideal Christian ruler whose conversion inaugurated a new age of salvation. The new opportunity to preach publicly and unmolested surely meant that God had a new and greater mission for the church. In the 380s and 390s, Emperor Theodosius enacted laws to make Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Because of the state’s official blessing, the church exploded in growth. By the late 300s, Christians were no longer a persecuted minority but made up a full half of the population in major cities. Church buildings, once simple structures, became magnificent basilicas richly adorned with marble, lamps, tapestries and beautiful mosaics; worship services added incense, processions, and other liturgical enhancements—all in an effort to give glory to God.

At the same time, many who now came to church were politically ambitious, religiously disinterested, and still half-devoted to paganism. Emperors ruled Christian bishops as civil servants and demanded unconditional obedience to official pronouncements, even when they interfered with purely church matters. Christians started emphasizing less the simple

gospel that appealed to the poor and outcasts and more the divine blessings of power and wealth.

Discussion Starters: [Q] Should the church seek to create a Christian society and culture? If so, how Christian should society be? [Q] In what ways is the United States today a Christian society? [Q] In what ways is it not?

Part 2 DISCOVER THE ETERNAL PRINCIPLES

Teaching Point One: A “Christian culture” can be a mixed blessing.

The advantages of Christianity as the “state religion” were many—influence, money, new converts—but there was a price to pay. Prior to Constantine’s conversion, the church consisted of convinced believers. Now many teachings of the earliest church began to be transformed. For example, the earliest church tended to emphasize that the gospel was good news to the poor and despised of this world; riches were a curse. With the conversion of the empire, riches and power came to be seen as a sign of God’s blessing, especially as exemplified in the Christian emperor.

The church had, from the beginning, tried to convince the Roman Empire to respect its beliefs; it had prayed that more and more people would come into the church’s fold. By 400, its prayer had been answered, but it was a mixed blessing.

Under Constantine and Theodosius, Rome officially became a Christian empire. What in your view was the greatest good for the church that came out of that?

[Q] The worst thing for the church?

On balance, do you think this was a good turn of events for the church? Why or why not? Read Psalm 72, which speaks of the king as if he were God’s representative or agent on earth. This is how the Christian emperors thought of themselves. Should national rulers think of themselves in this way? Why or why not?

Read Revelation 18. Those who read this chapter when it was written assumed it was referring to the Roman Empire (which they called “Babylon”) as a great evil that deserved to be destroyed. Paul, in Romans 13:1–7, teaches that the officials of the Roman Empire

are the agents of God to whom Christians must submit. What is behind these different attitudes toward government?

[Q] What do these contrasting passages teach about our attitude toward our society?

Christianity has been the dominant, if unofficial, religion of our country since its founding. In what ways has the church benefited from this? In what ways has it harmed the church? We live in a society that in theory is tolerant of all religions and favors none—more or less the stance of Rome between Galerius and Constantine. What are the advantages and disadvantages this holds for the church?

Optional Activity: Purpose: To consider the ramifications of “Christian rule.” Activity: Stage this mock debate with your group: The year is 2022. The country is in deep turmoil. Police don’t enforce the few laws Congress can agree to pass, reasoning, “Who are we to insist on morals?” Religions and cults proliferate because everyone has found his or her own truth. Pluralism and relativism run rampant; confusion reigns in government and society. No one can achieve a consensus on anything. In response, a number of Christians run for Congress and are elected— because they seem to stand for something—and they now constitute a two- thirds majority in both houses. Their first order of business is to begin debating whether to give more favor to Christianity. But they don’t know exactly how far to go. They seek advice from three groups of Christians, each of which takes a different view. Divide into three groups and assign each group one of the following positions to defend. Hold a debate. Traditionalists: Keep church and state separate. Give preference to no faith and tolerate all faiths and beliefs equally. Moderates: Make Christianity the official religion; use government power to exalt Christian beliefs and to evangelize all citizens, but tolerate all other faiths and beliefs. Proselytizers: Make Christianity the official religion; use government power to exalt Christian beliefs, to convert all citizens, and to suppress dangerous groups (e.g., cultic or racist or militaristic organizations). Conclude with discussion: What were the best points from each group? What have we learned?

Teaching Point Two: Christ’s return is the only hope we have for a perfect society.

Can we ever hope to have a Christian society on earth? Should we? Read these two Bible passages that speak about the perfect society we will know when Christ comes again: Isaiah 2:2–5 and Revelation 21:1–4.

[Q] Many Christians say they want to live in a Christian society. What do you think they mean by that? [Q] What kind of society can we expect when Christ returns? Write a description based on the passages above. [Q] Can we create that kind of society on earth? Why or why not? [Q] What responsibility do we have as Christians in a pluralistic society? What do we do while we wait for Christ’s return?

Part 3 APPLY YOUR FINDINGS

“Be careful what you wish for.” Christianity becoming the “state religion” stopped the persecution, but it also contributed to a shallower, more corrupt church.

[Q] Have you ever been persecuted for your faith? If so, what was the issue?

Action Point: How will you act as a kingdom citizen in our pluralistic society this week? Revelation 22:20 says: “He who testifies to these things says, ‘Yes, I am coming soon.’ Amen. Come, Lord Jesus.” When is the last time you prayed for Christ’s return? Practice the prayer of the apostle John this week.

— Study adapted by Kyle White

Christianity: From Persecuted to Favored Christianity becomes a state religion in the 4th century.

We don’t know exactly why, but Diocletian, two years before the end of his highly effective reign (284–305), suddenly ordered the most vicious of all persecutions of the Christians. He ordered his army purged of Christians and church buildings destroyed. He prohibited Christian worship and burned copies of the Scriptures. Bishops were rounded up, imprisoned, tortured, and many put to death; then the power of the imperial throne was turned against all Christians, many of whom lost their lives.

In 305, Diocletian, following a long-established plan, abdicated, as did his fellow Augustus, Maximian. But the Diocletian persecution still raged. In fact, the new Augustus in the east, Galerius, was more intent than ever on the complete extermination of Christianity. The pagans themselves, however, quickly became sickened by so much bloodshed. Eventually, even the throne could no longer take the political risk of continuing the torturing, maiming, and killing. So in his last official act, Galerius reluctantly, grudgingly put a stop to the persecution—and the last and worst persecution of Christians by Rome came to an end.

Upon the death of Galerius, a struggle for imperial power erupted. In the spring of 312, Constantine advanced across the Alps with the aim of dislodging his rival, Maxentius, from Italy and capturing Rome. It was a daring gamble; and when he came upon his militarily superior enemy at the Milvian Bridge, just outside the walls of Rome, he turned to the God of the Christians for help. In a dream he saw a cross in the sky and the words “In this sign conquer.” This convinced him to advance. When, on October 28, 312, he achieved his brilliant victory over the troops of Maxentius, Constantine believed his success was proof of the power of Christ and the superiority of the Christian religion.

Some consider Constantine’s conversion a purely political maneuver. Plenty of paganism remained in him: he conspired, murdered, and retained his title, Pontifex Maximus—meaning he was head of the state religious cult. But his was more than a purely political conversion. From the year 312, he favored Christianity openly. He issued the now famous Edict of Milan, granting permanent toleration to Christians (see “The ‘Edict of Milan,’” pages 8–9 of this study guide). He allowed Christian ministers to enjoy the same exemption from taxes as the pagan priests; he abolished executions by crucifixion; and in 321 he made Sunday a public holiday. Thanks to his generosity, magnificent church buildings arose as evidence of his support for Christianity.

But there were also changes in Constantine’s private life. He had his sons and daughters brought up as Christians. Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia baptized him shortly before he died in 337. After his baptism, Constantine refused to wear the imperial purple; he left this life dressed in his white baptismal robes.

Today, we find it almost impossible to grasp what this change in imperial attitude meant for the church. Before 312, Christianity was outlawed and persecuted. Suddenly it was favored and pampered. The church was in a completely new situation and had before it a totally new mission.

The church historian Eusebius likely represented the majority of Christians when he spoke about the emperor as the ideal Christian ruler and, with his conversion, envisioned the dawning of a new age of salvation. The fact that Christians could now preach publicly and develop churches unmolested surely meant that God had a new and greater mission for the church. It was a divinely ordained moment, and it would infuse the Christian spirit into all of Roman public life.

Some Christians believed it was no accident that Jesus and his message appeared at the very time when the Roman Empire provided the world with political, economic, and cultural unity. The empire now seemed even better prepared to help Christianity fulfill its world mission.

By 380, rewards for Christians turned into penalties for non-Christians. In that year, the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire: “It is our will that all the peoples we rule shall practice that religion which the divine Peter the apostle transmitted to the Romans. We shall believe in the single Deity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, under the concept of equal majesty and of the Holy Trinity.

“We command that those persons who follow this rule shall embrace the name of Catholic Christians. The rest, however, whom we adjudge demented and insane, shall sustain the infamy of heretical dogmas, their meeting places shall not receive the name of churches, and they shall be smitten first by divine vengeance and secondly by the retribution of our own initiative, which we shall assume in accordance with divine judgment.”

The next two decades saw the passing of a number of laws that restricted non-Christian religions. Because of the state’s official blessing, people poured into the church. By the late 300s, Christians were no longer a persecuted minority but made up a full half of the population in major cities. Christianity was considered a respectable option for the religious, and in some areas, especially after Theodosius, there was even social pressure to become Christian. By the early 400s, the formal conversion of the Roman Empire was to all intents complete.

Not only people, but money now poured into the churches. Beginning with Constantine, church buildings, once simple structures, were transformed into magnificent basilicas richly adorned with marble, lamps, tapestries, and beautiful mosaics—all in an effort to bring glory to God.

Also in worship, rituals of Roman life were adapted to bring glory to God. Incense, formerly used as a sign of respect for the emperor, now was used in Christian churches to show respect for God. Officiating ministers, who until then had worn everyday clothes, now dressed in elegant garments. Grand processionals became a part of worship, and choirs were developed partly to give body to the processionals.

The advantages, then, were many—influence, money, new converts—but there was a price to pay. Constantine ruled Christian bishops as he did his civil servants: he demanded unconditional obedience, even when his pronouncements interfered with purely church matters.

In addition, prior to Constantine’s conversion, the church consisted of convinced believers. Now many came who were politically ambitious, religiously disinterested, and still half-rooted in paganism. This tended to produce a shallow Christianity that was sometimes permeated by pagan superstitions. Often, the church was used for mere social or political purposes.

Furthermore, many teachings of the earliest church began to be transformed. For example, the earliest church tended to emphasize that the gospel was good news to the poor and despised of this world; riches were a curse. With the conversion of the empire, riches and power came to be seen as a sign of God’s blessing, especially as exemplified in the Christian emperor.

Adapted from Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language (Word, 1982). Used with permission.

The “Edict of Milan” The agreement shifted Christianity from being an illicit, persecuted sect to being a welcome—and soon dominant— religion of the Roman Empire. David F. Wright

It came out of a two-man summit meeting in the northern Italian city of Milan in January 313. The two men were the Roman emperors—Constantine ruling the West and Licinius the East. They met “under happy auspices,” as their joint communique put it. After years of power struggles for the imperial purple, the Roman world enjoyed a degree of peace. And after the failure of the Great Persecution (initiated by the emperors Diocletian and Galerius in 303-304), the Christian church had begun to recover its stability. Constantine and Licinius turned their minds to matters affecting the general welfare of the Empire.

They determined first of all to attend to “the reverence paid to the Divinity.” This required a guarantee of full religious freedom to the Christians, setting them on a par with those who followed other religions. The so-called Edict of Milan provided for this. It marks the Roman Empire’s final abandonment of the policies of persecution of Christians. The age of the martyrs was at an end. The transition to the era of the “Christian Empire” had begun.

Provisions of the “Edict” The conference at Milan undoubtedly resulted in a concordat. But its terms are known to us only from a rescript issued six months later by Licinius.

(This rescript was sent from his capital in Nicomedia—now Izmit in Turkey, just east of the Bosporus—to the governor of the nearby province of Bithynia. The Christian writer Lactantius has preserved its original Latin, while the church historian Eusebius gives it in Greek.)

Here are the rescript’s main provisions:

“Our purpose is to grant both to the Christians and to all others full authority to follow whatever worship each person has desired, whereby whatsoever Divinity dwells in heaven may be benevolent and propitious to us, and to all who are placed under our authority. Therefore we thought it salutary and most proper to establish our purpose that no person whatever should be refused complete toleration, who has given up his mind either to the cult of the Christians or to the religion which he personally feels best suited to himself. It is our pleasure to abolish all conditions whatever which were embodied in former orders directed to your office about the Christians, . . . that every one of those who have a common wish to follow the religion of the Christians may from this moment freely and unconditionally proceed to observe the same without any annoyance or disquiet.”

The rescript goes out of its way to ensure evenhanded treatment for all: “no diminution must be made from the honor of any religion.” But the strongly pro-Christian flavor is tasted in the instructions to restore to the Christians all property that had been appropriated during the persecution. This applied to property belonging to individual Christians as well as to churches— and without regard for the present owners, who could apply to the state for compensation.

In implementing these rulings the governor was to give the Christians his “most effective intervention,” making sure the terms were published to all.

These actions, Constantine and Licinius concluded, would ensure that “the Divine favor toward us, which we have already experienced in so many affairs, shall continue for all time to give us prosperity and success, together with happiness for the state.”

Significance of the “Edict” In reality, the subjects of Constantine in the Western Empire already enjoyed the toleration and property rights spelled out in this rescript. Nevertheless, the “Edict’s” significance stands unchallenged (even though we must recognize the inaccuracy of its traditional title, since it was not an edict).

Only a few months earlier Constantine had become the first Roman emperor to throw in his lot with the Christians. Although the Milan summit decreed only strict parity for Christians alongside other religionists, hindsight reads between the lines and discerns the hint of things to come. Before the end of the fourth century, orthodox Christianity had become the sole official religion of the Roman Empire.

For Christianity, the changes were momentous. To this day state churches perpetuate the alignment between Christianity and the Empire worked out in the fourth century. Meanwhile, Christians in independent, “free” churches have long regarded the Constantinian revolution as little short of the fall of Christianity, almost as calamitous as the fall of Adam and Eve.

One thing is clear: The unqualified toleration for all decreed at Milan did not last long, nor has it often prevailed in later centuries. The rescript’s noble sentiments surely warrant our attention today for that reason alone.