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Genetic Diversity of Barley Foliar Fungal Pathogens

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Genetic Diversity of Barley Foliar Fungal Pathogens agronomy Review Genetic Diversity of Barley Foliar Fungal Pathogens Arzu Çelik O˘guz* and Aziz Karakaya Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Dı¸skapı,Ankara 06110, Turkey; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Powdery mildew, net blotch, scald, spot blotch, barley stripe, and leaf rust are important foliar fungal pathogens of barley. Fungal leaf pathogens negatively affect the yield and quality in barley plant. Virulence changes, which can occur in various ways, may render resistant plants to susceptible ones. Factors such as mutation, population size and random genetic drift, gene and genotype flow, reproduction and mating systems, selection imposed by major gene resistance, and quantitative resistance can affect the genetic diversity of the pathogenic fungi. The use of fungicide or disease-resistant barley genotypes is an effective method of disease control. However, the evolutionary potential of pathogens poses a risk to overcome resistance genes in the plant and to neutralize fungicide applications. Factors affecting the genetic diversity of the pathogen fungus may lead to the emergence of more virulent new pathotypes in the population. Understanding the factors affecting pathogen evolution, monitoring pathogen biology, and genetic diversity will help to develop effective control strategies. Keywords: barley; Hordeum vulgare; Blumeria graminis; Pyrenophora teres; Rhynchosporium commune; Cochliobolus sativus; Pyrenophora graminea; Puccinia hordei; genetic diversity Citation: Çelik O˘guz,A.; Karakaya, A. Genetic Diversity of Barley Foliar Fungal Pathogens. Agronomy 2021, 11, 1. Introduction 434. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is one of the most important cereal crops that has been agronomy11030434 grown for thousands of years since prehistoric times, and is used in animal feed, malt products, and the food industry. Globally, it ranks fourth in grain production with approxi- Academic Editors: Giuseppe De mately 150 million tons of production after wheat, rice, and maize [1]. Mastro and Caterina Morcia Barley leaf diseases cause significant decreases in yield in all areas where barley is cultivated, and at the same time, reduces the quality. The use of fungicides or disease- Received: 31 December 2020 resistant barley genotypes is effective in disease control, but the evolutionary potential Accepted: 22 February 2021 of pathogens poses a risk of overcoming resistance genes in the plant and neutralizing Published: 27 February 2021 fungicide applications [2–4]. Information about the evolutionary potential of pathogens is useful in developing control strategies [5–7]. Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral The genetic makeup of a pathogen population is determined by the evolutionary with regard to jurisdictional claims in history of that population. It is assumed that genetic makeup information also gives published maps and institutional affil- an idea of the evolutionary potential of pathogen populations in the future. Genetic iations. structure refers to the distribution and amount of genetic diversity among and within populations. Genotype diversity and gene diversity are components of genetic makeup. Gene diversity refers to the number and frequencies of alleles in a population at individual loci, while genotype diversity refers to the genetically distinct individuals or the number Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. and frequencies of multilocus genotypes in a population [7]. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Changes in pathogen populations have been witnessed many times over the years [8]. This article is an open access article The most devastating changes in history have been reported in pathogenic populations distributed under the terms and capable of breaking major resistance genes [9–11]. Most of these cases have resulted from conditions of the Creative Commons the spread of a host plant carrying a single major resistance gene over a wide geographic Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// area and occurred as a result of the pathogen population developing a means to overcome creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). this resistance gene [7]. Agronomy 2021, 11, 434. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030434 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/agronomy Agronomy 2021, 11, 434 2 of 27 To understand the process by which the effectiveness of the resistance gene is broken down, the processes governing pathogen evolution must be understood. The genetic makeup and evolution of populations is a result of the interaction between the five forces: mutation, reproduction and mating system, gene and genotype flow, population size and random drift, major gene resistance, and selection imposed by major gene resistance and quantitative resistance. Mutation is one of the sources of genetic variation. As a result of mutations, changes in the DNA sequence of individual genes occur and these generate new alleles in populations. New virulent strains of plant pathogens can be formed through the mutations and these could break the major gene resistances. Population size affects the likelihood that mutants will be present. More mutants are observed in large populations compared to small populations and these can affect the diversity of genes in a population through random genetic drift. Disease management programs or climatic extremes that keep pathogen population size small, limit gene diversity and help to control the disease [4,6,7]. Gene flow is a process in which certain genotypes or genes are exchanged among populations. Greater genetic diversity is possible with pathogens that display a high degree of genotype/gene flow. Anthropogenic activities can affect the size of the genetic neighborhood. Humans have transported many different pathogens well beyond distri- bution borders through agriculture and intercontinental travel and trade [7]. Distribution of gene diversity among and within populations is affected by reproduction and mating systems. Reproduction can be mixed, asexual, or sexual. Pathogens that undergo regular recombination may pose greater risks [7,12]. Female fertility is much more important than the relative numbers of strains of differ- ent mating types in determining the given effective population size obtained from Gibberella species. Even when mating-type ratios differ significantly from 1:1, sexual reproduction can still occur regularly. In field populations, polymorphism occurs when the female is sterile or hermaphrodite, and only those female sterile mutants that function as males during sexual reproduction can make up the majority of the population. When a high frequency of female sterile strains is observed in field populations, this indicates that vegetative propagation is an important component of the natural history of the fungus. This theory suggests that there may be significant differences in female fertility between populations of the same species, and within the same species, the frequency of hermaphrodites in local populations may vary significantly. Additionally, if there are significant environmen- tal differences that support sexual reproduction or vegetative reproduction in different places, these differences may become apparent, and the number of loci where female sterile mutations can occur might be large and mutations can be found in more than one locus rather than a single locus. These hypotheses will provide an insight into the evolution of asexual fungus species and how fungi maintain mixed modes of vegetative and sexual reproduction [13]. Selection cause changes in the mutant allele frequencies. When a major resistance gene is widely distributed over a wide geographic area, directional selection occurs [4,14]. Quantitative resistance is another option for obtaining resistant varieties. This is also called partial resistance or minor-gene resistance. Quantitative resistance does not exhibit the boom-and-bust cycle, which is characteristic of major resistance genes. Both minor and major gene resistances can be sensitive to environmental conditions [6,7]. Classification of genetic variation in fungi based on morphological characteristics affected by environmental conditions is very difficult. For characterization of genetic varia- tion and phylogenetic relationships in fungal plant pathogenic populations, techniques such as isozyme and ribosomal DNA analyses, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), restriction of PCR-amplified internal transcribed spacers of the rDNA (ITS-RFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers, amplified fragment length poly- morphism (AFLP), universal rice primer-polymerase chain reaction (URP-PCR), sequence- specific amplified polymorphism (S-SAP), inter-retrotransposon amplified polymorphism Agronomy 2021, 11, 434 3 of 27 (IRAP), inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers in housekeeping genes and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers are used. The result of understanding genetic variation in fungal pathogens is to understand the risk of pathogen evolution and planning resistance breeding strategies. The genetic variation of common barley fungal leaf pathogens is discussed in this review. 1.1. Blumeria graminis (DC.) E. O. Speer f. sp. hordei emend. É. J. Marchal (anamorph: Oidium monilioides Link) Powdery mildew disease caused by the ascomycetous fungus Blumeria graminis (DC) Speer (Syn. Erysiphe graminis DC) is one of the most destructive pathogens of barley crops in many barley production areas of the world [15,16]. In connection
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