“Socially Dangerous” Women: Accommodation, Collaboration, and Retribution in Soviet Ukraine, 1941-1945 A dissertation presented By Regina Kazyulina to The Department of History In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the field of History Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts March 2018 1 “Socially Dangerous” Women: Accommodation, Collaboration, and Retribution in Soviet Ukraine, 1941-1945 A dissertation presented By Regina Kazyulina Abstract of Dissertation Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History in the College of Social Sciences and Humanities of Northeastern University March 2018 2 Abstract This dissertation explores the circumscribed choices local women on German-occupied territory of Soviet Ukraine made during World War Two and the way they were interpreted following the liberation of their villages, towns, and cities by the Red Army. The choices of local men and women were circumscribed not only by their ‘racial’ categorization and the Nazis’ racial hierarchy, which categorized Slavs as Untermenschen, but also by their gender. Women were barred from participating in armed collaborationist units or from holding leading positions in local collaborationist administrations due to their gender and the Nazis’ gender policies. But because they were often considered noncombatants women also had more room to maneuver when compared to local men who were invariably judged by their martial role. Although their choices were circumscribed, local women nevertheless had a variety of choices at their disposal, including the decision to cultivate intimate relationships with local collaborators or representatives of the German occupation. The way their subsequent actions were evaluated both during and after the war was determined by evolving Soviet expectations of ‘proper’ behavior for men and women during wartime. Utilizing a variety of previously neglected sources, such as unpublished diaries, memoirs, and testimonies from war crimes trial records and Soviet secret police files, this dissertation examines how gendered expectations impacted the fate of local women on occupied territory. Starting with a perceived moral crisis within the ranks of the Red Army and the partisan movement, which saw women emerge as a potential security threat, this dissertation chronicles how these fears became associated with women who had remained on occupied territory. Women were consistently considered ‘backward’ and susceptible to negative influences throughout the interwar period, but war saw these fears resurface with deadly consequences. 3 With interwar expectations of gender roles often guiding both state and civilian actors in their interpretation of their neighbors’ behavior, the war and the Nazis’ military tactics encouraged Soviet officials, rank-and-file fighters, and civilians to view women in close contact with enemy combatants as ‘socially dangerous elements’ even though their actions were not officially considered criminal. 4 Acknowledgements This dissertation is dedicated to my grandparents who first inspired my love of history with their stories that instilled a desire in me to learn more about their world. In later years, I was blessed to have had the opportunity to study with amazing teachers and professors who inspired me to pursue my interests in my undergraduate studies and still later in graduate school. Without the early encouragement of Richard Geckle, William Fowler, and Timothy Brown this project would have never been possible. I will be forever indebted to the members of my dissertation committee, Jeffrey Burds, Harlow Robinson, Heather Streets-Salter, and Uta Poiger, for the guidance and patience that they have shown me during my years at Northeastern University. In particular, I want to thank Jeffrey Burds for his advice, mentorship, and unwavering support and belief. This dissertation is based on several extended research trips to repositories in Ukraine, Russia, and the United States. It was made possible through the generous support of a number of institutions. Early trips to Ukraine were made possible through the support of the History Department and the Provosts’ Office at Northeastern University. A three-month trip to Moscow was made possible through the Title VIII Research Scholar (or Combined Research and Language Training or Southeast European Language Training) Program, which is funded by the U.S. State Department, Title VIII Program for Research and Training on Eastern Europe and Eurasia (Independent States of the Former Soviet Union) and administered by American Councils for International Education: ACTR/ACCELS. Additionally, a four-month tenure as the Robert A. Savitt Fellow at the Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum proved invaluable. It was truly a pleasure to work there. Finally, a year-long dissertation completion grant from the Harry Frank 5 Guggenheim Foundation was instrumental in providing the time necessary for me to refine my arguments. The opinions expressed herein are mine alone and do not express the views of any of these organizations. During my research trips, a number of people ensured that my time was both productive and fulfilling. In Ukraine, relatives reintroduced me to a country that I had left many years before and helped orient me on my first research trip. Jared McBride provided invaluable advice about gaining access to archival repositories and guided me towards potential sources. In Moscow, Elen and Sasha Volkov opened their home to me and made me feel welcome. I am particularly grateful to the staff of the Lenin Library, the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, and the Memorial Society in Moscow for their help. In Washington, D.C., Joan DeLuca was a fantastic host and roommate who introduced me to the city. My cohort of fellows at the Mandel Center, Ben Lee, Wolfgang Schneider, Louisa McClintock, Michael Kraus, Catherine Greer, Allison Somogyi, Judith Gerson, Irene Kacandes, Debórah Dwork, Adam Knowles, and Nataliia Ivchyk, enriched my time at the center making for a productive and personally fulfilling tenure. Likewise, I am grateful to the staff of the Mandel Center and, in particular, Jo-Ellyn Decker, Elizabeth Anthony, Natalya Lazar, Elana Jakel, Vadim Altskan, and Vincent Slatt for their advice. Northeastern University and the history department has been a home to me for many years. This dissertation has benefitted in innumerable ways from conversations and debates both within and outside the classroom with faculty and friends in the department. Tara Dixon, Stacy Fahrenthold, Victoria Hallinan, Allyssa Metzger, Dave Albanese, Shaunna Harrington, Bridget Keown, Nora Räsänen, Courtney Marchuk, Feruza Aripova, Malcolm Purinton, Mikhail Rekun, Elizabeth Lehr, Olivier Schouteden, Jack Gronau, Akin Sefer, and Sana Tannoury-Karam have 6 shared this journey with me. Elizabeth Lehr, Olivier Schouteden, Jack Gronau, Akin Sefer, and Sana Tannoury-Karam generously read early drafts of chapters, providing invaluable advice that has improved this dissertation in countless ways. Friends and colleagues outside the history department also shared this journey, tolerating my often-erratic schedule while giving moral support. Each in their own way has left an indelible mark on this project. I am grateful to Charles Bogan, Greg Leboeuf, Greg Leahy, Lisa Lavezzo, Arielle Smitt, Jonathan Mills, Rema Tokatli, Chris and Lynda Martin, Bengü Kurtege-Sefer, Ryan McCluskey, Martin Castillo, Sara Young, Peter and Jessica Chaffee, and Jeff Karam for their friendship. Finally, I am grateful to my family for their love and support. Sana Tannoury-Karam and Jeff Karam have been with me through every step of this process. Françoise Bourdon, Clyde Kessel, and Lena and Bo Borden welcomed me into their family and encouraged my endeavors. I am grateful for the unconditional support of my parents, Leonid and Alla Kazyulin, and my grandparents, Riva Kazyulina and Anna and Alexander Gribnikov. But, most of all, I am grateful to Kirill Shubin for his love and unwavering encouragement. 7 List of Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Terms Agro Joint American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee BShPD Belorussian Headquarters of the Partisan Movement Gorkom city committee Gulag Main Administration of Corrective Labor Camps Komsomol All-Union Young Communist League Komsomolka female member of the Komsomol KRO Counterintelligence Department NKGB People’s Commissariat for State Security NKVD People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs Obkom oblast committee oblast region OGPU All-Union State Political Administration (Precursor of the NKVD) partizanka female member of the Red Partisans raion district RSFSR Russian Soviet Socialist Republic SMERSH Main Directorate for Counterintelligence (aka “Death to Spies”) Osobye otdely (OOs) NKVD Special Departments Tsk KP(b)U Central Committee of the Ukrainian Communist Party UkrUSSR Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic UShPD Ukrainian Headquarters of the Partisan Movement USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 8 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 5 List of Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Terms 8 Table of Contents 9 A Note on Transliteration, Place-Names, and Terms 10 Introduction 11 Chapter 1: ‘Temptress,’ Spy, or Comrade: Women in the Ranks of the Red Army 36 and the Partisan Movement Chapter 2: “Socially Dangerous” Women and Retribution After Liberation 116 Chapter 3: The Diary of