April 2006 Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry ver. 2.1 www.traditionaltree.org
Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) Santalaceae (sandalwood family)
S. austrocaledonicum: sandalwud (Vanuatu: Bislama) S. yasi: ahi (Tonga); yasi (Fiji); asi manogi (Samoa)
Lex A. J. Thomson
In brief
Distribution S. austrocaledonicum: New homson Caledonia and Vanuatu; S. yasi: Fiji, Niue, and T L. Tonga. Size Small shrubs or trees, typically 5–12 m photo: (16–40 ft) at maturity. Habitat Varies by species, typically subhumid or humid tropics with distinct dry season of 3–5 months. Vegetation At young stages, dry forest and woodland; possibly closed secondary forest when mature in natural habitats. Soils Requires light to medium, well drained soils. Growth rate Slow to moderate, 0.3–0.7 m/yr (12–28 in/yr). Main agroforestry uses Homegardens, mixed- species forestry. Main uses Heartwood for crafts, essential oil extraction for cosmetics and perfumery, in- cense, and religious ceremonies. Yields Heartwood in 30+ years (greater than 40 kg/tree [88 lb/tree]). Intercropping Because sandalwood is hemi- parasitic and requires one or more host plants, intercropping is not only possible, but neces- sary. Invasive potential Has a capacity for inva Santalum yasi seedling siveness in disturbed places, but this is rarely planted in homegarden, considered a problem. Pangaimotu, Vava‘u, Ton- ga, and protected from damage by stakes. Introduction Sandalwood terms Pacific sandalwood species are small trees that occur natu- rally in open, dry forests and woodland communities. They Hemi-parasitic Describes a plant which photosyn- are typically multi-stemmed and somewhat bushy, attain- thesizes but which derives water and some nutrients ing a height of 5–12 m (16–40 ft), or up to 15 m (50 ft) for through attaching to roots of other species. S. austrocaledonicum in New Caledonia, at maturity and Root-grafting This is where roots of different in- spreading to about the same width as their height. They are dividual plants grow together, forming functional capable of root-suckering: following harvesting, clumps of unions and exchanging materials. Sandalwood roots suckers may regenerate in a circular pattern several me- can root-graft onto many other species, effectively ters away from the original stump. They are root-parasitic, joining whole plant communities through their root which means they have special root extensions that cap- systems. ture nutrients from roots of certain other plants in the soil. Sandalwood cannot persist in moist, dense forest types due good regeneration potential and ability to colonize/invade to its poor tolerance of high shade levels. Sandalwood spe- nearby suitable sites. So long as some mature fruit-bearing cies generally have a broad edaphic range, usually with a trees are retained, birds will spread the fruit. Their invasive preference for well drained neutral to slightly alkaline soils. potential is seldom considered a drawback due to the ex- They grow more quickly in fertile soils but are more at risk ceptionally high value of their heartwood. Furthermore, of being shaded out by taller, faster growing trees on such their small stature and susceptibility to being shaded out sites. means they never become dominant and/or substantially Both S. austrocaledonicum and S. yasi have considerable modify or replace existing plant communities. economic potential, but their populations are depleted, and there is a need to promote greater regeneration and sustainably manage remaining populations. Santalum DISTRIBUTION austrocaledonicum is currently being grown in small plantings or managed in natural stands in Vanuatu and Native range New Caledonia in the southwest Pacific. The species grows S. austrocaledonicum This species is naturally found in the at moderate rates and can produce substantial quantities island archipelagos of New Caledonia and Vanuatu in the of the valued heartwood on a rotation of about 25–40 years. southwest Pacific. There is a growing interest among villagers, other small- Var. austrocaledonicum is common in the Loyalty Islands scale entrepreneurs, and government organizations to ex- and the Isle of Pines but is uncommon on the main pand the scale of planting in both countries. Replanting island of Grande Terre. It is also present in the Belep of S. yasi is on a small scale, mainly within villages in areas islands. In Vanuatu the principal occurrence is around where it naturally occurs. The largest replanting of S. yasi the northwest, west, and southwest portions of Erro- has been on the Tongan island of ‘Eua, where it has been mango, and on the west coast of Espiritu Santo; it is successfully planted in association with Pinus caribaea. also found on Tanna, Aniwa, Futuna, Malakula, Efate, The primary advantages of sandalwoods are their ability to and Aneityum. produce a high-value, non-perishable product (heartwood) Var. pilosulum is restricted to low elevations on the main that can provide cash income to people living in outer is- island of New Caledonia near Noumea. It also has lands and more remote communities. They may also be limited occurrence at high elevation in the Karaka re- grown in environmentally sensitive areas, such as water gion (northeast slope of Mt. Do between Boulouparis catchment and biodiversity conservation areas, where ex- and Thio). traction of a few small trees causes minimum disturbance while providing good economic returns. Var. minutum is restricted to the northwest side of the Sandalwoods are well suited to interplanting, and due to main island of New Caledonia. their root-parasitic nature, they need to be grown with S. yasi This species occurs in lowland, drier, and more open other suitable host tree species. They may be interplanted forest types in Fiji, Niue, and Tonga. The Niuean popula- with various other species that can provide additional tion may be an ancient or Polynesian introduction. There is sources of revenue. In Tonga, sandalwood (S. yasi) has one record for Samoa (Savai‘i), where it appears to be in- been grown with other commercial species including pine, troduced but not naturalized. The range extends from Niue casuarina, citrus, and paper mulberry. Sandalwoods have a and ‘Eua, a southern island in the Tongan group, through
Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) Left: Santalum austrocaledonicum. photo: L. Thomson Right: Santalum yasi in Tonga. photo: C. Elevitch
Tongatapu, Ha‘apai, and Vava‘u (Tonga), west and north- Common names wards, through the Fiji Islands (Lau group, Kadavu, Nau- S. austrocaledonicum sandalwud (Vanuatu: Bislama) sori Highlands/Viti Levu, Bua/Vanua Levu) to the Udu S. yasi ahi (Tonga); yasi (Fiji); asi manogi (Samoa) Peninsula, NE Vanua Levu, North of Fiji. Other common names Current distribution bois de santal, santal (French) S. austrocaledonicum Outside of its native range this spe- sándalo (Spanish) cies has limited planting, mainly for trial purposes in Aus- sandalwood (English) tralia, Fiji, and the Cook Islands. Size S. yasi This species has limited planting outside of its nat- S. austrocaledonicum A shrub or a small tree typically 5–12 ural range, mainly for trial purposes in Australia. Some of m (16–40 ft) tall by 4–8 m (13–26 ft) in crown width. The its occurrences, e.g., on Niue, may be comprised of natural- maximum tree dimension is 15 m (50 ft) tall by 10 m (33 ft) ized populations following introduction by humans. crown width. Maximum bole diameter at breast height is 40–50 cm (16–20 in). BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION S. yasi Mature trees typically grow to 8–10 m (26–33 ft) tall by 8–12 m (26–40 ft) in crown width, maximally reaching Preferred scientific names 15 m (50 ft) tall by 13 m (43 ft) in crown width. Maximum Santalum austrocaledonicum Vieillard bole diameter at breast height is 40–50 cm (16–20 in). Santalum yasi Seem. Form Family S. austrocaledonicum and S. yasi Shrub to small tree typi- Santalaceae (sandalwood family) cally with a short, crooked bole and spreading crown in open situations. In forest and sheltered situations, the
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) Leaves S. austrocaledonicum The foliage shows wide variation. Leaves are opposite, usually in one plane, decussate on erect new growth, simple, entire, glabrous, dark green, and shiny on top and dull light green to glaucous underneath. The shape of the leaf is initially long and thin (5–9 by 0.5 cm [2–3.5 by 0.2 in]) in seedlings and young plants to about 3 years of age, becoming shorter and broader in older plants. Mature leaves are narrowly elliptic, but maybe ovate, lanceolate, or obovate, (3–)4–6(–8) cm by (1–)1.5–2.5(–4.5) cm ([1.2–]1.6–2.4[–3.1] in by [0.4–]0.6–1[–1.8] in) with 6 to 15 pairs of barely visible secondary nerves tapering equally to the base and blunt tip. Var. minutum has smaller, more glaucous, bluish-green leaves, about 2 by 0.8 cm (0.8 by 0.3 Bark of S. yasi. photo: L. Thomson in). S. yasi Seedlings have very slender, near-linear, leaves. bole may be straight for more than half the total height. Leaves are simple, opposite, narrow to broadly lanceolate, In older specimens the crown is light, straggly, and with shiny, and typically 6–7 by 1.5–2 cm (2.4–2.8 by 0.6–0.8 drooping branches. The bark is smooth to rough, slightly in). There is considerable variation in foliage size; adjacent longitudinally fissured or reticulated, which can be more plants have been observed to range from 5 by 1 cm (2 by pronounced with age, (greyish or reddish brown, mottled 0.4 in) to 8 x 2.5 cm (3.1 x 1 in). The foliage is light to dark with patches of lichen). green, but plants growing in the open with few host trees available may have a yellowish-green appearance. Flowering The small flowers are clustered in terminal or axillary pani- Fruit cles about 4.5 cm (1.8 in) long. The bell-shaped flowers open S. austrocaledonicum The fruit is a subglobose or ellipsoid, to about 5 mm (0.2 in) across and have parts typically in one-seeded drupe (7–20 mm [0.3–0.8 in] long by 10–15 fours. Buds and newly opened flowers have greenish white mm [0.4–0.6 in] diameter), green and firm, ripening red, to cream-colored perianth segments (or tepals), remain- and turning purplish black and thinly fleshy when mature. ing cream for S. austrocaledonicum, but turning light pink, Fruits have four longitudinal ridges and a square calyx scar through pink to dark red at maturity for S. yasi. Shorter, at the apex. Fruits from Aniwa (Vanuatu) are much larger dark yellow disk lobes alternate with the tepals. The an- (20 x 15 mm [0.8 x 0.6 in]) than those from the Loyalty thers are yellow and red-tinged for S. yasi, yellow for S. Islands (15 x 12 mm [0.6 x 0.5 in]). Mature fruits have been austrocaledonicum, and the style and stigmas are cream/pale reported almost throughout the year, but the main fruiting yellow. season is November–January. In New Caledonia, two fruit- Under good conditions plants begin fruiting from an early ing seasons are observed, in December–February (main age, typically about 3–4 years, but heavy fruiting may take fruiting season) and July–August (light fruiting season). 7–10 years. There is considerable variation in seasonality of S. yasi The fruit is a one-seeded, ellipsoid drupe, ca. 12 mm flowering and fruiting. Trees flower and fruit throughout (0.47 in) long by 11 mm (0.43 in) diameter with a small, the year, usually with two peaks. The two main flowering round calyx scar (about 2 mm [0.08 in] diameter) at the periods for S. yasi in Fiji are October–November and Febru- apex, enclosing a rather stout, cone-shaped point. Imma- ary. In the southern islands of Tonga (‘Eua and Tongatapu), ture fruits are light green, turning reddish-purple, and fi- the main flowering period is ( June–) July–August (–Sep- nally dark purple or black at full maturity. The main fruit- tember). Further north in the Ha‘apai and Vava‘u groups ing season corresponds to the wet season, January–March, the peak flowering period is November–December. For S. with light fruiting in the cooler, dry season ( June–Au- austrocaledonicum in Vanuatu, flowering occurs in Janu- gust). ary–April, July, and October. In New Caledonia, flowering Fruits of both species mature about 4 months after flower- occurs throughout the year, but there are flowering peaks ing. in February and October, and flowering is rarely observed in June and July.
Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) Top left: Flowers of Santalum austrocaledonicum. photo: L. Thomson Top right: Mature fruit of Santalum austrocaledonicum. photo: L. Thomson Bottom right: Mature fruit and flowers of Santalum yasi. photo: L. Thomson Bottom left: Flowers of Santalum yasi. photo: C. Elevitch
Seeds species is in the process of becoming naturalized near old The kernels consist of a hard (woody), smooth or slightly trial plots in northwest Viti Levu, Fiji, and has naturally rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a single seed. hybridized with S. yasi where the two species have been planted together. S. album is the most well known and S. austrocaledonicum Within var. austrocaledonicum the commercially traded sandalwood species, and its oil pro- seeds from the Loyalty Islands are much bigger (2400 vides the international standard for sandalwood oil. The per kg [1100 seeds/lb]) than those from the Isle of Pines species is deeply ingrained in the philosophical, cultural, (6000 per kg [2700 seeds/lb]), while those from Vanuatu and religious ethos of Indian culture, and has been used for are intermediate (3300–4500 per kg [1500 seeds/lb]). Var. more than 2500 years. pilosulum has smaller seeds (8400 per kg [3800 seeds/lb]). S. yasi The seeds are 9–11 mm by 6–7 mm (0.35–0.43 in How to distinguish from similar species by 0.24–0.28 in) with approximately 6000–7000 per kg Fruits are very useful for distinguishing related tropical (2700–3200 seeds/lb). species. In S. album the mature fruits are truncate-globose to ellipsoid; the raised calyx scar is up to about 5 mm across, Look-a-like species forming an apical collar and enclosing the flat or slightly Similar species include S. album (India, Indonesia, and depressed disc that ends in a small point. In S. macgregorii, Australia) and S. macgregorii (Papua New Guinea). To date, the fruit is a green, ovoid drupe (to 8–10 mm [0.3–0.4 in] S. album has been little planted in the Pacific islands (Fiji, long), turning purplish or bluish-black at maturity, and Tonga, Cook Islands, Samoa, and New Caledonia). The contains ellipsoid or sub-spherical seeds 4–6 mm (0.16–
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) Left: Flowers of S. album. photo: C. Elevitch Right: Mature fruit of Santalum album. photo: L. Thomson
0.24 in) long by (2–)2.5–4.5(–5) mm ([0.08–]0.1–0.18[–0.2] mum, on plains and with ruderal species (families Fabaceae, in) wide, with three to four ridges at the pointed end. Asteraceae, and Convolvulaceae). Var. minutum occurs in scrubland, with various shrub species including Cassinia trifoliata, Xanthostemon pubescens, Hibbertia deplancheana. GENETICS In Vanuatu it frequently occurs with Acacia spirorbis, low shrubs, and Cyperaceae. Other associated plant species Variability of species include coconut, grasses, bamboos, Cryptocarya turbinata, All Santalum species exhibit considerable morphologi- Hibiscus tiliaceus, Dracontomelon vitiensis, Garuga floribunda, cal variation, and numerous traditional varieties are rec- Leucaena leucocephala (introduced), and Pterocarpus indicus. ognized. There are three formally described varieties of S. S. yasi Yasi is mainly found in open forest types (often with austrocaledonicum in New Caledonia, as well as two heart- a grassy understory), including secondary forests develop- wood chemotypes in Vanuatu. One chemotype produces ing in old garden sites. In Tonga, some trees were found in α heartwood oils rich in santalols ( -santalol >30–40% and young dense forest on the islands of Vava‘u, establishing β -santalol >15%) while the other chemotype heartwood oil themselves when the surrounding trees were smaller and is rich in Z-nuciferol (7–25%) and/or Z-lanceol (15–41%), the stand had been opened up for cultivation of agricul- with lower concentrations of santalols. ture crops. It also occurs in low coastal forest associations on small coralline islands. In Fiji associated woody species Known varieties include Acacia richii, Casuarina equisetifolia, Calophyllum S. austrocaledonicum var. austrocaledonicum and var. pilosulum vitiense, Cocos nucifera, Fagraea gracilipes, Storckiella vitensis, have large leaves (about 5 by 2 cm [2 by 0.8 in]) and long Hibiscus tiliaceus, Thespesia populnea, and Dodonea viscosa. petioles (6–16 mm [0.24–0.63 in]) and tepals (1.3 x 0.8 Associated species in Tonga include Broussonetia papyrifera, mm [0.05 by 0.03 in]). The flowers and new shoots of Citrus spp., Diospyros spp., Hernandia nymphaeifolia, var. austrocaledonicum are glabrous whereas those of var. Inocarpus fagifer, Morinda citrifolia, Pandanus tectorius, pilosulum are villous or hairy. Var. minutum has much Pometia pinnata, and Rhus taitensis. smaller leaves (about 2 by 0.8 cm [0.8 by 0.3 in]) and tepals (1.3 by 0.4 mm [0.05 by 0.02 in]). Species commonly associated in modern intro- ductions ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES Both species have been successfully interplanted in Pinus caribaea plantations on ‘Eua, Tonga. They are often planted S. austrocaledonicum In New Caledonia it mainly occurs in Fijian village homegardens with ornamentals and cultural in secondary forests and agricultural fallows in the Loyalty species (e.g., Pandanus tectorius, Polyscias, Croton, Cordyline, Islands. In dry forest (Grande Terre), it is often associated and Euodia hortensis) and fruit trees (e.g., Artocarpus altilis, with Acacia spirorbis, Croton insularis, and Arytera collina. It Citrus spp., Musa spp., and Pometia pinnata). also sometimes occurs with grasses, such as Panicum maxi
Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) Folk varieties S. yasi 1400–2500 mm (55–100 in) Rainfall pattern In Vanuatu, two folklore varieties of S. austrocaledonicum All species prefer climates with summer rains. are widely distinguished. These are a “man” variety known variously as pior laman (Penour, Valpei; West Dry season duration (consecutive months with <40 Santo), initjinyat atamien (Anelghowhat, Aneityum), mm [1.6 in] rainfall) and man nipigisi (Port Patrick, Aneityum), and a Most localities experience a pronounced dry season of 2–5 “woman” variety called pior akae (Penour, Valpei), months during the cooler months June–October (South- initjinyat ataheig (Anelghowhat), and woman nipigisi ern Hemisphere). (Port Patrick). The man variety is characterized as a taller tree, with longer bole, longer pointed leaves, pro- Mean annual temperature ducing few or no fruits, while the woman variety has a S. austrocaledonicum 23–27°C (73–81°F) shorter, fatter bole, smaller branches, a more rounded S. yasi 23–29°C (73–84°F) leaf, and produces many more fruits. The woman vari- ety produces good heartwood early, whereas the male Mean maximum temperature of hottest month tree needs to be pruned to induce good heartwood. S. austrocaledonicum 29–33°C (84–91°F) Several folk varieties of S. yasi have been reported in S. yasi 24–31°C (75–88°F) Fiji and Tonga. The varieties reported from Fiji in- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month clude yasi dina (or true sandalwood, i.e., Santalum, S. austrocaledonicum 16–22°C (61–72°F) distinguishing it from other genera that have sweetly S. yasi 18–25°C (64–77°F) fragrant wood), yasi boi (fragrant), yasi buco, yasi vula (white), yasi damu (red), and yasi kula (red). The latter Minimum temperature tolerated folk variety has reddish leaves (possibly a micronutrient S. austrocaledonicum The absolute minimum temperature disorder) and strongly scented heartwood. Varieties re- is 10–16°C (50–61°F), but possibly as low as 5–7°C (41–45°F) ported from Tonga include fefine (literally female, with on Mare, Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia. small leaves), tangata (with large, long leaves), kolo S. yasi The absolute minimum experienced is around (sweet smelling), lau lahi, uhiuhi, and vao. These vari- 8–9°C (46–48°F) at the higher elevations sites in western eties mainly refer to particular phenotypes in a popula- Viti Levu. tion rather than whole populations. In both Tonga and Fiji the identity and morphological traits of these folk For both species the entire distribution is frost-free. varieties may be interpreted somewhat differently by different villagers/villages. Soils S. austrocaledonicum The species grows well on pure coral- ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES line soil, volcanic ash, schist or sedimentary substrates. The species prefers well drained acidic to alkaline conditions AND TOLERANCES and does not grow well on waterlogged soils and strongly acidic clayey soils. Climate S. yasi In Fiji the soils are mainly well drained, humic and S. austrocaledonicum and S. yasi prefer warm to hot, low- ferruginous Latisols. In Tonga, its best development is on land, subhumid or wet/dry tropics, with an annual rainfall soils derived from volcanic ash overlying coralline rock. of 1250–1750 mm (50–70 in) and a distinct dry season of 3–5 months. Tropical cyclones are a feature of the entire Soil texture distribution, occurring mainly during the hot, wet season The trees prefer light and medium, well drained soils (sands, (December–April). sandy loams, loams, and sandy clay loams).
Elevation Soil drainage S. austrocaledonicum 5–800 m (16–2400 ft), usually less Both species require freely draining soils. than 300 m (1000 ft) in New Caledonia Soil acidity S. yasi 0–300(–600) m (0–1000[–2000] ft) Both species may grow on acid to alkaline soils (pH 4.0– Mean annual rainfall 7.4), but prefer neutral soils (pH 6.1–7.4). S. austrocaledonicum 800–2500 mm (30–100 in)
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) Special soil tolerances scorching by salt-laden winds and total defoliation follow- Both species can tolerate shallow and infertile soils. In ing cyclonic storms, but usually they totally recover. the Poya region of New Caledonia, var. austrocaledonicum Wind grows in ferrallitic/ultramafic soils with a limestone sub- strate. These soils have high levels of exchangeable calcium Mature plants are typically of low stature and are gener- and potassium and are rich in nickel and chrome. Further ally fairly resistant to strong winds associated with cyclonic north, around Pouembout, it grows in a highly acidic to storms, except in open areas. Younger plants in open ar- neutral, magnesium-rich black clay derived from basalt. eas, especially if they have grown quickly and have a heavy Var. minutum occurs on immature colluvial soil on serpen- canopy, may be blown over or suffer breakage of stems and tine peridotite/metamorphic and ultrafmafic gravels. Such branches. Older trees growing among established forests soils are infertile with very low levels of phosphorus, po- can also suffer from limb damage during cyclone events. tassium, and calcium, but are relatively high in magnesium, The most susceptible trees are those with forked trunks, nickel, chrome, and manganese. which can easily split.
Tolerances GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Drought They are able to survive a long dry season (up to 5–6 months) Growth rate when attached hemi-parasitically to suitably drought-tol- S. austrocaledonicum In New Caledonia in young planta- erant host plants. tions (up to 5 years) individuals show mainly an increase in height with a mean annual growth increment in trunk Full sun diameter of about 6 mm. The average diameter growth rate They grow well in full sun when their roots are attached in older plants is 3.8–4.8 mm per year. In Vanuatu young hemi-parasitically to suitable host species; otherwise, they plants (up to 3 years old) can grow at moderately fast rates, become yellow (and can die). e.g., 1 m height per annum and 1 cm diameter increment (measured at 20 cm above ground level) per annum. Di- Shade ameter growth averaged 6–10 mm per year at 18–26 years, They can survive up to 60–70% shade, but growth will and 6–7 mm per year after 28–33 years. Trees can grow at be very slow at higher shade levels. The optimum level of moderate rate over the projected rotation period of about shade is up to about 25%, preferably as “side shade.” Side 25–40 years. shade is provided by planting adjacent rows of bushy but S. yasi Early height growth is slow to moderate, e.g., 0.5– not spreading plants, which grow up to about the same 0.7 m per year, but is variable depending upon environmen- height as sandalwood but do not overtop and cast over- tal conditions and host species. Under suitable growing head shade. conditions it may attain harvestable size in about 25 years; e.g., 20–25 cm diameter near ground level, with substantial Fire heartwood development. Both species are sensitive to fire (and grazing from cat- tle and deer) particularly in the first few years of growth. Rooting habit Plants of some sandalwood species will regrow from cop- Sandalwoods have a widely spreading surface root system pice following fire; e.g., S. austrocaledonicum and younger capable of grafting onto many other plant species and tap- specimens of S. album. ping water and mineral nutrients. Frost Both species are frost-sensitive. Reaction to competition Sandalwoods, especially as young plants, react poorly to Waterlogging competition from monocotyledons (including grasses and They prefer good drainage and will die or die back follow- palms such as coconut). Being hemi-parasitic, they are best ing any prolonged period (greater than 2 weeks) of water- grown in close proximity to suitable host species. logging. Diseases and Pests Salt spray S. austrocaledonicum In New Caledonia plants are some- Plants growing in near-coastal situations may suffer severe times attacked by insects (Ceroplastes and Coccus), but dam-
Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) age is rather minor. Fungal damage has been observed on PROPAGATION leaves of nursery seedlings. Plants are susceptible to brown All Santalum species are readily propagated by seed in the root rot (Phellinus noxius). nursery. They may also be propagated through encouraging S. yasi Yasi is susceptible to Phellinus noxius, and mature seedling development underneath selected heavy-bearing specimens may quickly succumb to it. This disease is po- plants; such wildlings can be transplanted to a new location. tentially serious, as it can spread rapidly to adjacent trees Vegetative cuttings may be struck under mist from seedling through root grafting. In cool, wet, cloudy weather, seed- material. Cuttings from young plants initiate and develop lings can be attacked by a fungus (anthracnose type) that adventitious roots much more readily than cuttings from can cause severe leaf spotting (hypersensitive reaction) more mature plants. Grafting and root segment cuttings followed by defoliation. Seedlings are susceptible to root from mature specimens can be used to conserve selected rot-fungi in poorly draining and unsterilized media. Yasi individuals or bring them into breeding programs. is also susceptible to sandal spike disease, caused by a my- coplasma-like organism; this pathogen causes considerable Propagation by seed damage to S. album in India (but is absent from the South Pacific region). Seed collection It is recommended that mature fruits be collected while ABILITIES still attached to the tree, although recently fallen fruits may also be acceptable if not exposed to the sun. Fruits that have attained maturity are full size and usually have begun Regeneration to show slight color change, commonly a reddish tinge, the Regeneration of wild sandalwood stands typically occurs fruit becoming entirely red to dark purplish black. very slowly following harvesting due to the removal of S. austrocaledonicum The main fruit collection period is most of the larger fruiting specimens, and in at least some from November to January. cases the removal of other species upon whose roots the sandalwood plants parasitize. S. yasi The main fruit collection period is from January to March. Self-prune Seed processing Self pruning is variable; in open situations, sandalwood plants often retain branches to near ground level. In The fleshy mesocarp needs to be removed from the fruits shadier situations, especially where the shade is cast from without delay. Fruits that are hard to depulp by hand may overhead, the plants exhibit reasonably good self-pruning be soaked in water for 1–2 days to soften the pulp prior to characteristics. For S. yasi suitable shade regimes to keep its removal. The depulped, cleaned seeds are then disin- plants growing straight and to avoid a bushy habit include fected (e.g., with sodium hypochlorite or diluted bleach) strong lateral shade with no overhead shade or a high can- before being rinsed and air dried in a well ventilated room opy producing intermediate shade.
Coppice Plants frequently resprout from basal coppices or by root suckering off lateral roots (following removal of the stump and major roots). Many species are capable of root sucker- ing as long as not too much of the root system is removed during harvest. However, such coppice regrowth is likely to die out in more heavily shaded situations.
Pollard Plants can be pollarded, but this is not an appropriate re- gime for sandalwood where the economic value is concen- trated in the heartwood in the lower bole and large woody roots. When picked green, fruits are rarely viable. A reddish or purplish tinge is a first indication that seeds are mature. Pic- tured: S. album. photo: L. Thomson
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) at a temperature below 25°C (77°F) out of direct sun for up recommended seed pretreatment method is as follows: to 2–3 weeks. Seeds usually have a high purity, but number 1. Nick the seed coat at the pointed end of seed using a of viable seeds per kg varies considerably between species, sharp knife. provenances, and individual seed lots. 2. Soak seeds overnight in a solution of gibberellic acid Depending on the seed source, there are 2400–8400 seeds (GA3) at rate of 0.1 to 0.25 g/l. per kg (1100–3800 seeds/lb): 3. Drench the seeds in a fungicidal solution, e.g., benlate, S. austrocaledonicum Loyalty Islands: 2400 per kg (1100 seeds/lb); Isle of Pines: 6000 per kg (2700 seeds/lb); Vanuatu: 3300–4500 per kg (1500–2000 seeds/lb) S. austrocaledonicum var. pilosulum 8400 per kg (3800 seeds/lb) S. yasi 6000–7000 seeds per kg (2700–3200 seeds/lb) For newly collected seed, viability is high for S. yasi and S. album, often 80–90% after 2–3 months, for naked seed (embryo extracted). Germination is lower for nicked seed, e.g., 60– 70% after 3 months, and lower and much slower for untreated seeds.
Seed storage Many Santalum species show intermediate storage behavior, with seeds rapidly losing via- bility during storage. Seed storage behavior var- ies between species, and may even vary among different seed sources for S. austrocaledonicum. For example, seeds from the Isle of Pines may be safely stored for several years, whereas those from the Loyalty Islands lose viability within a few months. Seed storage behavior for S. yasi is unknown, but seeds stored for longer peri- ods (>6–12 months) will have very low viability. S. album has an orthodox seed storage behav- ior, but viability generally declines after several years in storage. Seed for storage should be placed in airtight containers in the refrigerator (2–4°C [36–39°F]) as soon as possible following surface drying. In general, ultra-dry storage (e.g., down to about 2% moisture content) is recommended for seeds of high oil content that are normally short-lived in storage. It is usually preferable to sow sandalwood seed as soon as possible after collection to reduce the risk of the seeds losing viability during storage. Top: Santalum seeds sprouting in pure vermiculite. photo: C. Elevitch Pre-planting treatments Bottom: S. yasi in containers with host plants Calliandra calothrysus (fore- For S. austrocaledonicum, pretreatment of seed ground), Casuarina equisetifolia (middle), and Alternanthera sp. (back- ground). photo: L. Thomson promotes rapid and uniform germination. The
10 Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) for a few minutes before sowing (optional). RECOMMENDED HOSTS Treatment of freshly collected seed with gibberellic acid (GA) gives quick and homogeneous germination but is not Acacia species, Calliandra calothyrsus, and Casuarina recommended for routine nursery production of seedlings spp. may be used as pot hosts, but Calliandra needs due to high cost. GA treatment might best be used for frequent cutting back to prevent it from overtopping smaller, more precious research samples, etc. the sandalwood. The following treatment has been shown to produce quick S. austrocaledonicum Acacia spirorbis makes a good germination of the Hawaiian species S. ellipticum and S. long-term host plant under both natural conditions freycinetianum. Before treatment, seeds should be removed and in plantations. For ultramafic soils, other good from the ripe fruit, cleaned by hand, and air-dried for nitrogen-fixing host species are Casuarina collina and about a week. Then a small part of the seedcoat at the apex Gymnostoma deplancheana. of the seed should be removed so that the embryo becomes S. yasi Good long-term hosts include Citrus spp., visible but not damaged. This can be done using large nail Acacia richii, Calliandra calothyrsus, and Casuarina clippers, forceps, or medium sandpaper. Subsequently, the equisetifolia. seed can be soaked in small amounts (0.05%) of the plant S. album Good intermediate and long-term hosts hormone gibberellic acid for 5 days, changing the solution include Acacia trachycarpa, Casuarina junghuhniana daily. Then the seed is removed from the growth hormone (long-lived), Cathormium umbellatum (long-lived), solution and dusted with a 1:1 mixture of powdered sulfur Crotalaria juncea, Desmanthus virgatus, and Sesbania and captan to prevent fungus infection. Seeds should be formosa. placed in a covered tray on new, wet vermiculite to allow germination to occur. into polypots (16 x 6.5 cm [6.3 x 2.6 in]). At this time a Growing area host plant is usually planted together with the seedling Seeds are generally germinated under cover in a glasshouse (see “Recommended hosts” sidebar). (or other covered nursery structure) in a freely draining medium, e.g., 1:1 sterilized river sand, peat moss mixture, Media or 2:1 sand:compost. The mixture should be kept slightly The potting mixture should be well drained with reason- moistened (but not wet, in order to avoid rotting of seeds able water-holding capacity. A typical growing medium for and damping off ). The optimum temperature for germi- S. yasi in Fiji is a moderately fertile, forest loam (67%), and nation is 28–31°C (82–88°F). Germination trays should be river sand (33%) plus 2 kg NPK fertilizer per cubic meter protected from rats, birds, and other predators that will eat (2 oz/ft3). seeds or young germinants. Time to outplanting As seedlings age they are moved to progressively higher light levels, e.g., 50% shade in the early months, then 25% Seedlings are ready for planting when the height is about shade and several months of hardening under full sun prior 20–25 cm (8–10 in), usually taking approximately 5–6 to field planting. months.
Germination Guidelines for outplanting S. austrocaledonicum Nicked seed commences germi- Sandalwoods need to be either planted out among estab- nation after 2 weeks and is completed by 8 weeks; most lished long-term host plants, or else together with inter- germination occurs between 30 and 40 days. Whole seed mediate hosts (relatively short-lived woody perennials) is much slower to germinate, commencing after about 40 while longer term hosts are established. days. Germination rates of greater than 50% are expected Survival rates are high (often above 80%) for larger, healthy for fresh seed that has been collected from mature fruits seedlings planted at the onset of the rainy season and kept still on the tree and appropriately handled and cleaned. well weeded in the first 2 years. Survival and growth will S. yasi Germination of nicked seed occurs rather slowly be low for plants over a long period, e.g., from 40 to 120 days after sow- • established in more shady forest situations ing. As they appear, germinants are transplanted into pots, • in grassy, sunny situations preferably before the seed coat falls from the germinating shoot. • in polycultures underneath coconut plantations. Seedlings are pricked out at the two- or four-leaf stage
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 11 tained using shoot material collected from seedlings and struck under intermittent misting in suitable media (e.g., 1:1 sand/peat or 1:1 sand/coconut coir). The order of ease of rooting is S. yasi > S. austrocaledonicum > S. macgregorii > S. album. There is a need for further work to identify ap- propriate stock plant treatments and environmental condi- tions to optimize rooting success for each species.
Propagation by root cuttings Root segments (about 5–10 cm [2–4 in] long and greater than 1 cm [0.4 in] in diameter) may be collected from larger specimens of S. album (and probably other sandal- wood species) and used to strike cuttings. The cuttings are
treated with rooting powder (e.g., Seradix B2) and placed horizontally at a depth of 1 cm [0.4 in] in a freely-drain- ing medium (e.g., 50:50 coarse washed river sand and peat moss) which is kept moist (but not saturated) in a glass- house (or alike). The time for sprouting is from about 1 to 3 months. The percentage of root segments forming shoots and roots is typically low (e.g., 10–50%) and dependent on
S. yasi seedling ready for outplanting. photo: L. Thomson
Propagation using wildlings The following technique is useful for promoting germi- nation of wildlings, which can then be transplanted and grown in the nursery before field planting in a suitable lo- cation: • Select sandalwood trees that are fruiting or are other- wise known to fruit heavily. • Clean all undergrowth from beneath the canopy of the selected sandalwood trees. • Loosen the soil in the cleared area by shallow digging or cultivating only the top 5 cm (2 in) of soil. • Wildlings begin to germinate in the cultivated area about 1–2 months after soil disturbance. • If possible water the cultivated area during dry periods or after some germinants are observed. • Keep the cultivated area free from regrowth of weeds.
Propagation by vegetative cuttings Rooting of cuttings varies considerably between species and half-sibling families, and rooting success declines rap- Freshly dug up S. austrocaledonicum seedlings for immediate idly with stock plant age. Successful root initiation and de- transplant to other areas on the island of Aniwa, Vanuatu. velopment to a level of greater than 40%, can only be ob- photo: T. Page
12 Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) Host to crop pests/pathogens Sandalwood species are not known to be an important host of any crop pests or diseases.
Other disadvantages or design considerations These trees need to be planted in well protected areas in which opportunities for theft are minimized, such as in homegardens, smaller remote islands, and well fenced and closely guarded locations. Fencing is also necessary in areas with wild steers because of their feeding preference toward developing sandalwood saplings.
AGROFORESTRY/INTERPLANTING Young S. austrocaledonicum seedling with artificial shelter, PRACTICES Efate, Vanuatu. photo: L. Thomson Alley cropping seasonal factors. Sandalwoods are suitable for inclusion in alley cropping systems, especially where the other alley species include DISADVANTAGES good hosts, e.g., Calliandra spp. The main drawbacks of sandalwood cultivation are: Homegardens • lack of seed and planting materials They are very suitable for planting in homegardens, which • lack of varieties or cultivars with known oil qualities have the advantages of mixture of host species, intermedi- and yields ate/variable light levels, and high security. • relatively complex silviculture and need to be grown Improved fallows with suitable host plant species They could be included in improved fallows of nitrogen- • susceptibility to root and butt rot fungi and rapid death fixing trees, with a fallow rotation of 20 or more years to of plants when grown in higher rainfall zones ensure that sandalwoods attain commercial maturity. • risk of theft of trees when nearing maturity. Windbreaks Potential for invasiveness Sandalwoods are suitable for inclusion in windbreaks, es- Pacific island sandalwoods have not become naturalized pecially where the main windbreak species include good outside of their native range. Sandalwood species generally hosts, e.g., Casuarina spp. have a capacity for invasiveness in disturbed, open plant Woodlot communities, but this is not considered a problem because Sandalwoods are suitable for inclusion in woodlots, espe- of their very high value and because they do not dominate cially when planted along sun-exposed edges of the wood- or appear to modify such communities in any substantial lot and in combination with compatible species, e.g., with way. There is a risk that some planted host species, espe- Pinus caribaea, as has been done in Tonga. cially exotic leguminous trees, might become invasive. Ac- cordingly, it is recommended that local plant species are Native animal/bird food screened first for suitability as hosts and used preferentially The fruits of sandalwood are consumed by various bird spe- as hosts, especially in and around areas of high biodiversity cies, including pigeons. For soft-beaked species the seeds conservation value. may pass through the digestive system intact and be widely Sandalwood species are root parasites, with the potential disseminated. to root-graft and link almost whole plant communities. They are therefore at particular risk of pathogenic fungi Host plant trellising that can also spread from tree to tree through root grafts, There is minor potential to trellis slower-growing vines such as Phellinus noxius. that would not interfere with full sun reaching the canopy,
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 13 Left: S. yasi grown on fence line between two house lots in Tonga. Right: Alyxia stellata, a traditional vine used in garlands, climbing on yasi in a homegarden in Tonga. photos: C. Elevitch such as maile (Alyxia stellata). buildup of sandalwood stocks, the most recent in Fiji being in the mid–late 1980s when a ban on commercial exploita- Ornamental tion was lifted. S. austrocaledonicum was heavily exploited Sandalwoods are quite attractive, especially when in flower, over about three decades in the middle of the 1800s in New and are especially suitable for home and village gardens. Caledonia and Vanuatu, and it has been utilized periodi- cally since. Carvings, sandalwood oil, and incense produc- USES AND PRODUCTS tion, listed in order of highest to lowest value, are the three major present-day wood uses of S. austrocaledonicum. Wood from sandalwood was traditionally used in the South Pacific for carvings, cultural uses, medicine, and burnt as an Medicinal insect repellent. However, it is rarely used nowadays be- Sandalwood has various and generally not well document- cause of its scarcity and cash value. The grated wood was ed medicinal uses. In Samoa, a decoction of sandalwood traditionally used to a limited extent to scent coconut oil and Homolanthus leaves is taken to treat elephantiasis or (for application to the hair and body) and cultural artifacts lymphatic filariasis. such as tapa cloth. Craft wood/tools Both Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi produce high- The highest-value sandalwood is used for carving (reli- ly prized sandalwoods, often similar in quality to the well gious statues and objects, handicrafts, art, and decorative known S. album from India and Indonesia. The heartwood furniture). Larger basal pieces and roots are preferred for of S. yasi was a major export during the early 1800s, and the carving. sandalwood trade was one of the first attractions drawing Europeans into the South Pacific. Sandalwood from S. yasi Cosmetic/soap/perfume is still exported to a limited extent from Fiji and Tonga, The oil from the heartwood, extracted by steam distilla- experiencing short-lived boom periods associated with a
14 Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) tion or by solvent, is used for cosmetics, scenting of soaps, COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS perfumery, aromatherapy, and medicinal purposes. The oil The primary commercial products from sandalwood are the content of heartwood varies considerably among species, heartwood and the essential oil distilled from the heart- individual trees, and location within the tree, but is typi- wood. The international standard for the oil of S. album cally in the range of 3–7% for basal stem/large root sections. (ISO/DFIS 3518) includes four compounds in the chro- Oil is currently distilled from S. austrocaledonicum and S. matographic profile (α-santalol, trans-α-bergamotol, epi- album, but not S. yasi (due to lack of supply). β-santalol, and Z-β-santalol), but only two, Z-α-santalol β Ceremonial/religious importance (41–55%) and Z- -santalol (16–24%), are assessed in the standard. The total santalol content of S. yasi oil (the com- Heartwood from sandalwood trees yields an aromatic oil ponent most associated with sandalwood’s essence) is 60– that is widely valued and has been the basis of a lucrative 70% and similar to that of S. album (the industry standard and exploitative trade for hundreds of years. In Tonga, the and most sought-after oil). The composition of heartwood oil is used to scent tapa cloth and anoint corpses in royal oil from S. austrocaledonicum from New Caledonia (Maré funerals. S. yasi is also featured in Tongan legends and Island and Isle of Pines) resembles S. album, with very songs. Heartwood and sapwood are powdered together to similar levels of the major fragrant constituents, 48–49% produce incense or joss sticks used in Asian religious cer- α-santalol and 20–22% β-santalol. In Vanuatu there are emonies. Sawdust, wood shavings from carving or wood two chemotypes of S. austrocaledonicum, one chemotype residue after oil distillation may be used. being rich in santalols (>30–40% α-santalol and >15% β- santalol) while the second chemotype contains Z-nucif- erol (7–25%) and/or Z-lanceol (15–41%) and lower propor- tions of santalols. The heartwood from Pacific sandalwood species is mainly exported to Asia. Most S. yasi from Tonga gets exported to East Asian countries, particularly China (via Hong Kong), Taiwan, and Japan, but some is also supplied to the United States. The main markets for sandalwood oil are Europe and the United States.
Spacing for commercial production Spacing for commercial production varies considerably de- pending on the type of planting. The final crop is likely to be around 100 mature sandalwood trees per hectare (10 x 10 m [33 x 33 ft]) due to need to include host tree/shrub species (at a rate of 2–4 per sandalwood depending on host species). Due to the high value and demand for even a single mature tree, there is effectively no minimum area or number of trees required for commercial production. The plantation area required to provide raw material for a small/medium scale oil distillation operation of S. austrocaledonicum, e.g., producing 800 liters per annum (845 qt/yr) from 20–40 mt (22–44 t) of heartwood, is estimated to be about 60–120 ha (150–300 ac), based on a 30-year rotation.
Management objectives The main management objective should be to establish and manage a good mixture of host plant species that provide a suitable light/shelter regime. Host tree species may need to be pruned or progressively thinned to maintain good levels of sunlight to maturing Sandalwood sculptures Bangalore, India. photo: m. mEr- sandalwood plants. lin
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 15 For S. yasi careful pruning of side branches, removing no under good conditions, can produce 15–30 kg (33–66 lb) of more than 25% of canopy at any one time, has been ad- heartwood (including from roots). vocated to encourage development of a main bole. Regu- S. album It is estimated that trees can produce about lar removal of competing leaders (breaking by hand) in 20–40 kg (44–88 lb) of heartwood on a 20 year rotation, younger specimens may be a more satisfactory approach. under South Pacific conditions and given appropriate sil- For soils of lower fertility, periodic fertilizing with 100 g viculture. (3 oz) NPK fertilizer per tree will promote more rapid growth. On-farm processing Weed growth, especially of long, flammable grasses, needs Whole trees including major roots are harvested. The main to be well controlled in the early years. Weeds should be on-farm processing is careful removal of the sapwood, us- manually removed to avoid the risk of herbicide drift and/ ing a large, sharp knife. Sandalwood wood pieces that are or translocation through weeds to sandalwood plants via kept in dry conditions for several months may exhibit root system connections. small increases in oil content and improvement in quality (but this is offset by a lower weight and hence return to the grower).
Markets The world production/consumption of sandalwood oil is in the order of several hundreds of metric tons. India is the major producer (90% of world production) and user of sandalwood oil. Exports from India of S. album oil during the 6 year period 1987/88–1992/93 averaged 40.5 mt (45 t) with the main importers of this oil being France and the United States. Indonesian exports of S. album oil during 1987 to 1992 averaged 15 mt/yr (17 t/yr) and went mainly to the U.S., which is the single largest market outside India. International demand for S. album oil is not being met, and prices continue to rise. Markets for S. austrocaledonicum This brush-like regrowth with stunted leaves is indicative of oil, up to about 15–20 mt (17–22 t) per year, include France, herbicide poisoning, in this case translocated from weeds that Germany, and the United States. were poisoned near this S. album tree. photo: C. Elevitch Annual global sandalwood heartwood production is esti- mated to be approximately 5100 mt (5600 t), however, pro- Design considerations duction has declined markedly over the past 20–30 years. China, Taiwan, Singapore, Korea, and Japan, with no natu- Greater accessibility of sandalwood plantations increases ral resources of sandalwood, are the main markets, together the risk of theft. with India, which has its own production capability. Pro- Advantages and disadvantages of growing in duction of sandalwood heartwood from the South Pacific polycultures is highly variable, experiencing periods of boom and bust A diverse mixture of host species is preferred so as to: since exploitation commenced in the early 1800s. • enable sandalwood trees to optimally obtain their mineral nutrition/water needs, and, INTERPLANTING/FARM • reduce pest and disease risks associated with reliance APPLICATIONS on just one or two main hosts. Estimated yields Example system 1 S. austrocaledonicum A rough estimate of heartwood pro- Location duction is 50–100 kg (110–220 lb) per tree after 30 years. South Efate, Vanuatu S. yasi With good silviculture, it is estimated that trees can produce about 1–2 kg (2.2–4.4 lb) of heartwood each year Description from age 10 years. Therefore a 20–25-year-old tree, growing This is a recently developed system (since 1997) of growing
16 Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) sandalwood (S. austrocaledonicum) in planted lines as part ginger, but this system would work well with almost any of a mixed farming enterprise following recommendations vegetable or root crop. provided by the South Pacific Regional Initiative on Forest Genetic Resources (SPRIG) Project. Sandalwood plants Spacing are established either using seedlings or direct-seeding. The sandalwood trees are planted in a line along the bound- ary perimeter of the garden area. Spacing is variable, about Yields 3–4 m (10–13 ft) between trees. Plants are healthy, bushy, and have shown good growth, e.g., about 1 m (3.3 ft) height growth per year. The previ- Example system 3 ous system had been to plant sandalwood seedlings under- neath residual remnant forest, which resulted in very slow Location growth due to insufficient light. ‘Eua, Tonga
Crop/tree interactions Description The lines of sandalwood are interplanted with lines of This is a recent system dating from the early 1990s involv- Casuarina (every third line) that act as a permanent host ing interplanting of S. yasi in a Pinus caribaea plantation. and windbreak. Intermediate hosts included vegetable crops such as Capsicum. Yields Sandalwood trees in pine plantations appear to reach Spacing 8–12 m (26–40 ft) in height and 15 cm (6 in) in diameter, The spacing is about 3 m (10 ft) between and within double with about 40% heartwood in the basal stem section, after rows of sandalwood trees with every third row comprising about 15–20 years. With improved silviculture, including Casuarina.
Example system 2 Location Tanna, Vanuatu
Description This is a recently developed system (since about 1996) in which sandalwood (S. austrocaledonicum) wildlings are transplanted around the perimeter of new village garden areas established within bush and secondary forest.
Yields/Benefits Plants are healthy and have shown good stem form and early growth, e.g., about 1 m (3.3 ft) height growth per year. Sandalwood grows very well along forest edges/verges, due to the good balance of light and hosts, and this system takes advantage of this.
Crop/tree interactions On the bush/forest side of the plot, the san- dalwood plants gain access to root systems of diverse permanent hosts and receive some side and overhead shade, which encourages better stem form. On the garden side, sandalwood plants have the advantage of good weed control plus high levels of sunlight. The main crop was S. yasi grown on the edge of a Pinus caribaea woodlot. photo: L. Thomson
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 17 more light through early thinning of pines and inclusion Essentielles; Digne-les-Bains, France, 5, 6 & 7 Septembre 1996, of some better host species, the growth rates would be en- special issue 01/97. hanced. It is estimated that trees produce about 1-2 kg (2.2- Alpha, T., P. Raharivelomanana, J.-P. Bianchini, Y. Ehrhart, 4.4 lb) of heartwood each year from age 10 years. Therefore, and A. Cambon. 1997. A sesquiterpenoid from Santalum austrocaledonicum var. austrocaledonicum. Phytochemistry 46: a conservative estimate would be that a 20–25-year-old yasi 1237–1239. tree, growing under good conditions, can produce 15–30 kg Alpha, T., P. Raharivelomanana, J.-P. Bianchini, Y. Ehrhart, and (33–66 lb) of heartwood (including from roots). A. Cambon. 1997. Bisabolene sesquiterpenoids from Santalum austrocaledonicum. Phytochemistry 44: 1519–1522. Crop/tree interactions Anon. 1996. A guide to some indigenous Fijian trees. Department The pine provides a good physical environment for the of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests and sandalwood, i.e., good shelter and intermediate light levels Fiji German Forestry Project (GTZ), Suva, Fiji. that encourage good stem form. Applegate, G.B., and F.H. McKinnell. 1993. The management and conservation status of Santalum species occurring in Australia. Spacing pp 5–13. In: McKinnell, op. cit. Applegate, G.B. 1990. Sandalwood in the Pacific: A state of Pines are planted at 4 x 3 m (13 x 10 ft), or 833 stems per knowledge. Synthesis and summary from the April 1990 sym- hectare (340 stems/ac). The sandalwood is interplanted posium. pp 1–11. In: Hamilton and Conrad, op. cit. with pine, preferably when the pines are 3 years old (al- Azais, T. 1995. Sandalwood management in the Southern Prov- though this could be done when the pines are between 2–4 ince of New Caledonia. pp. 217–227. In: Gerum, Fox, and Eh- years) Sandalwood could be planted between every second rhart, op. cit. row and at a spacing of 8 x 6 m (26 x 20 ft), or about 208 Bailly, Y. 1986. Etude de la germination et de la conservation des stems per ha (84 stems/ac). Ideally, the pine rows would semences d’essences forestières d’intérêt économique. Rapport run north-south to allow maximum sunlight to fall on the final, Annexe 1. Travaux de laboratoire. ORSTOM–CTFT– DIDER. smaller sandalwoods. The pines should be thinned (at least Barrau, J. 1960. Plantes utiles des îles du Pacifique–Le Santal. once) and heavily pruned to produce better quality and Bulletin des études Pacifiques, July. bigger sawlogs, and to provide a more open stand that is Barrett, D.R., and J.E.D. Fox. 1995. Geographical distribution of favorable to growth of sandalwood. Smaller nitrogen-fix- Santalaceae and botanical characteristics of species in the ge- ing trees, such as Calliandra, Casuarina, Sesbania, Gliricidia, nus Santalum. pp 3–23. In: Gerum, Fox, and Ehrhart, op. cit. Cajanus, and Citrus ought to be included in this system. Barrett, D.R. 1988. Santalum album (Indian sandalwood) litera- ture survey. Report to ACIAR. Unpublished report. Mulga Research Centre, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Aus- PUBLIC ASSISTANCE AND tralia. AGROFORESTRY EXTENSION Brand, J.E. 1994. Genotypic variation in Santalum album. Sandal- wood Research Newsletter 2: 2–4. Extension offices for agroforestry and forestry in the Pa- Brennan, P., and M. Merlin. 1993. Biogeography and traditional cific: http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html use of Santalum in the Pacific Region. pp. 30–38. In: McKin- nell, op. cit. Organizations that have special sandalwood extension Brummitt, R.K. 1992. Santalaceae. pp 659–660. In: Brummitt, programs include Department of Forests, Vanuatu, De- R.K. Vascular plant Families and genera. Royal Botanic Gar- partment of Forestry, Fiji, and Conservation and Forestry dens, Kew, UK. Division, Tonga. Brunke, E-J., K-G Fahlbusch, G. Schmaus, and J. Vollhardt. 1997. The chemistry of sandalwood odour—a review of the last 10 years. pp 49–83. In: Revista Italiana EPPOS (Actes des 15émes BIBLIOGRAPHY Journées Internationales Huilles Essentielles; Digne-les-Bains, France, 5, 6 & 7 Septembre 1996), special issue 01/97. ☛ ( indicates recommended reading) Bulai, P.B. 1995. Sandalwood in Fiji. pp. 167–172. In: Gerum, Fox, and Ehrhart, op. cit. Alpha, T. 1997. Etude des concrètes et des essences de santal Bulai, P., and V. Nataniela. 2002. Research, Development and d’origine océanienne. Elucidation de nouveaux sesquiterpe- Extension of Sandalwood in Fiji—A new beginning. Paper to noïdes par la RMN multi-impulsionnelle et bidimension- Regional Workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development nelle. Ph.D. Thesis. Université Française du Pacifique, Papeete, and Extension in the Pacific Islands and Asia. Noumea, New French Polynesia. Caledonia, 7–11 October 2002. ☛ Alpha, T., P. Raharivelomanana, J.-P. Bianchini, Y. Ehrhart, and Bulai, S., L.A.J. Thomson, L. Lua-Sovea (eds.). 2004. Proceed- A. Cambon. 1997. Etude de la composition chimique d’essences ings of a regional workshop on sandalwood research, develop- de santal d’origine du Pacific Sud. pp 499–465 In: Revista Itali- ana EPPOS (Actes des 15èmes Journées Internationales Huiles
18 Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) ment and extension in the Pacific Islands and Asia, held 7–11 atu. A report for CIRAD–Foret, Nouvelle–Calédonie, 10 June October 2002, Noumea, New Caledonia. 1998. Unpublished. Bule, L., and G. Daruhi. 1990. Status of Sandalwood resources in Ehrhart, Y., and R. Nasi. 1995. Preliminary results of sandalwood Vanuatu. In: Hamilton and Conrad, op. cit. inventory on Ile des Pins. pp. 229–234. In: Gerum, Fox, and CAB International (CABI). 2001. Santalum album. Global For- Ehrhart, op. cit. estry Compendium. CAB International, Oxon, UK. Elevitch, C.R., and K.M. Wilkinson. 2003. Propagation protocol Cambie, R.C., and J. Ash. 1994. Fijian medicinal plants. CSIRO, for production of container Santalum freycinetianum Gaud- Australia. ich. In: Native Plant Network.University of Idaho, College of Chauvin, J.P. 1988. Production of Sandalwood trees in New Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery, Moscow, Idaho. Caledonia. Revue Bois et Forêts des Tropiques 218: 33–41.
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20 Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) Traditional Tree Initiative—Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)
Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood) Author: South Pacific Regional Initiative of Forest Genetic Resources (SPRIG) Project, SPC Forestry Program, Suva, Fiji (current contact info: IPGRI, Via dei Tre Denari 472/a, 00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Rome, Italy; E-mail: [email protected]). Acknowledgments: The author and publisher thank Dale Evans, Tony Page, Jacques Tassin, and Art Whistler for their input. Photo contributions from Mark Merlin and Tony Page are greatly appreciated. Recommended citation: Thomson, L.A.J. 2006. Santalum austrocaledonicum and S. yasi (sandalwood), ver. 2.1. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i.
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 21