FEATURE A Brief History of Barley Foods formation of wild barley into a cultivated hulled barley remnants have been unearthed C. W. NEWMAN AND crop (domestication) occurred over many at Beiha, north of Petra in southern Jordan. millennia (31). Fragile ears, a characteristic Six-rowed hulless types appeared at Ali R. K. NEWMAN of wild barley, made it difficult to harvest Kosh and two Anatolian sites, Hacilar and Newman Associates, Inc. seeds at maturity. It has been postulated that Catal Huyuk, dating from 7000 to 6000 B.C. Bozeman, MT natural mutations in wild barley produced (11). Agriculture spread from western Asia, arley is one of the oldest cultivated cereal plants with less fragile ears that had larger, following Neolithic migrations south and grains and currently ranks fourth (7,21) more abundant seeds that were naturally B west to North Africa, north and west through or fifth (15) in acreage and crop production preferred and selected for food by hunter- Asia Minor to Europe, and eventually east worldwide. In the United States, the current gatherers. One may logically conjecture that to the valley of the Indus (4). Archaeologists use of barley as food ranks a distant third agriculture began when seeds from these have found a clay tablet from ancient Sumer (1.5%) behind use as animal feed (65%) and plants were planted, either accidentally or in Lower Mesopotamia dating from around in malt and alcohol production (30%). In intentionally, producing a “barley crop.” 2700 B.C. that provides a prescription for 1991, barley used as food in the European The first barley foods probably were quite a poultice that includes dried powdered Union (12 countries) was even lower (0.3%) simple. The kernels were eaten raw until the herbs and fruit blended with barley ale and than in the United States. In contrast, during discovery that removal of the hulls of hulled oil. The Sumerian scribes also describe the same time period food was the largest use types followed by soaking and/or cooking the correct method of planting barley (16). for barley in Morocco (61%), China (62%), in some manner enhanced the texture and Similarly, a small fragment of pottery with India (73%), and Ethiopia (79%) (15). flavor. It is also logical to conclude that this cuneiform script dating from around 1700 A small portion of barley malt is used in may have been when early humans learned B.C. was found at Nippur (Egypt) that food products principally to enhance flavor; about fermentation and how to produce describes recommended irrigation practices however, the major use of barley malt is alcoholic beverages. for growing barley and the deleterious effect in the production of alcoholic beverages. of too much moisture (16). Although alcoholic beverages are not foods Origins of Barley Cultivation The basic foods of the Sumerian diet were in the strictest sense, they do contribute Archaeologists and other scientists who barley, wheat, millet, lentils, pulses, beans, some nutrition, either with or apart from have attempted to reveal more of the historical onions, garlic, and leeks. Sumerians were also meals, to the diet. development of humans and their attempts at fond of alcoholic beverages: they developed Considerable evidence is available that cultivating barley do not conclusively agree eight kinds of ale made from barley, eight points to the role of barley as a sustaining food on exactly where these events occurred. The from wheat, and three from grain mixtures source in the evolution of humans. Indeed, it currently accepted theory is that barley was (26). Perry (24) relates a curious ancient was one of the most important food grains first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent in recipe from the medieval Arab culture that in the ancient world. Additionally, alcoholic the Near East, which spans present-day Israel, involves putting unleavened and unseasoned beverages of various types and fermented northern Syria, southern Turkey, eastern barley dough into closed containers and foods prepared from barley are commonly Iraq, and western Iran (11). The ancestor of allowing it to “rot” (ferment) for 40 days. referred to in the ancient literature. As modern barley is believed to be identical to The dough was then dried, ground into meal, other food grains (e.g., wheat, rye, and present-day Hordeum spontaneum C. Koch and blended with salt, spices, wheat flour, oats) became more abundant, barley was (11,12,30,31). and water to make a liquid condiment called relegated to the status of “poor man’s bread” Ancient texts from many cultures in Asia, murri (when mixed with milk, it was called (31). However, current consumer interest in Africa, and Europe refer to barley as an kamakh). nutrition and health may help restore barley’s important dietary constituent. The earliest status in the human diet. remains of barley so far discovered in archae- This article provides some historical ological sites, dating from around 8000 B.C., North Africa Both barley and wheat foodstuffs were uti- perspectives on the origin, domestication, were those from the Bus Mordeh phase of lized by Egyptians during the early Neolithic and food uses of barley. Our knowledge of Ali Kosh, near Deh Luran in Iran and Tell period, and breads and porridges were barley’s prehistory comes from archaeo- Mureybat in Syria. Wild wheat was also common daily fare. In Egyptian literature, logical studies of ancient civilizations. It found in these sites, although as in other sites barley (it) is mentioned as early as the first is generally accepted as fact that the trans- in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor, barley was the more abundant of the dynasty and is often referred to as barley of two cereals. From available evidence, barley “Upper Egypt” or “Lower Egypt” and as appears to have been grown on a considerable white or red barley. During this period, a DOI 10.1094/CFW-51-0004 scale by 7000–6500 B.C. at Jarmo in the Iraqi common ale (haq) with a low alcohol content © 2006 AACC International, Inc. piedmont, and large amounts of two-rowed, was made from “red barley of the Nile” (5). 4 / JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2006, VOL. 51, NO. 1 Barley was intimately entwined in Egyp- the dough in a circle and pounded (by hand)” called hordearii or “barley men.” They be- tian religious rites and celebrations. It was prior to baking. This bread was called krim- lieved that barley bread gave them greater used as an offering to the gods, in funerals, nitas or chondrinos, which are terms describ- strength and increased stamina compared and even became a part of Egyptian leg- ing coarsely milled barley (17). A twice- with other foods (23). ends. Apart from these uses and as a food baked barley biscuit called paximadia, a Barley has been widely cultivated in the source in general, barley was used in brew- favorite Greek food item, was soaked in Caucasus Mountains of Eastern Europe for ing, a medium of exchange, and in thera- broth prior to eating. In more recent times thousands of years (23). Fossilized barley peutic applications. Barley was used widely in Greece, a combination of barley and wheat plants that appear to be hulless types have in medicinal applications in ancient Egypt flour has been used to produce lighter, been found in ancient settlements near the and was prescribed in different forms for crunchier biscuits that do not require soak- village of Ghiljar in the eastern part of the various maladies. Ground barley prepara- ing before eating. Barley was not fully ac- region. In the Caucasus Mountain districts tions, usually mixed with oil, were used as cepted by all Greeks, however. Aristotle, as above 1,700 m, barley was the only grain purgatives, applied to wounds to decrease well as bakers in more cosmopolitan com- crop cultivated as a food source by ancient healing time, used as anal suppositories, and munities such as Athens (where breads were inhabitants. Most of the barley grown was used to remove phlegm and treat eye dis- prepared by professional bakers), thought hulless and was used to make flat cake and eases. Perhaps most impressively, barley was it to be less healthy than wheat (17). soup. A product capable of being stored, used as a diagnostic agent for pregnancy and Although barley was considered a respect- called ini, was made by frying hulless bar- to determine the sex of unborn children (5). able, even desirable, food in parts of an- ley kernels on a special brazier, then grind- The Oromo, an ethnic Ethiopian people, cient Greece and Italy, Roman soldiers came ing and storing the product in a large earth- incorporate barley into their lifestyle fol- to look on barley as “punishment rations,” enware vessel. Ini could be stored for many lowing cultural practices that date back even though barley malt was highly regarded months, requiring only the addition of wa- thousands of years. According to Haberland by the army for making an alcoholic bev- ter and salt for preparation. The resulting (10), barley was the only crop grown by erage (6). In ancient Rome, bread made from barley dough was then rolled into a ball the Oromo in ancient times. Among the wheat was considered more nourishing, more and was ready to eat. Although not neces- Oromo and other people in Ethiopia, bar- digestible, and in every way superior to bar- sary and used only if available, butter and/ ley was considered the holiest of all crops. ley bread. As in later cultures, barley bread or cheese sometimes were added to the mix- Their songs and sayings often include ref- (panus hordeaceus) was consumed predom- ture prior to eating.