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Monk Seals in Antiquity

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Monk Seals in Antiquity Monk Seals in Antiquity The Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) in Ancient History and Literature William M. Johnson & David M. Lavigne Mededelingen No. 35 1999 NEDERLANDSCHE COMMISSIE VOOR INTERNATIONALE NATUURBESCHERMING Mededelingen No. 35 i NEDERLANDSCHE COMMISSIE VOOR INTERNATIONALE NATUURBESCHERMING Netherlands Commission for International Nature Protection Secretariaat: Dr. H.P. Nooteboom Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus Rijksuniversiteit Leiden Einsteinweg 2 Postbus 9514, 2300 RA Leiden Mededelingen No. 35, 1999 Redactie: Dr. A.C. van Bruggen & Dr. H.P. Nooteboom (layout) PDF edition 2008: Matthias Schnellmann Copyright © 1999 by William M. Johnson and David M. Lavigne ii MONK SEALS IN ANTIQUITY The Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) in Ancient History and Literature by William M. Johnson & David M. Lavigne International Marine Mammal Association 1474 Gordon Street, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1L 1C8 iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS MONK SEALS IN ANTIQUITY ................................................................................... III ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... VII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ VII MONK SEALS IN ANTIQUITY .................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1 METHODS ....................................................................................................................... 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................................... 6 Monk seals in myth and legend ........................................................................................ 7 Human attitudes .............................................................................................................. 14 Distribution and abundance ............................................................................................ 20 Habitat ............................................................................................................................. 22 Exploitation and hunting ................................................................................................ 30 Hunting methods ............................................................................................................ 32 Furs ................................................................................................................................. 33 Food ................................................................................................................................ 36 Religious rites and superstitions ..................................................................................... 36 Medicinal uses ................................................................................................................ 37 Live capture .................................................................................................................... 44 Fisheries .......................................................................................................................... 48 Pinnipeds from other regions ......................................................................................... 55 CONCLUDING REMARKS ......................................................................................... 60 APPENDIX .......................................................................................................................... 63 ANCIENT TEXTS ......................................................................................................... 63 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 93 Sources (ancient texts) .................................................................................................... 93 Additional literature cited .............................................................................................. 97 v vi Abstract The role of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) in the history and culture of ancient Greece and Rome is poorly documented in contemporary literature and generally misunderstood by many modern scholars. A comprehensive search was initiated therefore to locate all surviving references to the spe- cies in the classical literature of the Mediterranean region. The search yielded over 200 references authored by some 60 writers from the Greek, Roman and Byzantine periods. Examination of these texts, together with information derived from numerous secondary sources, provides new insights into the monk seal’s distribu- tion and abundance in antiquity. It also reveals ancient human attitudes toward the monk seal that resulted in its exploitation for fur, oil and meat, its use in medicines and entertainment, and its role in mythology and superstition. The accumulated evidence now suggests that many of the large monk seal herds that existed in early antiquity were either dramatically reduced or extirpated by intensive exploitation during the Roman era. Throughout much of its historical range, human persecution and progressive habitat deterioration also appear largely responsible for changing a naturally gregarious beach dweller into a less social and reclusive inhabitant of caves. Acknowledgements The following individuals provided invaluable assistance during the preparation of this monograph. In the early stages Professor Padraig M. O’Cleirigh, University of Guelph, shared his knowledge of ancient texts and put us in contact with Tina Marshall and Jenn Stewart, who conducted bibliographic searches of ancient Greek and Roman literature, respectively, unearthed various published papers and existing translations, and translated a number of excerpts from original sources. Matthias Schnellmann did more than his share of library research, translated a number of papers (particularly from German and French), shared his insights into the monk seal and its extensive literature, and provided constructive criticism along the way. David J.L. Johnson provided additional translations (particularly from Serbo-Croat) and commented on various drafts of the ms. Additional information was provided by Dimitrios Bosnakis (Kos Archaeological Museum) and Professor Hans-Georg Bandi of Bern, Switzerland. P.J.H. van Bree (Zoological Museum, University of Amsterdam) and Professor J. Donald Hughes (Department of History, University of Denver), kindly agreed to act as our reviewers. We, however, accept sole responsibility for any omissions, errors or inaccuracies that remain. We also thank Harun Güçlüsoy and Cem Kıraç (SAD-AFAG, Turkey), Henrique Costa Neves (Parque Natural da Madeira), and Vrassidas Zavras (MOm, Greece), for providing source material, and sharing their experiences in monk seal conservation. Finally, we extend further thanks to Peter J.H. van Bree for his sup- port and encouragement. To our knowledge, Peter was one of the first people to suspect that ancient literature might be a valuable source of information on the Mediterranean monk seal, providing insights into its current plight. Preparation of this monograph was funded by the International Marine Mammal Association, with the generous support of the International Fund for Animal Welfare. vii viii MONK SEALS IN ANTIQUITY The Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) in Ancient History and Literature William M. Johnson & David M. Lavigne INTRODUCTION In the summer of 1997, two thirds of the largest surviving population of Mediterra- nean monk seals (Monachus monachus, Hermann, 1779) were wiped out within the space of two months on the Côte des Phoques in the Western Sahara (Harwood et al., 1998). While opinions on the precise causes of this disease epidemic remain sharply divided, the mass die-off emphasised the precarious status of a species already regarded as critically endangered throughout its range (Israëls, 1992; IUCN, 1996; Brasseur et al., 1997). The Mediterranean monk seal was officially classified as ‘endangered’ in 1966, when the species was included in the first Red Data Book produced by IUCN, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Simon, 1966). At that time, the number of surviving animals was thought not to exceed 500 individuals. A more recent estimate also suggested that some 500-600 animals remained, prior to the 1997 die-off in the Western Sahara (Brasseur et al., 1997). However, because of the monk seal’s retir- ing nature and secretive habits and variations in survey techniques, reliable abundance estimates remain elusive (Brasseur et al., 1997). In most cases, the published numbers must be regarded as little more than educated guesses (Israëls, 1992). In spite of such numeric uncertainty, there can be little doubt that the species has declined in recent decades. Direct killing by fishers, incidental entrapment in fishing gear, and loss of habitat to urban development and mass tourism are the main factors implicated in its decline (Johnson & Lavigne, 1998). Formerly the species occupied a wide geographical range (Figs. 1 & 2). Colonies were found throughout the Mediterranean, the Marmara and Black seas. The species also frequented the Atlantic coast of Africa as far south as Mauritania, Senegal (King, 1956) and the Gambia (Israëls, 1992),
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