Introduction

Notes

Introduction

1. Benjamin Coates to Frederick Douglass, 16 January 1851, in Emma J. Lapansky-Werner and Margaret Hope Bacon, eds., Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America 1848–1880 (University Park, Pennsylvania, 2005). 2. Thomas Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade by the British Parliament, 2 vols. (London, 1808); Reginald Coupland, The British Anti-Slavery Movement (London, 1933); Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill, 1944); Seymour Drescher, Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition (Pittsburgh, 1977); David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Oxford, 1987); David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (Ithaca, 1975); Richard West, Back to Africa: A History of Sierra Leone and Liberia (London, 1970), 79–81; Joe A.D. Alie, A New History of Sierra Leone (London, 1990), 65; Mavis C. Campbell and George Ross, Back to Africa: George Ross and the Maroons: From Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone (Trenton, NJ, 1993), viii. 3. This is an important distinction, as, while slavery was banned in both Sierra Leone and Liberia, their primary anti-slavery purposes were in hindering the slave trade. Slavery continued in the ever expanding territory of British Sierra Leone well into the twentieth century. Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, 2000), 251–61. 4. A.G. Hopkins, ‘Economic Imperialism in West Africa: Lagos, 1880–92’, Economic History Review, 21 (1968), 580–606; A.G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 124–66. 5. Robin Law, ed., From Slave Trade to ‘Legitimate’ Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Cambridge, 2002), 23–6. 6. While there are numerous and ongoing debates about terminology in Sierra Leone studies, I will be using ‘Sierra Leonean’ throughout to refer to Nova Scotians, Maroons, ‘Black Poor’, Liberated Africans, and their descend- ents. This book’s scope does not extend into the post-partition period and therefore there should be no confusion about whether I am referring to the groups mentioned above or the indigenous groups integrated into the Sierra Leone protectorate. The same will apply for ‘Liberian’. The dis- cussion of the difference between ‘Creole’, ‘Krio’, and ‘Sierra Leonean’ has frequently been contentious: See David Skinner and Barbara E. Harrell- Bond, ‘Misunderstandings Arising from the Use of the Term “Creole” in the Literature on Sierra Leone’, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 47, 3 (1977), 305–20; Akintola J.G. Wyse, ‘On Misunderstandings Arising from the Use of the Term ‘Creole’ in the Literature on Sierra Leone: A Rejoinder’, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 49, 4 (1979), 408–17; Christopher Fyfe, ‘The Term “Creole”: A Footnote to a Footnote’

181 182 Notes

Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 50, 4 (1980), 422; David Skinner and Barbara E. Harrell-Bond, ‘Creoles: A Final Comment’, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 51, 3 (1981), 787; Odile George, ‘Sierra Leonais, Creoles, Krio: La Dialectique De L’identité’, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 65, 1 (1995), 114–32. For more on other West African creole societies, see Philip Havik, Creole Societies in the Portuguese Colonial Empire (Lusophone Studies 6, July 2007), 41–63 and 127–53. 7. Hopk ins, Economic History of West Africa, 151–3; Martin Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa (Cambridge, 1997), 23. 8. Humanitarians will be defined here as a loose group of missionaries, antislavery activists, and social reformers who frequently referred to their own motives as ‘humanitarian’. The rise of this ‘humanitarian’ ethos is described in Alan Lester, ‘Obtaining the “Due Observance of Justice”: The Geographies of Colonial Humanitarianism’, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 20 (2002), 278–9; Andrew Porter, ‘Trusteeship, Anti- Slavery, and Humanitarianism’, in Andrew Porter, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire, Volume III (Oxford, 1999), 198–220; Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795–1865 (Oxford, 1988); Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill, 2006), 26–7. 9. Law, From Slave Trade to ‘Legitimate’ Commerce, 23; Howard Temperley, White Dreams, Black Africa: The Anti-slavery Expedition to the River Niger 1841–1842 (New Haven, 1991), 141; Michael J. Turner, ‘The Limits of Abolition: Government, Saints and the “African Question”, C. 1780–1820’, The English Historical Review, 112, 446 (1997), 334–5; Hopkins, ‘Britain’s First Development Plan for Africa’ in Law, From Slave Trade to ‘Legitimate Commerce’, 246. 10. Suzanne Schwarz, Zachary Macaulay and the Development of the Sierra Leone Company, c. 1793–4, Parts I &II (Leipzig, 2000; 2002); Brown, Moral Capital, chapter five. 11. The notable exception being Philip D. Curtin’s The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780–1850 (Madison, WI, 1964); Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Anti-slavery Cooperation (Urbana, 1972); Howard Temperley, British Anti-Slavery, 1833–1870 (Charleston, SC, 1972). 12. Arthur Porter, Creoledom: A Study in the Development of Freetown Society (London, 1963), 53. 13. Gustav Kashope Deveneaux, ‘Public Opinion and Colonial Policy in Nineteenth-Century Sierra Leone’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 9, 1 (1976), 45–67. 14. Charles Henry Huberich, Political and Legislative History of Liberia (New York, 1947); Tom W. Schick, Behold the Promised Land: A History of Afro-American Settler Society in Nineteenth-Century Liberia (Baltimore, 1980). 15. Historians who have examined Liberia from the perspective of the ACS include P.J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816–1865 (New York, 1961); James Brewer Stewart, Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery (New York, 1996), 30–67; Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community 1720–1840 (Cambridge, MA, 1988), 227–46; Marie Tyler-McGraw, An African Republic: Black and White Virginians in the Making of Liberia (Chapel Hill, 2007); James Sidbury, Notes 183

Becoming African in America: Race and Nation in the Early Black Atlantic (Oxford, 2007). 16. Leslie Alexander, African or American? Black Identity and Political Activism in New York City, 1784–1861 (Chicago, 2008), 77; Nikki Taylor, ‘Reconsidering the “Forced” Exodus of 1829: Free Black Emigration from Cincinnati, Ohio to Wilberforce, Canada’, The Journal of African American History 87 (2002), 283–302. 17. Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 173–86. The Missouri Crisis resulted from the dilemma over whether slavery should be extended into new states entering the Union. It was resolved in 1820 with the Missouri Compromise, allowing Missouri to enter as a slave state, Maine as a free state, and for 36°30’ to represent the border between new slave and free ter- ritories entering the Union. 18. Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 173. 19. Richard S. Newman, The Transformation of American Abolitionism: Fighting Slavery in the Early Republic (Chapel Hill, 2002), 115. 20. A notable exception is Carl Patrick Burrowes, ‘Carl Patrick Burrowes, ‘Black Christian Republicanism: A Southern Ideology in Early Liberia, 1822 to 1847’, The Journal of Negro History 86, 1 (2001), 30–44; Shick, Behold the Promised Land, 30–44, which argues that the development of a coherent African American worldview in the South helped advance colonization and shaped Liberian society. 21. Bruce L. Mouser, ‘The Baltimore/Pongo Connection: American Entre- preneurism, Colonial Expansionism, or African Opportunism?’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies 33, 2 (2000), 313–33; M.B. Akpan, ‘Black Imperialism: Americo-Liberian Rule over the African Peoples of Liberia, 1841–1964’, Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines 7, 2 (1973), 218–9; Monday B. Abasiattai, ‘The Search for Independence: New World Blacks in Sierra Leone and Liberia, 1787–1847’, Journal of Black Studies 23, 1 (1992), 107–16; Bruce L. Mouser, ‘Continuing British Interest in Coastal Guinea-Conakry and Fuuta Jaloo Hightlands (1750 to 1850)’, Cahiers d’Études Africaines 43, 172 (2003), 761–90; Bruce L. Mouser, ‘Landlords-Strangers: A Process of Accommodation and Assimilation’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 8, 3 (1975), 425–40. John Hargreaves, ‘African Colonization in the Nineteenth Century: Liberia and Sierra Leone’, in Jeffrey Butler, ed., Boston University Papers in African History (Boston, 1964), 73; Amos J. Beyan, African American Settlements in West Africa: John Brown Russwurm and the American Civilizing Efforts (Basingstoke, 2005), 29; Shick, Behold the Promised Land, 53; Lamin O. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad: American Blacks and the Making of Modern West Africa (Cambridge, MA, 1999), 238, 242. 22. A notable exception is Fladeland, Men and Brothers. Much of the focus of transnational histories of slavery and anti-slavery is on the eighteenth century, with a recent trend toward the study of the black loyalists who fought for the British in the American Revolution and were eventually relocated to Freetown: see Brown, Moral Capital; Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution (New York, 2006); Mary Louise Clifford, From Slavery to Freetown: Black Loyalists after the American Revolution (Jefferson, NC, 1999); James Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search for a 184 Notes

Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870 (Toronto, 1992); Ellen Gibson Wilson, The Loyal Blacks (New York, 1976). 23. Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 212–17. 24. Both Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad, 237, and Tyler-McGraw, African Republic, 182, have explained Liberia as a ‘failed’ experiment. 25. Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 278. 26. Specifically with reference to Sierra Leone, Robin Law’s recent essay states that ‘the view that British policy toward Africa in the mid-nineteenth century was not imperialist rests on a narrow (and old-fashioned) understanding of imperialism as territorial annexation’. Robert Zevin, ‘An Interpretation of American Imperialism’, The Journal of Economic History 32, 1 (1972), 319; Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley, 2005), 27; Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists (Oxford, 2004), 7–13; John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System 1830–1970 (Cambridge, 2009), 3; Robin Law, ‘Abolition and Imperialism: International Law and the British Suppression of the Atlantic Slave Trade’, in Derek R. Peterson, ed., Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic (Athens, Ohio, 2010), 170 n.3. 27. West, Back to Africa, 160. 28. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad, 127. 29. John Gallagher, ‘Fowell Buxton and the New African Policy, 1838–1842’, The Cambridge Historical Journal, 10, 1 (1950), 58. 30. Zevin, ‘An Interpretation of American Imperialism’, 324. 31. See Jay Sexton’s historiographical review of recent ‘ “Global Histories” of the United States: “The Global View of the United States” ’, The Historical Journal 48, 1 (2005), 261–76. 32. Samuel Watson, ‘An Uncertain Road to Manifest Destiny: Army Officers and the Course of American Territorial Expansionism 1815–1846’, in Sam Haynes and Christopher Morris, ed., Manifest Destiny and Empire (College Station, Texas, 1997), 69. 33. Alan Lester, Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth-Century South Africa and Britain (London, 2001), 4–5. 34. C.A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914 (Oxford, 2007), 10–11. 35. Cooper with Brubaker, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley, 2005), 59–90. 36. Catherine Hall, ‘Culture and Identity in Imperial Britain’, in Sarah Stockwell, ed., The British Empire (Oxford, 2008), 203; Gil J. Stein, ed., The Archaeology of Colonial Encounters (Santa Fe, 2005), 17. 37. Cooper with Brubaker, Colonialism in Question, 71.

1 Transatlantic Anti-Slavery Networks

1. Mary Louise Clifford, From Slavery to Freetown: Black Loyalists after the American Revolution (Jefferson, NC, 1999), 76–79; Cassandra Pybus, ‘ “A Less Favourable Specimen”: The Abolitionist Response to Self-Emancipated Slaves in Sierra Leone, 1793–1808’, Parliamentary History, 26, S1, (2007), 98–9. 2. Ibid.; Anna Maria Falconbridge, Two Voyages to the River Sierra Leone during the Years, 1791–1792–1793 (London, 1794), Christopher Fyfe, ed. Our Children Free and Happy: Letters from Sierra Leone in the 1790s (Edinburgh, 1991), 19. Notes 185

3. Suzanne Schwarz, ‘Commerce, Civilization and Christianity: The Development of the Sierra Leone Company’, in David Richardson, Suzanne Schwarz and Anthony Tibbles, eds., Liverpool and Transatlantic Slavery (Liverpool, 2007), 257; Suzanne Schwarz, ‘ “Apostolick Warfare”: The Reverend Melvill Horne and the Development of Missions in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century’, The Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, 85, 1 (Spring 2003), 65–93. 4. Substance of the Report of the Court of Directors of the Sierra Leone Company, 19th October 1791 (London, 1792), 12; Suzanne Schwarz, Zachary Macaulay and the Development of the Sierra Leone Company, c. 1793–4, Parts I &II (Leipzig, 2000; 2002); Christopher L. Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006), chapter five. 5. David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Oxford, 1987), 105; Michael J. Turner, ‘The Limits of Abolition: Government, Saints and the ‘African Question’, c. 1780–1820’, The English Historical Review, 112, 446 (1997), 331–3; John Peterson, Province of Freedom: A History of Sierra Leone, 1787–1870 (London, 1969), 45–54; Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana, 1972), 196. 6. T.P. Thompson to Nancy Barker, 23 July 1808, in, Turner, ‘Limits of Abolition’, 335. 7. Macaulay to Ludlum, 1 May, 4 November 1807, in Turner, ‘Limits of Abolition’, 339. 8. Second Report of the Committee of the African Institution (London, 1808), 6. 9. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, http://slavevoyages.org/tast//database/search.faces?yearFrom=1808&yearTo=1833&fate2=3 10. Ibid. 11. CMS Archives CAI E5, MacCarthy to Pratt, 15 June 1816. 12. Prince de Joinville, Vieux Souvenirs (1894 [Middlesex, 2009]), 146. 13. P.J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816–1865 (New York, 1961), 4–5. 14. Ibid., 6–8; 253. 15. ‘Memoir of Paul Cuffee’, The Philanthropist, 2, 5 (London, 1812), 32–40; Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution (New York, 2006). 16. Claude Andrew Clegg, The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004), 24. 17. Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 29. 18. Bell Irvin Wiley, ed., Slaves No More: Letters from Liberia 1833–1869 (Lexington, 1980), 1. 19. Susan M. Ryan, ‘Errand into Africa: Colonization and Nation Building in Sarah J. Hale’s Liberia’, The New England Quarterly 68, 4 (1995), 565. 20. Lamin O. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad: American Blacks and the Making of Modern West Africa (Cambridge, MA, 1999), 192. 21. Reverend Finley, Thoughts on the Colonization of Free Blacks, reprinted in African Repository, January 1834. 22. Nicholas Guyatt, ‘ “The Outskirts of Our Happiness”: Race and the Lure of Colonization in the Early Republic’, The Journal of American History, March 2009, (11 June 2009), par. 31. 186 Notes

23. Emphasis mine. A Citizen of New England, Remarks on African Colonization and The Abolition of Slavery, in Two Parts (1833), 30. 24. Ibid., 18. 25. James Sidbury, Becoming African in America (Oxford, 2007), 172–3. 26. Daniel Coker, Baltimore, 3 June 1817, Coker letters, Maryland Diocesan Archives, Baltimore, Maryland. Photocopied and sent by Mary O. Klein, archivist. I am immensely grateful to James Sidbury for his help with the Burgess and Coker papers. 27. Sidbury, Becoming African in America, 173. 28. Ibid., 174. 29. Coker to Right Rev. Bishop Kemp, Hastings [Sierra Leone], n.d. (ca. 1825), Coker letters. 30. Lawrence Howard, ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara, 1800–1860.’ Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., Harvard University, 1956, 212–24. 31. LCP, ACS Series Letters, Miscellaneous Incoming Correspondence, William Holanger to Commander R.T. Spence, 12 March 1823. 32. The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiser, 8 February 1823, 23. 33. Ibid., 21–2. 34. Sidbury, Becoming African in America, 175. 35. John Kizell to Ebenezer Burgess, Freetown, Sierra Leone, 17 August 182[3 or 1], John Kizell’s Apology in two Letters to Daniel Coker, 5–6, Ebenezer Burgess Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society. 36. LOC, Diary of Daniel Coker, 3 May 1821, frame 330, 6–7 Peter Force Collection; Series 8D, Items 17–24; Item 23. 37. Huntington Library, Macaulay Journal, MSS MY 418 Folder 28, 1 November 1798. 38. Massachusetts Historical Society (MHS), Ebenezer Burgess Papers, Samuel Swan Jr to Ebenezer Burgess, Belvedere, Furrah Bay, 31 March 1818. 39. Substance of the Report of the Court of Directors of the Sierra Leone Company, 19th October 1791 (London, 1792), 12. 40. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816–1865. 41. Ibid., 42. 42. Bruce L. Mouser, ‘The Baltimore/Pongo Connection: American Entrepre- neurism, Colonial Expansionism, or African Opportunism?’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 33, 2 (2000), 313. 43. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962), 132.

2 An African Middle Class

1. Chris Gosden, Archaeology and Colonialism: Culture Contact from 5000 BC to the Present (Cambridge, 2004), 87. 2. Susan Lawrence, ed., Archaeologies of the British (London, 2003), 4. 3. Timothy H. Parsons, ‘African Participation in the British Empire’, in Philip D. Morgan and Sean Hawkins, eds., Black Experience and the Empire (Oxford, 2004), 258. 4. Donal Lowry ‘The Crown, Empire Loyalism and the Assimilation of Non- British White Subjects in the British World: An Argument against “Ethnic Determinism” ’, in Carl Bridge and Kent Fedorowich, eds., The British World: Diaspora, Culture and Identity (London, 2003), 99. Notes 187

5. CMS Archives CA1, M2 1822–24, 376, Coker to the Secretary, 20 April 1823. 6. TNA, CO 267/123, 10 June 1834. 7. Extracts from the Journal of William Davies, 1st, when a missionary at Sierra Leone (Llanidloes, 1835), 53. 8. Stiv Jakobsson, Am I Not a Man and a Brother? British Missions and the Abolition of the Slave Trade and Slavery in West Africa and the West Indies 1786–1838 (Lund, 1972), 210–27. 9. CMS Archives, CAI 059. Journal of the Rev. Frederick Bultman. 10. PP, 1826, XXII (389), Governor Turner to Earl Bathurst, 26 January 1826, 4–5. 11. TNA, CO 267/119, 2 March 1833. 12. Abstract of a Journal of E. Bacon, Assistant Agent of the United States to Africa: with an appendix, containing interesting accounts of the effects of the Gospel among the Native Africans (Philadelphia, 1822), 7–8. 13. Samuel Ajayi Crowther, The African Slave Boy: A Memoir of the Rev. Samuel Crowther (London, 1852), 7. 14. For more on Christian marriage in West Africa, see Kristin Mann, Marrying Well: Marriage, Status and Social Change among the Educated Elite in Colonial Lagos (Cambridge, 1985). 15. TNA, CO 267/118, 5 October 1832. 16. SLA, Colonial Secretary’s Letter book, 1835–36, 24 September 1836, 326. 17. Addresses, Petitions, &c. from the Kings and Chiefs of Sudan (Africa) and the Inhabitants of Sierra Leone, to his Late Majesty, King William the Fourth (1838), 9. 18. Ibid., 14. 19. John Herskovits Kopytoff, A Preface to Modern Nigeria: The ‘Sierra Leonians’ in Yoruba, 1830–1890 (Madison, WI, 1965), 21–2. 20. Ibid., 37. 21. TNA, CO 267/204, 27 October 1848. 22. Ibid. See also Ausine Jalloh and David E. Skinner, eds., Islam and Trade in Sierra Leone (Trenton and Asmara, 1997), 5–14, 28–9. 23. TNA, CO 267/119, 2 March 1833. 24. TNA, CO 267/154, 4 December 1839. 25. TNA, CO 267/119, 2 March 1833. 26. Journals of the Rev. James Frederick Schöon and Mr. Samuel Crowther, who with the sanction of Her Majesty’s Government, Accompanied the Expedition up the Niger in 1841 in behalf of the Church Missionary Society (London, 1842), 285. 27. TNA, CO 267/204, 27 October 1848. 28. Lamin O. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad: American Blacks and the Making of Modern West Africa (Cambridge, MA, 1999), 156–8. 29. Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination 1830–1867 (Chicago, 2006), 332. 30. Addresses, Petitions, &c., 15. 31. CMS Archives CA 1 M6 Mission Book 1831–34, Report of Mission, for the Year 1833, J.G. Wilhelm Chr., 432. 32. Silke Strickrodt, ‘African Girls’ Samplers from Missionary Schools in Sierra Leone (1820s to 1840s)’, History in Africa, 37 (2010), 189–245. 33. Addresses, Petitions, &c., 25–26. 188 Notes

34. TNA, CO 272/13, Sierra Leone Blue Book, 1836. 35. TNA, CO 272/7, Sierra Leone Blue Book, 1830. 36. TNA CO 267/99, 30 January 1830; Return showing the trades and occupa- tions of the sixteen persons who have signed the memorial. 37. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962), 175. 38. Ibid., 142; TNA, CO 267/99 Return of Coloured Settlers; TNA, CO 267/132, 4 July 1836. 39. Robert Allen, Jean-Pascal Bassino, Debin Ma, Christine Moll-Murata, and Jan Luiten van Zanden, ‘Wages, Prices, and Living Standards in China, 1738–1925: In Comparison with Europe, Japan, and India’, The Economic History Review, 64, S1 (2011), 8–38; Pim de Zwart, ‘South African Real Wages in Global Perspective, 1835–1910’, unpublished paper presented at the Economic and Social History Graduate Seminar, Nuffield College, Oxford. In terms of the wages themselves, there were five different categories of wage recorded by the Colonial Government for the metropole. Four are articulated in the Blue Books: domestic labour, predial labour, trade, and timber loading. The first three were activities undertaken by either settlers or recaptives; the fourth was done by Kru labourers. The fifth wage category, taken from the Blue Books as well, is based on those in ‘professions’. Since this was a regular route for settlers after a few generations and participation in education both within and outside of the colony, it seemed important to include it as a wage category. It was calculated as an average wage over the period studied using a combination of data on the salaries of teachers, church ministers, colonial writers, clerks, those involved with the police force, and those employed as supervisors or managers for the Liberated African Department and its districts. This average does not include those employed in the private sector as lawyers or doctors. In all cases, the daily wage was calculated assuming a twenty-five-day working month in order to take account of holidays, festivals, and Sundays. 40. These staples were chosen to match roughly with those chosen by Allen et al. in order to allow for further comparison. Conversion to grams of silver were determined using Peter Lindert’s silver value conversions in order to make the comparisons to other world economies (available from http:// gpih.ucdavis.edu/Datafilelist.htm#Europe). 41. TNA, CO 267/129, Lt. Gov. Campbell, 10 November 1835. 42. TNA, CO 267/118, 10 February 1833. 43. TNA, CO 267/119, 25 April 1833. 44. TNA CO 267/133, 2 September 1836. 45. Kopytoff, Preface to Modern Nigeria, 33. 46. Ibid. 47. PP, 1843, XXXIII (622), Sierra Leone and the Gambia, A Return of the total income of the settlements of Sierra Leone and the Gambia in each of the Years 1839, 1840, and 1841 and how expended. 48. PP, 1842, (551) Report from the Select Committee on the West Coast of Africa, 336. 49. Letter from William Fergusson to Thomas Fowell Buxton in Thomas Fowell Buxton, The Slave Trade and Its Remedy (London, 1840), 371–3. 50. PP, 1842, (551) Report from the Select Committee on the West Coast of Africa, 338. Notes 189

51. TNA, CO 267/172, Commissioner Dr. Madden’s Report, 1841. 52. Andrew Porter, Religion versus Empire? British Protestant Missionaries and Overseas Expansion, 1700–1914 (Manchester, 2004), 98–9. 53. Freetown was not the only place that this kind of inculturation was occur- ring; it was also prevalent in the Gold Coast, where trading Fanti and Creole families established a new elite. See Margaret Priestley, West African Trade and Coast Society: A Family Study (London, 1969), 121–7. 54. CMS Archives CA1 M2 1822–24 Report of Freetown schools, 26 June 1823. 55. Jakobsson, Am I Not a Man and a Brother, 229. 56. TNA, CO 267/43, 12 April 1824. 57. CMS Archive CA1 IL, L1-L2 1820–73, CMS House to Schön, October 1834, 472–5. 58. TNA, CO 267/133, 4 August 1836. 59. TNA, CO 267/140, Petition to Governor Campbell, 12 January 1837. 60. TNA, CO 267/119, 5 March 1833. 61. TNA, CO 267/133, 2 September 1836. 62. TNA, CO 267/99, Received 29 January 1830. 63. Emphasis mine. For a return of the Europeans working in government, see Appendix 4. 64. TNA, CO 267/102, 22 April 1830. 65. TNA, CO 267/99, Findlay, 29 January 1830, Return of Colored Settlers, Inhabitants of Sierra Leone, holding appointments under the Governor of that Colony. 66. CMS archives, CAI 012 (b).

3 Americans in Africa

1. Lamin O. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad: American Blacks and the Making of Modern West Africa (Cambridge, MA, 1999), 215. 2. Marie Tyler-McGraw’s study of white and black Virginians involved in the colonization movement shows the roots of the Americo-Liberian elitism that would emerge in the twentieth century. Wiley’s edited collection of letters from Southern emigrants highlights these struggles and also the per- sistence of master–slave relationships that helped to shape Liberia’s national character. Marie Tyler-Mcgraw, An African Republic: Black & White Virginians in the Making of Liberia (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007), 171–82; Bell Irvin Wiley, ed., Slaves No More: Letters from Liberia 1833–1869 (Lexington, 1980), 8–9; Carl Patrick Burrowes, ‘Black Christian Republicanism: A Southern Ideology in Early Liberia, 1822 to 1847’, The Journal of Negro History 86, 1 (2001), 30–44; Tom W. Shick, Behold the Promised Land: A History of Afro-American Settler Society in Nineteenth-Century Liberia (Baltimore, 1980), 32. 3. Roughly 3,700 Virginians went to Liberia between 1822 and 1865 and another roughly 2,000 were sent by the Maryland Colonization Society out of a rough total of between 13,000 and 20,000; Tyler-McGraw, African Republic, 12 8; M. Tea h Wu la h, Back to Africa: A Liberian Tragedy (Bloomington, IN, 2009), 297; African Repository, XLII (1866), 222–3. 4. Schick, Behold the Promised Land, 45–6. 5. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad, 221. 190 Notes

6. J.H.T. McPherson, History of Liberia (Baltimore, 1891), 32. 7. HSP, New York Colonization Society (1834), 16. 8. Liberia Herald, 24 May 1833. 9. Tyler-McGraw, African Republic, 53. 10. SNM, Alexander Hance to William McKenney, 30 August 1835. 11. SNM, Alexander Hance to J.H.B. Latrobe, 7 April 1838. 12. Liberia Herald, February 1838. 13. Charles Henry Huberich, ed., The Political and Legislative History of Liberia (New York, 1947), 654. 14. ‘Extracts from an Address of the Colonists to the Free People of Colour in the United States’, in Dr. Thomas Hodgkin, On Negro Emancipation and American Colonization (1832). Dr. Thomas Hodgkin was a prominent British supporter of the ACS and general proponent of gradualist measures in dealing with antislavery, missionary expansion, and indigenous protection (he was the founder of the Aborigines’ Protection Society). His publications on the ACS were part of the promotional literature used by the society in both the United States and Britain. For more, see Zoe Laidlaw, ‘Heathens, Slaves and Aborigines: Thomas Hodgkin’s Critique of Missions and Anti-Slavery’, History Workshop Journal 64 (2007), 133–61; Amalie Kass and Edward Kass, Perfecting the World: The Life and Times of Dr. Thomas Hodgkin (1798–1866) (London, 1981). 15. Letters on the Colonization Society and on Its Probable Results ... .To which is prefixed the Important Information Collected by Joseph Jones, A Coloured Man, Lately sent to Liberia, by the Kentucky Colonization Society, To ascertain the true state of the country – its productions, trade, and commerce – and the situation and prospects of the colonists (Philadelphia, 1835), 2–4. 16. ‘News from Africa’ A collection of facts, relating to the colony in Liberia, for the information of the free people of colour in Maryland (Baltimore, 1832), 4–5. 17. Samuel Wilkeson, A Concise History of the Commencement, Progress, and Present Condition of The American Colonies of Liberia (Washington, 1839), 51. 18. HSP, Examination of Mr. Thomas C. Brown, a free coloured citizen of S. Carolina, as to the actual state of things in Liberia in the years 1833 and 1834 (New York, 9 May 1834). 19. HSP, (Phi) 490, Series II, Letter to the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, 20 March 1834. 20. UVA, Samson Ceasar to Henry F. Westfall, 2 June 1834. 21. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad, 74 –6. 22. ‘News from Africa’, 16–17. 23. Gloster Simpson and Archy Moore, 27 September 1832, On Negro Emancipation and American Colonization, 39. 24. Nash, Forging Freedom, 230–1. 25. Ibid., 232. 26. HSP, Minutes of the Liberia Providence Baptist Association, (Monrovia, December, 1840). 27. ‘News from Africa’, 21–2. 28. UVA, Samson Ceasar to Henry F. Westfall, 1 April 1834. 29. ‘Sentiments of the Free Persons of Color in Charleston, S.C’. in ‘News from Africa’, 24. 30. Elizabeth Winder, 13 April 1833, On Negro Emancipation and American Colonization, 42. Notes 191

31. Colton, Colonization and Abolition Contrasted, 1. 32. Svend Holsoe, ‘A Study of Relations between Settlers and Indigenous Peoples in Western Liberia, 1821–1847’, African Historical Studies 4, 2 (1971), 347–9. 33. Colton, Colonization and Abolition Contrasted, 15. 34. Rev. Richard Allen, Address to the Free People of Colour of These United States (Philadelphia, 1830), 11. 35. Samuel Cornish and Theodore Wright, The Colonization Scheme Considered in its Rejection by the Colored People – In its tendency to uphold caste – in its unfitness for Christianizing and Civilizing the Aborigines of Africa, and for putting a stop to the African Slave Trade: In a letter to the Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen and the Hon. Benjamin F. Butler (Newark, 1840), 6. 36. Liberia Herald cited in Wilkeson, A Concise History of ... Liberia, 53. 37. Wilkeson, A Concise History of ... Liberia, 51. 38. SNM, James C. Minor to John Minor, 11 February 1833. 39. DM, Peyton Skipwith, 27 June 1846. 40. DM, Peyton Skipwith, 29 September 1844. 41. HSP, Minutes of the Liberia Providence Baptist Association, 6. 42. George M. Erskine, 9 March 1833 in Hodgkin, On Negro Emancipation and American Colonization, 41. 43. LCP, Testimony of Commodore Perry, 4 June 1844, A Historical Examination of the State of Society in Western Africa as formed by Paganism and Muhammedanism, Slavery, the Slave Trade and Piracy, and of the Remedial Influence of Colonization and Missions, 40. 44. Holsoe, ‘Settler-Indigenous Relations’, 341. 45. LCP, Shick, ‘The 1843 Liberian Census’, 7. 46. Liberia Herald, 24 January 1844. 47. Liberia Herald, 24 January 1845. 48. DM, Peyton Skipwith, 22 April 1840. 49. UVA, Samson Ceasar to Henry Westfall, 1 April 1834. 50. For example, in the period between 1822 and 1850, 37 per cent of emigrants were born free, while roughly 60 per cent were emancipated on the condition that they emigrate to Liberia, Wulah, Back to Africa, 297. 51. Liberia Herald, 10 April 1833, in African Repository, July 1833. 52. DM, Peyton Skipwith, 30 January 1838; 11 November 1839. 53. DM, Peyton Skipwith, 22 April 1840. 54. Samuel Wilkeson, A Concise History of the Commencement, Progress, and Present Condition of The American Colonies of Liberia (Washington, 1839), 73. 55. Wilkeson, A Concise History of ... Liberia, 42. 56. Liberia Herald quoted in African Repository, IX (1834), 18. 57. George M. Erskine, 9 March 1833 in Hodgkin, On Negro Emancipation and American Colonization, 41. 58. Wilkeson, A Concise History of ... Liberia, 29. 59. Ibid. 60. LCP, Annual Reports of the Ladies’ Auxiliary to the American Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1833–1837). 61. DM, Diana Skipwith, 24 August 1837. 62. LCP, Shick, ‘The 1843 Liberian Census’. 63. Liberia Herald, 19 March 1847. 192 Notes

64. Ibid. 65. UK, G.W. McElroy for Lucy Russell to Mary Owen Todd Russell Wickliffe, 20 September 1835. 66. SNM, Alexander Hance to William McKenney, 19 March 1835. 67. Tyler-McGraw, African Republic, 158. 68. LA, Last Will and Testament, Catherine Jacobs, 11 August 1843, 265. 69. See Dalila Scruggs, ‘Colonization Pictures as Primary Document: Virginians’ Contributions’ Virginia Emigrants to Liberia Project, http://www.vcdh.virginia. edu/liberia/pages/scruggs.html. 70. Reuben Moss to Benjamin Moss, 1 March 1833 in Kennedy Report, 1843. 71. African Repository, November 1832, 280–2. 72. LA, Last Will and Testament, Isaac Dean, 3 June 1854. 73. LA, 30 August 1847, 416. 74. Amos J. Beyan, African American Settlements in West Africa: John Brown Russwurm and the American Civilizing Efforts (Basingstoke, 2005), 29–34. 75. Shick, Behold the Promised Land, 45–6. 76. ‘Examination’ in Letters on the Colonization Society and on Its Probable Results. 77. LA, Indenture by John Brown of Rogers & Co., 3 July 1843. See also Bruce L. Mouser, ‘The Baltimore/Pongo Connection: American Entrepreneurism, Colonial Expansionism, or African Opportunism?’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 33, 2 (2000), 313–33. 78. Letter from Sinou, West Coast of Africa, 2 December 1841 in Kennedy Report, 1843, 845–6. 79. ACSP, reel 156, Elizabeth Clarke, 23 February 1853. 80. Liberia Herald¸ 23 November 1848. 81. Kennedy Report, 1843, 823. 82. Kennedy Report, 1843, 845. 83. Richard West, Back to Africa: A History of Sierra Leone and Liberia (London, 1970), 135. 84. Svend E. Holsoe, ‘A Study of Relations between Settlers and Indigenous Peoples in Western Liberia, 1821–1847’, African Historical Studies 4, 2 (1971), 331–62. 85. Claude Andrew Clegg, The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia (Chapel Hill, 2004), 95.

4 The Abolitionist Propaganda War

1. Abstract of a Journal of E. Bacon, Assistant Agent of the United States to Africa: with an appendix, containing interesting accounts of the effects of the Gospel among the Native Africans (Philadelphia, 1822), 5. 2. A Citizen of New England, Remarks on African Colonization and The Abolition of Slavery, in Two Parts (1833), 17. 3. P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816–1865 (New York, 1961), 217–19. 4. PP, 1826 (379) Papers relating to the slave trade, Extract of a Letter from Commodore Bullen to J.W.Croker, Esq. 18 June 1825. Adam Jones, From Slaves to Palm Kernals: A History of the Galinhas Country (West Africa) 1730–1890 (Weisbaden, 1983). Notes 193

5. RHO, MSS British Empire S444 Vol. 36 (Papers of Buxton), 123 (extract from Sierra Leone Gazette, 29 January 1825). 6. Ibid. 7. TNA, CO 268/26, Bathurst to Governor Sir Neil Campbell, 25 October 1826. 8. PP, 1828 (366) Papers relating to the slave trade, Enclosure in No. 5, Campbell to Bathurst, 27 October 1826, 30. 9. TNA ADM 3/212, 13 November 1826. 10. TNA, CO 714/144, 2 October 1830. 11. TNA, CO 714/144, 28 June 1831; 3 August 1831. 12. TNA, CO 714/144, 3 October 1831. The Purrah is described as ‘a sort of Ban interdicting trade’. 13. TNA, CO 714/144, 16 February 1833. 14. Ibid. 15. Richard West, Back to Africa: A History of Sierra Leone and Liberia (London, 1970), 161; John Herskovits Kopytoff, A Preface to Modern Nigeria: The ‘Sierra Leonians’ in Yoruba, 1830–1890 (Madison, WI, 1965), 25. 16. TNA, CO 267/129 Campbell to Lord Glenelg, 9 November 1835; CO 267/132 Campbell to Lord Glenelg, 2 May 1836. 17. TNA, CO 267/132 Campbell to Lord Glenelg, 2 May 1836. 18. Lawrence Howard, ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara, 1800–1860.’ Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., Harvard University, 1956, 239. 19. West, Back to Africa, 139. 20. James Macqueen, The Colonial Controversy, Containing a Refutation of the Calumnies of the Anticolonists; the state of Hayti, Sierra Leone, India, China, Cochin China, Java, &c. &c.; The Production of Sugar, &c. and the state of the Free and Slave Labourers in those Countries fully considered, in a series of letters addressed to The Earl of Liverpool; with a supplementary letter to Mr. Macaulay (Glasgow, 1825), 88–9. 21. Ibid., 103. 22. The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiser, 24 July 1824, 323. 23. The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiser, 31 December 1825, 622–3. 24. TNA, ADM 1/4242, Croker to Hay, 29 January 1827. 25. Robert T. Brown, ‘Fernando Po and the Anti-Sierra Leonean Campaign: 1826–1834’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 6, 2 (1973), 252–3; see also David Lambert, ‘Sierra Leone and Other Sites in the War of Representation over Slavery’, History Workshop Journal, 64 (2007), 103–32 . 26. Martin Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa (Cambridge, 1997), 3. 27. PP, 1827, VII (312), Report of the Commissioners of Inquiry, Liberated Africans 29 June 1827, 45–7. 28. The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiser, 3 August 1822, 123–4. 29. Brown, ‘Fernando Po’, 254. 30. TNA, CO 267/102, 25 January 1830. 31. Ibid. 32. Brown, ‘Fernando Po’, 263–4. 33. Constitution of the American Society of Free Persons of Color and an Address (Philadelphia, 1831), 10. 194 Notes

34. For example, the 1830 creation of the ‘Association of Young Men for the Gratuitous Instruction of Coloured Persons school’ by the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. HSP, (Phi) 490, Series II. 35. African Colonization – Slave Trade – Commerce Report of Mr. Kennedy, of Maryland, from the Committee on Commerce of the House of Representatives of the United States (Washington, 1843), 968. Henceforth, Kennedy Report, 1843. 36. Reverend Richard Allen, Freedom’s Journal, 2 November 1827; For more on the education of African Americans, see Heather Andrea Williams, Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom (Chapel Hill, 2005), 7–44. 37. Lamin O. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad: American Blacks and the Making of Modern West Africa (Cambridge, MA, 1999), 219. 38. James Sidbury, Becoming African in America (Oxford, 2007), 190. 39. ‘Address of the Colonists to the Free People of Colour in the U.S.’, Thirteenth Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1829), 30. 40. Ibid., 31. 41. Ibid. 42. James Forten and the free people of color of Philadelphia, ‘To the humane and benevolent Inhabitants of the city and county of Philadelphia’ January 1817, quoted by William Lloyd Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization: or An Impartial Exhibition of the Doctrines, Principles and Purposes or the American Colonization Society. Together with the Resolutions, Addresses and Remonstrances of the Free People of Color (Boston, 1832), Sentiments of the People of Color, 12. This speech and the surrounding movement are explored in detail in Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720–1840 (Cambridge, 1988), 235–9. 43. ‘News from Africa’ A collection of facts, relating to the colony in Liberia, for the information of the free people of colour in Maryland (Baltimore, 1832), 1. 44. HSP, Rawle Family Papers, Legal Writings on Abolition 1823–33. Circular on the formation of an anti-slavery society received by William Rawle (President of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society). 45. HSP, Examination of Mr. Thomas C. Brown. 46. DM, Peyton Skipwith to John Hartwell Cocke, 10 February 1834. 47. HSP, Examination of Mr. Thomas C. Brown. 48. UK, G.W. McElroy for Lucy Russell to Mary Owen Todd Russell Wickliffe, 20 September 1835. 49. SNM, James C. Minor to John Minor, 11 February 1833. 50. UVA, Samson Ceasar to Henry F. Westfall, 2 June 1834. 51. Liberia Herald, 13 August 1834. 52. Liberia Herald, 24 December 1833. 53. WM, Abolitionist Papers, Theodore Dwight Weld to Elizur Wright Jr. Corresponding Secretary of the American anti-Slavery Society, 24 January 1834. 54. HSP, Fruits of Colonizationism! (1833), 1. 55. Richard H. Colfax, Evidence against the views of the Abolitionists, Consisting of Physical and Moral Proofs, of the Natural Inferiority of the Negroes (New York, 1833), 24–6. Notes 195

56. David Walker, Walker’s Appeal, in Four Articles; Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America (Boston, 1829), 58. 57. ‘A letter to Thomas Clarkson by James Cropper, Liverpool, 10th month, 2d, 1832’ in British Opinions of the American Colonization Society (Boston, 1833). 58. Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana, 1972), 195. 59. Howard Temperley, White Dreams, Black Africa: The Antislavery Expedition to the River Niger 1841–1842 (New Haven, 1991), 19–29. 60. RHO, C.R. Johnson Rare Book Collections, Altrincham, Cheshire. Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton and the Abolition of British Colonial Slavery. Item 200, Priscilla Buxton to S.M. Buxton, 24 June 1833. 61. Not all interested in anti-slavery immediately joined the American cause. Some favoured Aboriginal Protection, others Indian slavery, or Eastern African slavery. 62. HSP, (Phi) 490, Series II, Loose Correspondence, Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, 1820–1849, From James Cropper, Liverpool, 17 May 1834. 63. RHO, MSS British Empire S22 G33/A (Liberia), Elliot Cresson to Dr. Hodgkin, 2 February 1834. 64. RHO, MSS British Empire S22 G/33A (Liberia), John Stuart and James Mindenhall to Josiah Forster, 13 May 1835. 65. RHO, MSS British Empire S22 G33/A (Liberia) to E.D.? from B.G., 6 November 1834. 66. Remarks on African Colonization, 46. 67. The Eleventh Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1828), 10. 68. Thomas Hodgkin, On Negro Emancipation and American Colonization (1832), 57. 69. Ibid., 13. 70. TNA, CO 714/144, 20 June 1830. 71. Samuel Cornish and Theodore Wright. The Colonization Scheme Considered in its Rejection by the Colored People – In its tendency to uphold caste – in its unfitness for Christianizing and Civilizing the Aborigines of Africa, and for putting a stop to the African Slave Trade: In a letter to the Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen and the Hon. Benjamin F. Butler (Newark, 1840), 22–3. 72. TNA, CO 267/119, 5 March 1833. 73. TNA, CO 267/123, 14 March 1834, enclosure dated 16 February 1834. 74. Ibid. 75. Twenty-Second Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1838), 14. 76. Tables Showing the Number of Emigrants and Recaptured Africans Sent to the Colony of Liberia by the Government of the United States (Washington, 1845). 77. Holsoe, ‘Settler-Indigenous Relations’, 344. 78. Liberia Herald, VI (1835), 14. 79. Ralph Gurley, Life of Jehudi Ashmun (Washington, 1835), 265. 80. Svend E. Holsoe, ‘A Study of Relations between Settlers and Indigenous Peoples in Western Liberia, 1821–1847,’ African Historical Studies, 4, 2 (1971), 343. 196 Notes

81. Twenty-First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1837), 31. 82. Howard, ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara’, 230, 236. 83. Ibid., 45. 84. PP, 1822, II (105) Further papers relating to the slave trade, viz. copy of the report of the House of Representatives of the United States of America, 5.

5 Slave Trade Interventionism

1. Commander Andrew H. Foote, Africa and the American Flag (New York, 1854/1862), 151–2. 2. Although this organization has the same initials as the American Colonization Society, I will continue to refer to the latter as the ACS and the former by its full name. 3. RHO, MSS British Empire s444 vol. 40, Extract from Revered Edmund Eliot late Archdeacon of Barbados to T.F.B., 27 September 1838. 4. Thomas Fowell Buxton, The Slave Trade and Its Remedy (London, 1840), 6. 5. Ronald Hyam, Britian’s Imperial Century, 1815–1914, Third Edition (Hampshire, 2002), 94. 6. Christopher Brown outlines the intellectual origins of the ‘Civilization, Commerce, and Christianity’ remedy, demonstrating that it emerged from myriad discrete sources, including the Royal Africa Company and Malachy Postlethwayt, Olaudah Equiano, and the preacher John Marrant among others. Christopher L. Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006), 269–83. 7. Thomas Fowell Buxton, The Slave Trade and Its Remedy (London, 1840), 487. 8. Ibid., 365. 9. Charles Buxton, ed., Memoirs of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, Baronet. With Selections from His Correspondence (London, 1848), 448. 10. Rev. R.R. Gurley, Mission to England, in behalf of the American Colonization Society (1841), 4–5. 11. Rev. R.R. Gurley, Address at the Annual Meeting of the Pennsylvania Colonization Society, November 11, 1839 (Philadelphia, 1839), 8, 30. 12. RHO, Buxton Papers, MSS British Empire s444, Buxton to Gurley, ‘The African Civilization Society and the American Colonization Society’ The Patriot, 9 October 1840. 13. Rev. R.R. Gurley, Letter to the Hon. Henry Clay, President of the American Colonization Society, and Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton (1841), 11. 14. ‘The Times and the American Colonization Society’, The Morning Post, 2 December 1840. 15. Gurley to Buxton, 3 September 1840, in Letter, 49. 16. RHO Buxton Papers, MSS British Empire s444 Buxton to Russell, 7 August 1840. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. 19. TNA, CO 325/37, Russell Memorandum of Slave Trade, 23 September 1839. 20. RHO Buxton Papers, MSS British Empire s444, Russell to Buxton, 20 August 1840; John Gallagher, ‘Fowell Buxton and the New African Policy, 1838–1842’, The Cambridge Historical Journal 10, 1 (1950), 51. Notes 197

21. HSP, (Phi) 490, Series II, Loose Correspondence, Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, 1820–1849, 26 November 1839. 22. Samuel Cornish and Theodore Wright, The Colonization Scheme Considered in its Rejection by the Colored People – In its tendency to uphold caste – in its unfitness for Christianizing and Civilizing the Aborigines of Africa, and for putting a stop to the African Slave Trade: In a letter to the Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen and the Hon. Benjamin F. Butler (Newark, 1840), 13. 23. Ibid., 22. 24. Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana, 1972), 269. 25. For more on the disputes between the American Anti-Slavery Society and the Convention, see Clare Midgley, Women Against Slavery: The British Campaign 1780–1870 (London, 1992), 158–67; Howard Temperley, British Anti-Slavery 1833–1870 (Charleston, South Carolina, 1972), 85–93. 26. RHO MSS British Empire s22 G84 US, James Gibbons, Chairman of the Exec Committee of the AASS, 25 September 1840. 27. Rev. R.R. Gurley, Mission to England, in behalf of the American Colonization Society (1841), 15. 28. For more, see, Zoe Laidlaw, ‘Heathens, Slaves and Aborigines: Thomas Hodgkin’s Critique of Missions and Anti-slavery,’ History Workshop Journal 64, 1 (2007), 152–3. 29. RHO, Anti-Slavery Society Letters from Government Offices MSS British Empire s18 C161/7, 14 December 1840. 30. Ibid. 31. Joseph Sturge, A Visit to the United States in 1841 (London, 1842), 166. 32. PP 1843 (129) Slave Trade Suppression (Texas). 33. Parliamentary Debates, LXV, 10 August 1842, 1251–2. 34. Steven Heath Mitton, ‘ “The Ashburton Capitulation”: The Convention of London, British Defeat, and the Americanization of the Atlantic, c. 1842’ (Unpub. Paper, American Historical Association Annual Meeting, 7 January 2010); Steven Heath Mitton, ‘The Free World Confronted: The Problem of Slavery and Progress in American Foreign Relations, 1833–1844’, Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., Louisiana State University, 2005, 95; Hyam, Britain’s Imperial Century, 64. 35. Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 329–32. 36. Ibid., 324–9. 37. TNA, CO 267/ 26 March 1841. 38. TNA, CO 267/ 23 October 1841. 39. TNA, CO 267/ 18 March 1842. 40. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962), 222–3. 41. Gurley, Mission to England, 10–11. 42. Ibid., 95. 43. Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 278. 44. See Chapter 1. 45. Svend E. Holsoe, ‘A Study of Relations between Settlers and Indigenous Peoples in Western Liberia, 1821–1847’, African Historical Studies 4, 2 (1971), 350. 46. Ibid., 351 and 356. 47. African Repository, XVI (1840), 215–16. 198 Notes

48. SNM, Sion Harris to Samuel Wilkeson, 16 April 1840. 49. Ibid. 50. Liberia Herald, August 1840, report of ACS Meeting, 12 June 1840. 51. Lawrence Howard, ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara, 1800–1860’, Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., Harvard University, 1956, 45–9. 52. Howard Temperley, White Dreams, Black Africa: The Antislavery Expedition to the River Niger 1841–1842 (New Haven, 1991), 154. 53. Gallagher, ‘Fowell Buxton’, 54. 54. Ibid., 55. 55. LCP, W.P. Jayne, Monrovia Journal, 2 February 1841. 56. Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone, 207–16. 57. Ibid., 218–19; Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 198. 58. John Jeremie, A Letter to T. Fowell Buxton, Esq. on Negro Emancipation and African Civilization (London, 1840), 21–3. 59. TNA CO 267/163 Jeremie to Russell, 4 March 1841. 60. Excerpt quoted in Kennedy Report, 1843, 981. 61. TNA, CO 267/148, 10 December 1838. 62. SLA, Miscellaneous Minutes of Council 1828–30, 14 August 1828. 63. TNA, CO 267/114, 6 February 1832. 64. David Killingray, ‘ “A Good West Indian, a Good African, and, in Short, a Good Britisher”: Black and British in a Colour-Conscious Empire, 1760–1950’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36, 3 (2008), 368. 65. TNA, CO 714/144, 31 May 1831. 66. Letter from Fergusson to Buxton in Buxton, Slave Trade and Its Remedy, 371–3. 67. TNA, CO 267/132, 2 May 1836. 68. Hugh G. Soulsby, The Right of Search and the Slave Trade in Anglo-American Relations 1814–1862 (Baltimore, 1933), 41. 69. Donald L. Canney, Africa Squadron: The U.S. Navy and the Slave Trade, 1842–1861 (Washington, 2006), 18. 70. ‘The Times and the American Colonization Society’, The Morning Post, 2 December 1840. 71. Howard, ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara’, 47. 72. ACSP, IB30 reel 172, 16 July 1841. 73. Charles Henry Huberich, ed., The Political and Legislative History of Liberia (New York, 1947), 686. 74. Ibid. 75. Africa’s Luminary¸ 19 February 1841. 76. LOC, American Colonization Society Papers, Dispatches of Governor Buchanan, 24 February 1841. 77. Foote, Africa and the American Flag, 166. 78. African Repository XV, 277. 79. Liberia Herald, 31 October 1842. 80. Howard, ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara’, 52. 81. Sturge, A Visit to the United States in 1841, 160.

6 Commercial Rivalry and Liberian Independence

1. TNA, CO 96/2, James Stephen, 26 December 1842. 2. DM, Diana Skipwith to John Hartwell Cocke Senior, 7 March 1843. Notes 199

3. Thomas R. Hietala, Manifest Design: Anxious Aggrandizement in Late Jacksonian America (Ithaca, NY, 1985), 31. 4. Alan Lester, Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth-Century South Africa and Britain (London, 2001), 48; Hietala, Manifest Design, 11. 5. John Gallagher, ‘Fowell Buxton and the New African Policy, 1838–1842’, The Cambridge Historical Journal 10, 1 (1950), 58. 6. Macabe Keliher, ‘Anglo-American Rivalry and the Origins of U.S. China Policy’, Diplomatic History 31, 2 (2007), 227–57; Gerald Graham, The China Station: War and Diplomacy 1830–1860 (Oxford, 1978), 18. 7. Hietala, Manifest Design, 18. 8. RHO, MSS British Empire s22 G84 (US). For a detailed treatment of Southern reactions to British involvement with Texas, see Edward B. Rugemer, ‘Robert Monroe Harrison, British Abolition, Southern Anglophobia and Texas Annexation’, Slavery and Abolition 28, 2 (2007), 169–91. 9. David Turley, ‘Anti-Slavery Activists and Officials: “Influence”, Lobbying and the Slave Trade, 1807–1850’, in Keith Hamilton and Patrick Salmon, eds., Slavery, Diplomacy and Empire: Britain and the Suppression of the Slave Trade (Brighton, 2009), 90. 10. Thirtieth Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1846), 39. 11. Marie Tyler-Mcgraw, An African Republic: Black & White Virginians in the Making of Liberia (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007), 154. 12. Liberia Herald, 29 February 1844. 13. Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the ACS, 9. 14. Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the ACS, 32. 15. The Report of Rev. R.R. Gurley, 31st Congress, 1st Session, Executive Doc. 75 (1850). 16. Lawrence Howard, ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara, 1800–1860’, Unpub. Ph.D. Diss.., Harvard University, 1956, 96. 17. LCP, Gallinas Documents 1840–1859, Part I of II, State Papers, 33, 1844–45, 314–316, Macdonald to Aberdeen, 31 December 1843. 18. SLA, Governor’s Local Letters 1846–48, 22 May 1847. 19. LCP, Svend Holsoe Collection, Cape Mount Documents, R. Spaulding, 11 January 1834, African Repository, X, 1834, 121. 20. SLA, Governor’s Local Letters 1846–48, to Mohora Suru of Tambacca, 13 January 1847. 21. TNA, FO 2/3, Admiralty to Foreign Office, 15 March 1847; 16 March 1847. 22. PP, 1844 (577), Instructions for the Guidance of Her Majesty’s Naval Officers employed in the Suppression of the Slave Trade. 23. Ibid., 16. 24. TNA, CO 267/163, Treaty with Temne and Loko, 13 January 1841; CO 267/187, Fergusson to Stanley, 18 July 1845. 25. TNA, CO 96/2, Stephen, 16 November 1843; CO 96/11, Barrow, 9 August 1847. 26. Turley, ‘Anti-Slavery Activists and Officials’, 91. 27. Howard Temperley, British Anti-Slavery 1833–1870 (Charleston, South Carolina, 1972),137–67. 28. Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780–1850 (Madison, WI, 1964), 316–17. 200 Notes

29. A.G. Hopkins, ‘Property Rights and Empire Building: Britain’s Annexation of Lagos, 1861’, The Journal of Economic History 40, 4 (1980), 785. 30. Martin Lynn, ‘John Beecroft and West Africa 1829–54’, Unpub. PhD. Diss., King’s College, University of London, 1978, chapter 7. 31. Martin Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa (Cambridge, 1997), 23. 32. TNA, CO 268/38, Stanley to Macdonald, 10 June 1842. 33. TNA CO 267/124, 25 November 1834. 34. TNA, CO 268/33, 12 March 1835. 35. SLA, Governor’s Local Letters 1846–48, to the Reverend Mr. Raymond, Sherbro wars, 26 February 1846. 36. TNA, CO 268/35, Russell to Doherty, 23 July 1840. 37. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962), 221. 38. TNA, CO 267/187, Fergusson to Stanley, 18 July 1845. 39. Ibid. 40. PP, 1847–48, LXIV (133), Class A Correspondence with the British commissioners at Sierra Leone, Reports from Naval Officers, Enclosure 2 in No. 260, 292. 41. Trial of the Suit Instituted by the Collector of Customs for the Port of Monrovia, Against the Superintendent of the Liberia Mission of the ‘Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church’, before the Supreme Court of Liberia, in Session at Monrovia, Sept. 4th and 5th, 1840, with most of the pleadings (Monrovia, 1840), 6. 42. Mr. Fox to Mr. Upshur, 9 August 1843, in US Lynch Report, House Executive Document 1, 33rd Congress, 1st session (1853), 7. 43. Mr. Upshur to Mr. Fox, 25 September 1843, in US Lynch Report, 9. 44. Lord Aberdeen to Mr. Everett, 31 January 1844, in US Lynch Report, 7. 45. African Repository, XV, 277; SNM, Peyton Skipwith to John Hartwell Cocke, 11 November 1839. 46. HSP, Minutes of the Liberia Providence Baptist Association, 4. 47. Liberia Herald, April 1841. 48. TNA, CO 267/166, 12 October 1841. 49. ACSP, IB 30, Reel 172, Buchanan Dispatches, 5 April and 10 June 1841. 50. ACSP, IB30 reel 172, 16 July 1841. 51. Thirtieth Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States. 52. ACSP Series I:B29 reel 171, James Brown to the Rev. Mr McLain, Corresponding Secretary of the ACS, 24 April 1846. 53. DM, Peyton Skipwith to John Hartwell Cocke, 25 June 1846. 54. Liberia Herald, 24 January 1845. 55. African Repository, Vol. XIX No. 1, January 1843, Despatches from Gov. Roberts, 14. 56. Liberia Herald, 24 January 1845. 57. LCP, Gallinas Documents 1840–1859, Part I of II, Commander Jones’s Letter, 9 September 1844, in African Repository, August 1845, 253–4. 58. SLA, Governor’s Local Letters, 1846–48, 17 May 1847, Governor Macdonald to John Hook, emigration agent. 59. Liberia Herald, 15 January 1847. 60. Africa’s Luminary, 14 July 1847. 61. Liberia Herald, 26 August 1847. Notes 201

7 Arguments for Colonial Expansion

1. David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Oxford, 1987), 213. 2. Leslie Bethell, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade (Cambridge, 1970), 327–63. 3. Ronald Hyam, Britian’s Imperial Century, 1815–1914, Third Edition (Hampshire, 2002), 104. 4. Seymour Drescher writes that ‘Imperialism, in the sense of extending dom- ination in Africa, was thus the last thing on the minds of British policy- makers or the public press throughout the period of the suppression of the transatlantic slave trade’. Derek R. Peterson, ed., Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic (Athens, OH, 2010), 141. 5. SNM, Nelson Sanders to Susan Fishback, 5 January 1848. 6. SNM, Sion Harris to William McLain, 5 January 1848. 7. Er ic Bur in, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution: A History of the American Colonization Society (Gainesville, FL, 2005), Table 2. 8. Liberia Herald, 29 October 1849 (Article quoted from the Journal of Commerce). 9. Liberia Herald, 31 August 1849. 10. LCP, Methodist Annual Report of Missionary Society, Thirty-second annual report, 1851, 158. 11. LOC, England and Liberia (American Colonization Society, 1884), 5–6. 12. Report of the Naval Committee to the House of Representatives, 74. 13. SNM, Matilda Lomax to J.H. Cocke, 27 January 1852. 14. Ibid. 15. TNA, FO 47/5, Norman Macdonald to Joseph Jenkins Roberts, 16 December 1851. 16. TNA, FO 47/5, Governor Macdonald to President Roberts, 16 December 1851. 17. TNA, FO 47/5, Roberts to Macdonald, 26 December 1851. 18. TNA, FO 47/5, Bruce to Roberts, 30 December 1851. 19. Ibid. 20. TNA, FO 47/5, Bruce to Roberts, 19 April 1852. 21. TNA, FO 47/5, Government Notice. 22. LOC, Statutes at Large, XI. 404, 1859, March 3. United States Statute: Appropriation; Senate, ‘Report of the Secretary of the Interior’, Senate Ex. Doc., 1, 37th Congress, 2nd session, (1861), 435. 23. Recognition of Liberia (Philadelphia, n.d.), 2. 24. Benjamin Coates to Frederick Douglass, 16 January 1851, Emma Lapansky- Werner J. and Margaret Hope Bacon, ed., Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America 1848–1880 (University Park, Pennsylvania, 2005). 25. Liberia Herald, 21 May 1851. 26. Report of the Naval Committee to the House of Representatives, August, 1850, in favor of the establishment of a line of Mail Steamships to the Western Coast of Africa, and thence via the Mediterranean to London; Designed to promote the emigration of free persons of color from the United States to Liberia: Also to 202 Notes

increase the steam navy, and to extend the commerce of the United States. With An Appendix by the American Colonization Society (Washington, 1850), 67. 27. LOC, Lecture on African Colonization, 5. 28. The Thirty-fourth Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1851), 79. 29. Liberia Herald, 15 January 1847. 30. Adapted from Commerce of Liberia – returns for year ending 30 September 1859, Custom House, Port of Monrovia, African Repository, XXXVI (1861), 78–9. Commercial data for the colony was surprisingly irregularly published by the ACS, considering the economic case the society made. 31. Colonization of the Western Coast of Africa, by means of a line of Mail Steam Ships. Report of the Naval Committee – Extracts from the Press-Letters – Speeches, &c. (New York, 1851), 74. (Extract from the New-York Colonization Journal, January 1851 ‘The Proposal of the British Government to invite Emigration of Free Blacks from the United States to the British West Indies’). 32. Ibid., 56 (Extract from the Boston Post). 33. LCP, U.S. Department of State, Report of the Secretary of State, 1850, 28–29, M. Lewis, 23 November 1849. 34. LOC, H.R. 367 (Report No. 438) 31st Congress, 1st session, 1 August 1850, 1. 35. Ibid. 36. Ibid. 37. Report of the Naval Committee to the House of Representatives, 18–19. 38. Ibid., 19. 39. Ibid. 40. LCP, Communication of Liberian Finances 1847, The People of Grand Bassa, 6 November 1867. 41. Ibid., Governor Wright of Indiana, 3 July 1850 to the Exec Committee of the ACS, 35. 42. NAUS, Despatches from the United States Consuls in Monrovia, 1852–1906, Register, 1852–1906 and Volume I, 23 June 1852–31 December 1857. 43. George Washington Williams, History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880, vol. 2 (New York, 1883), 55. 44. Lawrence Howard, ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara, 1800–1860’, Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., Harvard University, 1956, 266. 45. Martin Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa (Cambridge, 1997), 338. 46. TNA, CO 272/1–38 Blue Books. 47. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962), 227. 48. RHO, Buxton Papers, MSS British Empire s444, The African Colonizer clipping. 49. TNA, CO 267/197, James Stephen, Minute on Sierra Leone Legislative Council, 12 April 1847. 50. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (London, 2002), 12. 51. Christopher Fyfe, ‘The Sierra Leone Press in the Nineteenth Century’, Sierra Leone Studies 8, (June 1957), 226–36. 52. Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 282–97. 53. Gustav Kashope Deveneaux, ‘Public Opinion and Colonial Policy in Nineteenth-Century Sierra Leone’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 9, 1 (1976), 64. Notes 203

54. RHO, MSS British Empire S22 G19A, ‘Rules and Regulations of the “Sierra Leone Native Association” Established 19th April 1854’. 55. RHO, MSS British Empire S22 G19B, vol. 1, Petition 17 March 1858 to ‘the Right Honorable Henry Labouchere, Her Majesty’s Principle Secretary of State for the Colonies’. 56. RHO, MSS British Empire S22 G19A Sierra Leone Native Association to JR Dailey, Esq., 20 November 1858; Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 279, 282. 57. Mary Louise Clifford, The Land and People of Sierra Leone (Philadelphia, 1974), 58. 58. Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 282. 59. SLA, Governor’s Local Letters 1846–48, BC Pine to Canreba King of Bonthe, 2 May 1848. 60. SLA, Governor’s Local Letters 1846–48, BC Pine to Tom Coubak Bonthe, April 1848. 61. SLA, Governor’s Local Letters 1846–48, to Fourry Bundo, 27 June 1848. 62. SLA, Governor’s Local Letters 1846–48, B.C. Pine to R.A. Oldfield and W. Saukey, 17 July 1848. 63. TNA, CO 267/225, Grey to Macdonald, 28 June 1851. 64. PP, 1855, XXXCII (383), 36. 65. First Annual Report Trustees for Donations to Education, 10. 66. Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 292. 67. SLA Colonial Secretary’s Letter book 6 December 1854–9 August 1855, Smyth to McCormack, 6 July 1855. 68. Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 288. 69. SLA Letter Book 1856, Maunsell to Burneur, 24 November 1855. 70. TNA, CO 267/154, 30 November 1839; CO 267/164, June 1841. 71. TNA, CO 267/154, 21 March 1840. 72. TNA, CO 267/154, 30 November 1839. 73. John Herskovits Kopytoff, A Preface to Modern Nigeria: The ‘Sierra Leonians’ in Yoruba, 1830–1890 (Madison, WI, 1965), 41–51. 74. Ibid., 53. 75. TNA, CO 267/164, June 1841. 76. Kopytoff, Preface to Modern Nigeria, 44–60. 77. TNA, CO 267/175, Fergusson to Colonial Office, 30 January 1842. 78. Ibid. 79. CMS CA1 IL, L1-L2, 11 November 1856. 80. Ibid., 4 November 1856. 81. Kristin Mann, Slavery and the Birth of an African City: Lagos, 1760–1900 (Bloomington, IN, 2007), 91–102. 82. PP, 1852, LIV (221), 29–30, Palmerston to Beecroft, 25 February 1850. 83. 51,687 slaves were embarked from the Bight of Benin; 27,372 from Lagos alone. http://slavevoyages.org/tast/database/search.faces?yearFrom=1840&y earTo=1851&mjbyptimp=60500 84. Lamin O. Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad: American Blacks and the Making of Modern West Africa (Cambridge, MA, 1999), 127. 85. Ibid. 86. TNA, FO 84/816, Beecroft to Palmerston, 22 July 1850. 87. TNA, FO 84/816, Addington to Secretary of the Admiralty, 11 October 1850. 204 Notes

88. TNA, FO 84/858, Palmerston to Beecroft, 18 February 1851. 89. PP, 1852, LIV (221), Papers relative to the reduction of Lagos by Her Majesty’s forces on the west coast of Africa, 191–2; For more on the seizure of Lagos see Lynn, ‘Consul and Kings: British Policy, “the Man on the Spot,” and the Seizure of Lagos, 1851’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 10, 2 (1982), 150–167; A. G. Hopkins, ‘Property Rights and Empire Building: Britain’s Annexation of Lagos, 1861’, The Journal of Economic History 40, 4 (1980), 777–798; David Richardson, ‘Background to Annexation: Anglo- African Credit Relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891’, in Olivier Pétré- Grenouilleau, ed., From Slave Trade to Empire: European Colonisation of Black Africa, 1780s-1880s (Abingdon, 2004), 62. 90. Martin Lynn, ‘British Palm Oil Trade with West Africa, 1830–55’, The Journal of African History 22, 3 (1981), 335. 91. Ibid., 337. 92. Thirty fourth annual ACS report, 1851 Value of Domestic British produce exported to Africa from 1839 to 1844 inclusive. 93. Porter, ‘Religion and Empire: British Expansion in the Long Nineteenth Century’, JICH, 20, 3 (1992), 380. 94. TNA, FO 881/1518, Report Proceedings of Squadron on West Coast, Commodore Edmonstone 1861. 95. TNA, FO 2/34, Palmerston Minute Protection of Trade, 22 April 1860. 96. Mann, Slavery and the Birth of an African City, 101. 97. TNA, FO 881/1518, Report Proceedings of Squadron on West Coast, Commodore Edmonstone 1861. 98. TNA, CO 267/271, Sir George Barrow, 12 December 1861; Duke of Newcastle, 14 December 1861.

Epilogue: 1861 and Beyond

1. RHO MSS British Empire S22 G33/A (Liberia). 2. Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana, 1972), 390–1. 3. Ibid., 389. 4. The Trent case was a diplomatic incident in 1861, in which a Union commander seized two Confederate agents aboard the British steam ship. For more on its implications see Jay Sexton, ‘Transatlantic Financiers and the Civil War’, American Nineteenth Century History 2, 3 (2001), 32. The Alabama was a ship being constructed for the Confederacy by a British shipyard. See Maureen M. Robson, ‘The Alabama Claims and the Anglo-American Reconciliation, 1865–71’, Canadian Historical Review 42, 1 (1961), 1–22. 5. LOC, England and Liberia, 6. 6. TNA, CO 267/164, petition, 13 May 1841; Carr to Russell, 5 July 1841. 7. Ronald W. Walters, Pan Africanism in the African Diaspora: An Analysis of Modern Afrocentric Political Movements (Detroit, 1993); George Shepperson, ‘Notes on Negro American Influences on the Emergence of African Nationalism’, The Journal of African History, 1 (1960), 299–312; Thomas Hodgkin, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (New York, 1956); J. Ayodele Langley, Pan-Africanism and Nationalism in West Africa, 1900–1945: A Study in Ideology and Social Classes (Oxford, 1973); Godgrey Mwakikagile, Relations Between Notes 205

Africans, African Americans, and Afro-Caribbeans (Dar es Salaam, 2007); Thomas W. Livingston, Education and Race: A Biography of Edward Wilmot Blyden (San Francisco, 1975). 8. Hakim Adi and Marika Sherwood, Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora since 1787 (London, 2003), 86–9. 9. Edward Wilmot Blyden and Alexander Crummell, Liberia: The Land of Promise to Free Colored Men (Washington, D.C., 1861); Hollis R. Lynch, ed., The Selected Letters of Edward Wilmot Blyden (Millwood, NY, 1978). 10. Vivian Bickford-Smith, ‘Betrayal of the Creole Elites’ in Philip D. Morgan and Sean Hawkins (eds.), Black Experience and the British Empire (Oxford, 2004), 194–227. 11. Amory Mayo, Southern Women in the Recent Education Movement in the South (Washington, D.C., 1892), 82–3. 12. Ibid., 84. 13. Herbert G. Gutman, ‘Schools for Freedom’, in Thomas C. Holt and Elsa Barkley Brown (eds.), Major Problems in African-American History, Volume 1: From Slavery to Freedom, 1619–1877 (Boston, 2000), 399. 14. Edward Crapol, ‘Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late- Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations’, Diplomatic History 16, 4 (1992), 592. Bibliography

Manuscript collections and databases

British Library Church Missionary Society Archives Section IV Africa Missions Part I: West Africa (Sierra Leone)

The College of William and Mary MSS 95 Ab7 Abolitionist Papers MSS Sm Coll Yancey Papers

Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone Governor’s Local Letter Books Colonial Secretary Letter Books Liberated African Department Books Miscellaneous Minutes of Council

Historical Society of Pennsylvania HSP #2173 Papers of William Parker Foulke HSP Collection 3109 Rawle Family Papers Minutes of the Liberia Providence Baptist Association (Phi) 490, Series II. Loose Correspondence, Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, 1820–49. State Colonization Society Materials

Huntington Library MSS MY 418, Folders 1–28 Zachary Macaulay’s Journal

Indiana University, Bloomington African Studies Collection American Colonization Society Annual Reports, 1816–60 Annual Reports of the Ladies’ Auxiliary to the American Colonization Society Annual Reports on Liberian Education Liberia Collections Project materials for 1800–60 Svend Holsoe Collection U.S. Department of State, Report of the Secretary of State, 1850 National Archives of the United States, Despatches from the United States Consuls in Monrovia, 1852–1906

206 Bibliography 207

Library of Congress American Colonization Society Records, 1792–1964 Peter Force Collection

Maryland Diocesan Archives, Baltimore, Maryland Coker letters

Massachusetts Historical Society Ebenezer Burgess Papers

Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Monrovia, Liberia Deeds and Records

The National Archives (UK) ADM 1/4240–4250 Records of the Board of Admiralty, Letters from Secretaries of State ADM 3/199–248 Records of the Board of Admiralty, Rough Minutes CO 96/2–15 Colonial Office Gold Coast Correspondence CO 267/ – Colonial Office Sierra Leone Correspondence 18, 23, 26, 43, 99, 102, 109, 114, 118, 119, 123, 124, 129, 132, 133, 134, 140, 147, 148, 154, 163, 164, 166, 172, 175, 181, 184, 187, 197, 200, 204, 271 CO 268/9–48 Sierra Leone Entry Books CO 272/7 Sierra Leone Miscellanea CO 325/37 Colonial Office General Miscellanea, Precis and Memoranda, Slave Trade CO 714/144 Colonial Office Index to Correspondence FO 2/3, 34- Foreign Office General Correspondence before 1906, Africa FO 47/5 Foreign Office Liberia Correspondence: Foreign various, Consular Domestic FO 84/816, 858 Foreign Office Slave Trade Department and successors: Africa (West Coast) Consular FO 881/1518 Foreign Office Confidential Print: Africa Report

The National Archives (United States) Department of the Navy Correspondence of the Secretary of the Navy relating to African Colonization 1819–44 Despatches from the United States Consuls in Monrovia, 1852–1906, Vol. 1 23 June 1852–31 December 1857

Rhodes House Library, Oxford University MSS British Empire s18 Anti-Slavery Society MSS British Empire s22 G19A MSS British Empire s22 G19B MSS British Empire s22 G33(A) Liberia 208 Bibliography

MSS British Empire s22 G84 United States MSS British Empire s444 Papers of Thomas Fowell Buxton

The School of African and Oriental Studies, University of London MSS Special Series Various Papers FBN44

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database www.slavevoyages.org

University of Kentucky Special Collections and Archives Box39, Wickliffe-Preston Family Papers. Available online from http://legacy. bluegrass.kctcs.edu/LCC/HIS/scraps/liberia.html

University of Virginia Special Collections MSS 10595, 10595-a, Samson Ceasar Letters to David S. Haselden and Henry F. Westfall. Available online from the University of Virginia Electronic Text Center, http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/liberia/index.html

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Wilkeson, Samuel. A Concise History of the Commencement, Progress, and Present Condition of The American Colonies of Liberia. Washington, 1839. Williams, George W. History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880, vol. 2. New York, 1883.

Letter collections

Fyfe, Christopher, ed. Sierra Leone Inheritance. Oxford, 1964. L apansk y-Wer ner, Emma J. and Margaret Hope Bacon, ed. Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America 1848–1880. University Park, Pennsylvania, 2005. Lynch, Hollis R., ed. The Selected Letters of Edward Wilmot Blyden. Millwod, NY, 1978. Miller, Randall, ed. ‘Dear Master’: Letters of a Slave Family. Athens, GA, 1990. Wiley, Bell Irvin, ed. Slaves No More: Letters from Liberia 1833–1869. Lexington, 1980.

Newspapers

African Repository Africa’s Luminary The Liberator Liberia Herald Missionary Herald Morning Post The Philanthropist The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiser

Secondary books and articles

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Burnard, Trevor Graeme. ‘A Failed Settler Society: Marriage and Demographic Failure in Early Jamaica,’ Journal of Social History. (1994), 63–82. Burrowes, Carl Patrick. ‘Black Christian Republicanism: A Southern Ideology in Early Liberia, 1822 to 1847,’ The Journal of Negro History. 86, 1 (2001), 30–44. Butler, Jeffrey, ed. Boston University Papers in African History. Boston, 1964. Cain, P.J. and A.G. Hopkins. ‘Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Expansion Overseas I. The Old Colonial System, 1688–1850,’ The Economic History Review. 39, 4 (1986), 501–525. Cain, P.J. and A.G. Hopkins. British Imperialism, 1688–2000, second edition. Harlow, 2002. Campbell, Mavis C. and George Ross. Back to Africa: George Ross and the Maroons: From Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone. Trenton, NJ, 1993. Cannadine, David. Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire. Oxford, 2002. Canney, Donald L. Africa Squadron: The U.S. Navy and the Slave Trade, 1842–1861. Washington, DC, 2006. Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh. The Theory of Imperialism and the European Partition of Africa: Proceedings of a Seminar held in the Centre of African Studies. Edinburgh, 1967. Clegg, Claude Andrew. The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia. Chapel Hill, NC, 2004. Mary Louise Clifford, The Land and People of Sierra Leone. Philadelphia, 1974. Clifford, Mary Louise. From Slavery to Freetown: Black Loyalists after the American Revolution. Jefferson, NC, 1999. Cohen, Robin. Global Diasporas: An Introduction. Abingdon, 2008. Cohn, Bernard. Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India. Princeton, 1996. Colley, Linda. ‘Britishness and Otherness: An Argument,’ The Journal of British Studies. 31, 4 (1992), 309–329. Cooper, Frederick. ‘Conflict and Connection: Rethinking Colonial African History,’ The American Historical Review. 99, 5 (1994), 1516–1545. Cooper, Frederick. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History. Berkeley, 2005. Coupland, Reginald. Wilberforce. Oxford, 1923. Coupland, Reginald. The British Anti-Slavery Movement. London, 1933. Crapol, Edward. ‘Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late- Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations,’ Diplomatic History. 16, 4 (1992), 573–597. Curtin, Philip D. The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780–1850. Madison, WI, 1964. Darwin, John. ‘Imperialism and the Victorians: The Dynamics of Territorial Expansion,’ English Historical Review. 112, 447 (1997), 614–642. Darwin, John. The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System, 1830–1970. Cambridge, 2009. Davis, David Brion. The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823. Ithaca, NY, 1975. Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World. Oxford, 2006. 214 Bibliography

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Unpublished dissertations

Downing, Andrea. ‘Contested Freedoms: British Images of Sierra Leone, 1780–1850.’ Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., University of Liverpool, 1998. Howard, Lawrence. ‘American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara, 1800–1860.’ Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., Harvard University, 1956. Lynn, Martin. ‘John Beecroft and West Africa 1829–54.’ Unpub. PhD. Diss., King’s College, University of London, 1978. Mitton, Steven Heath. ‘The Free World Confronted: The Problem of Slavery and Progress in American Foreign Relations, 1833–1844.’ Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., Louisiana State University, 2005. Taylor, Rebecca Susan. ‘International Trade in British West Africa During the Colonial Era: Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast and the Gambia.’ Unpub. Ph.D. Diss., University of Portsmouth, 2000. Index

Abeokuta, 138, 149, 159, 166–70 Naval patrols, 28, 29, 82–4, 87, 102, Aberdeen, Lord, 116, 135, 141–2, 149 105, 116, 119–20, 124, 126, 130, abolition movement, 4, 96–7, 99–100, 136, 141, 149, 157, 167, 177 112–13, 146 World Anti-Slavery Convention, Aborigines Protection Society, 3, 162 113–14 Africa’s Luminary, 125, 145 apprenticeship African Civilization Society, 108–11, in Liberia, 77, 102 113, 114, 124, 127, 159, 165 in Sierra Leone, 20–1, 85, 178 African Institution, 3, 7, 19, 20, 21, campaign against, 3, 85 23, 24, 27, 30–2, 87, 109, 110 architecture, 37–8, 42, 47–8, 62, 70, Afro-Victorian, 34, 48–9, 160, 165 74, 88, 165, 167 agents, 27–9, 36, 58, 59, 75, 94, 104, Ashburton, Lord, 116 155 Capitulation, also Webster- agriculture, 36, 42, 56, 58, 85, 87–8, Ashburton Treaty, 116, 126, 141 109 Ashmun, Jehudi, 1, 29, 32, 76, 103 see also commerce; plantations ‘Aku’, 38, 164, 166 Bacon, Ephraim, 36, 81 Alabama, 173, 204n Badagry, 149, 153, 165, 166–7, 169 Alcohol, 77, 155, 156 Baltimore, 27, 62, 93, 133, 135 Allen, Reverend Richard, 27, 92 Baptist Missionary Society, 95, 176 ambassador, 116, 141–2, 163 Bassa Cove, 58, 59, 99, 120, 124, 139, AME Church, 27, 31 140 –5 American Colonization Society, 1, 4, Beecroft, John, 138, 167, 168 6, 24–7 Benezet, Anthony, 22 American Revolution, 19, 22 Benson, Stephen Allen, 143, 158, 173 Amistad, 116–18 the Bights, 82–5, 89, 138, 153, 167, anti-colonization, 4, 82, 89, 91–3, 169–70 104, 113, 131 of Benin, 84, 153, 167, 170 anti-slavery of Biafra, 83, 84, 89, 170 American Anti-slavery Society, 5, black poor, 18, 22 93, 94, 96, 114 Blackford, Mary, 11 American and Foreign Anti-slavery Blyden, Edward Wilmot, 175–6 Society, 5, 114, 137, 146 Bonard, Jason, 43 British Anti-Slavery Society, 82, 98 Bonny, 2 British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Boston, 91, 134, 135 Society, 113, 114, 115, 127, 128, Brazil, 148–9 132, 133, 137, 146, 162, 173 British Empire, 110, 132, 170, 171, 179 campaign in America, 5, 98–9, 113, Britishness, 34, 37, 40, 42, 45, 53 132–3, 171–2 Brown, Thomas, 61, 93, 94–5 campaign in Britain, 3, 86, 98, Buchanan, Thomas, 59, 111, 112, 119, 99–100, 113–14, 116, 127, 132 120, 124–7, 129, 142, 143, 154, immediatism, 46, 96, 98–9, 106, 177 108, 112 Burgess, Ebenezer, 29, 30

223 224 Index

Burin, Eric, 151 Coates & Austie, 135 Buxton, Thomas Fowell, 3, 12, 48, 81, Coates, Benjamin, 1, 154, 172 97, 98, 107–13, 114, 118, 119, 121, Cocke, John Hartwell, 11, 68, 129, 152 122, 126, 127, 128, 137, 165 Coguano, Ottabah, 18 Coker, Daniel, 26–8, 29, 31–2, 34–5 Caesar, Samson, see Ceasar, Samson colleges, 49, 53 Calhoun, John C., 133 also Fourah Bay College, 49, 53 Campbell, Henry Dundas, 37–8, 41, colonialism, 7, 121 45–7, 50, 51, 86, 123 see also empire; imperialism Campbell, Neil, 83, 89 colonization, 1, 4, 7, 12, 18, 22–3, 24, Camwood, 48, 95, 145 25, 30, 31, 32, 56–60, 96, 108, Canot, Theodore, 64, 103, 120–1, 125 132–3, 154–9, 165 Cape Coast, 43, 137 advocates of, 4, 25, 26, 27, 28, 48, Cape Mount, 65, 83, 118, 120, 136, 74, 100–1, 103, 110, 112, 114 142, 143, 147, 151, 152 debate over, 81–3, 91–106, 108, Caribbean, see West Indies 117–18 Carr, John, 121, 129 Ladies’ auxiliaries, 70 Caulker, Stephen, 163 opponents of, 4–5, 82, 89, 91–4, Ceasar, Samson, 61, 63, 67, 94 96–7, 99, 110–11, 113, 130 Chesapeak and Liberia Trading state societies, 57, 58–9, 91, 96 Company, 133 Columbine, Edward, 19 children commerce apprenticeship, 102 legitimate, 1, 2–3, 10, 13, 19, 20, 30, liberated African, 35, 49 38, 45, 86, 109, 111–12, 116, 121, education of, 48, 49, 50, 52, 69, 71, 129–30, 133–40, 149, 167, 170–1, 91, 160, 161 174 slave trade, 21 settler, 47, 86, 124, 136, 140, 143, wards, 66–7, 109 147–8, 156, 159, 163, 168, China, 130, 131–2, 146, 172 170–2 Christianity, 61–3, 65, 66, 77–8, 103, see also ‘Civilization, Commerce, 111, 151, 152, 155, 171 and Christianity’; economy Church Missionary Society, 21–2, 34, Congress, 26, 61, 87, 104, 105, 145, 35–6, 40, 41, 49, 50–1, 53, 109, 151, 155, 157, 158–9, 172, 179 121, 161, 166, 167, 169–70 Connecticut, 22, 117 Grammar School, 52–3 constitution, 59, 65–6, 75, 107, 113, Civil War, 5, 8, 132, 151, 173–6, 179 127, 147, 162 civilization, 1, 13, 20, 21, 23, 25, consul, 132, 138, 158, 164, 167, 170 35–6, 40–1, 42, 47, 49, 54, 63, cooperation, 6, 18, 21, 23, 24, 29, 30, 67, 71–7, 87–8, 109–11, 152, 155, 31, 100, 111, 112, 113, 114, 118, 165, 175 127, 130, 141, 153, 177, 180 ‘Civilization, Commerce, and cotton, 20, 42, 44, 87, 154–5, 156–7 Christianity’, 9, 12–13, 33–4, 53, Courts of Mixed Commission, 21, 43, 78, 82–3, 104–5, 108, 109–10, 85, 90, 103, 105 126, 146, 151–2, 155, 170–2 creole, 86, 176, 181n Clapham Sect, 18–20 Creole (ship), 116 Clarkson, John, 19 Cresson, Elliot, 1, 99, 118 Clarkson, Thomas, 19, 81, 97, 99 Crowther, Samuel Ajayi, 37, 40, 166, Clay, Henry, 24 167, 169, 176 Clegg, Claude Andrew, 77 Cuffee, Paul, 23–4, 27, 29, 30, 31–2 Index 225 culture, 11, 12, 13, 25, 33–4, 40, 42, Sierra Leonean, 11, 21–2, 41–2, 47–8, 49, 54, 55, 56, 60, 64, 67, 49–53, 54, 82–3, 85, 89, 105, 107, 72–3, 77–8, 86, 108, 122, 146, 109, 160 –1, 164, 188n 147, 156, 161 see also colleges; schools emancipation, 3, 4, 24, 46, 48, 62, 86, Dahomey, 137, 167–8, 170 95, 96, 97, 106, 107, 109, 127, 151, debates, 2–3, 5, 24, 83, 87, 112, 114, 160, 174, 175, 176 115, 118, 127, 128, 131, 145, 146, empire, 1, 7, 9, 11, 21, 25, 42, 48, 54, 152, 165, 172 81, 82, 110, 131–3, 139, 149, 155, deeds, 74 160, 162, 170, 171, 172, 176, 177, defences, 29, 76 179–80 see also fortifications see also colonialism; imperialism Dei, 28, 29, 64, 66, 86, 103, 119 Equiano, Olaudah, 18, 196n Denman, Captain, 120, 124 Everett, Edward, 116, 141–2 Deveneaux, Gustav, 3 expansion, 1, 3, 4, 7–9, 10, 12, 32, 66, Doherty, Richard, 39, 112, 121, 122, 86, 100, 102, 112, 114, 119–22, 140, 165 126–7, 128–30, 130–3, 135–43, domestic slavery, 93–4, 174 146–7, 149, 150–4, 159–72, 177–8 see also apprenticeship expenditure, 45, 48, 86, 88 domestication, 41, 75 exports, see economy see also gender roles Ezzidio, John, 43, 161 Douglass, Frederick, 5, 154 duties, see economy; taxation Fante, 137 female education, 50, 51, 53 East India Company, see India Fergusson, William, 48, 117–18, 121, economy, 95, 175 126, 129, 140, 142, 166 commerce, 2–3, 19–20, 38, 45, 47, Fernando Po, 84, 89–90, 101, 110, 58, 71–7, 86, 109–12, 116, 121, 121, 138 125, 129–30, 133–40, 143, 147–8, Findlay, Alexander, 36, 37, 39, 46–7, 149, 156, 159, 163, 167–74 51, 84–5, 101, 122 duties, 48, 132, 137, 139, 143–4, Finley, Reverend Robert, 24–6 145, 147 Fladeland, Betty, 6, 173 exports, 38, 43, 45, 48, 84, 87, Foote, Andrew, 107, 125 134–5, 138–9, 155–7, 159–60, Foreign Secretary of Great Britain, see 168–9, 172 Lord Aberdeen (1828–30; imports, 42, 43, 47–8, 135, 139–40, 1841–46); Viscount Palmerston 143, 145, 156–8, 159, 163, (1830–34; 1835–41; 1846–51); 168–9, 172 Lord John Russell (1852–53; trade, 30, 47, 131, 142, 143, 155, 1859–65) 158, 168–9 Forten, James, 92 tariff, 95, 130, 137, 139, 145, 156, 169 fortifications, 120, 149 Edina, 57, 58, 60–1, 66, 113, 142 see also defences education Fourah Bay College, 49, 53 in America, 91, 176 Fouricaria, 137, 140 female, 50, 51, 53 Fox, George, 51 Ladies’ Auxiliaries, 70 Fox, Henry, 116, 141 Ladies’ School Association, 70 France also French, 18, 22, 43, Liberian, 26, 56, 60, 68–71, 78, 50, 104 90–3, 95, 112, 164 Fraser, Alexander, 43, 46, 52, 90 226 Index freed slaves, 1, 22, 33, 60, 69, 92, (1830); Alexander Findlay 150, 176 (1830–33); Octavius Temple Freetown, 21–2, 24, 27, 31, 42, 43, 46, (1833–34); Henry Dundas 47–8, 50, 84, 85, 89, 135, 138, Campbell (1835–37); Richard 161, 162, 163 Doherty (1837–40); John Jeremie frontier, 8, 10, 25, 56, 74, 77, (1840–41); John Carr (1841); 147, 169 William Fergusson (1841–42; Fula, 39 1844–45); George Macdonald (1842–44); Norman William Gabbidon, Stephen, 43, 46 MacDonald (1845–52); Arthur Gallagher, John, 7, 177 Edward Kennedy (1852–54); Gallinas also Gallinhas, 83–4, 117, Stephen John Hill (1854–55; 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 135, 143, 1855–59; 1860–61); Alexander 152, 167, 170, 174 Fitzjames (1859–60) Gambia also Gambia River, 22, 31, of Liberia, see Thomas Buchanan 46, 77, 83, 84, 122, 123, 128, 139, (1839–41); Joseph Jenkins Roberts 149, 159, 161, 175, 177 (1841–48); also Colonial Agents Garrison, William Lloyd, 3, 4–5, 25, of Liberia 26, 96–9, 112, 114 of Maryland in Liberia, see John Garrisonianism, 97–9, 107, 137 Brown Russwurm (1836–52) gender roles also domestication, 41, Grammar School, 52, 53 75, 76 Gurley, Ralph R., 6, 66, 69, 76, Getumbe, 119–20 110–12, 114, 118, 124, 135, Ghezo, 167–8 140, 165 girls’ schools, 50, 51, 53 Guyatt, Nicholas, 25 Goderich, 37 Gola, 29, 64, 86, 103, 119 Hall, Catherine, 12 Gold Coast, 83, 84, 128, 137, 138, Harris, Sion, 120, 150 143, 149, 158, 159, 161, 166, 169, Hastings, 29, 34 175, 189n Hausa, 38 goods, 17, 38, 42, 45, 48, 58, Hodgkin, Thomas, 3, 99, 100–1, 114, 74, 75, 95, 133, 134–5, 139, 190n 140, 156 Hopkins, A.G., 2 agricultural see produce Hopkins, Reverend Samuel, 22, 26 American, 58, 133, 156 Houston, Sam, 115, 133 British, 38, 42, 48, 139, 156 Howard, Lawrence, 7, 28 India, 42 humanitarian Manchester, 42, 48 competition, 9, 23, 30, 31, 87, see also material culture; produce 132, 179 Governors definitions and historiography, 1, 3, of Sierra Leone, see Zachary 5, 7, 9, 10, 13, 34, 96, 182n Macaulay (1794–95; 1796–99); efficacy, 13, 90 Thomas Perronet Thompson expansionism and intervention, 2, (1808–10); Edward Columbine 9, 52, 89, 122, 159, 174, 177, 178, (1810–11); Charles Maxwell 179, 180 (1811–15); Charles McCarthy imperial, 9, 169, 177, 179 (1814; 1815–20; 1821–24); Charles internal struggles, 137, 149 Turner (1824–26); Neil Campbell networks, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 33, 49, (1826–27); Alexander Fraser 85, 147, 148, 154, 175 Index 227

Ibo, 38, 164, 165 Kissy, 34 identity, 12 Krio, 181n American, 55–6, 71, 78 Kru, 41, 124, 175, 188n British, 33, 35, 37, 123 imperial or colonial, 12, 34, 37, 56, labour 62, 178–9 apprenticed, 20, 66–7, 93, 105 Liberian, 55–6, 60–2, 69, 71, 78 enslaved, 19, 67, 93 middle class, 54, 78 free, 2, 19, 155 political, 38, 62, 69 mobile, 175 religious, 38, 60–2, 78 unskilled, 94 settler, 34, 55–6, 178–9 wages, 188n Sierra Leonean, 33, 54, 82 women’s work, 41, 51 Victorian, 11, 34, 48, 49, 156, 160, 165 Ladies’ Auxiliaries, 70 see also missionaries Ladies’ School Association, 70 Igbo, see Ibo Lagos, 137, 138, 147, 149, 153, 154, imperialism, 2, 7–9, 177, 179–80 159, 166–71, 175 economic, 149, 156, 179 Law, Robin, 2 ‘new’ imperialism, 176 Leeward coast, 90 sub-imperialism, 108, 179 legislative council of Sierra Leone, see also colonialism; empire 144, 161 imports, see economy legitimate commerce, see commerce incomes, 48, 143, 159, 160–1 Leigh, Benjamin, 43, 122 independence, 5, 6, 130, 144–6 Lester, Alan, 9, 131 India, 2, 7, 25, 42, 48, 114, 121 Liberated Africans, 20, 21, 22, 34–43, Indiana, 57, 158 47, 49–53, 82, 84–5, 86, 101, 161, intervention, 2, 8–9, 11, 12, 13, 164, 165, 166, 167, 175, 181n 34, 36, 76, 105, 108, 119–26, in Liberia, 57, 59, 75, 76 140, 149, 152, 159, 167, 168, see also education; identity, Sierra 170, 171, 176, 177–8, 179, Leonean; identity, British; 180 recaptives Islam, 39, 64, 176 The Liberator, 4, 94 see also Muslim Liberia ivory, 48, 95, 135 Governors of, see Thomas Buchanan (1839–41); Joseph Jackson, Andrew, 87, 104 Jenkins Roberts (1841–48) Jefferson, Thomas, 24 Governor of Maryland in Liberia, Jeremie, John, 117, 120, 121, 125, see John Brown Russwurm 126–7, 129, 140, 177 (1836–52) Liberia Herald, see newspapers Keliher, Macabe, 131–2 Liberia Packet, 134, 145 Kentucky, 57, 60, 71 Maryland in Liberia, 57, 107, 113, King Tom Institution, 53 134, 142, 150 Kings merchants, 135 Alimamee Ali of Fouricaria, 137; population, 56, 150–1, 174 Brister, 119; Bromley, 119; settlers, 55–6, 60–2, 69, 71, 78 Canreba, 163; George, 35; Ghezo, trade, 58, 134–6, 143, 149, 155, 156, 137, 167–8, 170; John Macaulay, 158, 171–2 38, 164; Mama Ketzie, 119; Peter, Lincoln, Abraham, 173 28–9, 76, 119; Willey, 119 Loko, 84, 86, 137 228 Index

London Sierra Leonean, 38, 43–5, 45–6, 47, Convention of London, 115 48, 49, 123, 126, 136, 153, 154, Sierra Leoneans in London, 18, 161, 164, 165, 168, 170 167, 170, 176 Mexico, 8, 130 trade, 157, 164, 169 middle class, 31, 34, 43, 48–54, 55–6, World Ant-Slavery Convention held 60, 71, 78, 81–2, 91, 108, 122, in 1840, 113 128, 146, 156, 160, 165, 177, 179 Louisiana, 116 military, 9, 10, 36, 76, 86, 105, 116, Lowry, Donal, 34 119, 121–4, 126, 127, 131, 149, loyalty, 34–5, 37, 52, 54 154, 167, 171, 179, 180 militia, 12, 108, 178 Macaulay & Babington, 43 Liberian, 29, 75, 76–7, 86, 87, 103, Macaulay, John, 38, 164 119–20 Macaulay, Zachary, 20, 30, 81, 89 Sierra Leonean, 43, 122–3 MacCarthy, Charles, 31, 34–6, 53, millennialism, 26, 46 88, 118 Minor, James C., 65, 94 Macdonald, George, 129, 135–6, Minor, Lucy, 11 139 missionaries Macdonald, Norman William, 136, African American, 22, 25 140, 145, 152–4, 163 American Missionary Association, Macqueen, James, 87–9 117–18, 176 Madison, James, 26 Baptist, 64, 95, 109, 142, 176 Mama Ketzie, 119 Church Missionary Society, 21–2, Manchester goods, 42, 48 34, 35–6, 40, 41, 49, 50–1, 53, Mandinka, 39, 64, 140 109, 121, 161, 166, 167, 169–70 manifest destiny, 8, 130–3 controversies, 35–6 manumission, 28, 68, 114, 151 and education, 21–2, 35, 41, 49–51, maps, 136 69–70, 161, 164 Maroons, 19, 38, 41, 43, 46, 51, 52, and expansion, 53, 126–7, 138, 142, 175 152, 159–60, 166–70, 179–80 Maryland, 57, 61, 63, 133 and humanitarian networks, 18, Maryland Colonization Society, 7, 25–6 57, 74, 150 and identity, 49, 53, 54 Maryland in Liberia, 57, 107, 113, and indigenous religions, 38–40, 134, 142, 150 77, 129 Massachusetts, 22, 23, 25, 57 Liberian, 56, 64–6, 78 material culture, 11, 13 Methodist, 64, 75, 109, 152 architecture, 37–8, 42, 47–8, 62, 70, ‘native’ missionaries, 12, 35–6, 49, 74, 88, 165, 167 108, 166 deeds and wills, 73–4 Wesleyan, 35, 52, 109, 166 photographs and paintings, 72–3 Mississippi, 7, 130 and identity, 33, 42, 47, 48, 55, 56, Missouri crisis, 4, 183n 72–3, 108, 147, 156 modernity, 9, 34, 54, 55–6, 71, 123, Mende, 117–18 180 merchants Monroe, James, 28 American, 30, 130, 172 Monrovia, 28, 58, 60, 61, 64, British, 2, 89, 123, 126, 140–3, 153, 73–4, 92, 103, 124, 135, 139, 154, 164 142, 164 Liberian, 135 Mouser, Bruce, 30 Index 229

Muslim, 38–40 palm oil, 44, 48, 75, 89, 135, 138–9, 143, 145, 154, 158, 159, 168–9, 170 Nash, Gary, 11, 62 panic of 1837, 5, 111 Navy, 7, 20, 26, 104, 124, 125, parish plan, 21, 25, 34–41, 50, 53, 85, 135, 137, 142, 153, 155, 179 157–8, 171 parliament, 48, 87, 97–8, 101, 123, Naval Squadron, 7, 83, 84–5, 98, 125, 132, 137, 139, 148–9, 159, 102, 104, 110, 130, 136, 140, 168, 164 177 Parliamentary Select Committee, networks, 6, 11, 17–18, 21, 23, 27–8, 47–8 29, 30, 31–2, 77, 105–6, 108, 130, Parsons, Timothy, 34 146, 155–6, 169, 178 Payne, James Spriggs, 75 New Cestos, 120, 125, 143 Pennsylvania, 7, 57, 99, 112 New Georgia, 60, 75 Pennsylvania Colonization Society, newspapers, 11, 26, 91, 94, 144, 157, 57, 58, 99, 110, 142 176 petitions, 11, 37–8, 41, 43, 45–6, 50, African Repository, 87, 93, 94, 144 51–2, 90, 97, 122, 123, 160, 162, Africa’s Luminary, 125, 145 164–6, 175, 176 The Liberator, 4, 94 Philadelphia, 27, 60, 62, 91, 92, 113, Liberia Herald, 57, 58, 59, 65, 67, 68, 135 70, 71, 75, 103, 126, 142, 145, photographs and paintings, 72–3 146, 151, 154 plantations Morning Post, 124 alternatives, 85 The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone culture, 60, 61, 69, 74, 78 Advertiser, 29, 83, 89, 90, 104 in West Africa, 19, 121, 179 New York, 57, 62, 68, 74, 91, political representation, 47, 76, 95, 117, 134 160, 161, 164, 171, 176 Colonization Society, 7, 57–8, 99, Polk, James, 146 113, 142, 157 Polkinghorne, Captain, 102 Niger population Delta, 48–9, 136 Sierra Leonean, 20, 27, 32, 38–9, 86, Expedition, 40, 108, 111, 114, 121, 149, 159 124, 126–7, 128 Liberian, 56, 57, 59, 68, 75, 149, River, 111, 123, 169 150, 164, 174 Nigeria, 3, 7, 38, 149, 166, Porter, Andrew, 49 169, 176 President North Carolina, 99 of Liberia, see Joseph Jenkins Roberts Nova Scotians, 41, 51, 181n (1848–56); Stephen Allen Benson Nullification crisis, 95 (1856–64); James Spriggs Payne Nupe, 38, 164 (1868–70, 1876–78) Nylander, Reverend Joseph, 34 of United States of America, see Thomas Jefferson (1801–09); Old Calabar, 2 James Madison (1809–17); James Opium wars, 131 Monroe (1817–25); John Quincy Adams (1825–29); Andrew Pakenham letter, 133 Jackson (1829–37); John Tyler Palmerston, Lord (also Viscount), 104, (1841–45); James Polk (1845–49); 109, 115–16, 123, 125, 137–8, James Buchanan (1857–61); 148, 149, 167–8, 170, 173 Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865) 230 Index

Prime Minister of Great Britain, see Church Missionary Society, 21–2, Lord John Russell (1846–52); 161 Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount in Liberia, 61–2, 68–71 Palmerston (1855–58; 1859–65) girls’, 41, 50, 51, 53 Prince Cain, 136 in Sierra Leone, 21–2, 49–53 Prince de Joinville, 22 Sierra Leoneans in Britain, 147 produce, 75, 86, 111, 119, 130, 135, see also colleges; universities 136, 139, 140, 156, 157 Secretary of State of the United States see also camwood; cotton; ivory; of America rice see Daniel Webster (1841–43; Province of Freedom, 18 1850–52); Abel Upshur (1843–44); John C. Calhoun Quakers, also Society of Friends, 3, (1844–45); James Buchanan 22–3, 26, 31, 97, 99, 100, 109 (1845–49); Edward Everett Quincy Adams, John, 117 (1852–53) settlement recaptives, see Liberated Africans of Fernando Po, 89–90 religion, see Christianity; churches; of Liberia, 25–9, 30–2, 56–60, identity; Islam; missionaries 119–21 rice, 44–5 of Nigeria, 110–12, 138, 149, Rio Nunez, 85, 121, 170 165–67 Rio Pongas, 84–5, 170 of Sierra Leone, 18–20, 30–2 Roberts, Jane, 72 settlers, see Liberia; Sierra Leone Roberts, Joseph Jenkins Sharp, Granville, 1, 18–20, 23 and the British, 143–5, 152–4 Shaw, Andrew, 43 business, 57, 74 Sherbro emigration, 57, 67 and American settlement, 24, and expansion, 152 27–31, 55, 118 Governor, 67, 129, 134, 143–4 and Sierra Leonean expansion, and Independence, 145 135–6, 137, 140, 163 pictures of, 72–3 and the slave trade, 83, 170 President, 74, 150 Sierra Leone Robinson, Ronald, 177 Company, 3, 7, 19, 30 Rokelle river, 86 exports, 38, 43, 45, 48, 87, 138–9, Russell, Lord John 156, 159–61, 168–9 and the African Civilization Gazette, see newspapers Society, 111–12, 118 imports, 42, 168–9 Foreign Secretary, 170 merchants, 38, 43–5, 45–6, 47, 48, Prime Minister, 148–9 49, 123, 126, 136, 153, 154, 164, Russwurm, John Brown 165, 168, 170 Governor of Maryland in Liberia, Native Association, 162 57, 74, 107, 113 population, 20, 27, 32, 38–9, 86, Trading partnership, 134 149, 159 settler identity, 33–4, 54, 82, Sanneh, Lamin, 7, 55, 61 178–9 Savage, William Henry, 36, 43–7 see also governors; identity; schools settlements; trade in Abeokuta, 167 Skipwith, Peyton, 11, 65–6, 67, 68, 93, African American, 91 129, 142, 144 Index 231 slave trade Texas, 2, 113–15, 128, 130–3, 146–7, abolition, 13, 20, 23, 115–16, 133, 178 140, 144, 152 Thompson, Thomas Perronet, 19–21 Act of 1819, 76 Thornton, Henry, 19 internal American, 116 Thornton, William, 22–3 intervention in, 9, 13, 19, 25, 36, trade, 30, 47, 131, 142, 143, 155, 158, 66, 82–90, 100–5, 117, 119–27, 168–9 152 American, 131, 136, 156 negative reports about, 82–90, British, 30, 47, 131, 142, 143, 155, 100–5, 112, 124–6, 135–6 158, 168–9 recaptives, 28, 105 factories, 59, 125, 142 The Slave Trade and Its Remedy, legitimate commerce, 1, 2–3, 10, 13, 108–9, 111, 122 19, 20, 30, 38, 45, 86, 109, 111– sources of slaves, 84 12, 116, 121, 129–30, 133–40, suppression, 83–6, 102, 121–2, 144, 149, 167, 170–1, 174 149, 157, 170–1, 177 Liberian, 58, 134–6, 143, 149, 155, transition to legitimate commerce, 156, 158, 171–2 2–3, 10, 20, 49, 100, 136, palm oil, 44, 48, 75, 89, 135, 138–9, 138, 149 143, 145, 154, 158, 159, 168–9, in West Africa, 17, 20, 152, 167–70 170 see also Naval Squadron value, 135, 138, 156, 158, 159, 169 slave traders, 43, 57, 59, 100–5, 123, Sierra Leonean, 12 148–9 slave, see slave trade see also Theodore Canot traders, 135, 172 Smeathman, Henry, 18 women, 42 South Africa, 131 transatlantic South Carolina, 63, 95 anti-slavery movement, 6, 32, steam vessels, 85, 122, 151, 157, 169 95–105, 173 see also Liberia Packet networks, 17–18, 23, 31–2 Stein, Gil, 12 rivalry, 29–31, 114, 131–2, 173 Sturge, Joseph, 3, 97, 107, 109, 112, trade, 74 113, 115, 126, 137 treaty sugar, 45, 116, 132, 137 anti-slave trade, 86, 114–16, 121–2, Sugary, 59, 151–2 132–3, 137, 167 Susu, 40 commercial, 114–15, 139–40, 153– 4, 167–8 Tambaka, 136 joint-cruising, 130, 173, 177 Tappan, Lewis, 5, 26, 112, 114, 117–18 Webster-Ashburton, 114–16, 126, tariff, see taxation 141 taxation violation, 143 customs, 139 Trent, 173, 204n duties, 48, 132, 137, 139, 143–4, Turner, Charles, 36, 83, 89, 112, 177 145, 147 Turner, Nat, 57, 95 tariff, 95, 130, 137, 139, 145, 156, Twombly & Lamson, 135 169 Tyler, John, 26, 115, 131–2, 146 Walker’s tariff, 130 Teage, Hilary, 75 universalism, 1, 34 Temne, 19, 38, 84, 137, 139 universities, see colleges Temple, Octavius, 35, 102 Uphsur, Abel, 131, 141 232 Index

Vai, 29, 64, 119 Wilberforce, William, 19–20, 30, Venn, Henry, 53, 169 81, 97 Virginia, 7, 11, 57, 63, 74, 95, 116, 129 wills, 73 Virginia Colonization Society, 58, 131 Windward coast, 84 Wise, James, 43 wages, 44, 188n women Walker, David, 4, 96–7 and anti-slavery movement, Walker, Robert, 130 114 War of 1812, 23–4, 105 domestication, 41–2, 50, wards, see apprenticeship 75 Waterloo, 37, 165 schools, 50–1 Watson, Samuel, 8 work, 41–2, 45, 50–1 Webster, Daniel, 116, 126, 141 World Anti-Slavery Convention, West, Richard, 7 113–14 West Indies, 46, 53, 85, 86, 101, 107, 109, 127, 128–9, 137, 157 Yoruba, 38, 40, 165–7, 169 emigration to, 145, 159, 164, 166, 175 interests, 87, 89 Zevin, Robert, 8