White-Footed and Deer Mice

Home , Brush mouse, Cactus mouse, Cotton mouse, Florida mouse, Golden mouse, Oldfield mouse

University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln

The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center Wildlife Damage for

July 1994

Robert M. Timm University of California, Hopland

Walter E. Howard University of California, Davis

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Timm, Robert M. and Howard, Walter E., "White-Footed and Deer Mice" (1994). The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage. 9. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/9

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Robert M. Timm Superintendent and Extension Wildlife Specialist WHITE-FOOTED AND Hopland Research and Extension Center University of California DEER MICE Hopland, California 95449

Walter E. Howard Professor Emeritus Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Conservation Biology University of California Davis, California 95616

Fig. 1. The deer mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus

Damage Prevention and Store furniture cushions, drawers, and Fumigants Control Methods other items in infrequently used None are registered. buildings in ways that reduce Trapping Exclusion nesting sites. Snap traps. Rodent-proof construction will Frightening exclude mice from buildings and Not effective. Box- (Sherman) type traps. other structures. Repellents Automatic multiple-catch traps. Use hardware cloth (1/4-inch [0.6 cm] Other Methods mesh) or similar materials to exclude Naphthalene (moth balls or flakes) mice from garden seed beds. may be effective in confined spaces. Alternative feeding: Experiments Habitat Modification Toxicants suggest that application of sunflower seed may significantly Store food items left in cabins or other Anticoagulants. reduce consumption of conifer seed infrequently used buildings in Zinc phosphide. in forest reseeding operations, rodent-proof containers. although the tests have not been followed to regeneration.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE — 1994 Cooperative Extension Division Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources University of Nebraska - Lincoln United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Animal Damage Control B-47 Great Plains Agricultural Council Wildlife Committee Identification southwestern United States to the Texas panhandle. The rock mouse is Fifteen species of native mice of the limited to Colorado, southeastern genus Peromyscus may be found in the Utah, eastern Arizona, New Mexico, United States. The two most common and the far western portion of Texas. and widely distributed species are the The white-ankled mouse is found only deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, in parts of Texas and small areas in Fig. 1) and the white-footed mouse southern New Mexico, southern (P. leucopus). This chapter will deal Oklahoma, and southern Arizona. primarily with these species. Collec- The Merriam mouse is limited to areas tively, all species of Peromyscus are within southern Arizona. The Califor- often referred to as “white-footed nia mouse ranges from San Francisco mice” or “deer mice.” Other species a Bay to northern Baja California, include the brush mouse (P. boylei), including parts of the southern San cactus mouse (P. eremicus), canyon Joaquin Valley. The Sitka mouse is mouse (P. crinitus), cotton mouse found only on certain islands of Alaska (P. gossypinus), golden mouse and British Columbia. (P. nuttalli), piñon mouse (P. truei), rock mouse (P. difficilis), white-ankled The oldfield mouse is distributed mouse (P. pectoralis), Merriam mouse across eastern Alabama, Georgia, (P. merriami), California mouse South Carolina, and Florida. The (P. californicus), Sitka mouse Florida mouse, as its name indicates, is (P. sitkensis), oldfield mouse (P. polio- found only in Florida. notus), and the Florida mouse (P. floridanus). Habitat All of the Peromyscus species have The deer mouse occupies nearly every white feet, usually white undersides, type of habitat within its range, from and brownish upper surfaces. Their b forests to grasslands. It is the most tails are relatively long, sometimes as widely distributed and abundant long as the head and body. The deer Fig. 2. Range of the deer mouse (P. maniculatus) mammal in North America. mouse and some other species have a (a) and white-footed mouse (P. leucopus) (b) in North America. distinct separation between the brown- The white-footed mouse is also widely ish back and white belly. Their tails are distributed but prefers wooded or brushy areas. It is sometimes found in also sharply bicolored. It is difficult The brush mouse is found from south- open areas. even for an expert to tell all of the western Missouri and northwestern species apart. Arkansas through Oklahoma, central The other species of Peromyscus have In comparison to house mice, white- and western Texas, New Mexico, somewhat more specialized habitat footed and deer mice have larger eyes southwestern Colorado, Utah, Ari- preferences. For example, the cactus and ears. They are considered by most zona, and California. The cactus mouse occurs in low deserts with people to be more “attractive” than mouse is limited to western Texas, sandy soil and scattered vegetation house mice, and they do not have the southern New Mexico, Arizona and on rocky outcrops. The brush characteristic mousy odor of house (except the northeast portion), and mouse lives in chaparral areas of semi- mice. All species of Peromyscus cause southern California. The canyon desert regions, often in rocky habitats. similar problems and require similar mouse occurs in western Colorado, solutions. northwestern New Mexico, northern Food Habits and western Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Range southern California, southeast Oregon, White-footed and deer mice are prima- and southwestern Idaho. rily seed eaters. Frequently they will feed on seeds, nuts, acorns, and other The deer mouse is found throughout The cotton mouse is found only in the similar items that are available. They most of North America (Fig. 2). The southeastern United States from east also consume fruits, insects and insect white-footed mouse is found through- Texas and Arkansas through south- larvae, fungi, and possibly some green out the United States east of the Rocky eastern Virginia. The golden mouse vegetation. They often store quantities Mountains except in parts of the occupies a similar range but it extends of food near their nest sites, particu- Southeast (Fig. 2). slightly farther north. larly in the fall when seeds, nuts, or The piñon mouse is found from south- acorns are abundant. western California through the

B-48 General Biology, Reproduction, and Behavior

White-footed and deer mice are mostly nocturnal with a home range of 1/3 acre to 4 acres (0.1 to 1.6 ha) or larger. A summer population density may reach a high of about 15 mice per acre (37/ha). In warm regions, reproduction may occur more or less year-round in some species. More typically, breeding occurs from spring until fall with a summer lull. This is especially true in cooler climates. Litter size varies from 1 to 8 young, but is usually 3 to 5. Fig. 3. Abandoned bird nests are frequently Females may have from 2 to 4 or more roofed and converted into white-footed mouse (P. leucopus) homes. litters per year, depending on species and climate. doned bird or squirrel nests, adding a locating and digging up buried seed. During the breeding season, female protective “roof” of twigs and other Formerly, much reforestation was white-footed and deer mice come into materials to completely enclose a attempted by direct seeding of clear- heat every fifth day until impregnated. bird’s nest (Fig. 3). Like deer mice, cut areas, but seed predation by deer The gestation period is usually 21 to 23 they nest at or just below ground level mice and white-footed mice, and by days, but may be as long as 37 days in or in buildings. other rodents and birds, caused fre- nursing females. Young are weaned quent failure in the regeneration. For when they are 2 to 3 weeks old and Damage and Damage this reason, to reestablish Douglas fir become sexually mature at about 7 to 8 Identification and other commercial timber species weeks of age. Those born in spring and today, it is often necessary to hand- summer may breed that same year. The principal problem caused by plant seedlings, despite the increased expense of this method. Mated pairs usually remain together white-footed and deer mice is their during the breeding season but may tendency to enter homes, cabins, and In mid-1993, the deer mouse (P. take new mates in the spring if both other structures that are not rodent- maniculatus) was first implicated as a survive the winter. If one mate dies, a proof. Here they build nests, store potential reservoir of a type of new one is acquired. Family groups food, and can cause considerable hantavirus responsible for an adult usually nest together through the win- damage to upholstered furniture, respiratory distress syndrome, leading ter. They do not hibernate but may mattresses, clothing, paper, or other to several deaths in the Four Corners become torpid for a few days when materials that they find suitable for area of the United States. Subsequent winter weather is severe. their nest-building activities. Nests, isolations of the virus thought respon- droppings, and other signs left by sible for this illness have been made Nests consist of stems, twigs, leaves, these mice are similar to those of house from several Western states. The roots of grasses, and other fibrous mice. White-footed and deer mice source of the disease is thought to be materials. They may be lined with fur, have a greater tendency to cache food through human contact with urine, feathers, or shredded cloth. The deer supplies, such as acorns, seeds, or feces, or saliva from infected rodents. mouse often builds its nest under- nuts, than do house mice. White- ground in cavities beneath the roots of footed and deer mice are uncommon Legal Status trees or shrubs, beneath a log or board, in urban or suburban residential areas or in a burrow made by another unless there is considerable open space White-footed and deer mice are con- rodent. Sometimes deer mice nest in (fields, parks) nearby. sidered native, nongame mammals aboveground sites such as a hollow log and receive whatever protection may or fencepost, or in cupboards and Both white-footed and deer mice occa- be afforded such species under state or furniture of unoccupied buildings. sionally dig up and consume newly planted seeds in gardens, flowerbeds, local laws. It is usually permissible to White-footed mice spend a great deal and field borders. Their excellent sense control them when necessary, but first of time in trees. They may use aban- of smell makes them highly efficient at check with your state wildlife agency.

B-49 Damage Prevention and thoroughly with a disinfectant or a baited before being left unoccupied. Control Methods solution of diluted household bleach For further information on anticoagu- prior to beginning any swepping, lant baits and their use, see the chapter vacuuming, or handling of surfaces or House Mice. Exclusion materials with which mice have had Zinc phosphide. Various zinc phos- Rodent-proof construction is the best contact. Use appropriate protective phide grain baits (1.0% to 2.0% active and most permanent method of pre- clothing, including vinyl or latex ingredient) are registered for the venting rodents from entering homes, gloves. Contact the Centers for Disease control of Peromyscus as well as voles cabins, or other structures. White- Control (CDC) Hotline for current rec- and for post-harvest application in footed and deer mice require measures ommendations when handling rodents orchards and at other sites. Zinc phos- similar to those used for excluding or cleaning areas previously infested. phide is a single-dose toxicant, and all house mice. No openings larger than formulations are Restricted Use Pesti- 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) should be left Frightening cides. Follow label directions when unmodified. Mice will gnaw to enlarge There are no methods known for suc- applying. There are few damage situa- such openings so they can gain entry. cessfully keeping white-footed or deer tions where control of white-footed or For additional information, see the mice out of structures by means of deer mice require the use of zinc chapter Rodent-proof Construction sound. Ultrasonic devices that are phosphide. Exclusion Methods and . commercially sold and advertised to Use folded hardware cloth (wire control rodents and other pests have Fumigants not proven to give satisfactory control. mesh) of 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) or smaller None are registered for white-footed to protect newly seeded garden plots. Repellents or deer mice. Because of the species’ Homemade wire-screen caps or bowls habitat, there are few situations where can be placed over seeded spots. Bury Moth balls or flakes (naphthalene) may fumigation would be practical or the edges of the wire several inches effectively repel mice from closed ar- necessary. beneath the soil. Plastic strawberry- eas where a sufficient concentration of type baskets inverted over seeded the chemical can be attained in the air. Trapping spots serve a similar purpose. These materials are not registered for Ordinary mouse snap traps, sold in the purpose of repelling mice, how- Habitat Modification most grocery and hardware stores, are ever. effective in catching white-footed and Store foodstuffs such as dry pet food, Toxicants deer mice. Bait traps with peanut grass seed, and boxed groceries left in butter, sunflower seed, or moistened cabins in rodent-proof containers. Anticoagulants. Anticoagulant baits rolled oats. For best results, use several Mouse damage can be reduced in such as warfarin, diphacinone, chloro- traps even if only a single mouse is cabins or other buildings that are used phacinone, brodifacoum, and broma- believed to be present. Set traps as you only occasionally, by removing or lim- diolone are all quite effective on would for house mice: against walls, iting nesting opportunities for mice. white-footed and deer mice, although along likely travel routes, and behind Remove padded cushions from sofas they are not specifically registered for objects. Automatic traps designed to and chairs and store them on edge, use on these species. Brodifacoum and live-capture several house mice in a separate from one another, preferably bromadiolone, unlike the other anti- single setting also are effective against off the floor. Remove drawers in coagulants, may be effective in a single white-footed and deer mice. They empty cupboards or chests and rein- feeding. If baiting in and around struc- should be checked frequently to dis- sert them upside-down, eliminating tures is done for house mice in pose of captured mice in an appropri- them as suitable nesting sites. Other accordance with label directions, ate manner: euthanize them with such techniques can be invented to white-footed and deer mice usually carbon dioxide gas in a closed outwit mice. Remember that white- will be controlled. No violation of container, or release them alive into an footed and deer mice are excellent pesticide laws should be involved appropriate location where they won’t climbers. They frequently enter build- since the “site” of bait application is cause future problems. For further ings by way of fireplace chimneys, so the same. details on trapping, see House Mice. seal off fireplaces when not in use. Behavioral differences may result in Other Methods When cleaning areas previously used white-footed and deer mice carrying by mice, take precautions to reduce off and hoarding more bait than house Recent research has revealed the possi- exposure to dust, their excreta, and mice normally do. For this reason, bility that supplemental feeding at carcasses of dead mice. Where deer loose-grain bait formulations or time of seeding can increase survival mice or related species may be secured paraffin wax bait blocks may of conifer seed by reducing predation reservoirs of hantaviruses, the area be more effective, since these cannot be by deer mice, although the tests were should be disinfected by spraying it easily carried off. Cabins should be not carried out to germination.

B-50 Sunflower seed, and a combination of Acknowledgments Kirkland, G. L., Jr., and J. N. Layne, eds. 1989. sunflower and oats, were applied Advances in the study of Peromyscus (Rodentia). Texas Tech. Univ. Press, along with Douglas fir and lodgepole Much of the information in this chapter was Lubbock. 366 pp. pine seed in ratios ranging from two to taken from Marsh and Howard (1990) and from Schwartz and Schwartz (1981). Marsh, R. E., and W. E. Howard. 1990. seven alternate foods to one conifer Vertebrate pests. Pages 771-831 in A. Mallis, seed. Significantly more conifer seeds Figures 1 through 3 from Schwartz and ed. Handbook of pest control, 7th ed. survived mouse predation for the 6- Schwartz (1981). Franzak and Foster Co., Cleveland, Ohio. and 9-week test periods than without Schwartz, C. W., and E. R. Schwartz. 1981. The the supplemental feeding. For further For Additional wild mammals of Missouri, rev. ed. Univ. details on the experimental use of this Missouri Press, Columbia. 356 pp. Information technique, see Sullivan and Sullivan Sullivan, T. P., and D. S. Sullivan. 1982a. The use (1982a and 1982b). of alternative foods to reduce lodgepole pine Burt, W. H., and R. P. Grossenheider. 1976. A seed predation by small mammals. J. Appl. field guide to the mammals, 3d ed. Ecol. 19:33-45. Economics of Damage Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 289 pp. Sullivan, T. P., and D. S. Sullivan. 1982b. and Control Clark, J. P. 1986. Vertebrate pest control Reducing conifer seed predation by use of handbook. California Dep. Food Agric. alternative foods. J. For. 80:499-500. Sacramento. 610 pp. Damage by both white-footed and Taitt, M. J. 1981. The effect of extra food on small deer mice is usually a nuisance. When Everett, R. L., and R. Stevens. 1981. Deer mouse rodent populations: I. Deer mice (Peromyscus mice destroy furniture or stored consumption of bitterbrush seed treated maniculatus). J. An. Ecol. 50:111-124. with four repellents. J. Range Manage. materials, the cost of such damage 34:393-396. depends upon the particular circum- stances. The greatest economic impact Howard, W. E., R. E. Marsh, and R. E. Cole. 1968. Food detection by deer mice using olfactory of deer mice is their destruction of rather than visual cues. An. Behav. 16:13-17. conifer seed in forest reseeding opera- Howard, W. E., R. E. Marsh, and R. E. Cole. 1970. tions. In west coast forest areas, A diphacinone bait for deer mouse control. J. Peromyscus seed predation has resulted For. 68:220-222. in millions of dollars worth of damage Editors King, J. A., ed. 1968. Biology of Peromyscus and has been documented to have Scott E. Hygnstrom (Rodentia). Am. Soc. Mammal., Spec. Publ. 2. Robert M. Timm been a serious problem since the early 539 pp. Gary E. Larson 1900s. New efficacious, cost-effective methods of reducing this seed predation are needed.

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