Covenant University Journal of Politics & Internationall Affairs. Vol. 6 No. 1, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Globalization and ‘Africanization’ of Contemporary Pop Music: Implications for History and Theory

Okoli Al Chukwuma (Ph.D)1 & Atelhe George Atelhe (Ph.D)2

1Department of Political Science, Federal University Lafia, Nigeria, 2Department of Political Science, University of Calabar, Nigeria, [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract: Globalization is the essence of the contemporary world order. As a dynamic evolutionary process, globalization identifies both with homogenization and hybridization of cultures. The process of globalization has been associated with the paradoxes of globalism and localism: the global is getting rather localized while the local is becoming increasingly globalized. The impact of globalization on aspects of world‟s civilizations has been tremendous. With reference to , the influence has been far- reaching. This influence has often been described as westernization in view of its western predilection. But whilst contemporary popular culture has been overly reflecting the dynamic of western cultural homogenization, its pop music component tends to have been corresponding to an „Africanized hybridization‟. This has been exemplified in some inter-related tendencies, viz: (i) African artists are currently dominating the pop music art worldwide (ii) African sound-scapes feature very prominently and predominantly in the music (iii) African ethno-musicological heritage find copious and profound expression in the prevailing genres. The study thus explores how globalization tends to be transforming contemporary pop music into a sort of an Africanized pattern. Relying on a discursive descriptive analysis, the study problematizes this „Africanization‟ tendency, drawing its implications for the history, theory, and praxis of cultural globalization. Capitalizing on the global exploits of Afro- pop, / and Hip-hop/Rap, the paper posits that the influence of globalization on contemporary is promising; adumbrating a prospect of an African cultural renaissance in the era. Keywords: Africanization, Cultural Globalization, Homogenization, Hybridization, Pop Music.

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1. Introduction More elaborately, Agawu and Agawu .Globalization is evidently the essence (2016:305-306) opine: of the contemporary world order. It is One can nowadays attend mega the consummation of the age-long concerts in parks, on college transformation of the world into global campuses, and in community society, based on advances in theatres and dance halls in communication, transportation, and , , Toronto, Moscow, Madrid, Melbourne, Rio, Atlanta, information technologies (Onu, 2004; and New York and observe Okoli, 2017). The world in the Twenty- thousands of (mostly) non- first Century is thus characterized by African youths dancing “the integration of humanity and the enthusiastically to African compression of temporal and spatial beats…Nowadays, recorded dimensions of human interaction African music can be heard on worldwide”, (Chirila-Donciu, n.d), such any number of radio or TV that economic, political, ecological and shows, accessed at various socio-cultural “events in one part of the internet sites, including YouTube, world quickly come to have and of course listened to in the personal listening libraries of significance for people in other parts of millions of young people strapped the world” (William, 2009: para 1). to iPods. This is nothing less than The impact of globalization has been an explosion of African music radically tremendous in all facets of the onto the world stage. contemporary society: politics, The paper examines the seeming economy, environment and culture. ascendancy of African pop music on the Within the sphere of culture, world stage in the era of globalization. globalization has brought about wide Among other things, the paper ranging global exchanges and diffusion problematizes this apparent seeming in the areas of education, sports, „Africanization‟ of contemporary pop religion, ideology, and popular culture. music against the backdrop of the The dynamics of globalization has theory, history and praxis of cultural vigorously transformed how cultural globalization. products are made, circulated and 2. Methodology, Scope and Structure consumed. It has equally transformed of the Paper how the associated capital is generated This paper is exploratory and and appropriated (Varboord & discursive. It utilizes a thematic Brandellero, 2016). approach to advance its discourse,

The transformative impact of relying wholly on theoretical and globalization in the arena of popular empirical insights generated from culture is immanently evident on the secondary sources. Within the wider field of music. From the perspective of frame of cultural globalization, the African music, Agawu and Agawu locus of the study resides in the (2016:305) interestingly observe that discursive episteme that interrogates the the impacts of globalization “have impact of globalization on the process combined to make African music more of cultural production, but also and more audible and less and less consumption. By cultural production it avoidable in many parts of the world”. is meant “the conscious creation of cultural artistic services and goods for

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Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe CUJPIA (2018) 6(2) 41-53 both purely aesthetic and personal framework of the paper. Next is the purposes, and commercial purposes examination of the nexus between (Breton1982, cited in Dube, globalization and contemporary pop 1996:99).The crux of the globalization- music from the standpoint of the rising cultural production discourse is to profile of some African popular musical understand how cultural flows (cultural genres on the world stage. This is products and capital) arising from followed by a section on the globalization emanate and circulate implications of the outcome of the from point of production to that of analysis for history, theory and praxis. consumption. More pertinently, the The last section is the conclusion, discourse is also concerned with which winds up the paper. ascertaining the interests of who are 3. Conceptual Clarifications served in the process (cf. Deloumeaux, Three basic terms constitute the 2016). conceptual thrust of this papers namely

As a veritable example of cultural globalization, Africanization and goods, pop music nicely fits into the popular music. This section considers cultural production schemata, within the these concepts in turn in an effort to wider remit of cultural globalization situate their operational meanings in the discourse (Deloumeaux, 2016).So, to context of the present discourse. properly appreciate and situate the stake 3.1 Globalization: This refers to the of Africa in the globalizing arena of pop transformation of the world into a music, it is germane to ask fundamental global society, characterized by questions regarding whose identity, interconnectivity and inter-dependence values, and/or interests are being (cf. Onu, 2004). According to McLean promoted thereof. Here, the analytical and McMillan:

posers adverted to in Bender (2001) are Globalization is about the universal found opposite: i. Who are the process offset of processes which ambassadors? ii. In what language do generate a multiplicity of linkages they communicate? iii. What images of and inter-connections which African/Black culture convey? iv. What transcend the states and societies stereotypes do they further or dispel? v. which make up the modern world In what ways is Africa beneficiaries of system. It involves a dramatic the global exposure and visibility? increase in the density and depth of economic, ecological and societal The aforementioned questions, among interdependence, with „density‟ others, would form the points of referring to the increased number, reference in the course of the paper. range and scope of cross border The remainder of the paper is broadly transactions; and „depth‟ to the organized in five sections. Following degree to which that interdependence the foregoing is a section on conceptual affects and is affected by, the ways in clarifications, whereby the key terms which societies are organized domestically (2003:223). that constitute the conceptual thrust of the paper are considered in an effort to Globalization is characterized by the situate their operational meanings. This dynamics and dialectics of spatial and is in turn followed by a theoretical temporal integration on the worldwide discourse on globalization and culture, and regional scales (Penalver, 2002; designed to dovetail into the theoretical Chirila-Donciu, n.d). It is a dynamic

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Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe CUJPIA (2018) 6(2) 41-53 and complex phenomenon with contemporaneous music with broad, multifaceted expressions in the realms immediate and implicitly transient of politics, economy, environment, and attractiveness which appeals to a mass culture (Okoli, 2017). This paper is audience. Such music is quite receptive concerned with the cultural dimension to people since they are familiar with its of globalization, which has to do with idioms and does not require guided the socio-cultural manifestations of the listening”. globalizing trend. Pop music is an important aspect of the 3.2 Africanization: The concept of contemporary global popular culture „Africanization‟ is applied in its industry (Throsby, 2002; Achtenberg, et problematic sense in this paper. In this al, n.d). It is generally characterized by regard, it denotes an attempt to the following: i. currency and indigenize something to an African contemporaneous outlook ii. mass- mode (Brizuela-Garcia, 2006). audience appeal iii. trans-generational Africanization, therefore, means the orientation iv. transient attractiveness v. cultural process whereby non-African familiar and fashionable idioms vi practices, concepts, process, or systems urban and cosmopolitan outlook, etc. are indigenized or adapted to an African 4. Perspectives on Cultural modus. Contemporary understanding of Globalization: Issues and Theories „Africanization‟ owes a lot to the Globalization is characterized by contributions of Africanist historians expansive and extensive cross–cultural and philosophers who use the concept exchanges and diffusion (Delonmeaux, to represent the effort towards 2016). The transnational dynamism of reclaiming the true African origins and globalization makes is possible that essences from the adulterating heritage cultural products produced in sub- of colonialism and external civilization national, national and regional localities (Maake, 2008; Franke et al, 2008; are circulated and consumed globally Scuttner, 2010). (Dube, 1996; Salm, 2010). Cultural Extant scholarship on „Africanization‟ globalization, therefore, “implies that is fraught with deep-seated cultural exchange between countries philosophical cum academic polemics expands and that countries around the and cynicism. The tendency is depicted globe increasingly enjoy foreign by Maake (2008:24), who opines that cultural goods besides their domestic “Africanization is an inchoate, if not a production (Achtenberg, n. d: 5). desirable state, and has to be seen in the The international circulation and clear perspective of history before we appropriation of cultural goods, can even contemplate a tropism services, and capital in keeping with the forwards”. imperative of globalization is a 3.3 Popular music: Simply put, dialectical process that yields popular music is the genre of music that contradictory outcomes. Here, the local appeals to a mass audience within a often get globalized and the global contemporaneous time and space correspondingly get localized; all in (Taylor, 1997; Onyeji, 2002; Shonekan, varying dimensions and degrees (cf. 2012; Okuyade, 2012). According to Onu, 2004; Okoli, 2017). More Ojukwu, Obielozie and Esimone importantly, this dynamic process (2016:117), “Popular music refers to all makes it possible for civilizations to

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Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe CUJPIA (2018) 6(2) 41-53 negotiate, infiltrate, subvert and negate Yue-yu, 2005). But this „give and take‟, each other in such a manner that although largely reciprocal, is not typifies the „syntheses and antitheses of necessarily mutually beneficial to all civilizations. This trend has been nations. In effect, the process and variously characterized in the extant outcomes of such exchange are never literature as Americanization, even (cf. Penalver, 2002). Scholars Africanization, Westernization, de- have over the years sought to come to Westernization, and the like (Maultsby, terms with how the process of cultural 2005; Iwabuchi, 2010). globalization impact on nations, and

The cross-cultural exchanges that their endeavours in this regard have characterize cultural globalization are a yielded three important theoretical matter of „give and take‟ (Wang and perspectives (see Table 1).

Table 1: Theoretical Perspectives on Cultural Globalization Theoretical Perspective Highlight(s) Homogenization One-way cultural flow from the global core to the periphery, leading to Western cultural hegemonization or imperialism.

Glocalization or Hybridization Global cultures are not unilaterally imposed worldwide but are actively adapted according to local circumstances.

Multiculturalization/Multiculturalism International cultural flows lead to cultural blend or co-existence in such a manner that there are no longer distinctions between the dominant cultural core and the dominated periphery. Source: Achtenberg, P. et al (n. d: 5).

All the above theoretical perspectives is in the light of this fact that the paper are relevant in explaining Africa‟s appropriates the theory of cultural experience with cultural globalization. hybridization as its analytical While the theory of homogenization anchorage. forecloses the possibilities of African 5. Globalization and the cultural arrival on the global stage, the Africanizing Tendency in theory of multiculturalism obscures the Contemporary Music innate cultural imperialism of That African music is gaining a global globalization. Together, the two cannot popularity is a truism. More plausible explain the potential and/or fundamentally, it is a platitude that this prospects and African-biased cultural trend is associated with globalization; renaissance in the arena of hence “it is not surprising that African contemporary pop music. The music has become a global perspective of this paper aligns with the phenomenon in the twenty-first century theory of (Agawu & Agawu, 2016:5). There are „glocalization‟/‟hybridization‟, for it important influences that account for recognizes such an affirmative the rising profile and popularity of possibility, however problematically. It African music and pop music in

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Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe CUJPIA (2018) 6(2) 41-53 particular, on the world‟s stage. These (Rockwell, 1981). So, in addition to factors are (i) the Afro-Diaspora Afro-Diaspora influences, globalization connections (ii) the Information and of African music and, „arguably‟, Communications Technology‟s (ICT‟s) „Africanization‟ of global music has revolution, and (iii) increased been promoted by explosions in ICTs international migration and networking. and transnational migration (Letts,

Regarding the Afro-Diaspora 2003). ICTs have bolstered the connection, Agawu and Agawu (2016: portability, transmissibility and 307) observe that significant retentions visibility of African music, thereby of African music could be found on the promoting its global reach and “sounds capes of many nations.” These patronage. Allied to this is the dynamics nations include those of the Americas of transnational migration and and Caribbean whose musical forms networking which affords an enabling bear enormous retentions of African social capital for the promotion of heritage, namely “Argentina, Brazil, African music globally (Muehrer, Chile, Cuba, Dominican, Republic 2012).

Haiti, Jamaica, Peru, Puerto Rico, From the foregoing, it can be deduced United States of America, and that African music is actively Uruguay” (Green, 2015: 5). The responding to the imperative of musical traditions of these nations globalization in specific ways. But today, to a large extent, bear “African while it is simple and logical that roots resulting from the shared history African pop music is globalizing based of the African slave trade executed on the indicators highlighted in the under European colonialism” (Green, preceding paragraphs, it is problematic 2015:1). to establish that contemporary pop

Prominent examples of the Africanized music is Africanizing. Suffice it, musical genres include Reggae in however, to note that the presupposition Jamaica, Samba in Brazil, and Rumba of this paper is that contemporary pop in Cuba and Calypso in Trinidad music bears Africanizing tendencies. As (Agawu & Agawu, 2016). The geo- submitted by Wilber (2017: para10) cultural spread and dominance of “Almost every current popular musical Africanized musical forms in the genre has roots in earlier musical styles Hemisphere and West Indies has been created by African American historically significant. According to musicians”. In the subsections that Green (2015:3) “The music of the follow, attempt is made, however Americas, African, Caribbean and discursively, to pursue this argument African-America (North-South) towards a „tentative‟ conclusion from represents a triumph of reinvention of the examples of Afro-pop, the self, a transformation of culture reggae/ragga, and hip-hop/rap. emerging from the crudest conditions 5.1 Afro-Pop: This refers to a variety yet capable of maintaining an African of contemporary African music genres Identity”. that are characterized by dynamic,

The advent of globalization has further electric-mastered rhythm and urban consolidated the African heritage of the idioms (cf. Shonekan, 2012). This musical expressions of the derives from regionally dominant music contemporary world pop music styles, such as the West African

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Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe CUJPIA (2018) 6(2) 41-53 , East African taraab, and The influence of Afro-pop on Central African Soukus or Makosa. contemporary world‟s musical terrain Contemporary Afro-pop is has been so dramatic and immense. The characterized by the articulation of art form has produced a corpus of modern African and Afro-American world-class celebrities who make waves beats (cf. Charry, 2012). As a mode of on globally competitive music charts in musical expression, Afro-pop is the West. A recent case in point is characterized by the tendency towards Nigeria‟s D‟banj whose global hit titled “linking the past to present, merging “Oliver Twist” reached number two (no African and non-African styles, and 2) on the UK R & B chart in 2012 highlighting artists who reside in (MsAfropolitan, 2013). Some other multiple localities and manage a mosaic reigning Afro-pop artists who are of cultural resources in the age of currently globally revered are globalization” (Salm, 2010:1328). highlighted in Table 2 alongside their global following.

Table 2: Some Popular Contemporary African Musicians & Twitter Following Artiste/Country Twitter Remarks Following Amr Diab/ 3,454,405 Amr Abd El-Basset Abd El-Azeez Diab, is an Egyptian popstar with a B.A in Music from the Academy of Arts. Amr Diab has received 7 Awards and with over three million followers on twitter.

Hamza Namira/ Egypt 3,094,216 Namira is an Egyptian pop singer, songwriter, instrumentalist and a political activist. The subject matter of his songs cover Arabic modern culture, social and humanitarian issues. Namira gained prominence in the wake of the 2011 Egypt revolution that led to the ousting of President . In 2014, his songs were banned from state radio stations from (for) being critical of the Egyptian government.

Saber Rebai/ 1,822,234 Saber Rebai is a Tunisian Arab singer and composer with his popularity spanning across the Middle East and some Europe. Saber Rebai has released a total of 10 and has been on tours across Europe, USA and Australia.

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Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe CUJPIA (2018) 6(2) 41-53

Wizkid Ayo Balogun/ 1,527,063 Ayodeji Ibrahim Balogun, who‟s better Nigeria known by his stage name, Wizkid, is a Nigerian popstar. He bagged the BET Awards in 2012 along with other plaques on the strength of two solo albums.

Salma 749,847 Salma Rachid is a Moroccan vocalist. She Rachid/ gained prominence after participating in the second season of the where she made it to the top five. Tiwatope Savage/ 1,014,110 Tiwa Savage is an R&B singer and Nigeria songwriter. In 2006, she contested in the UK edition of the X Factor and finished in the final 24.

. Source: Fadoju, L. (2015); https://techcabal.com/2015/04/30/spinlet-index-who-are-the-most- popular-african-musicians-on-twitter/

African pop artists have excelled in following its internationalization and terms of global celebrations and popularity in the Americas, Europe and collaborations. Through such African. Of this transformation, Green international engagements, they have (2015:5) remarks that “reggae been able to promote their career, but emanating from the Island of Jamaica in also the African heritage on the global the Caribbean resounds and is actively stage. In this respect, “migrant cultivated everywhere from Hawaii to musicians on the African continent have Malawi.”

established intricate network between By mid 1980s, “an electronic, techno- Europe and home, often returning from pop-based variation of reggae, known abroad to re-energize in their local as ragamuffin or ragga” had emerged communities…” Whether performing at (Belague, 2009: para 5). Over the years, home in the continent or abroad, Afro- reggae and ragga have dominated pop artists celebrate the essences of world‟s music stage, with artists like African identity and culture UB40, Shabba Ranks, Shaggy, and (Nwadigwe, Chouala, Omenya, Kah, Sean Paul topping Popular Music Ayele & Nwangi, 2017). Embedded in Charts and winning coveted awards. their celebrations and performances are The adaptive and subversive character conscious and unconscious projection of reggae music has made it stood the of aspects of African identity and test of time, influencing other genres of heritage. music without losing its essence and 5.2 Reggae/Ragga: Reggae music is originality fundamentally. Today, one of the most authentic and most elements of reggae could be found in vibrant musical retentions in the Afro-pop, Afro-Latino Hip-hop, African Diaspora. Originating from the American Hip-hop, and like (Bender, Caribbean Islands, reggae bears copious 2001; Dennis, 2006). Other world elements of African roots. Reggae music forms, such as dance-hall, gospel music became a dominant genre of and country, have also been influenced contemporary world music in the 1970s by the lyrical and rhythmic patterns of

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Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe CUJPIA (2018) 6(2) 41-53 reggae. The Afro-centric heritage and In spite of the above downside, rap character of reggae/ragga has been music has been a valuable „African‟ sustained amidst the dynamics of contribution to the contemporary pop cultural globalization to which it has music (Sullivan, 2001; Hilbruner, been exposed. 2015). This contribution must be

5.3 Hip-Hop/Rap: This is a form of appreciated in the light of its historical music that originated in New York in African-American connection. But the 1970s, following the creative while the Americas have presented the endeavours of immigrants of Caribbean enabling promotional space and capital, ancestry. Overtime, the music form Africa largely remains the fountain of evolved into a subculture that the associated ethno-musicological influences. After all: encompasses street-life styles, break dancing, , to mention but a few. America owes much, if not all, of The African roots of Hip-hop are its musical innovation to African attested to by its Caribbean origins. Americans. Without the musical Over the years, the music art has been contributions of African Americans, we wouldn‟t have dominated by Afro-American most of the popular music styles youngsters who use the medium to we know today. Everything from celebrate their black history and identity rock to hip-hop to bluegrass has (Bender, 2001; Dennis, 2006). been influenced by traditional

Contemporary rap music in the West is, African music styles and the more or less, an „identity movement‟. It music created by African slaves has promoted “black visibility” in America. (Wilber, 2017: para 1) (Bender, 2001:730), in a socio-cultural milieu where African youths have often 6. Implications for History, Theory suffered stereotyped identity bashing. and Praxis But besides providing a veritable The state of contemporary pop music platform for “black visibility, it has also could be linked to a cultural panorama provided a pretext for anti-social characterized by dynamic and activities, such as gangsterism, drug dialectical adaptations in the fashion of abuse, street violence, hooliganism, „give and take‟ (Wang and Yueh-yu, vulgarism, queer living. A typical 2005). Of this scenario, Charry instance of this disservice is the issue of (2012:166) succinctly notes that street-identity divide and violence. In “everywhere there is a mixture, respect of this, Dennis (2006:730) collision, and collusion (citing comments that: Stapleton and May 1985). The

As much as rap music has done to globalizing context and imperative of create Black visibility, it has contemporary pop music is such that nonetheless incited violence and dealt sundry musical genres „intermix‟ and Blacks a setback by creating of redefine one another in fundamental mimicking Black identity divides on the manner. In this context, “Africa impacts geographic (East v. West Coast), on the West and the West impacts on gender/power (“pimps” and “Hoes”) Africa” (Stapleton and May 1985, cited in Charry, 2012:166). and other (“Players” and Playa Haters”) lines. African pop music artists are utilizing the platform and opportunities offered

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Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe CUJPIA (2018) 6(2) 41-53 by globalization to promote and project expression in a fact of society, African contents through their songs including the polity, economy, ecology and performances. Accordingly, to and culture. Globalization is Dennis (2006: iii) observes that “these characterized by historical dynamics performances are strategically and dialectics. The dialectical essence appropriating and combining „foreign‟ of globalization is best understood with elements together with „local‟ ones to reference to the apparent unity and celebrate their cultures, redefine conflict of its forces. While cultural localities and accentuate their globalization has often presented „blackness‟”. In this process of cross- pretexts for „clash of civilizations‟, it cultural diffusion, an aspect of African has nonetheless provided veritable music art has gained international, even avenues for cross-cultural diffusion and global, recognition, acceptance and hybridization worldwide. Although it is dominance. Although pessimists have plausible to argue that globalization predicted that African music would lose brings about transnational cultural its essence in the process, it has been assimilation, it is highly contentious as posited that given its strongly to whether the process is beneficial to entrenched and resilient Africanist all nations. foundations, African music “will not Contrary to the views of against and lose its identity” (Charry, 2012:167). skeptics, who posit that globalization is

The strong expression of Afro-biased almost entirely inimical to Africa, this characteristics in contemporary pop paper posits that the impact of music points to the fact that globalization on Africa‟s popular music globalization is benefitting Africa after has been potentially positive and all. This is in contradistinction to the promising. The paper demonstrated dominant cynical standpoint to the how contemporary African pop music effect that Africa is always at the forms have gained worldwide currency, receiving end of the globalization recognition, acceptance and ascendancy process (Iwabuchi, 2010). More under the influence of globalization. importantly, the outcome of the study Arguing from the arrival of Afro-pop, tends to align with the “hybridization” reggae/ragga and hip-hop/rap on the perspective of cultural globalization world‟s musical stage, the paper that “global cultures are not unilaterally submitted on the note that imposed, but are actively negotiated contemporary pop music may as well and adapted according to local be responding rather progressively to circumstances” (Achtenberg et al, n.d: the logic and dynamics of globalization. 5). Comprehending this trend in its historical significance would require a 7. Conclusion more rigorous empirical study beyond Globalization is the essence of the the current exploratory effort. contemporary world order. It is a fundamental force that has found

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