Carnegie Institution of Washington
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
YEAR BOOK No. 46 July 1, 1946—June 30, 1947
With Administrative Reports through December 12, 1947
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON WASHINGTON, D. C. 1947 THI LORD BALTIMORE PRESS, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND CONTENTS PAGES OFFICERS AND STAFF v—x ORGANIZATION, PLAN, AND SCOPE xi ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION xii-xiv BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION xv-xix ABSTRACT OF MINUTES OF THE FORTY-NINTH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF TRUS- TEES xxi REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE xxiii-xxvii REPORT OF AUDITORS xxviii-xxxvi
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 7-/5
REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES AND CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES Astronomy Mount Wilson Observatory 3- 25 Terrestrial Sciences Geophysical Laboratory 27- 41 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 43- 81 Special Projects Frank T. Gucker, Jr 83 Biological Sciences Division of Plant Biology 85-106 Department of Embryology 107-121 Department of Genetics 123-170 Special Projects Ross G. Harrison 171-172 Historical Research Division of Historical Research 173-202
BIBLIOGRAPHY 203
INDEX 205-211
PRESIDENT AND TRUSTEES PRESIDENT VANNEVAR BUSH BOARD OF TRUSTEES WALTER S. GIFFORD, Chairman ELIHU ROOT, JR., Vice-Chairman LEWIS H. WEED, Secretary JAMES F. BELL FRANK B. JEWETT ELIHU ROOT, JR. ROBERT WOODS BLISS ERNEST O. LAWRENCE HENRY R. SHEPLEY LINDSAY BRADFORD ALFRED L. LOOMIS RICHARD P. STRONG FREDERIC A. DELANO ROSWELL MILLER CHARLES P. TAFT HOMER L. FERGUSON HENRY S. MORGAN JUAN T. TRIPPE W. CAMERON FORBES SEELEY G. MUDD JAMES W. WADSWORTH WALTER S. GIFFORD HENNING W. PRENTIS, JR. FREDERIC C. WALCOTT HERBERT HOOVER GORDON S. RENTSCHLER LEWIS H. WEED Executive Committee WALTER S. GIFFORD, Chairman ROBERT WOODS BLISS GORDON S. RENTSCHLER FREDERIC C. WALCOTT VANNEVAR BUSH ELIHU ROOT, JR. LEWIS H. WEED HENRY R. SHEPLEY Finance Committee LINDSAY BRADFORD, Chairman ALFRED L. LOOMIS HENRY S. MORGAN ELIHU ROOT, JR. HENNING W. PRENTIS, JR. Auditing Committee FREDERIC A. DELANO, Chairman HOMER L. FERGUSON JAMES W. WADSWORTH Nominating Committee FRANK B. JEWETT, Chairman WALTER S. GIFFORD HENRY S. MORGAN HENNING W. PRENTIS, JR.
STANDING COMMITTEES Committee on Astronomy SEELEY G. MUDD, Chairman ROSWELL MILLER ELIHU ROOT, JR. JUAN T. TRIPPE Committee on Terrestrial Sciences
FRANK B. JEWETT, Chairman HOMER L. FERGUSON ERNEST O. LAWRENCE FREDERIC C. WALCOTT Committee on Biological Sciences LEWIS H. WEED, Chairman JAMES F. BELL ALFRED L. LOOMIS RICHARD P. STRONG HENNING W. PRENTIS, JR. Committee on Historical Research HENRY R. SHEPLEY, Chairman ROBERT WOODS BLISS RICHARD P. STRONG JAMES W. WADSWORTH CHARLES P. TAFT FORMER PRESIDENTS AND TRUSTEES PRESIDENTS
DANIEL COIT GILMAN, 1902—1904 ROBERT SIMPSON WOODWARD, 1904—1920 JOHN CAMPBELL MERRIAM, President 1921—1938; President Emeritus 1939—1945
TRUSTEES ALEXANDER AGASSIZ 1904-05 SETH LOW 1902-16 GEORGE J. BALDWIN 1925-27 WAYNE MACVEAGH 1902-07 THOMAS BARBOUR 1934-46 ANDREW J. MELLON 1924-37 JOHN S. BILLINGS 1902—13 DARIUS O. MILLS 1902-09 ROBERT S. BROOKINGS 1910-29 S. WEIR MITCHELL 1902-14 JOHN L. CADWALADER 1903-14 ANDREW J. MONTAGUE 1907-35 WILLIAM W. CAMPBELL 1929-38 WILLIAM W. MORROW 1902-29 JOHN J. CARTY 1916-32 WILLIAM CHURCH OSBORN i927-34 WHITEFOORD R. COLE *925-34 JAMES PARMELEE 1917-31 CLEVELAND H. DODGE *9°3-23 WM. BARCLAY PARSONS 1907-32 WILLIAM E. DODGE 1902—03 STEWART PATON 1916—42 CHARLES P. FENNER 1914-24 GEORGE W. PEPPER 1914-19 SIMON FLEXNER 1910—14 JOHN J. PERSHING 1930-43 WILLIAM N. FREW 1902-15 HENRY S. PRITCHETT 1906-36 LYMAN J. GAGE 1902-12 ELIHU ROOT 1902-37 CASS GILBERT 1924-34 JULIUS ROSENWALD 1929-31 FREDERICK H. GILLETT 1924-35 MARTIN A. RYERSON 1908-28 DANIEL C. GILMAN 1902-08 THEOBALD SMITH 1914-34 JOHN HAY 1902-05 JOHN C. SPOONER 1902—07 MYRON T. HERRICK 1915-29 WILLIAM BENSON STOREY 1924-39 ABRAM S. HEWITT 1902-03 WILLIAM H. TAFT 1906-15 HENRY L. HIGGINSON 1902-19 WILLIAM S. THAYER 1929-32 ETHAN A. HITCHCOCK 1902—09 CHARLES D. WALCOTT 1902-27 HENRY HITCHCOCK 1902-02 HENRY P. WALCOTT 1910-24 WILLIAM WIRT HOWE 1903-09 WILLIAM H. WELCH 1906-34 CHARLES L. HUTCHINSON 1902-04 ANDREW D. WHITE 1902-03 WALTER A. JESSUP 1938-44 EDWARD D. WHITE 1902-03 SAMUEL P. LANGLEY 1904-06 HENRY WHITE 1913-27 CHARLES A. LINDBERGH I934~39 GEORGE W. WICKERSHAM 1909-36 WILLIAM LINDSAY 1902-09 ROBERT S. WOODWARD 1905-24 HENRY CABOT LODGE 1914-24 CARROLL D. WRIGHT 1902—08
Besides the names enumerated above, the following were ex-officio members of the Board of Trustees under the original charter, from the date of organization until April 28, 1904: the President of the United States, the President of the Senate, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the President of the National Academy of Sciences. STAFF OF INVESTIGATORS FOR THE YEAR 1947 ASTRONOMY MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY 813 Santa Barbara Street, Pasadena 4, California Organized in 1904; George E. Hale, Director 1904-1923, Honorary Director 1923-1936; Walter S. Adams, Director 1924-1945. IRA S. BOWEN, Director ROBERT B. KING WALTER BAADE PAUL W. MERRILL HAROLD D. BABCOCK RUDOLPH MINKOWSKI HORACE W. BABCOCK SETH B. NICHOLSON fTHEODORE DUNHAM, JR. EDISON PETTIT JOSEPH O. HICKOX ROBERT S. RICHARDSON EDISON HOGE ROSCOE F. SANFORD EDWIN P. HUBBLE OLIN C. WILSON MILTON L. HUMASON RALPH E. WILSON ALFRED H. JOY
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY 2801 Upton Street, N.W., Washington 8, D. C. Organized in 1906, opened in 1907; Arthur L. Day, Director 1909—1936 LEASON H. ADAMS, Director fEUGENE POSNJAK NORMAN L. BOWEN *HOWARD S. ROBERTS JOHN S. BURLEW JOHN F. SCHAIRER GORDON L. DAVIS f GEORGE TUNELL JOSEPH L. ENGLAND O. FRANK TUTTLE ROY W. GORANSON WILLIAM D. URRY JOSEPH W. GREIG EMANUEL G. ZIES fEARL INGERSON Visiting Investigators FRANK C. KRACEK FELIX CHAYES GEORGE W. MOREY MACKENZIE LAWRENCE KEITH f CHARLES S. PIGGOT TH. G. SAHAMA
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM Broad Branch Road, N.W., Washington 15, D. C. Organized in 1904; Louis A. Bauer, Director 1904-1929; John A. Fleming, Acting Director 1929-1934, Director 1935—1946. MERLE A. TUVE, Director WILLIAM J. ROONEY PHILIP H. ABELSON WALTER E. SCOTT LLOYD V. BERKNER f STUART L. SEATON DEAN B. COWIE fKENNETH L. SHERMAN SCOTT E. FORBUSH WILLIAM F. STEINER fALBERT A. GlESECKE, JR. HOWARD E. TATEL OLIVER H. GISH OSCAR W. TORRESON NORMAN P. HEYDENBURG ERNEST H. VESTINE ELLIS A. JOHNSON GEORGE R. WAIT fMARK W. JONES HARRY W. WELLS PAUL G. LEDIG Visiting Investigator WILFRED C. PARKINSON HUGH H. DARBY RICHARD B. ROBERTS * Deceased January 30, 1947. f Resigned in 1947. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY Central Laboratory, Stanford, California Desert Laboratory, opened in 1903, became headquarters of Department of Botanical Research in 1905. Name changed to Laboratory for Plant Physiology in 1923; reorganized in 1928 as Division of Plant Biology, including Ecology. Herman A. Spoehr, Chairman 1927-1930 and 1931-1947.
C. STACY FRENCH, Director HAROLD W. MILNER JENS C. CLAUSEN JAMES H. C. SMITH WILLIAM M. HIESEY HERMAN A. SPOEHR DAVID D. KECK HAROLD H. STRAIN
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY Wolfe and Madison Streets, Baltimore 5, Maryland Organized in 1914; Franklin P. Mall, Director 1914-1917; George L. Streeter, Director 1918-1940
GEORGE W. CORNER, Director SAMUEL R. M. REYNOLDS ROBERT K. BURNS DAVID B. TYLER LOUIS B. FLEXNER fWALTER S. WILDE CHESTER H. HEUSER, Curator of the Embryological Collection
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New Yor\ Station for Experimental Evolution, opened in 1904, combined with Eugenics Record Office in 1921 to form Department of Genetics. Charles B. Davenport, Director 1904-1934; Albert F. Blakeslee, Director 1935-I94I- MILISLAV DEMEREC, Director Research Associates BERWIND P. KAUFMANN ERNEST W. CASPARI EDWIN C. MACDOWELL "(-HOWARD B. NEWCOMBE BARBARA MCCLINTOCK MARGARET R. MCDONALD
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 10 Frisbie Place, Cambridge 38, Massachusetts Department of Historical Research organized in 1903; Andrew C. McLaughlin, Director 1903-1905; J. Franklin Jameson, Director 1905—1928. In 1930 this Department was incorporated as a section of United States history in a new Division of Historical Research,
ALFRED V. KIDDEE, Chairman KARL RUPPERT f ROBERT S» CHAMBERLAIN GEORGE SARTON MARGARET W. HARRISON, Editor ANNA O. SHEPARD SYLVANUS G. MORLET EDWIN M. SHOOK EAEL H. MORRIS A. LEDYARD SMITH ALEXANDER PQGO ROBERT E. SMITH HARRY E. D. POLLOCK GUSTAV STEOMSVIK TATIANA PlOSKOURIAKOFF J. ERIC S. THOMPSON RALPH L. ROYS +ALFONSO VILLA R. t Resigned in 1947.
¥111 RESEARCH ASSOCIATES
RESEARCH ASSOCIATES ENGAGED IN POST-RETIREMENT STUDIES
WALTER S. ADAMS, Astronomy HERBERT E. MERWIN, Geophysics GEORGE L. STREETER, Embryology
RESEARCH ASSOCIATES CONNECTED WITH OTHER INSTITUTIONS V. BJERKNES (University o£ Oslo), Meteorology JOSEPH C. BOYCE (New York University), Physics RALPH W. CHANEY (University of California), Paleobotany TH. DOBZHANSKY (Columbia University) Genetics JOSEPH GILLMAN (Johannesburg Medical School), Embryology FRANK T. GUCKER, JR. (Indiana University), Chemistry Ross G. HARRISON (Yale University), Biology ARTHUR T. HERTIG (Boston Lying-in Hospital), Embryology E. A. LOWE (The Institute for Advanced Study), Paleography ROBERT REDFIELD (University of Chicago), Anthropology FRANCE V. SCHOLES (University of New Mexico), History JOEL STEBBINS (University of Wisconsin), Astronomy SOL TAX (University of Chicago), Ethnology
IX OFFICES OF ADMINISTRATION
Office of the President
VANNEVAR BUSH, President PAUL A. SCHERER, Executive Officer SAMUEL CALLAWAY, President's Secretary
Office of Publications and Public Relations
FREDERICK G. FASSETT, JR., Director AILENE J. BAUER, Assistant to the Director DOROTHY R. SWIFT, Editor
Adviser on International Scientific Relations
JOHN A. FLEMING
Office of the Bursar
EARLE B. BIESECKER, Bursar J. STANLEY LINGEBACH, Assistant Bursar JAMES F. SULLIVAN, Assistant to the Bursar
Investment Office (New Yor\ City)
PARKER MONROE, Investment Officer RICHARD F. F. NICHOLS, Assistant Investment Officer ORGANIZATION, PLAN, AND SCOPE The Carnegie Institution of Washington was founded by Andrew Carnegie, January 28, 1902, when he gave to a board of trustees an endowment of registered bonds of the par value of ten million dollars. To this fund an addition of two million dollars was made by Mr. Carnegie on December 10, 1907, and a further addition of ten million dollars was made by him on January 19, 1911. Further- more, the income of a reserve fund of about three million dollars, accumulated in accordance with the founder's specifications in 1911, is now available for general use, and in recent years a total of ten million dollars has been paid by the Carnegie Corporation of New York as increase to the Endowment Fund of the Institution. The Institution was originally organized under the laws of the District of Columbia and incorporated as the Carnegie Institution, articles of incorporation having been executed on January 4, 1902. The Institution was reincorporated, however, by an act of the Congress of the United States, approved April 28, 1904, under the title of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. (See existing Articles of Incorporation on following pages.) Organization under the new Articles of Incorporation was effected May 18, 1904, and the Institution was placed under the control of a board of twenty-four trustees, all of whom had been members of the original corporation. The trustees meet annually in December to consider the affairs of the Institution in general, the progress of work already undertaken, and the initiation of new projects, and to make the necessary appropriations for the ensuing year. During the intervals between the meetings of the trustees the affairs of the Institution are conducted by an Executive Committee chosen by and from the Board of Trustees and acting through the President of the Institution as chief executive officer. The Articles of Incorporation of the Institution declare in general "that the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind." The Institution is essentially an operating organization. It attempts to advance fundamental research in fields not normally covered by the activities of other agencies, and to concentrate its attention upon specific problems, with the idea of shifting attack from time to time to meet the more pressing needs of research as they develop with increase of knowledge. Some of these problems require the collaboration of several investigators, special equipment, and continuous effort. Many close relations exist among activities of the Institution, and a type of organization representing investigations in astronomy, in terrestrial sciences, in biological sciences, and in historical research has been effected. Conference groups on various subjects have played a part in bringing new vision and new methods to bear upon many problems. Constant efforts are made to facilitate interpretation and application of results of research activities o£ the Institution, and an Office of Publications and Public Relations provides means for appropriate publication* ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION PUBLIC NO. 260. An Act to incorporate the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the persons following being persons who are now trustees of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, their associates and successors duly chosen, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate by the name of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession, with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. SEC. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind; and in particular— (a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any department of science, literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments, universities, colleges, technical schools, learned societies, and individuals. (b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research. (c) To publish and distribute documents. (d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings, and acquire and maintain a library. (e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such building or buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation. (f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the objects of the institution, with full power, however, to the trustees hereinafter appointed and their successors from time to time to modify the conditions and regulations under which the work shall be carried on, so as to secure the application of the funds in the manner best adapted to the conditions of the time, provided that the objects of the corporation shall at all times be among the foregoing or kindred thereto. SEC. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corporation and the control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested in a board of trustees, twenty-two in number, to be composed of the following individuals: Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcoc\> Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, who shall constitute the first board of trustees. The board of trustees shall have power from time to time to increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned by death, resignation, or otherwise shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner as the by-laws ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION shall prescribe; and the persons so elected shall thereupon become trustees and also members of the said corporation. The principal place of business of the said corporation shall be the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia. SEC. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold, and administer the securities, funds, and property so transferred by said Andrew Carnegie to the trustees of the Carnegie Institution and such other funds or property as may at any time be given, devised, or bequeathed to them, or to such corporation, for the purposes of the trust; and with full power from time to time to adopt a common seal, to appoint such officers, members of the board of trustees or otherwise, and such employees as may be deemed necessary in carrying on the business of the corporation, at such salaries or with such remuneration as they may deem proper; and with full power to adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules or regulations as may be necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction of the business of the corporation; and with full power and discretion to deal with and expend the income of the corporation in such manner as in their judgment will best promote the objects herein set forth and in general to have and use all powers and authority necessary to promote such objects and carry out the purposes of the donor. The said trustees shall have further power from time to time to hold as investments the securities hereinafter referred to so transferred by Andrew Carnegie, and any property which has been or may be transferred to them or such corporation by Andrew Carnegie or by any other person, persons, or corporation, and to invest any sums or amounts from time to time in such securities and in such form and manner as are permitted to trustees or to charitable or literary corporations for investment, according to the laws of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or Massachusetts, or in such securities as are authorized for investment by the said deed of trust so executed by Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will and testament to be hereafter made or executed. SEC. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any additional donations, grants, devises, or bequests which may be made in further support of the purposes of the said corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof the personal expenses which the trustees may incur in attending meetings or otherwise in carrying out the business of the trust, but the services of the trustees as such shall be gratuitous. SEC. 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act a meeting of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Oilman, John S. Billings, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu Root, and Carroll D. Wright, or any four of them, at the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia, by notice served in person or by mail addressed to each trustee at his*place of resi- dence; and the said trustees, or a majority thereof, being assembled, shall organize and proceed to adopt by-laws, to elect officers and appoint committees, and generally to organize the said corporation; and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the corporation hereby incorporated, shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real or personal, of the cor- poration heretofore known as the Carnegie Institution, incorporated, as hereinbefore set forth under "An Act to establish a Code of Law for the District of Columbia, January fourth, nineteen hundred and two," and to all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of any kind or nature; and the several officers of such corporation, or CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, real or personal, books, or property thereof, shall, on demand, deliver the same to the said trustees appointed by this Act or to the persons appointed by them to receive the same; and the trustees of the existing corporation and the trustees herein named shall and may take such other steps as shall be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act. SEC. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corporation known as the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this Act, or the transfer of the property hereinbefore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation for the payment of any sums due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; but such corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no such action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of the passage of this Act. SEC. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this Act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. SEC. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately.
Approved, April 28, 1904 BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION Adopted December 13, 1904. Amended December 13, 1910, December 13, 1912, December 10, 1937, December 15, 1939, December 13, 1940, December 18, 1942, and December 12, 1947
ARTICLE I THE TRUSTEES 1. The Board of Trustees shall consist o£ twenty-four members, with power to increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. The Trustees shall hold office continuously and not for a stated term. 2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual meetings of the Board he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee. 3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such. 4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the Trustees by ballot at an annual meeting, but no person shall be declared elected unless he receives the votes of two-thirds of the Trustees present.
ARTICLE II OFFICERS OF THE BOARD 1. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice-Chairman, and a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees, from the members of the Board, by ballot to serve for a term of three years. All vacancies shall be filled by the Board for the unexpired term; provided, however, that the Executive Committee shall have power to fill a vacancy in the office of Secretary to serve until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees. 2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual powers of a presiding officer. 3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disability of the Chairman, shall perform the duties of the Chairman. 4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its transactions, and conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the Board and to his duties.
ARTICLE III EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION The President 1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold office during the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive officer of the Institution. The President, subject to the control of the Board and the Executive Committee, shall have general charge of all matters of administration and supervision of all arrangements for research and other work undertaken by the Institution or with its funds. He shall prepare and submit to the Board of Trustees and to the Executive CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Committee plans and suggestions for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its general correspondence and the correspondence with applicants for grants and with the special advisers of the Committee, and shall present his recommendations in each case to the Executive Committee for decision. All proposals and requests for grants shall be referred to the President for consideration and report. He shall have power to remove, appoint, and, within the scope of funds made available by the Trustees, provide for compensation of subordinate employees and to fix the compensation of such employees within the limits of a maximum rate of compensation to be established from time to time by the Executive Committee. He shall be ex officio a member of the Executive Committee. 2. He shall be the legal custodian of the seal and of all property of the Institution whose custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall sign and execute on behalf of the corporation all contracts and instruments necessary in authorized administrative and research matters and affix the corporate seal thereto when necessary, and may delegate the performance of such acts and other administrative duties in his absence to the Executive Officer. He may execute all other contracts, deeds, and instruments on behalf of the corporation and affix the seal thereto when expressly authorized by the Board of Trustees or Executive Committee. He may, within the limits of his own authorization, delegate to the Executive Officer authority to act as custodian of and affix the corporate seal. He shall be responsible for the expenditure and disburse- ment of all funds of the Institution in accordance with the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee, and shall keep accurate accounts of all receipts and disbursements. Following approval by the Executive Committee he shall transmit to the Board of Trustees before its annual meeting in December a written report of the operations and business of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year with his recommendations for work and appropriations for the succeeding calendar year. 3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees. 4. There shall be an officer designated Executive Officer who shall be appointed by and hold office at the pleasure of the President, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee. His duties shall be to assist and act for the President as the latter may duly authorize and direct. 5- The President shall retire from office at the end of the calendar year in which he becomes sixty-five years of age.
ARTICLE IV MEETINGS 1. The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City of Wash- ington, in the District of Columbia, on the first Friday following the second Thursday of December in each year unless the date and place of meeting are otherwise ordered by the Executive Committee. 2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive Committee by notice served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each Trustee twenty days prior to the meeting. 3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner by the Chairman upon the written request of seven members of the Board. BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION
ARTICLE V COMMITTEES 1. There shall be the following standing Committees, viz, an Executive Committee, a Finance Committee, an Auditing Committee, and a Nominating Committee. 2. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee, the Finance Committee, the Auditing Committee, and the Nominating Committee shall be filled by the Trustees at the next regular meeting. In case o£ vacancy in the Finance Committee, the Auditing Committee, or the Nominating Committee, upon request of the re- maining members of such committee, the Executive Committee may fill such vacancy by appointment until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees. 3. The terms of all officers and of all members of committees, as provided for herein, shall continue until their successors are elected or appointed.
Executive Committee 4. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman and Secretary of the Board of Trustees and the President of the Institution ex officio and, in addition, five trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term of three years, who shall be eligible for re-election. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's term. 5. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in session and has not given specific directions, have general control of the administration of the affairs of the corporation and general supervision of all arrangements for administration, research, and other matters undertaken or promoted by the Institution. It shall also submit to the Board of Trustees a printed or typewritten report of each of its meetings, and at the annual meeting shall submit to the Board a report for publication. 6. The Executive Committee shall have power to authorize the purchase, sale, exchange, or transfer of real estate.
Finance Committee 7. The Finance Committee shall consist of five members to be elected by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years. 8. The Finance Committee shall have custody of the securities of the corporation and general charge of its investments and invested funds, and shall care for and dispose of the same subject to the directions of the Board of Trustees. It shall have power to authorize the purchase, sale, exchange, or transfer of securities and to delegate this power. It shall consider and recommend to the Board from time to time such measures as in its opinion will promote the financial interests of the Institution, and shall make a report at each meeting of the Board.
Auditing Committee 9. The Auditing Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
io. Before each annual meeting of the Board of Trustees, the Auditing Com- mittee shall cause the accounts of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year to be audited by public accountants. The accountants shall report to the Committee, and the Committee shall present said report at the ensuing annual meeting of the Board with such recommendations as the Committee may deem appropriate.
No m in atin g Co mm ittee n. The Nominating Committee shall consist of the Chairman of the Board of Trustees ex officio and, in addition, three trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term of three years, who shall not be eligible for re-election until after the lapse of one year. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's term, provided that of the Nominating Committee first elected after adoption of this By-Law one member shall serve for one year, one member shall serve for two years, and one member shall serve for three years, the Committee to determine the respective terms by lot. 12. Sixty days prior to an annual meeting of the Board the Nominating Com- mittee shall notify the Trustees by mail of the vacancies to be filled in membership of the Board. Each Trustee may submit nominations for such vacancies. Nomina- tions so submitted shall be considered by the Nominating Committee, and ten days prior to the annual meeting the Nominating Committee shall submit to members of the Board by mail a list of the persons so nominated, with its recommendations for filling existing vacancies on the Board and its Standing Committees. No other nominations shall be received by the Board at the annual meeting except with the unanimous consent of the Trustees present.
ARTICLE VI FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION 1. No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of a previous appropriation by the Board of Trustees, or as provided in Article V, paragraph 8, hereof. 2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of July in each year. 3. The Executive Committee shall submit to the annual meeting of the Board a full statement of the finances and work of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year and a detailed estimate of the expenditures of the succeeding calendar year. 4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall make general appropriations for the ensuing calendar year; but nothing contained herein shall prevent the Board of Trustees from making special appropriations at any meeting. 5. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all appropria- tions made by the Board. Following the annual meeting each year, the Executive Committee may make allotment of funds for the period from January 1 to termi- nation of the fiscal year on June 30. It may also make allotment of funds for the period from July 1 to December 31 in advance of July 1. The Committee shall, however, have full authority for allotment of available funds to meet necessary xviii BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION expenditures by other methods, if desirable, and for transfer of balances to meet special needs. It shall make provision for outstanding obligations and for revertment of unexpended balances at termination of the fiscal year. 6. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property, and funds invested and to be invested, shall be deposited in such safe depository or in the custody of such trust company and under such safeguards as the Finance Committee shall designate, subject to directions of the Board of Trustees. Income of the Institution available for expenditure shall be deposited in such banks or depositories as may from time to time be designated by the Executive Committee. 7. Any trust company entrusted with the custody of securities by the Finance Committee may, by resolution of the Board of Trustees, be made Fiscal Agent of the Institution, upon an agreed compensation, for the transaction of the business coming within the authority of the Finance Committee.
ARTICLE VII AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS 1. These by-laws may be amended at any annual or special meeting of the Board of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided written notice of the proposed amendment shall have been served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each member of the Board twenty days prior to the meeting.
xix
ABSTRACT OF MINUTES OF THE FORTY-NINTH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES The meeting was held in Washington, D. C, in the Board Room of the Adminis- tration Building, on Friday, December 12, 1947. It was called to order at 10:30 A.M. by the Chairman, Mr. Gifford. Upon roll call, the following Trustees responded: James F. Bell, Robert Woods Bliss, Lindsay Bradford, Frederic A. Delano, Homer L. Ferguson, W. Cameron Forbes, Walter S. Gifford, Frank B. Jewett, Ernest O. Lawrence, Alfred L. Loomis, Roswell Miller, Henry S. Morgan, Seeley G. Mudd, Henning W. Prentis, Jr., Gordon S. Rentschler, Elihu Root, Jr., Henry R. Shepley, Juan T. Trippe, James W. Wads- worth, and Lewis H. Weed. The President of the Institution, Vannevar Bush, was also in attendance. The minutes of the forty-eighth meeting were approved as printed and submitted to the members of the Board. Reports of the President, the Executive Committee, the Auditor, the Finance Committee, the Auditing Committee, and of the Chairmen of Divisions, Directors of Departments, and Research Associates of the Institution were presented and considered. The following appropriations for the year 1948 were authorized:
Pension Fund . $95,000 Administration (including expenses of Investment Office and of insurance) .... 115,800 Expenses of Office of Publications and Public Relations 34?4°o Departmental Research Operations 1,113,460
$1,358,660
Lewis H. Weed was elected as Secretary of the Board for the unexpired term ending in 1948. Frederic C. Walcott was re-elected to continue service as a member of the Executive Committee for the ensuing three-year term, Gordon S. Rentschler was elected a member of the Executive Committee for the ensuing three-year term, and Elihu Root, Jr. was elected a member of the Executive Committee for the unexpired term ending in 1948. Lindsay Bradford and Henning W. Prentis, Jr. were re-elected to continue service as members of the Finance Committee for the ensuing three-year term, and Alfred L. Loomis was elected a member of the Finance Committee for the unexpired term ending in 1948. Amendments to the By-Laws of the Institution recommended by the Executive Committee were adopted. A Nominating Committee provided by the amended By-Laws was organized with Walter S. Gifford as ex-officio member and by the election of Frank B. Jewett for the one-year term, Henry S. Morgan for the two- year term, and Henning W. Prentis, Jr. for the three-year term. Frank B. Jewett was chosen as Chairman of the Nominating Committee. A plan of unified operation of the Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories was considered and approved in principle. The meeting adjourned at 12:10 P.M. sxi
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR THE YEAR ENDING OCTOBER 31, 1947 To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington: GENTLEMEN: Article V, section 3 of the By-Laws provides that the Executive Committee shall submit, at the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees, a report for publication; and Article VI, section 3 provides that the Executive Committee shall also submit, at the same time, a full statement of the finances and work of the Institution and a detailed estimate of the expenditures for the succeeding year. In accordance with these provisions, the Executive Committee herewith respectfully submits its report for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1947. During this year the Executive Committee held five meetings, printed reports of which have been mailed to each Trustee and constitute a part of this report. A statement of activities of the Institution is contained in the report of the President, which has been considered and approved by the Executive Committee, and is submitted herewith. The detailed estimate of expenditures for the succeeding year contained in the report of the President has been considered by the Executive Committee, which has approved the recommendations of the President in respect thereto and has provisionally approved the budget estimates based thereon and submitted herewith. The Board of Trustees at its meeting of December 13, 1946 appointed Price, Waterhouse and Company to audit the accounts of the Institution for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1947. The report of the Auditor, including a balance sheet showing assets and liabilities of the Institution on October 31, 1947, is submitted as a part of the report of the Executive Committee. In addition to the report of the Auditor there is also submitted a financial statement for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1947, showing funds available for expenditure and amounts allotted by the Executive Committee, a customary statement of receipts and disbursements since the organization of the Institution on January 28, 1902, and a schedule of real estate and equipment at original cost. These statements together with the tables in the Auditor's report comprise a full statement of the finances of the Institution. No vacancy exists in the membership of the Board of Trustees. Frederic A. Delano resigned as Secretary of the Board of Trustees, and the Executive Committee, at its meeting of March 19, 1947, appointed Lewis H. Weed to fill the vacancy in the office of Secretary until the annual meeting. A vacancy, therefore, exists in the membership of the Executive Committee by reason of the resignation of Mr. Delano as Secretary of the Board of Trustees. Tenure of office of Messrs. Forbes and Walcott as members of the Executive Committee and of Messrs. Bradford and Prentis as members of the Finance Committee will expire at the annual meeting. WALTER S. GIFFORD, Chairman ROBERT WOODS BLISS HENRY R. SHEPLEY VANNEVAR. BUSH FREDERIC C- WALCOTT November z, 1947 W. CAMERON FORBES LEWIS PL WEED xxiii
FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR FISCAL YEAR ENDING OCTOBER 31, 1947 Balances Trustees' Executive Transfers by Unallotted unallotted ppropriations Transfers and Total Committee Executive balances Oct. 31, 1946 3ec. 13,1946 other credits available allotments Committee Oct. 31, 1947 Departmental Research Operations: Embryology $90,754 $24,127.69 $114,881.69 $114,881.69 Genetics.., , 126,760 42,260.84 169,020.84 169,020.84 Geophysical Laboratory. 192,100 32,599.37 224,699.37 224,699.37 Historical Research 128,153 20,163.91 148,316.91 148,316.91 Mount Wilson Observatory 234,609 43,842.24 278,451.24 278,451.24 Plant Biology 72,950 35,525.45 108,475.45 108,475.45 Terrestrial Magnetism 259,000 149,841.85 408,841.85 408,841.85 Research Projects of Limited Tenure $990.55 35,200.00 36,190.55 35,200.00 $990.55 Publication 21,578.49 33,600 30,467.38 85,645.87 72,939.94 12,705.93 Administration 114,900 21,329.56 136,229.56 136,229.56 Pension Fund , 95,000 95,000.00 95,000.00 General Contingent Fund 61,539.72 154,142.96 215,682.68 71,820.92 $44,952.80 98,908.96 Carnegie Corporation Emergency Fund... 215,338.16 3,162.25 218,500.41 101,400.00 1,200.00 115,900.41
$299,446.92 $1,347,826 $592,663.50 $2,239,936.42 $1,965,277.77 $46,152.80 $228,505.85 F CASH RKCKIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FROM ORGANIZATION, JANUARY 28, 1902, TO OCTOBER 31, 1947
RSCSOTS DISBURSEMENTS Securities Sold or Redeemed. $116,161,248.21 Securities Purchased $131,906,931.58 Accrued Interest on Securities Purchased 764,987.18 hit mne from Securities and Bank Balances 56,466.348,12 Pension Fund. 1,856,307.10 Sales of Publications ...... 386,231,44 General Reserve Fund 30,477.43 Insurance Fund , 140,532.24 Colburn Estate {Bequest)...... 52,015.74 Harriman Fund 298.49 Harhny Fund {Gift) 3,050.00 Harriet H. Mayor Relief Fund 250.00 Harkavy Fund 221.20 Htirriman Fund (Sale of Land)...... , ,. . 4,043.70 Special Emergency Reserve Fund 63,819.41 Teeple Estate {Bequest) , .....,,,, 10,839.76 National Defense Revolving Fund 3,062,974.97 General Contingent Fund 342,289.26 Van Gelder Fund {Bequest) 1,278.58 Carnegie Corporation of New York Emergency Fund.. 101,444.77 Carnegie Corporation of New York {Endowment In- Administration Building and Addition: crease and for Specific Purposes) 13,705,381.24 Construction and Site (Old Building) 309,915.69 From Other Organizations and Individuals for Specific Construction (Addition to Administration Bldg.). 416,206.07 Site (Addition to Administration Building) 68,570.96 Purposes 487,246.68 Miscellaneous Expenditures* 40,825.37 Pension Fund {Refunds) ,, 99,197.05 Departmental Research Operations: General Reserve Fund 72,323.38 Departmentsof Research, Buildings and Equipment 3,740,042.88 Departmental Operations 36,222,416.59 Insurance Fund {Refunds) 13,076.02 Research Projects of Limited Tenure 5,578,395.61 National Defense Revolving Fund {Refunds and Ad- Publication 3,063,801.00 vances) 3,094,724.35 Administration 3,249,282.86 1 Administration Building Addition Account t Rentals and Employees U. S. Bond Purchases 91,255.65 Refunds 18,021.09 National Research Council 150,000.00 Miscellaneous 9,008.82 Employees' Salary Deductions for the Purchase of V. S. Bonds. 91,363.65 $191,210,255.13 Miscellaneous Refunds and Receipts 1,184,406.03 October 311 1947, Cash in Banks. 640,539.91
$191,850,795.04 $191,850,795.04
•Includes Equipment $7,206.41, Repairs and Alterations to Old Building $18,599.29. REAL ESTATE AND EQUIPMENT, ORIGINAL COST
Administration (October 31, 1947) 1530 P Street, N.W., Washington 5, D. C. Building, site, and equipment $850,933.59
Division of Plant Biology (September 30, IP47) Stanford, California Buildings and grounds $74,125.72 Laboratory 40,714.05 Library 22,837.13 Operating equipment 16,049.27 153,726.17
Department of Embryology (September 30, 1947) Wolfe and Madison Streets, Baltimore 5, Maryland Library $7,619.92 Laboratory 28,115.87 Administration 8,774.90 44,510.69
Department of Genetics (September 30, 1947) Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York Buildings, grounds, and field $299,239.47 Operating equipment 34,397.95 Laboratory apparatus 50,452.95 Library 62,541.66 Archives 45,488.90 492,120.93
Geophysical Laboratory (September 30, 1947) 2801 Upton Street, N.W., Washington 8, D. C. Buildings, library, and operating appliances $295,654.22 Laboratory apparatus 182,475.57 Shop equipment 21,242.25 499,372.04
Division of Historical Research (September 30, 1947) 10 Frisbie Place, Cambridge 38, Massachusetts Operating equipment , $30,978.58 Library 16,700.24 47,678.82
Mount Wilson Observatory (September 30, 1947) - 813 Santa Barbara Street, Pasadena 4, California Buildings and grounds $222,549.56 Shop equipment 52,798.69 Instruments 675,531.90 Furniture and operating appliances 162,042.62 Hooker 100-inch reflector 644,803.88 1,757,726.65
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (September 30, 1947) 5241 Broad Branch Road, N.W., Washington 15, D. C. Buildings, site, and office $265,794.67 Survey equipment 21,891.99 Instruments, laboratory, and shop equipment. 457,220.92 744,907.58
$4,590,976.47
xxvn REPORT OF AUDITORS
To the Board of Trustees Carnegie Institution of Washington Washington, D. C. We have made an examination of the attached balance sheet of Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington (and supporting schedule of securities owned) as of October 31, 1947 and the related statement of operating income and expenditures for the fiscal year then ended. In connection therewith, we obtained confirmations from the custodian, Guaranty Trust Company of New York, as to the securities owned by the Institution and held in safekeeping at October 31, 1947 and from the deposi- taries as to the cash balances in banks at that date. The interest maturing during the fiscal year on bonds owned was accounted for, and the dividends received during the year on stocks owned were compared with published dividend records. With respect to a period of three months selected by us the recorded cash receipts were traced to deposits shown on the bank statements and paid checks and approved vouchers were inspected in support of the head office disbursements. We did not visit the branch offices of the Institution but we reviewed internal audit reports of the Bursar covering examinations of the branch records during the year and it ap- peared that the internal audits were satisfactorily conducted. We also inspected certified copies of the minutes of meetings of the Board of Trustees and the Executive Committee with respect to the appropriations and allotments for the year. The securities are stated at cost, amortized cost, or value at date acquired. In accordance with a recommendation made in February 1940 by the Institution's Finance Committee, premiums on bonds purchased subsequent to January 1, 1940 are being amortized on a straight-line basis to the dates on which the bonds are first callable or payable at par. The amortization of such premiums applicable to the year ended October 31, 1947 amounted to $9,034.62. Real estate and equipment are stated at cost, and books on hand for sale are carried at sales prices. In ac- cordance with accepted practice no provision has been made for depreciation of property owned by the Institution. In our opinion, with the foregoing explanations, the accompanying balance sheet and related statement of operating income and expenditures present fairly the position of Carnegie Institution of Washington at October 31, 1947 and the financial aspects of its operations for the year ended on that date. PRICE, WATERHOUSE & Co. Washington, D. C. December 3, BALANCE SHEET OCTOBER 31, 1947
ASSETS LIABILITIES Current Funds: Current Funds: General: General: Cash in banks and on hand.. . $403,491.15 Accounts payable 227.25 Advances—departmental re- Reserved for encumbrances: search operations 31, 116.96 Departmental research op- Accounts receivable — U. S. erations $187,506.76 Government 925.51 Research projects of limited Accounts receivable—other 1, 703.59 tenure 36,659.00 Inventory—books ».. 152,640.00 Publication 81,946.68 Deferred charges 18, 105.78 Administration 11,432.25 317,544.69 Due from Endowment and Other Special Funds (current cash Reserved for publications and invested in securities)...... 350,000.00 $957,982.99 invoices 154,153.13 Reserved for General Contin- gent Fund 135,939.23 Reserved for Carnegie Corpora- tion Emergency Fund 194,569.26 Reserved for special reconver- sion expenses 15,701.40 Unexpended and unallocated current income, per statement attached 139,848.03 $957,982.99 Restricted: Restricted: Cash in banks. 71,175.79 $1,029,158.78 Harriman Fund—income account. 71,175.79 $1,029,158.78 Endowment and Other Special Funds: Endowment and Other Special Funds: Due to Current Funds $350,000.00 Cash in banks. $201,348.17 Capital Funds: Securities, per schedule attached: Endowment Fund $32,000,000.00 U. S. Government bonds $15,935,088.46 Capital Reserve Fund 5,592,079.67 Foreign and International Bank Colburn Fund 103,310.80 bonds...... 854,368.71 Harriman Fund 304,043.70 Public utility bonds 1,757,496.32 Teeple Fund 10,839.76 Communication bonds 204,335.50 Harkavy Fund 2,828.80 Railroad bonds...... 274,484.45 Van Gelder Fund 1,278.58 Industrial and miscellaneous Special Funds: bonds 2,852,630.45 Pension Fund 189,965.02 Preferred stocks. 4,876,395.62 Harriet H. Mayor Relief Fund 9,750.00 Common stocks 13,717,495.41 40,472,294.92 General Reserve Fund 2,109,546.76 40,323,643.09 40,673,643.09 40,673,643.09 Plant Funds: Plant Funds: Invested in real estate and equipment: Income invested in plant $4,409,278.42 Office of Administration $ 850,933.59 Harriman property (gift) 179,628.05 Departments of research 3,740,042.88 4,590,976.47 Harkavy property (gift) 2,070.00 4,590,976.47 $46,293,778.34 $46,293,778.34 GENERAL FUND Statement of Operating Income and Expenditures for the Fiscal Year Ended October 31, 1947 Income: Interest and dividends on securities $1,502, 714.14 Less—Amortization of bond premiums 9,034. 62 $1,493,679.52 Sales of publications 8,811.43 American Cancer Society—grants 14,360.13 Carnegie Corporation of New York—grant 12,000.00 State of Connecticut—contribution for survey 4,000.00 Dormitory and mess 7,842.11 Chiids Frick Corporation—grant 300.00 Life Insurance Medical Research Fund—grant 1,000.00 Research Corporation—grant 5,000.00 United Fruit Company—Bonampak project 10,000.00 U. S. Public Health Service—grant 2,023.00 A. F. Zahm—gift 5,000.00 Other credits 5,428.89 $1,569,445.08 Expenditures: Pension Fund—annuity and insurance $106,247.18 Carnegie Corporation Emergency Fund—grants 13,516.13 Harriman Fund—commissions 49.43 General Contingent Fund—miscellaneous expenses 17,463.92 Departmental research operations: Salaries $856,304.11 Operating expenses 360,428.22 Dormitory and mess—salaries 3,048.01 Dormitory and mess—operating expenses 6,707.36 1,226,487.70
Research projects of limited tenure: Salaries $13,161.52 Operating expenses 16,954.13 30,115.65
General publication: Salaries. $ 4,767.84 Operating expenses 35,011.79 39,779.63
Office of Publications: Salaries $28,513.59 Operating expenses 5,698.59 34,212.18
Administration 140,052.27
$1,607,924.09 Less—Salaries and operating expenses charged to previous appropriations 399?516.52 1,208,407.57
Excess of income over expenditures. $361,037.51 Less---Credits to General Reserve Fund and other actounte 221,189.48
Unexpended and unallocated current income. $139,848.03
XXX SCHEDULE OF SECURITIES OWNED OCTOBER 31, 1947 Aggregate Cost, amortized Interest par or Description Maturity cost, or value Market value income nominal value at date acquired for year UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BONDS $304,000 U. S. of America Treasury 2s 1951-49 $304,000.00 $308,085 $6,080.00 312,000 U. S. of America Treasury 2s 1951-49 312,000.00 316,485 6,240.00 200,000 U, S. of America Treasury 2s 1952-50 200,000.00 202,938 4,000.00 4,500,000 U. S. of America Treasury 2s 1954-52 4,500,000.00 4,599,844 90,000.00 800,000 U. S. of America Treasury 2>
FOREIGN AND INTERNATIONAL BANK BONDS $100,000 Australia, Commonwealth of, S. F. Z%% 1956 $100,000.00 $95,000 $3,250.00 50,000 Australia, Commonwealth of, S. F. 3#s ,. 1957 48,750.00 47,500 —117.35 90,000 Canadian National Ry. Co., 4Ks Guar 1951 90,146.36* 96,300 4,050.00 100,000 Canadian National Ry. Co., 4^s Guar 1957 112,000.00 114,000 4,500.00 57,000 Canadian National Ry. Co., 5s Guar 1969 61,316.64* 62,130 2,850.00 35,000 Canadian National Ry. Co., 5s Guar 1970 37,531.12* 38,500 1,750.00 100,000 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2Xs 1957 100,000.00 99,000 —81.27 200,000 Shawinigan Water & Power Co., 1st Mtg, & Coll. Tr. S. F. 3s 1971 208,460.00* 208,460 6,000.00 100,000 City of Toronto Cons. Loan Deb. 5s 1949 96,164.59 105,000 5,000.00 Income from bonds called or sold 16,723.64 $832,000 Total Foreign and International Bank $854,368.71 $865,890 $43,925.02
*After deduction for amortization of premiums on bonds purchased subsequent to January 1, 1940. SCHEDULE OF SECURITIES OWNED OCTOBER 31, 1947—Continued
Cost, amortized Interest Description Maturity cost, or value Market value income nominal VilllU at date acquired for year PUBLIC UTILITY BONDS $243 ,01)0 Columbus & Southern Ohio Klectric Co., 1st Mtg. 3#s...... 1970 $257,782.92* $260,010 $7, 897. 50 3/ Gun hound Corpmutum, S. F. Deb. 3». . 1959 37,363.39* 37,000 1, 110. 00 2IHI.00,«w0 Minnesota P«wer & Light Co., ls,t Mtg. 3 ?i.s 1975 204,593.90* 204,000 6, 250.00 KM) ,000 Ohio Power Co.. 1st MtK. 3}is 1968 101,500.00 106,000 3, 250. 00 97 .(KM) OkUhnma Natural Gas Co., lbt Mtg. 2 Jis 1961 98,202.87* 98,940 2, 788. 75 200 ,ooo Philadelphia Electric Power Co., 1st MtR. 2Ha 1975 204,939.02* 196,000 1 ,792. 75 2(K) .000 Public Service Co. of Indiana, Inc., 1st Mtg. 3 Hs. . 1975 204,604.80* 204,000 6, 250. 00 US ,000 PiiSPt Sound Power & Light Co.. 1st Mtg. 4^3 1972 129,512.42* 132,500 5,,312,.50 216 .000 Tennessee Gas & Transmission Co., 1st Mtg. Pipe Line 2#s. 1966 218,997.00* 211,680 5,,940..00 300 ,ouo 893..75 United Gaa Corp., 1st Mtg. & Col]. Tr. 2.34s 1967 300,000.00 300,000 15,,613,.03 Income from bonds called $1,718 ,000 $57 ,098 .28 Total Public Utility $1,757,496.32 $1,750,130 COMMUNICATION BONDS 1150 ,000 American Telephone & Telegraph Co., Deb. 2 Ms 1975 $152,587.50* $145,500 $1 ,260 .42 52 ,000 New England Telephone & Telegraph Co., 1st Mtg. 5s 1952 51,748.00 54,600 2 ,600 .00 $202 ,000 Total Communication $204,335.50 $200,100 $3 ,860 .42
RAILROAD BONDS 1100 ,000 Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. Co., Gen Mtg. 4#s 1992 $99,464.29 $131,000 $4 ,500 .00 75 ,000 Chicago & W. Indiana R, R. Co., Cons. 4s 1952 70,357.66 77,250 3 ,000 .00 100 ,000 Pennsylvania R. R. Co., Cons. Mtg. 4#B 1960 104,662.50 111 ,000 4 ,500 .00 Income from bonds sold 25 ,629 .75 $275 ,000 Total Railroad. $274,484.45 $319,250 $37 ,629 .75
*After deduction for amortization of premiums on bonds purchased subsequent to January 1, 1940. SCHEDULE OF SECURITIES OWNED OCTOBER 31, 1947—Continued Aggregate Cost, amortized Interest par or Description Maturity cost, or value Market value income nominal value at date acquired for year INDUSTRIAL AND MISCELLANEOUS BONDS 150,000 Devoe & Raynolds Co., Inc. S. F, Deb. 2>6s 1965 $51,250.00 $49,500 $3.75 195,000 Eastern Gas & Fuel Associates, 1st Mtg. & Coll. Tr. 3tfs 1965 198,819.59* 191,100 6,825.00 100,000 Food Machinery Corp., S. F. Deb. 2}4s 1962 100,500.00 99,000 —49.31 300,000 Goodrich (B. F.) Company, 1st Mtg. 2^s 1965 301,342.12* 294,000 8,250.00 148,000 P. Lorillard Co., Deb. 3s 1963 155,327.79* 152,440 880.82 150,000 National Dairy Products Corp., Deb. 2^s 1970 155,812.50 151,500 —114.58 145,000 Phillips Petroleum Co., S. F. Deb. 2H"s 1964 146,188.12* 146,450 3,987.50 23,000 Pittsburgh Consolidation Coal Co., Deb. 3^s 1965 23,170.65* 23,690 264.63 300,000 Seagram (Joseph E.) & Sons, Inc., Deb. 2^s 1966 298,500.00 288,000 7,500.00 400,000 Shell Union Oil Corp., Deb. 2}4s 1971 405,629.09* 384,000 10,000.00 250,000 Socony-Vacuum Oil Co., Deb. 2^s 1976 249,185.00 240,000 6,250.00 200,000 Swift & Co., Deb. 2Hs 1972 203,697.55* 200,000 1,794.76 250,000 Union Oil Company of California, Deb. 2Ks 1970 259,811.88* 247,500 6,875.00 100,000 United States Rubber Co., Deb. 2^s 1976 100,347.85* 94,000 458.87 200,000 Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Deb. 2#s 1971 203,048.31* 198,000 3,959.38 Income from bonds called 842.73 $2,811,000 Total Industrial and Miscellaneous $2,852,630.45 $2,759,180 $57,728.55 $21,713,000 BONDS—-Funds Invested $21,878,403.89 $22,073,921 $557,093.13
*After deduction for amortization of premiums on bonds purchased subsequent to January 1, 1940. SCHEDULE OF SECURITIES OWNED OCTOBER 31, 1947—Continued
Number t Cost, amortized of * Description cost, or value Market value Dividends shored at date acquired for year PREFERRED STOCKS 1,000 Anchor Hocking Glass Corp., |4.00 Cum. Pref $112,750.00 $107,000 $4,000.00 1,500 Appalachian Electric Power Co., 4}i% Cum. Pref 159,000.00 165,000 6,750.00 2,000 Armstrong Cork Co., $3.75 Cum. Pref 205,500.00 200,000 7,500.00 1,500 Bethlehem Steel Corp., 7% Cum. Pref 183,637.50 213,000 10,500.00 1,477 Bristol Myers Co.. 3*4% Cum. Pref 156,300.45 152,131 5,538.76 2,000 Buffalo. Niagara Electric Corp., 3.60% Cum. Pref,. 207,990.00 186,000 7,200.00 500 Case
•Represents total interest and dividend income before deduction of amortization of bond premiums. NOTE: Net gain from sales and redemptions of securities for the year ended October 31, 1947 aggregated $98,378.71, and that amount has been credited to the Capital Reserve Fund shown in the attached balance sheet. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT
OF THE
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
FOR THE YEAR ENDING OCTOBER 31, 1947
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON This report to the Trustees of the Car- charter, "to encourage, in the broadest and negie Institution of Washington, presented most liberal manner, investigation, re- in accordance with the By-Laws, is made search, and discovery, and the application at a time when the Institution, after the of knowledge to the improvement of man- lapse of two years since cessation of hostili- kind." ties, has generally resumed the funda- Fundamental review of the range of de- mental studies to which under its charter partmental activity, comparative estimates it is customarily devoted. The interval of of the urgency and the likely productive- two years has seen the termination of the ness of individual projects, and analysis various war researches to which the skills of the cross-linkages of projects and their of the Institution's staff and the facilities impact on one another were thus possible. of its laboratories were directed while the In this review, some studies carried on country was at war. It has seen also a for a considerable period were found either close scrutiny of past programs in the de- to have served their purpose or to have partments of the Institution, a restudy of reached a point where they should be objectives and of means earlier employed carried forward by other agencies. Others in seeking them, and a consequent re- were judged to have developed to a point formulation of the basic plans by which demanding that greater emphasis be placed the scientific work of the Institution is upon them. There were clearly indicated carried on. opportunities for the initiation of new Re-examination of objectives and re- specific undertakings as additional or more assessment of procedures are, or should be, powerful approaches to the major objec- a continuing element in the conduct of any tives of certain departments; the require- research program; they have been such in ments involved were carefully scrutinized, the operations of the Institution through- the means available for meeting them were out its history. But only rarely indeed do reviewed, and the necessity for additional circumstances so shape themselves that the techniques, instrumentation, and staff was revaluation becomes itself a primary under- clearly defined. taking extending practically throughout The programs thus prepared are an able the Institution and done with the perspec- plan of action. The Standing Committees tive gained from several years' preoccupa- of the Trustees have reviewed certain of tion with activities considerably removed them; final study of others is in process from those ordinarily carried on. The end or prospect. From the programs as a of the war, however, brought such a situa- group we may expect added effectiveness tion, and thus an unusual opportunity for in the application of knowledge to the rigorous evaluation of the several programs solution of basic problems. Such programs of research by which, taken as a whole, the are not regarded as rigid prescriptions be- Institution carries out the mandate of its yond the limits of which no effort is to be CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON expended, however important the occasion, The Institution is fortunate in its scien- but rather are seen as efforts to limn the un- tific staff, and never has this been more knowns and to educe ways of ultimately clearly demonstrated than in the delibera- filling in the outlines and rendering the tions leading to the formulation of the picture sharp. programs I have mentioned. Here, in free Two general observations of no small exchange and uninhibited discussion, the significance emerge from consideration of knowledge and aspirations of individual the process of analysis and formulation investigators were balanced and combined, which has produced these programs: the impact of programs one upon another First, we rightly take from it renewed was estimated from the point of view of confidence in the central philosophy of the firsthand comprehension, and a task of Institution as an organization engaged in analysis and comparison was performed by the conduct of fundamental scientific in- the joint action of colleagues. Thus the vestigation; second, we have in it a further cardinal principle—that in fundamental re- example of the effectiveness of the pattern search the finding of the approach is in es- of administrative organization which has sence the function of the scientist himself— been developed. has been followed, yet through collabora- From its inception, the Institution's phi- tion and interchange the result has been losophy has stressed a truth often too easily more than a collection of individual proj- ignored in the marshaling of strength for ects. It has been a coherent and consistent advancement of knowledge. This truth is general plan. that research stands or falls by the men I have placed great emphasis in the fore- who are called upon to do it. In its earliest going on the creative work of the Institu- days, the Institution followed the consistent tion's scientific staff in this task of analysis policy of seeking the exceptional man, and redirection, because that work is the wherever he might be, and making avail- primary motivating force in the whole able to him facilities and resources to en- affair. I do not at all intend to imply, how- able him to pursue problems which he ever, that the resulting general program discerned and by methods which he de- of the Institution's research was created in vised. In later years, establishing its own isolation from the Institution as an entity. research centers for organized effort in Quite the contrary is true, and it is true major intellectual fields, the Institution has because of the effectiveness of the ad- held to the thesis that such centers, how- ministrative structure of the Institution. I ever elaborately and efficiently equipped, should like to speak next of this, and in are insufficient in themselves and are of some detail. ultimate value in the search for knowledge From one point of view, the Institution only as they are utilized by groups of in- as a continuing body is the self-perpetuat- vestigators including leaders of proved skill ing Board of Trustees who, responsible for and acumen and younger men of brilliant the administering of its funds in the public promise. They must be men of ingenuity interest, are the arbiters of its long-range and initiative; and these qualities must be policy. From another point of view, the unified and vitalized for effectiveness by Institution is the staff of scientific investi- breadth of vision and keenness of percep- gators who in the laboratory, the library, tion, in short, by a truly philosophical and the field are engaged in the actual understanding. research whence comes the application of REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1947 knowledge to the improvement of man- sult in the formulation of programs. The kind, and who are served by the adminis- Standing Committees of the Board, acting trative and supporting staffs of the Insti- as such, have similarly shared in the en- tution in their various capacities. Actually, grossing work of planning. Fortunately the Institution is neither of these singly; enough, there has been a minimum of rather, it is a dynamic whole incorporating formality in this joint effort, and the sound- both. Its organization is distinctive, par- ness of the programs, as well as the spirit taking on the one hand of the pattern of the Institution, has been enhanced by found in corporate enterprises, and on the that fact. other of the intimate relationships existing The Directors of Departments and in university faculties. And not simply on Chairmen of Divisions in the Institution rare occasions, but in the day-to-day occupy posts demanding a rare combina- functioning of the whole, these aspects tion of abilities. The position of the di- of its organization are found to be inter- rector is marked even more strongly by penetrating. that duality which I have noted in the The Trustees, charged with the responsi- functioning of the Trustees. The director bility of exercising the final, long-range can and should be both an investigator and judgment in Institution affairs, do more an administrator. As an investigator he than this. They are in their capacity as joins with his colleagues on a plane of trustees concerned naturally in the first equality in planning a scientific program instance with the relationship of the pro- in which all participate and in which he grams of the Departments to the resources has his unique part. As the director he of the Institution. Theirs is the important administers the program, resolves differ- function, moreover, of the final review of ences of view, and maintains contact with programs, the study of over-all planning the President and Trustees. To meet this with the ultimate objectives of the Institu- dual responsibility, he must be a scientific tion in mind. Here sound sense in weigh- worker of proved ability, and he must ing possibilities and attainments is im- possess the qualities of leadership, inspira- perative for the continued effectiveness of tion, and firmness that evoke the best the Institution. The broad outlook of the efforts of colleagues and keep operations Trustees and their wide range of interests moving in the agreed direction. He must would by themselves assure the desired likewise have the ability at understanding keenness of judgment. The Trustees can, and guidance for which younger members however, and do, participate both indi- of the staff will look to him. Thus as an vidually and officially with the staff in the investigator he shares the duty of all consideration of plans and of particular scientific men toward rigor, vision, and ways of implementing them, even before collaboration. As an administrator, he the stage of final survey and analysis has faces the same duties and needs the same been reached. This desirable interchange capabilities as does the head of a depart- has been of direct helpfulness and value in ment in an academic institution and, to the deliberations of the past two years. In- some extent, as does the director of re- dividual members of the Board of Trustees search in an independent laboratory. possessing special knowledge and experi- It is through his over-all grasp of the ence in various disciplines have contributed programs proposed within his group that therefrom in discussion, with beneficial re- interrelationships may most readily be as- CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON certained, comparative values may be other to bring together the aspirations of judged, and suitable adjustments may be the staff, as expressed in considered pro- made to produce an integrated result. As grams of research, with the possibilities investigator, he sees with a scientist's eye and resources of the Institution itself. In the implications of the problems posed and doing this, he of course works closely with the procedures planned by his colleagues. the Directors and Chairmen and, some- As administrator he brings the necessary times through them, sometimes directly, added strength and resiliency to handle with the members of the scientific staff. problems of operation as they arise, to focus Here again, as has already been suggested, enthusiasm in such a way as to avert waste formality should be and is at a minimum. effort, to keep a weather eye out for eco- The general plan of organization thus nomic hazards. It is a unique combination roughly summarized had been proved in of skills, and it poses severe demands. The effectiveness well before the especial de- internal relationships through the staffs of mands of these recent years. In these the Departments and Divisions of the Insti- years, however, and especially as the tution are cordial and unassuming, and formulation of programs has gone forward the fact that they are so is evidence indeed since the end of the war, the structure that this requirement for a rare combina- of the Institution has been stringently tion of insight and initiative is well met. tested, and has met the test. The result From supporting administrative staffs, Di- may be summed up in the thought that rectors and Chairmen receive the best of immediately before us are sure prospects support, and since the spirit of the Insti- for coherent, consistent, vigorous work in tution is on an excellent plane, the ideal our special fields of endeavor, with high of a community of scholars is approached. assurance that the contributions of the I should say a word about the function Institution to the general welfare will be of the President of an institution such as substantial and that they thus will bring this. He is in a post where his responsi- to all the organization, Trustees, adminis- bility essentially is to work with the staff tration, and staff, the lasting satisfactions on the one hand and the Trustees on the to be had only from work well done.
THE INSTITUTION AND FEDERAL SUPPORT In common with many other research tions of secrecy necessary in the military agencies in the country which because of operations of a nation at war. Lastly, the the nature of their regular undertakings great bulk of the undertaking consisted of could adapt facilities and allocate staff, the applied research. For these reasons, the Institution during the war years sought to Institution at the end of the war termi- carry its full share of the burden of re- nated all research for the government as search on military matters essential for the expeditiously as possible; in view of its maintenance of national security and the original purpose, the Institution needed to defense of the American way of life. Much return to its own programs of fundamental if not most of the work which the Institu- research and its own policy of free dissemi- tion thus did was only remotely, if at all, nation of results. With the end of hostili- related to the programs of investigation ties, such action became practicable and which it had carried on in peacetime. Vir- proper, for the obligation to share the war tually all of it was done under the restric- burden was past, and the laboratories of REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1947 the armed services as well as of industry search for the early attainment of a specific were available to carry on such secret ap- objective, and they were principally secret. plied military research as the well-being Now, federal money is supporting funda- of the country demanded. mental studies, and the restrictions upon The war experience carried salutary ef- dissemination of results are far less exact- fects for the Institution, altogether apart ing. The policy governing federal grants from its natural pride at having shared and contracts for fundamental research in the defense of the nation. The war ex- under these more liberal conditions has perience was the principal occasion in the thus far been broad and wise. Institution's history when it was engaged Since the end of the war it has been the in undertakings financed otherwise than policy of the Institution not to seek broad through its own income from endowment, support of its research from federal funds. and the first occasion in its history when There has appeared no reason why this for an extended period and under intensive policy should now be altered. Yet there conditions it operated in close relationship would be no inconsistency between the with the government. The comprehension policy and occasional participation in fed- thus gained is of marked value in our erally supported programs, or even the ac- consideration of the future. ceptance of direct federal support to a There is a fundamentally important dif- minor degree and in special circumstances ference in that future—indeed, in the im- for research which is complementary to mediate present—for research in this coun- our regular programs. It is therefore try. This appears because of the entrance proper to examine again whether the Insti- of the government into the financial sup- tution should consider participation in the port of basic research. Federal funds are research efforts being sponsored by the now going on a broad scale to the support government and supported by public of fundamental investigation in many funds, and if so, under what conditions. centers throughout the nation. Much of Should it enter the program, it would be the flow is from the armed services, notably joining many other ranking research or- from the Navy. By no means all of the ganizations, for participation is widely support is from the military, however. spread through the country. Certain con- The Atomic Energy Commission, for ex- siderations in part deriving from the pro- ample, is contributing very substantially gram itself and in part from the individual through the laboratories which are oper- characteristics of the Institution must be ated for it under contract by groups of taken into account in appraising the possi- universities. The Public Health Service bility. Participation could be expected to and the Department of Commerce within enlarge operations, but should not be re- their fields are other agencies sharing in garded as lessening budgetary problems. the support of research. There is a notable The agreements under which governmen- difference not only between this situation tally supported programs are conducted and the prewar condition, in which govern- are, as they should be, so drawn as to ment's role was of slight dimensions, but cover all costs, including added overhead, also between this situation and that which but no more. Were the Institution to existed during the war. Then, federal undertake a research project supported money supported great programs, but they from federal funds, its regular schedule of were principally programs of applied re- operations would not and should not be CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON affected thereby; its total range of activi- the governmentally sponsored endeavor. ties, however, would be increased. Such The policies that should govern acceptance expansion in and of itself has little to of funds .for the enlarging of research pro- recommend it to an institution such as grams are clear, whether the funds in ours, for size is not a true objective for us. question are made available by the govern- In so far as expansion might clearly have ment or by other agencies. an invigorating effect on regular programs In the first place, a research activity by increasing possibilities of cross-fertiliza- undertaken by the Institution as an addi- tion and stimulation, though, it may be tion to its regularly programmed investi- considered advantageous. gations and as a result of the availability For many universities, which are carry- of financial support specially provided by ing on a broad range of research projects government or another supporting agency supported from federal funds under the and specially allocated to the project in present arrangement, there may on the question must form a clearly defined addi- contrary clearly be a special and positive tion, as nearly as possible an integral opera- advantage in such expansion. Fundamen- tive and administrative unit by itself. If tal research is of course pursued in uni- the support terminates, it is essential that versity laboratories for its own sake, but the Institution be in a position to bring in addition it is essential in the postgradu- the activity to a termination and be free ate training of scientists and engineers. As thereafter of any remnants of it. This con- the universities, particularly at the gradu- dition cannot effectively be met unless the ate level, seek to overcome the deficit of project is by nature clearly defined. The fully trained men resulting from short- funds through which it is supported must sighted handling of special manpower dur- be used only for temporary additions to ing the war, they hence are confronted by the staff, and the overhead expenses added a need for the expansion of research. Par- by the presence of the project must be ticipation in the federally supported pro- distinguished from regular overhead so gram has enabled them to expand research clearly that cessation of payment of over- opportunities as they otherwise would not head charges in connection with the project have been able to do, inasmuch as uni- can almost automatically bring about ces- versity income from endowment has defi- sation of the charges themselves. nite limits. In the second place, though this criterion The Institution of course wishes to col- hardly need be stated, since it is funda- laborate in broad programs in which many mental in the Institution's philosophy, the organizations thus participate. Without activity should be in and of itself worth seeking government support, it may col- carrying on. There is no benefit in pur- laborate in undertakings to which its own suing a remote research simply because regularly programmed investigations are funds for it are available, and there is an related. -If clear opportunity arises, in obligation on investigating agencies to which firm values can be discerned from guard against the disbursement of funds, extension of collaborative effort by the whether their own or those of others, for Institution through the introduction of the pursuit of secondary objectives, how- particular new projects in addition to ever attractive they may be, as they oc- regular programs, then the Institution may casionally are. Beyond this requirement be well advised to enter forthrightly into that the project be one of substantial worth 8 REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1947 in itself, it should also be a natural addi- its own practices regarding its own funds, tion to the Institution's own regular pro- and subject to regular and proper account- grams. If this requirement is not met, dis- ing. I have said already that the policy traction or diversion of interest or effort governing grants by the national govern- which might result from the presence of ment for fundamental research has thus pronouncedly unrelated projects, however far been excellent in its vision and wisdom. worthy in themselves, could reduce in ef- It is highly important for the well-being of fectiveness the results sought in the dis- the country that the federal policy should bursement of our own funds. thus continue, but there can be no war- In the third place, and closely akin to ranty that it will. Hence two further re- the second standard, is the requirement quirements should be stated, even although that the activity undertaken in addition to at present there is no need for emphasis regular programs be one to which the upon them. These are that contracts into Institution can genuinely contribute by which the Institution enters should not reason of the skills and operations of the contain clauses likely to produce later em- regular staff and the presence of the regu- barrassment, and that they should contain lar programs. This is another way of say- termination clauses which would enable ing that there should be a reason why the Institution to withdraw whenever the progress in the new activity promises to be major criteria here outlined ceased to be more rapid or more fruitful if the Insti- met. tution rather than some other agency The general standards of policy with enters upon it. Throughout the range of which we have been dealing apply pri- scientific investigation, whatever the field, marily to undertakings of major size. there are potential gains to be had from such intangibles as chance conversations Certain other types of participation which between research workers on related prob- the Institution might assume in research lems, or the spirit of emulation which endeavors outside its own regular pro- arises when new projects come into an grams are very simple and require little established program, stimulating it to analysis. For example, there is no reason added effort and in turn being stimulated why the Institution should not accept gifts to match the roundedness and stability or loans of apparatus for use in its own which it possesses. research programs, or in added activities, In the fourth place, the conditions under provided there is no undue risk in the which the Institution accepts added funds, responsibility for return of the equipment federal or other, to extend its programs in acceptable condition. Similarly, should should be proper. They should in no way a federal program involving several organi- infringe upon the independent status of zations parallel one of its own programs, the Institution in the pursuit of its own the Institution can become a collaborator regularly programmed research and they with others, using its own funds. Should should be genuinely adapted to the sound circumstances warrant, and should the prosecution of fundamental investigation major criteria be met, the Institution might of the highest quality. Acceptance of the subsequently increase its activities in the funds should impose no obligation upon field in question, accepting support from the Institution other than the obligation outside and undertaking projects in addi- to expend them wisely, in accordance with tion to its regularly programmed studies. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
In the fields of its special competence, undertaking, but also it may be counted the Institution in the past has had, and on to aid our own thinking and progress. now has, much opportunity for collabora- Such advisory service as this is apart from tion of a different sort. This is in an ad- advisory services to governmental agencies visory capacity. If a federal department is and similar organizations by members of carrying on a program in fundamental re- the staff as individuals. There is no doubt search closely allied with our own pro- that scientists generally have an obligation grams, a department of the Institution or to respond as individuals to calls from their the Institution itself may appropriately government particularly for advisory serv- engage in advisory service if requested. ices, and the Institution should assist The rendering of advice on undertakings members of its staff to meet such calls, closely cognate with our own has a double assuming that they are reasonable in extent benefit; not only may it contribute to the and character.
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES This report year is the first one since of magnetism in them may contribute to 1940 during which all the Departments knowledge of the relationship between the and Divisions of the Institution have been magnetic and mechanical properties of fully engaged in normal programs of in- large rotating masses, to understanding of vestigation. The evaluation of possible rotating stellar systems such as our galaxy, undertakings and the consequent formula- and possibly to theories of the cosmogony tion of well rounded programs on which of planetary systems. careful effort was expended during the The newly integrated program of re- year previous have already more than search at the Geophysical Laboratory pre- justified themselves through the coherent sented last year specific approaches to the and vigorous over-all pattern o£ the Insti- general objectives that had been decided tution's research activities this year. The on, and during the present report year reports of the Departments and Divisions active advance on these has been made. review these in detail; a few results of The development of a new type of pres- particular interest will be summarized sure apparatus has facilitated the study of here. equilibrium relations in hydrous mixtures, Implications of possible significance to the magnesia-silica-water system having several subjects of marked importance at- been under principal investigation. Here tach to the continuing investigation of the it was found that all the more common general magnetic fields of stars which natural hydrous silicates of magnesia, as Dr. Horace Babcock is carrying on at the well as two anhydrous silicates, can be Mount Wilson Observatory, having made prepared with only the solid phases and his Initial effort last year. Now, for the vapor present. The silicates formed in purpose of discovering stars possessing the experiments performed thus far are strong magnetic fields, he has surveyed common in certain varieties of igneous and likely ones down to the sixth magnitude, metarnoxphic rocks; the conditions of their finding magnetic fields stronger than 1000 formation in nature may be more clearly gauss in several, and a polar field of some understood as knowledge of their range of 5500 gauss in one. Since these stars are stability with respect to pressure and tem- probably in rapid rotation, the discovery perature is extended. This fresh start on REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1947 the wet silicate problem will contribute ual magnetism in the layers of silt de- to increasing that knowledge. Equilibria posited by retreating glaciers at the end up to 900 ° centigrade at pressures up to of the last ice age had been measured be- 15,000 pounds per square inch, and at 800 ° fore the war, with the object of tracing centigrade and pressures of 30,000 pounds deviation of the compass direction from per square inch, have been determined in true north. The new techniques, in which the new apparatus. the silt from single layers is redeposited The cosmic-ray program of the Depart- out of a water bath in a magnetic field, ment of Terrestrial Magnetism over the afford a tentative measure of the intensity past twelve years has comprised long-con- of the earth's field in that distant period. tinued observations of the intensity of The amazing diversity of the form and cosmic radiation at various stations structure of plant life is among the most throughout the earth. During these, slight striking developments of the evolutionary variations occasioned by atmospheric process. Yet in one, and a vital, respect changes and decreases of a few per cent plant life today has altered only in minute occasioned by the increased magnetic detail from its earliest progenitors; the moment of the earth following magnetic fundamental process of photosynthesis by storms have regularly been observed. A which plants manufacture their food ap- surprising phenomenon, however, was pears to have undergone little change in noted at the time of a marked solar flare the long course of evolution during which and radio blackout on July 25, 1946; the structure, habit of life, and function itself occurrence was accompanied by a large have been modified. Research in the Divi- increase in the intensity of cosmic radia- sion of Plant Biology involving extensive tion at all observing points except at the study of a wide variety of plants has given equator. About a day later, a magnetic basis for this conclusion. The chloroplast storm took place, with its usual effects. pigments that are essential in the photo- Dr. Tuve in reporting this event points synthetic apparatus of all plants are found out that the known change in the earth's to have changed but little in the evolution magnetic moment due to ionization by not only of the species in major taxonomic ultraviolet light cannot explain it, and that groups, but also of the main groups them- the flare effects cannot readily be assumed selves. Thus it is indicated that the photo- to have altered the sun's magnetic moment synthetically active pigments of present- enough to pass an increased number of day green algae, for example, are the same cosmic rays. An accelerating action as- as those possessed by their fossil ancestors sociated with the flare at or near the sun of several hundred million years ago. The may possibly have produced the additional Division's continuing study of the unicel- rays. Two similar occurrences in 1942 lular alga Chlorella has given a result were revealed by search of the records. which bears interestingly on this conclu- Indication that the magnetic field of the sion. The chemical composition of the earth has not changed in strength, to alga varies with the culture conditions within the accuracy of the measurement, selected for its growth, running to 5 per during the past 30,000 years has been ob- cent of fat under one set of conditions, tained through the use of new procedures and to 85 per cent under another. The developed in the Department's investiga- chlorophyll content of the cells in the first tions during the past year. The faint resid- case is high; in the second case, it is low, CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON only about one one-thousandth of the majority of the carcinogens thus tested content of the cells of low fat production. have been found to be mutagenic; of But in both cases, the nature of the chloro- substances chemically related to the car- phyll pigments is the same. cinogens but themselves non-cancer-pro- The grass-breeding program undertaken ducing, a majority do not produce muta- by the Division of Plant Biology in co- tions. The chemical carcinogens studied operation with the Soil Conservation Serv- behave in the same way as do all known ice of the United States Department of nonchemical cancer-producers, such as X- Agriculture for the practical purpose of rays and similar radiations, ultraviolet rays, producing a better range grass to augment and heat, for all these are also mutagenic. food supplies has resulted in nearly three Dr. Demerec points out that the hypothesis hundred interspecific hybrids, some of that cancer may originate through a gene which show high promise because of their mutation occurring in a somatic cell sug- combination of favorable yield, resistance gests the most probable relation between to disease, and continued activity in dry mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. summer weather. The species used in the The study of the genetic structure of crossings produce most of their seed natural populations carried on by Dr. Dob- asexually and hence breed true. The pro- zhansky, Research Associate, as part of the gram took advantage of this fact to help program of the Department of Genetics in the quick establishment of desirable has shown that the proportion of certain hybrids. Unexpectedly, it was found that types of Drosophila in wild populations two-thirds of the hybrids between asexual changes with the season. Varying the parents were themselves sexual. There is temperature in laboratory experiments pro- possibility that these sexually reproducing duces similar changes in the make-up of hybrids between asexual parents may them- populations. The fly thus shows sub- selves in later generations produce apomic- stantially the same kind of differentiation tic, or asexual, forms, which might permit into altitudinal races as was found true for breeders to seal up the variability of plants certain plants by Drs. Clausen, Keck, and for an asexual period, then release it for Hiesey of the Division of Plant Biology a time, and finally seal it up again. Both in their five-year study of Achillea, the theoretical and practical purposes could results of which are in process of publica- thus be served. It is unusual in scientific tion. The fly undergoes the process of endeavors for a project in essentially ap- adaptation regularly and cyclically, twice plied research for an immediate and utili- each year, since it is capable, at least at the tarian purpose to eventuate in promising lower elevations in the California moun- prospects for fundamental investigation, as tains where the study was conducted, of the range-grass program is doing. Gen- producing several generations annually. erally, the reverse of this process is true. Among the group of associated studies The aerosol method developed in the in which Dr. Louis B. Flexner and his as- Department of Genetics during the past sociates are utilizing tracer techniques in two years for investigations involving the the Department of Embryology, one em- treatment of Drosophila with chemical ploying radioactive sodium and heavy solutions has been employed to test the water has given a definite answer to the power of various cancer-producing agents important questions of the proportion of to bring about mutations in genes. A water in the body, by weight, in newborn REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1947 infants, and the distribution of it as be- cord the contractions of the late pregnant tween cells and the blood, other body and parturient human uterus, which em- fluids, and extracellular spaces in the tis- ploys sensitive strain gages applicable to sues. The newborn infant is found to be the abdomen and providing a tape record 74.6 per cent water, and the extracellular of the uterine contractions. water accounts for 43.5 per cent of its body Work done during the past year has weight. These figures, obtained from liv- shown that the discovery at Nebaj in the ing healthy infants, agree very closely with highlands of Guatemala in 1946 was of earlier findings obtained by other means, even greater archaeological significance and reinforce evidence that the ratio of than had at first been suspected. The water within the cells to extracellular water thorough investigation possible during the increases as growth goes on. This group 1947 field season disclosed a number of of studies employs tracer materials pre- burials in the mound opened in 1946, and pared in the cyclotron of the Department yielded a plaque regarded as the finest of Terrestrial Magnetism, and members single example of Maya jade carving yet of the scientific staffs of the two Depart- brought to light. Some seven or eight cen- ments are working closely together in the turies are spanned by the works of art program. Further studies of the perme- recovered from the burials in this single ability of the placenta are being carried on. mound. Another valuable aspect of the Better understanding of the problems of work of the Division of Historical Re- advanced pregnancy and of parturition is search during the year was in the direction sought through the comprehensive study of an expedition to Bonampak in Chiapas, of the physiology of the pregnant uterus where ruins containing well preserved wall and of the fetus which is being carried on paintings of the highest importance had by Dr. S. R. M. Reynolds, of the Depart- been discovered by Giles G. Healey, ex- ment of Embryology, in which the physical plorer and photographer for the United forces involved as the uterus accommodates Fruit Company, in co-operation with to its growing contents are being investi- which the archaeological study was initi- gated, llncident to this work has been ated. The frescoes, dating from the eighth the development of an instrument to re- century, are lavish in detail.
STAFF Administrative responsibilities in the Di- tions of the Hill reaction—the evolution vision of Plant Biology were assumed on of oxygen from chloroplasts suspended in July 1 by Dr. C. Stacy French, who suc- solution. The apparent similarity of this ceeds Dr. Herman A. Spoehr as Chairman reaction to the oxygen evolution step in of the Division. Having served as Chair- normal photosynthesis in the living plant man for fifteen years, Dr. Spoehr will makes it of great interest. Dr. French is devote full energies to his researches on the known also for his investigations of cel- products of photosynthesis. lular respiration and of the photosynthesis Dr. French, who came to the Institution of purple bacteria. He has been a research from the University of Minnesota, where fellow at the California Institute of Tech- he was associate professor of plant physiol- nology and an Austin teaching fellow at ogy, has made notable contributions to the Harvard University, where he completed study of photosynthesis by his investiga- doctoral studies in 1934. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Dr. Spoehr in 1910 joined the staff of contributions in cytology, is continuing at the Institution's Desert Laboratory, one the Wistar Institute her studies of im- of the research units which subsequently munity and resistance of cancer cells. were linked in the creation of the Division After a year's leave of absence during of Plant Biology. Serving as Chairman which he rendered notable service as the of this Division for three years beginning first Executive Secretary of the Joint Re- in 1927, Dr. Spoehr then spent a year as search and Development Board of the War director for the natural sciences of the and Navy Departments, Lloyd V. Berkner Rockefeller Foundation, returning to the returned in the fall to his post as Chief of chairmanship of the Division in 1932. the Section on Exploratory Geophysics of Walter M. Gilbert retired from the post the Atmosphere of the Department of of Executive Officer of the Institution on Terrestrial Magnetism. March 1, 1947, after service of more than The achievement award of the American forty-two years. Thus a central figure in Association of University Women was the operational and administrative conduct presented to Dr. Barbara McClintock, of of the affairs of the Institution through the Department of Genetics, at the As- practically its entire history, he was on his sociation's biennial convention in Dallas retirement the senior member of the pro- in April. It is pleasing recognition of the fessional staff in length of service. He has value of her research in the cytogenetics been succeeded by Paul A. Scherer, a con- of maize, which is contributing to the ad- sulting engineer in heat transfer and re- vance of knowledge of evolution and frigeration, whose ability as an adminis- heredity. trator was demonstrated during his service The Viking Fund Prize and medal in as chief of the engineering and transition archaeology for 1946 were awarded to office of the Office of Scientific Research Dr. Alfred V. Kidder, Chairman of the and Development. Division of Historical Research. Presented Dr. Margaret Reed Lewis, who retired annually by the Society for American from the Institution's scientific staff in Archaeology, the award is made to the December 1946 after more than thirty years person considered to have made the out- of research in the Department of Em- standing contribution to archaeology in the bryology, where she made many valuable award year.
FINANCES Though we are in the midst of a period living, which affects institutions as it does of generally rising costs, careful study of individuals. The salary and wage scales the programs and commitments of the of the Institution are steadily being brought Institution, in which departmental, divi- nearer a level fully comparable with those sional, and administrative totals together of other principal research and educational with various special expenses have been institutions. Though they are lower than analyzed, has served to keep the Institu- the maximum in the foremost group, they tion operating within its income. The lee- remain well up in that group. In the way between income and necessary ex- course of adjustment, we have now reacjied penditures has of course been seriously the end of the process of closing down lessened both by low interest rates and by matured or auxiliary efforts, so that the the widespread increase in the cost of program of the Institution is now reduced 14 REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1947
to the central core of its regular depart- budgeting, whereby proposals of expendi- ments. tures are made on the basis of a total The Institution's reserves continue ade- figure determined by the Finance Com- quate. During the war years, diversion mittee as reasonable for budgeting pur- from regular activities made it possible to poses, is an important change in Institution augment reserves through revertments of financial procedures. It is expected to be about $1,000,000. Reserves were drawn helpful in stabilizing operations at an ef- upon moderately for nonrecurring items fective level within funds available, even in the launching of the new research pro- although the nature of our portfolio pre- grams formulated after the end of the supposes fluctuations on a long-term basis war. which will need to be cushioned by the Establishment of a new method of use of reserves.
REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES AND CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES
ASTRONOMY Mount Wilson Observatory
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES Geophysical Laboratory Department of Terrestrial ^Magnetism Special Projects *
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Division of Plant Biology Department of Embryology Department of Genetics Special Projects
HISTORICAL RESEARCH Division of Historical Research
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY Pasadena, California IRA S. BOWEN, Director Last year's report recorded the an- the two observatories, and the educational nouncement o£ an agreement between the program to be set up at the California California Institute of Technology and the Institute. These plans envisage the initi- Carnegie Institution of Washington for ation of graduate instruction in astro- the joint operation of the Palomar Moun- physics in the fall of 1948. Attention has tain Observatory, with its 200-inch tele- also been given to procedures for the scope, and the Mount Wilson Observatory. most effective use of the greatly increased This joint operation of the two observa- facilities which will become available tories will become effective on the com- with the completion of the instruments pletion of the 200-inch telescope, which is at the Palomar Mountain Observatory. expected to occur during the coming year, In particular, proposals are under con- 1947-1948. In the meantime plans are be- sideration by which observing time that is ing actively studied to bring about this not required by the staff of the Palomar unification of the scientific programs of Mountain and Mount Wilson Observa- the two observatories in the most effective tories may be made available to compe- manner and with a minimum of disturb- tent observers from other institutions on ance to the present personnel of the two the most effective co-operative basis. institutions. Notable among the scientific results of Pending the initiation of the joint oper- the year's work is the discovery by H. W. ation and the installation of the perma- Babcock of general magnetic fields in a nent administration, a Preliminary Joint number of early-type stars. The strengths Management Committee has been ap- of the fields at the poles of the stars in- pointed to make the necessary plans. This vestigated range up to 5500 gauss. For committee consists of the following mem- several decades local magnetic fields of bers: Max Mason, Chairman of the Ob- similar strength have been measured in servatory Council, Richard C. Tolman, sunspots, and a general magnetic field of Professor of Physical Chemistry and 50 gauss or less has been suspected in the Mathematical Physics, and E. C. Watson, sun. The present investigation represents Chairman of the Division of Physics, the first observation of magnetic fields Astrophysics, Mathematics, and Electrical in the more distant astronomical objects. Engineering, from the California Insti- The early-type stars investigated by Bab- tute; Walter S. Adams, Research Asso- cock are thought to have exceptionally ciate, Edwin P. Hubble, Astronomer, and high rotational speeds, and the large mag- L S- Bowen, Director, from the Mount netic fields observed are probably con- Wilson Observatory. nected in some way with this rotation. This committee has made preliminary The discovery of these very large mag- studies and recommendations in regard netic fields introduces a new and unex- to the handling of the budget and other pected factor in the equilibrium of the financial problems, the merger or corre- atmospheres of these stars, and it is hoped lation of the various service facilities of that these results may point to a solution CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
of several outstanding problems in con- ference with the scientific operations of nection with these objects. the Observatory. A significant advance in Another important project has been the method of handling visitors at the the search for the nucleus of our own Observatory was made with the opening galaxy. Such nuclei are observed at the of the visitors' gallery in the dome of the centers of other galaxies, but the region in 100-inch telescope on July 30, 1946. This the center of our own galaxy is so ob- glassed-in gallery permits large numbers scured by dust clouds that the observation of visitors to obtain a close-up view of of the nucleus by ordinary means is im- the 100-inch telescope and the interior of possible. Making use of the well known the dome without interfering with the fact that terrestrial haze may be pene- regular use of the instrument. In addi- trated with infrared light when it is tion to the visitors' gallery, a small mu- opaque to visual light, Stebbins and Whit- seum is maintained near by with a repre- ford have investigated this central region sentative group of transparencies enlarged of the galaxy with infrared light. For from photographs obtained with the 100- this purpose a special infrared photocell inch telescope and other instruments. was mounted on the 6o-inch telescope, These facilities, therefore, enable the gen- which was held stationary while various eral visitor to see the Observatory's largest regions near the center of the galaxy were instrument, which, of course, is used allowed to drift past. The measurements almost exclusively as a camera rather than of the infrared light incident on the as a visual telescope, and to see a repre- photocell during this process point to the sentative group of photographs taken presence of the galactic nucleus at 326.5 ° with it. The visitors* gallery and museum galactic latitude. are open from 1:30 to 4:30 P.M. Mondays Because of the great popular interest through Fridays, and from 11:00 A.M. to in astronomy, the Observatory has had, 4:30 P.M. Saturdays and Sundays. It is since its founding, a large and increasing estimated that more than 100,000 visitors number of visitors at its telescopes and made use of the visitors' gallery during other facilities on Mount Wilson. In line its first year of operation, with 2000 being with the general policy of the Institution handled in one day. to give wide dissemination to its work, the The last of the contracts for defense Observatory has made every effort to work was completed on September 1, allow the public to view its facilities and 1946. Since that time, the whole efforts the results of its investigations in so far as of our shops have been devoted to Observ- this could be done without serious inter- atory work.
STAFF AND ORGANIZATION
RESEARCH DIVISION Wilson, A. Louise Lowen, Myrtle L. Rich- mond. Sdar Physics: Harold D. Babcock, Scth B. Stellar Photometry: Walter Baade. Nicholson, Joseph O. Hickox, Edison R. Stellar Spectroscopy: Paul W. Merrill, Horace Hogc, Edison Pettit, Robert S. Richard- W. Babcock, Ira S. Bowen, Theodore son, Mary F. Coffeen, Elizabeth S. Mulders, 1 Dunham, Jr., Milton L. Humason, Al- Myrtle L. Richmond, Phyllis W. Vcit, fred H. Joy, Rudolph Minkowski, Roscoe Irene Whitney. Stellar Motions and Distances: Ralph E. 1 On leave July 1, 1946—March i, 1947. MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
F. Sanford, Olin C. Wilson, Sylvia Burd, tory, Cordoba, Argentina. He attended Cora G. Burwell, Dorothy D. Locanthi, as guest of the Cordoba Observatory. A. Louise Lowen, Barbara Olsen. Dr. Walter S. Adams and Dr. Ira S. Nebular Photography, Photometry, and Spec- Bowen were appointed research associates troscopy: Edwin P. Hubble, Walter Baade, of the California Institute of Technology. Milton L. Humason, Rudolph Minkowski, This is in harmony with the plan for the Alice S. Beach. Physical Laboratory: Robert B. King. joint management and operation of the Editorial Division: Paul W. Merrill, editor; two observatories at Mount Wilson and Elizabeth Connor, assistant editor and at Palomar Mountain. librarian; Helen Stecki Czaplicki, secretary. RESEARCH ASSOCIATES Alfred H. Joy has continued as Secretary Walter S. Adams, Pasadena; Sir James Jeans, of the Observatory throughout the year. Dorking, England; Henry Norris Russell, In the first serious accident that has oc- Princeton University; Frederick H. Seares, curred in connection with the observing Pasadena; Joel Stebbins, University of Wis- program o£ the Observatory, Dr. Joy was consin. injured by a fall from the Cassegrain ob- Dr. Adams has continued his search serving platform early in November 1946. for interstellar lines in high-dispersion His injuries required hospitalization for spectra of stars of types O and B. In collab- the following four months. Before the oration with Dr. Martin Schwarzschild, end of the present report year, however, he has studied the behavior of a group of Dr. Joy was able to assume his full load of iron lines in the spectrum of r\ Aquilae duties, including his observing schedule. throughout the period of its light-varia- Dr. Theodore Dunham, Jr., resigned on tion. During the past year the detailed March 1, 1947, to carry out investigations investigation of the blue and ultraviolet in the field of biophysics. Dr. Dunham spectrum of u Sagittarii has been com- joined the staff in 1929 and has made pleted and prepared for publication by studies of planetary atmospheres, stellar Dr. Adams and Dr. J. L. Greenstein, of spectra, and interstellar lines. He has the Yerkes Observatory. also made very large contributions to the Dr. Stebbins and Dr. A. E. Whitford instrumentation program of the Observa- have continued their important photo- tory. In particular, he was largely respon- metric studies during the summer of 1946 sible for the design of the present very and the spring of 1947. These investiga- efficient coude spectrograph of the 100- tions include: the establishment of a de- inch telescope. finitive scale of magnitudes for the extra- Mrs. Elizabeth S. Mulders resigned, galactic nebulae; the measurement of the effective March 15, 1947, after eighteen colors of nebulae; the extension of an years' service at the Observatory. During accurate scale of visual stellar magni- this period she was engaged in studies in tudes down to the seventeenth magni- solar physics and in editorial duties. Her tude; a continuation of the search for the position was taken first by Mrs. Phyllis galactic nucleus; and further six-color Veit and later by Miss Irene Whitney. observations of variable stars. Dr. Roscoe F. Sanford represented the Mount Wilson Observatory at the cele- TEMPORARY ASSOCIATES bration of the seventy-fifth anniversary Dr. Martin Schwarzschild, of Columbia of the founding of the Cordoba Observa- University, spent several weeks at the CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Observatory in the early summer of 1946. of Be stars, with the 60-inch and 100-inch In co-operation with Dr. Baade he took telescopes. an extensive series of plates of Messier 3 to Dr. A. G. Mowbray, of Pasadena, has study the type of changes in the periods taken part in the spectroscopic observing of the cluster-type variables, and thus to with the 60-inch telescope in addition to investigate the equilibrium conditions in obtaining a number of excellent objective- these objects. In a second investigation prism photographs with the 10-inch tele- the excitation temperature, electron pres- scope. sure, and density were determined from line intensities in the spectra of v\ INSTRUMENT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Aquilae. When correlated with the Design: Edgar C. Nichols, chief designer; radial-velocity measurements already made Harold S. Kinney, draftsman. by Dr. Adams, these provide a basis for Optical Shop: Don O. Hendrix, superin- tendent; Floyd Day, optician. the theory of the atmospheric pulsations Instrument Shop: Albert Mclntire, superin- of this Cepheid variable. tendent; Elmer Prall, instrument maker; During the summer of 1946, Dr. Louis Fred Scherff, Oscar Swanson, Albert La- C. Green* of Haverford College, carried brow, Donald Yeager, machinists; Harry S. out theoretical investigations of the f- Fehr, cabinet maker. values or oscillator strengths associated with the transitions from the lowest states MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION of Ca n, 2S, 2D, and 2P to the s> p, d, and Office: Anne McConnell, bookkeeper; Doro- f continua. thea Neuens, stenographer and telephone Dr. Lawrence Aller, of the University operator. of Indiana, in co-operation with Dr. Min- Operation: Ashel N. Beebe, superintendent kowski carried out a photometric investi- of construction; Kenneth de Huff, engineer; gation of the spectrum of the planetary Charles Dustman, janitor and relief en- gineer; Thomas A. Nelson, Boyd Thomp- nebula NGC 7027, covering the range son, Ralph Bennewitz, Stanley Baird, AA3700-9000. With the aid of plates pre- Eugene Hancock, night assistants; Emer- viously taken by Dr. Merrill, a study was son W. Hartong, truck driver and ma- also made of the chemical composition chinist helper; Anthony Wausnock, Margie of six B stars. Wausnock, Pauline Byers, Alexander Ko- Mr. W. C. Miller, of Pasadena, has chanski, stewards; Arnold T. Ratzlaff, continued his search for bright-line objects Homer N. Joy, janitors. with the 1 o-inch telescope and objective Several of those whose names are listed prism. A result of special interest was the above have been with the Observatory discovery of a ninth-magnitude nova in for only a part of the year. In addition, Sagittarius in May 1947. Mr. Miller has numerous temporary employees have also taken many slit spectrograms, chiefly assisted in construction and repair work.
OBSERVING CONDITIONS Most o£ the season's precipitation of the Observatory for over a week, and 42.05 inches fell in November and De- closed the Mount Wilson road for several cember* This included a storm on No- days. The total snowfall for the year was vember 11 to 14 that brought 21 inches 25 inches. of snow, disrupted the power line serving Solar observations were made on 319 MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY days between July i, 1946 and June 30, 262 nights and the 100-inch telescope 267 1947. The 60-inch telescope was used on nights during this period.
SOLAR RESEARCH
SOLAR PHOTOGRAPHY two and one-half years are given in the Solar photographs were made on 319 accompanying table. days between July 1, 1946 and June 30,
1947, by Hickox, Hoge, Nicholson, and DAILY NUMBER Richardson. The numberr of photo- MONTH graphs of various kinds were: 1945 1946 1947 Direct photographs 670 January 2.5 4.2 9.9 Ha spectroheliograms of spot groups, February 1.1 7.7 10.5 I2 60-foot focus IJ 5 March 1.9 6.7 11.8 Ha spectroheliograms, 18-foot focus. . 1,284 April 2.8 7.1 11.5 K2 spectroheliograms, 7-foot focus... 19,520 May 3.6 7.2 16.8 K2 spectroheliograms, 18-foot focus. . 1,204 June 3.8 7.3 13.4 K prominences, 18-foot focus I?IO7 July ,. 4.4 8.2 August 2.8 8.5 3.6 8.9 SUNSPOT ACTIVITY September October 5.7 9.8 The magnetic classification and study November 5.1 9.8 of sunspots and related phenomena have December 2.9 8.5 been continued by Nicholson, Mrs. Mul- Yearly average.. 3.4 7.8 ders, and Mrs. Veit. Co-operative pro- grams have been carried out with the United States Naval Observatory, the Last year a huge sunspot group which Observatory at Kodaikanal, the Depart- appeared in February 1946 was reported ment of Terrestrial Magnetism of the as the largest ever photographed. An- Carnegie Institution, and the Central other very large group with about the Radio Propagation Laboratory o£ the same maximum area was on the sun from National Bureau of Standards. February 5 to May 7, 1947. When it During the calendar year 1946, observa- crossed the sun's disk in March, the group tions were made on 334 days. No days contained the largest single spot ever were without spots, whereas in 1945 twelve photographed. In April the group as a days were without spots. The total num- whole was larger than in March, being ber of sunspot groups observed was 416, then fully as large as the great group of compared with 220 in 1945. All belonged February 1946. Another large group, the to the new cycle, no spots belonging to third largest on record, was on the sun in the old cycle having been observed since July 1946. The number of sunspot groups August 8, 1945. In the new cycle the observed daily in May 1947,16.8, set a new number of groups in the northern hemi- record for Mount Wilson. The relative sphere increased from 71 in 1945 to 200 in sunspot numbers compiled at Zurich indi- 1946; in the southern hemisphere from cate that sunspots were more numerous in 141 to 216. May 1947 than in any other month since The monthly means of the number of 1749 with the exception of May 1778. groups observed daily during the past Whether this great activity in May will CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON mark the maximum of the present cycle flares of about equal brightness do not cannot be known for some months. It necessarily have identical spectra. seems almost certain, however, that the Photographs have been obtained of H|3 century-long series of alternating high and Hy in the spectra of solar hydrogen and low cycles has been broken, because "bombs." The bombs appear as bright this cycle, which should have been a low extensions to the red and violet in the one in that series, has already exceeded hydrogen lines over active spot groups. the maximum of the last cycle. If the widening of lines in the Balmer series produced by the bombs is due to SUNSPOT POLARITIES Stark effect, the extensions should be greater in Hy than in HP, since Stark Magnetic polarities in each spot group effect increases with decreasing wave have, so far as possible, been observed at length. Preliminary results show the least once. The classification of groups widening to be roughly the same in photo- observed between July i, 1946 and June graphs of the two lines taken simul- 30, 1947 is indicated in the accompanying taneously. Up to date, however, no ob- table. "Regular" groups in the northern servations have been made under first- hemisphere are those in which the pre- class conditions. ceding spot has S (south-seeking) polarity and the following spot N polarity; in the southern hemisphere the polarities are PROMINENCES reversed. The photographs of the eruptive promi- nence of June 4, 1946 have been measured and reduced by Pettit. This prominence HEMISPHERE REGULAR IRREGULAR UNCLASSIFIED was ejected from the earthward face of 0 North 175 7 92 the sun in latitude S48 with velocities South 205 6 85 of 136 and 312 km/sec. When the meas- ures are corrected for the angle of projec- Whole sun. 380 13 177 tion they indicate that this prominence reached the unprecedented elevation of 1,703,000 km, or 1.22 solar diameters above FLARES the sun. The highest previous record was The spectra of bright flares have been 1,550,000 km, for the eruptive prominence studied on plates taken with the 75-foot of March 20, 1938, also observed at Mount spectrograph by Nicholson and Richard- Wilson. An interesting feature of the son. A total of 212 emission lines have motion of the prominence of June 4, 1946 been identified; they arise from 17 neutral is that it was accomplished with two and singly ionized atoms. The Balmer velocities in a gravitational field that series can be traced in emission to H21 at varied from four-tenths to one-twelfth of A3679. The relative intensities of the flares that at the solar surface. The prominence photographed at Mount Wilson have been was one of the largest ever observed. compared with those observed by C. W. Eruptive prominences were photo- Allen at Canberra. In most cases, the graphed also on September 15, 1946 and relative Intensities of the lines correspond April 14, 1947, tne onc on tne fatter date as closely as could be expected, but many rising from the vicinity of a great sun- striking exceptions occur, indicating that spot on the west limb- MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
An effort is being made to obtain meas- tions are adequate for detecting a general urable series of photographs of interactive field whose polar intensity (under usual and tornado prominences, in order to assumptions) is 13 gauss, or about one- study the exchange of gases between two fourth of the maximum value reported by neighboring prominences and to obtain other workers. more data on rotary motions. Visual observations have been made with a modified method of observing THE SOLAR SPECTRUM, X6600 TO A13495 weak magnetic fields, utilizing either a Lummer plate or a Fabry-Perot inter- Under the foregoing title, Carnegie ferometer. Some merits and some dis- Institution of Washington Publication 579, advantages are found in comparison with by Harold D. Babcock and Charlotte E. the photographic method long in use here, Moore, is now in press. The major portion and further study is required. This visual (67 pages) of this volume consists of a method rests upon small variations of table of the wave lengths, intensities, and intensity, rather than of position, among identifications of about 7350 lines observed the interference fringes of selected lines in in the solar spectrum in the wave-length the solar spectrum. range mentioned in the title. The 26-page text discusses instruments used, the in- ULTRAVIOLET SOLAR SPECTRUM tensities of disk and sunspot spectra, identi- fications and excitation potentials, com- Recent reports of the extension of the parisons between solar and stellar spectra, ultraviolet solar spectrum, through ob- elements present, etc. servations with low dispersion from high- altitude rockets, give additional interest to GENERAL MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE SUN spectrograms made at ground level. Attempts have been made during the Various sources of error in the method current year by H. D. Babcock to improve adopted for the study of weak solar mag- the data mentioned in earlier reports in netic fields have been studied in detail the range A2914 to A3060. Because of poor by H. D. Babcock with the assistance of observing conditions in Pasadena, how- Mrs. Coflfeen. Personal errors in microm- ever, only minor additions have been eter settings on the interference fringes made. All the available data in this wave- from the Lummer plate, relative errors length range are being prepared for pub- presented by alternative methods of re- lication in collaboration with Dr. Char- ducing the observations, properties of some lotte E. Moore, of the National Bureau of circular analyzers, and other technical Standards. details have been included. Observations made like those of the SOLAR CURVES OF GROWTH general field, except that a small single sunspot is held centrally on the window A study of empirical curves of growth of the Lummer plate, are used for testing for lines of neutral vanadium (Vi) in the the performance of the entire optical train. solar spectrum has been made by R. B. When the effective magnetic field is weak, King in collaboration with Dr. K. O. as in these tests, the measurability of the Wright, of the Dominion Astrophysical spectrum lines is fully comparable to that Observatory, Victoria, British Columbia. in observations of the general field. It Solar equivalent widths, obtained princi- thus appears that the definitive observa- pally from the Utrecht Atlas, and gf~ 10 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON values obtained in the laboratory were Boltzman-factor correction that has been used to construct the curves. A mean necessary in previous determinations. excitation temperature of about 5400 °± Measurements of the equivalent widths of 2000 K was found for V1. This may be these solar absorption lines gave the compared with temperatures of about amount of oxygen present in the reversing 4400 ° and 4900 ° obtained previously by layer as 7X1020 atoms, or 18 mg, per sq. similar methods for solar 771 and Fe 1 cm. A comparison of the equivalent lines, respectively. A condition commonly widths of these lines with the widths of ascribed to turbulence in the solar atmos- the high-level permitted lines in the in- phere (in addition to ordinary thermal frared yielded an excitation temperature agitation of the atoms) was exhibited by for oxygen of 5200 °. the curves of growth for lines arising from the lowest energy levels. The mag- SOLAR ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS nitude of this effect corresponds to mean turbulent velocities of about 3 km/sec for Preliminary measurements of the dis- lines arising from the ground state; it tribution of violet light across the sun's decreases with increasing excitation po- disk have been made by Nicholson in an tential of the lines. The effect is similar to effort to determine whether short-period that found by Wright in curves of growth fluctuations can be detected in the solar for lines of Fei in F-type stars. absorption coefficients. Drift-curves have been obtained on about 100 days. Their ABUNDANCE OF OXYGEN IN THE SUN measurement and reduction are in prog- ress with the assistance of Miss Richmond With the aid of a new determination of and Mrs. Veit. the wave lengths of the forbidden 01 lines at A6300A and A6363A, Bowen has been RELATION BETWEEN SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL able to identify these lines as well as the PHENOMENA forbidden 0 1 line at A5577A with weak solar absorption lines. Since these lines Nicholson has co-operated with Dr. are all transitions from very low terms in Oliver Wulf, of the United States the oxygen atom, their equivalent widths Weather Bureau, in the study of solar can be used for the determination of the and terrestrial relations, particularly with abundance of oxygen in the sun without regard to ionospheric changes induced by the use of the very large and uncertain variations in terrestrial magnetism.
PLANETARY INVESTIGATIONS Positions of Jupiter's satellites JVI, re-reduction of the satellite plates and the VII, VIII, IX, X, and XI were measured remeasurement of many of them have been by Nicholson on photographs made with started at Mount Wilson. When completed, the 60-inch and 100-inch reflectors. The this program will give positions of Jupiter United States Naval Observatory is de- and its satellites referred to the same co- termining the positions of all the com- ordinate system. Miss Richmond is assist- parison stars used in measuring photo- ing in the measurement and reduction of graphs of Jupiter's satellites since 1938. The the photographs. MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY II
STELLAR INVESTIGATIONS PHOTOELECTRIC PHOTOMETRY mit red and blue light for the determina- Stebbins and Whitford made six-color tion of any shift due to the presence of the observations of the typical variable stars companion. y] Aquilae and RR Lyrae, similar to the The visual light of Nova Puppis, meas- previous measures of § Cephei and Polaris. ured on two nights, declined 0.42 mag. In both the new series the same phenome- during the year, only about half as much as during the previous year. non, a retardation of phase with increas- ing wave length, was found as in b Cephei. In addition, the correlation of the VISUAL MAGNITUDES OF DOUBLE STARS AND colors with the varying spectral types will VARIABLE STARS throw new light on the processes of these Measures of the magnitudes of double pulsating stars. Incidentally to the pro- stars with faint close companions were gram on nebular photometry, the photo- continued by Pettit with the wedge pho- visual magnitudes in two Selected Area tometer attached to the 60-inch telescope. fields were calibrated photoelectrically One hundred and twenty measures of down to the seventeenth magnitude. double-star systems were made during the year, and measurements on 51 systems VISUAL MAGNITUDES OF NOVAE have now been completed on three or more nights since this program was started. The measures of the visual light of T Measures of the visual light of HC Coronae Borealis have been continued by Herculis, an RV Tauri type star, were Pettit. T Coronae is the only fast nova made over the period July to November for which a pronounced secondary maxi- 1946. These measures show that the mum has been observed. The star, which principal minima occurred on August 9 rapidly faded from its initial observed and October 22, seven days after the dates brightness of 3.2 mag. in February 1946 predicted by Waterfield's formula. The to 9 mag. in March, reached primary mini- magnitudes at principal maximum and mum 9.9 mag. in May, began to brighten minimum were 6.8 and 8.5, about half in the last week of May, and reached 7.8 a magnitude brighter than the catalogue mag. in June and July, after which it de- values. clined slowly, and in July 1947 is about magnitude 9.8. The recent light-curve of ANGULAR DIAMETER OF STARS FROM T Coronae is everywhere nearly the same OCCULTATIONS BY THE MOON as that of its outburst in 1866, with a possible general depression of 0.1 or 0.2 During the summer of 1946 Whitford mag. Several recrudescences of a few increased the number of occultations ob- tenths of a magnitude in light were ob- served from the single one previously served, notably in October 1946 and March reported to a total of four. The calculated 1947. The primary minimum, corrected angular diameters ranged from o"oo8, for the M-type companion, was 11.0 mag. for the first case of v Virginia, to o'/oooS Photographs of the star field have been for the A9 star 44b Ophiuchi. The in- made with the 60-inch telescope with local tensity patterns observed as the edge of color filters for T Coronae which trans- the moon's shadow swept across the tele- 12 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON scope agreed with those expected from applicable to the determination of the simple knife-edge diffraction theory, and angular diameter of stars in the range confirmed the view that the method is from o"oo2 to o"o2O.
STELLAR SPECTROSCOPY
RADIAL VELOCITIES card catalogue of all known radial ve- locities which contains some 11,750 entries. Observatory program. For about thirty Dwarf stars. The radial velocities and years the Observatory has carried on ob- spectral types of 180 dwarf stars with servations to determine the radial veloci- proper motions greater than o/./35 per an- ties of stars in several categories, the five num were published by Joy. The list in- principal ones being: (i) the stars of the cludes no dM-type stars, some of which are later spectral classes listed in the Boss of the lowest luminosity thus far observed Preliminary General Catalogue; (2) all for radial velocity. Twenty-one subdwarfs, stars with proper motions exceeding o'/i for which the mean radial velocity is 121 per year; (3) stars in Kapteyn's Selected km/sec, were recognized. Three or more Areas; (4) stars in the four clusters plates were available for practically all the Taurus, Pleiades, Praesepe, and h and x stars. The probable error of the adopted Persei; and (5) a selected list of double velocity lay between 1 and 2 km/sec for stars. For those stars visible during the most of these stars. With the aid of abso- seasons when good observing conditions lute magnitudes determined from trigo- prevail, the observations are essentially nometric parallaxes, a table was con- complete. Unpublished radial velocities structed showing the correlation between are available for about 1000 stars, and a absolute magnitude and spectral type from sufficient number of plates have been dK4 to dM6. Emission lines of H and obtained for about 750 others. About 630 Ca n were observed in 41 stars of types plates of 325 stars are needed and must Mi.5 or later, and it was noted that in be obtained mainly during the seasons subdwarfs emission lines are extremely when bad observing conditions prevail. weak or absent. It is hoped that these programs may be completed with the 60-inch telescope dur- ing the coming year. LONG-PERIOD VARIABLE STARS During the past year, in which observ- Omicron Ceti. Measurements of coude ing conditions were definitely subnormal, spectrograms of the long-period variable 880 spectrograms were obtained with the 0 Ceti, taken by Merrill and Joy from 60-inch, 580 on the general radial-velocity 1934 to 1947, indicate that the mean radial programs and 300 in connection with velocities based on the absorption lines special investigations. vary by a few kilometers per second at The rapid accumulation of radial ve- different maxima, and also that the curves locities since the publication of the Lick of velocity variation are subject to con- catalogue in 1932 makes it desirable from siderable changes in shape and range the standpoint of the student of stellar from cycle to cycle. motions that the list be brought up to As a test of the hypothesis that the date. R. E, Wilson, with the assistance of deformation of the emission lines at cer- Miss Richmond, has undertaken this com- tain phases is due to line absorption by pilation and during the year has made a overlying atoms of the reversing layer in MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY the star, 62 lines within a distance of one of the intricate spectra of two well known angstrom from the centers of 28 hydrogen variable stars of class Se by means of emission lines were measured by Joy on spectrograms with the relatively high dis- 88 high-dispersion spectrograms and were persion of 10 A/mm. These studies were identified with lines of elements com- comparable with those of Me variables monly found in absorption in low-tem- made in the preceding year. perature stars. The probability of the oc- In the spectrum of R Andromedae, currence of these lines was strengthened measures of more than 1300 dark lines by noting the presence in 0 Ceti of other served as a basis for a detailed survey of members of the multiplets to which they the multiplets of nearly 30 elements. The belong. The iron lines show the same displacements of lines of neutral atoms correlation between ionization potential (and probably also of ionized atoms) and velocity displacement found for iron have a persistent positive correlation with lines falling outside the regions of hydro- excitation potential. Lines of ionized gen emission. By comparing the wave atoms have positive displacements with lengths, four lines measured within the respect to lines of neutral atoms. The JHY emission were attributed to titanium mean velocity from the dark lines ex- oxide. hibited little variation with phase over a Variables of class N. Observations made postrnaximum interval of about 100 days. by Sanford during the past year and those Atoms of yttrium and zirconium appear already accumulated now give sufficient to be more abundant in R Andromedae coverage of all phases of eight long-period than in Me variables. This tentative con- variables of spectral class N to show a defi- clusion, if confirmed by quantitative pho- nite velocity variation. The velocity in tometric analysis, might guide us toward general is highest between minimum and the cosmological interpretation of the maximum and lowest between maximum trifurcation of the low-temperature end and minimum. Present in most of them of the stellar sequence. as a strong emission line at or near maxi- In the investigation of x Cygni, many mum light, Ha is exceedingly weakened new data were recorded concerning the or absent at and near minimum light. behavior of bright lines during the post- Changes in the continuous spectrum be- maximum phase of the light-cycle. A two- tween maximum and minimum light are night exposure with the 100-inch telescope, marked in the region AA5800-6700 in some when the variable, at magnitude 11.4, was of these variables; in other variables there 162 days after maximum, brought out are changes in the strength of such absorp- nearly 300 bright lines. The total number tion lines as Di and D2 of Na 1. of bright lines studied was about 400. Variables of class Se. Stars whose Most of these are due to hydrogen or to spectra are characterized by bands of zir- metals (either neutral or singly ionized), conium oxide have long been recognized but some of them, including a few strong as forming one of three parallel branches ones, have thus far resisted all attempts of giant red stars at the cool end of the at identification. A peculiarity of physical stellar temperature sequence. Many years interest is the inordinately high intensity ago the spectra of these stars (class S) were of bright lines from certain atomic levels. described in Mount Wilson Contributions These levels appear to be energized by Nos. 252 and 325. During the past year line coincidence—a specialized process far Merrill has carried out extensive studies removed from thermal equilibrium. A CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
new example in the zirconium spectrum tional observations of AE Aquarii were was detected by Bowen. made to test the constancy of the period Since the bright-line spectrum under- of velocity variation. goes remarkable changes with phase, be- In continuation of work begun in pre- coming more interesting as the light of ceding years, Sanford, using the 32-inch the variable star declines, it is hoped in camera of the coude spectrograph, has the future to obtain additional spectro- obtained spectrograms of the variable RR grams still closer to minimum. Lyrae; a half-dozen Cepheids, including TU Cassiopeiae with the period 2.1 days, ECLIPSING VARIABLE STARS one of the shortest known; and T Mono- cerotis with a period of 27 days. A start Spectroscopic observations by Joy dur- was made on observations for the velocity- ing the total eclipses of RW Tauri showed curve of SV Vulpeculae, a Cepheid with remarkable changes in the intensity of one of the longest periods known, 45 days. the emission lines emanating from the Eta Aquilae. A series of 18 high-dis- gaseous ring around the B9 component. persion spectrograms of Y\ Aquilae taken On account of its small size, the ring can throughout the period of light-variation be observed only at second and third has been measured by Adams in collabora- contacts. At 15 eclipses emission of widely tion with Dr. Martin Schwarzschild. Spe- varying intensity was observed on one or cial attention has been given to a list of 42 both limbs, but at 5 eclipses no emission iron lines selected to provide a consider- appeared. The ring is evidently quite able range of intensity and excitation irregular in structure. The velocities re- potential. main constant at about 350 km/sec, but Nova T Coronae Borealis. Spectrograms the gases may be distributed in the form of Nova T Coronae Borealis with dis- of clouds or spiral streamers. S Cancri persions of 10 A/mm in the blue and 20 was observed at minimum for determin- A/mm in the red have been obtained by ing the velocity changes of the secondary Sanford each month except October, star. November, and December 1946, when it O. C. Wilson has nearly completed his was too close to the sun. Many changes investigation of the 1939-1940 eclipse of in emission line structure and in the shell £ Aurigae. The results should be ready spectrum have been found, and the meas- for publication in the near future. urements have been completed. These measures have yet to be sifted and brought VARIABLE STARS OF OTHER TYPES into orderly sequence. The lines belong- ing to the class-M spectrum in this long Joy has continued the observation of series of spectrograms show a velocity certain groups of variable stars for the variation with a period between 200 and purpose of supplying spectroscopic ma- 300 days. Definite evaluation of this period terial for a study of the physical char- should be possible at the end of the 1947 acteristics and motions of the different observing season. classes of variables. Spectrograms o£ stars of the RR Lyrae, RV Tauri, SS Cygni, and R Coronae Borealis classes and of the SFECTROGRAFHIC STUDIES OF SPECIAL STARS brightest variables in the globular clusters Wolf-Rayet stars. O. C. Wilson has were obtained at suitable phases. Addi- continued his survey of the spectra of MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
Wolf-Rayet stars with the following pre- of Cl 11 and Fe in, and some possibility of liminary results: Pn and C11; S11 is strongly represented, The star HD 50896 has shown shifts of but C1 and He n appear to be absent. considerable magnitude in the positions An interesting discovery is the doubling of some of the emission bands. No sec- on two of the spectrograms of a con- ondary spectrum is visible, and it is not siderable number of lines of ionized ele- yet known whether the star is a binary or ments, more especially of Fe 11. not. BD+40°422o has an Of-type spec- trum and is probably a spectroscopic GENERAL MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARLY-TYPE binary of considerable range with both STARS spectra visible. The star is extremely red The initial work on general magnetic for its type. HD 190918 is a Wolf-Rayet fields in stars was reported a year ago. star with well marked absorption lines. Since that time, a survey of likely stars Observations of the absorption spectrum down to the sixth magnitude has been have shown that the star is a spectroscopic continued by H. W. Babcock with the binary. A tentative period of about 82 aim of discovering those that have strong days has been derived. HD 193793 also fields. Also, a more detailed study of the is a Wolf-Rayet star with absorption lines, Zeeman effect in a few stars, using the although of poorer quality than those in highest available dispersion, has been HD190918. Observations of the absorp- begun. Magnetic fields stronger than tion spectrum indicate that the star is 1000 gauss have been observed in y probably a spectroscopic binary, although Equulei, 3 Coronae Borealis, BD-180 no period has been found. 3789, and probably two or three others, Be stars. Considerable progress has been in addition to 78 Virginis. The polar field made during the year by Merrill, Burwell, of the "europium star," BD — i8°3789, is Miller, and Mowbray in the discovery and about 5500 gauss, the strongest yet meas- observation of bright-line stars. The sur- ured. Several other stars, plates of which vey with the 1 o-inch telescope is nearly have not yet been fully measured, prob- complete for low galactic latitudes; cer- ably have fields of somewhat less than tain areas at higher latitudes are now 1000 gauss. A considerable body of evi- being photographed. A ninth-magnitude dence now bears out the reality of the nova was discovered in May 1947. Scores effect, and there are no discordant obser- of additional Be stars, detected in the vations. Several stars observed with the objective-prism survey, are awaiting ob- analyzer show no discernible Zeeman servation with a slit spectrograph. A effect. This group includes a Canis number of stars with interesting spectral Majoris (Ao), a Canis Minoris (F5), £ changes have been found. Pegasi (Ko), and a Tauri (K5). The Upsilon Sagittarii. Dr. J. L. Greenstein results so far obtained suggest that strong and Adams have prepared for publication magnetic fields are a general property of the results of a detailed investigation of the metallic-line stars of type A, and par- the spectrum of u Sagittarii in the region ticularly of the spectrum variables which AA3564—4861. Approximately 1000 lines are a subgroup of this type. The apparent have been measured on two spectrograms correlation of magnetism with spectrum of high dispersion. In addition to many variability deserves much further study. elements which would be expected, there Consideration of the curve of growth is considerable evidence for the presence suggests that the Zeeman effect should i6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
increase the equivalent widths of moder- The controlling effect exerted by the ate and strong absorption lines; this effect magnetic field of a rotating star on ions will probably have to be taken into account and electrons in or beyond its atmosphere in studies of the abundances of elements may well have considerable interest as in the early-type stars. regards the support of equatorial rings of The discovery of magnetism in selected tenuous material, and possibly even as stars (which in all probability are in rapid regards theories of the cosmogony of rotation) has implications that may be of planetary systems and double stars. significance as regards the relation between the magnetic and mechanical properties INTERSTELLAR LINES of large rotating masses. In this connec- tion, Babcock has pointed out that the In a search for faint components of the magnetic moments of the earth, the sun, interstellar H and K lines, measurements and 78 Virginis (8 X 1025, 8.4 X io33, and have been completed by Adams for about 4 X io36 gauss cm3, respectively) are at 300 stars of types O and B. About 40 per least roughly proportional to their angular cent of the stars observed show one or momenta, and may be obtained, in each more components to the principal line. object, by multiplying the angular mo- With few exceptions, the stars showing mentum, in c.g.s. units, by io"15. This the most complex lines are found in the relation may be of fundamental signifi- lowest galactic latitudes. The analysis of cance, but it should still be regarded with the material is in progress. - reserve, since the obliquity of the magnetic Interstellar lines are probably formed axes of the earth and of the sun has not in relatively thin curtains stretched at yet been explained. irregular intervals between the stars. Lines If the proportionality of magnetic mo- whose intensities increase (statistically) ment to angular momentum is a universal with distance should be distinguished law of large rotating masses, it is possible from lines which show no dependence that it is also applicable to a rotating on distance. Comparison by Merrill and stellar system such as our galaxy or an O. C. Wilson of the components of the extragalactic nebula. It then becomes Ca 11 and Na 1 lines in a number of stars possible to compute the magnetic moment suggests a dependence of ionization on of such a system. For the galaxy and the thickness of the clouds, the thin cur- for the Andromeda nebula, one finds a tains being the more highly ionized. Con- magnetic moment of roughly io59 gauss sideration should be given to those con- cm8, or a corresponding magnetic field ditions (of liquefaction or of chemical of about io~8 gauss in the plane of the combination) under which interstellar system, the lines of force being perpen- atoms may be removed from the state in dicular to the plane. which they can give rise to atomic lines.
GALACTIC NEBULAE AND STAR CLOUDS
PLANETARY NEBULAE ally complete between galactic longitudes Minkowski has identified 35 new plane- o° and 205 °, but a number of objects in tarics during the past year* bringing to the direction of the galactic center still 111 the total number found in the survey remain to be investigated. prior to July 1, 1947. The survey is virtu- A large number of spectrograms on MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY infrared- and red-sensitive plates have continued until the type of variability has been obtained by Minkowski for the been ascertained for most of the variables. spectrbphotometric study of NGC 7027 undertaken with L. Aller. The observa- SEARCH FOR THE NUCLEUS OF THE GALAXY tional program has been completed and Dr. Stebbins and Dr. Whitford con- the reduction of the material is under way. tinued the search for the nucleus of our The survey by O. C. Wilson of the galaxy, using a band of infrared radia- brighter planetary nebulae with a disper- tion at effective wave length 10300A. sion of 10.4 A/mm has continued during With a photocell and suitable filter on the the year and is near completion. The 60-inch reflector, the sky was allowed to results in general confirm those reported drift with the diurnal motion across the earlier. field of a focal diaphragm 8'6 in diameter. As the intensity along each sweep was TRANSPARENCY OF THE ORION NEBULA IN recorded, the star clouds and individual THE INFRARED stars interfered somewhat but did not Since earlier plates suggested that the wholly prevent penetration to the back- Orion nebula might be quite transparent ground. The area of the search extended for still longer wave lengths, Baade has about 20 on each side of the galactic made a check in the near infrared. The equator from longitude 321 ° to 331 °, with selected region (AA7100-7500) contains intensive coverage within i° of the only a few weak emission lines, and the equator, and with supplementary sweeps light of the nebula is largely suppressed of greater extent at selected points. The on the photographs. The results are very sweeps at successive longitudes usually striking. The area normally filled with gave maxima near the galactic circle, out- the luminous nebulosity is replaced by a lining a bulge extending about 8° in longi- corresponding area of high stellar density, tude and 40 or 50 in latitude, with center far above that of the surrounding region. near 326?5- Obviously the transparency of the Orion Concurrent sweeps in the red at wave nebula for long waves is not restricted to length 7190A gave a color excess on the the neighborhood of the exciting stars red-infrared scale of +1.5 mag., equal to where it was first noticed (Trapezium that of the most strongly reddened B cluster), but is characteristic of the whole stars in the sky. It is shown that the of the excited nebulosity. The transpar- radiation cannot come from a mixture of ency decreases with increasing distance star clouds and absorbing material like from the exciting stars. that within one or two kiloparsecs of the sun, but must come from a more luminous VARIABLES IN THE NUCLEAR REGION OF THE object behind absorbing material. The GALACTIC SYSTEM light of the bulge, with maximum appar- Baade has continued the search for ent photographic surface brightness of variables in the field around the globular 25.4 mag./sq. sec, adds up, when cor- cluster NGC 6522 (A = 3280, 3 = -40). rected for absorption, to a total quite com- Although only occasional plates have been parable with the light of an equal section blinked during the year, the number of of the Andromeda nebula. That the recognized variables in the field has in- observed bulge is probably near the creased to 200, corresponding to 540 per galactic center is shown by its position, square degree. The observations will be form, color, and total light. i8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE
PHOTOELECTRIC MAGNITUDES AND COLORS type II (elliptical nebulae) and systems Dr. Stebbins and Dr. Whitford each of pure type I (late spirals); and the seg- spent two months at Mount Wilson, regation of types indicated by the color measuring photoelectric magnitudes and distribution is an important datum in dis- colors of nebulae and faint stars. The cussions of stellar evolution. results form the most significant contri- An extensive investigation of colors of bution to the photometry of nebulae that elliptical nebulae emphasized the remark- has been made up to the present time. able homogeneity of the group, and es- The results may be summarized as tablished, quantitatively, the relation be- follows: tween color and absolute magnitude (color 1. Photoelectric magnitudes of more indices increase with luminosities). Meas- than 150 nebulae were measured, ranging ures of the several brightest elliptical from about m = 9 to 18, and distributed nebulae in the clusters, Virgo, Coma, over the entire sequence of classification. Corona Borealis, and Bootes (one nebula Apertures used were large enough to only), for which red-shifts are available include the entire nebula as recorded on indicated a correlation between color and photographs. Because the technique is red-shift according to which the color inherently accurate and free from sys- index increased by 0.4 mag., as the red- tematic effects, the data establish a defini- shifts ranged up to dX/X = 0.13. tive scale of nebular magnitudes down 3. Colors and magnitudes were meas- to limits of size and brightness well ured for 21 stars in Selected Area 57, within the range suitable for measure- ranging from magnitude 12.6 to 17.1, and ment by photographic methods (jiggle for 34 stars in Selected Area 61, ranging camera, extrafocal images, etc.). In par- from magnitude 10.1 to 16.8. Connec- ticular, the data serve to calibrate the tions with the polar sequence insure that Shapley-Ames estimated magnitudes of the colors and the zero point of the new all nebulae brighter than the thirteenth magnitudes lie In the International Sys- magnitude and the fainter magnitudes tem. These data furnish a definitive check used in the formulation of the law of red- on the current photographic scale in the shifts. two areas down to about the seventeenth 2. Colors, red and blue, were measured magnitude, and thus provide reliable zero for about 75 of the nebulae, also distributed points for the faint extension of the scales over the sequence of classification. The (from magnitude 16 to 21) previously systematic decrease in color indices along established by Baade. This extension rep- the sequence, suggested by previous in- resents the photometric standards used in vestigations, was confirmed and placed on the large-scale explorations of the universe. a quantitative basis. The data thus estab- Furthermore, the color measures pro- lish a correlation between integrated color vide a new, reliable scale of photovisual and type of stellar population. The phe- magnitudes which can be readily ex- nomenon was further investigated by tended to the limit of the 100-inch tele- measures of the distribution of color over scope In one photographic step (I.e., with- the Images of several very large, inter- out the necessity of piecing together mediate-type spirals. These spirals are successive steps—the process which has in- transition cases between systems of pure troduced most of the uncertainties in pre- MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY vious fundamental photometry). The faint, unresolved, late-type spirals is corn- data also furnish an approximate scale of parable with the number of those to be red magnitudes, subject to uncertainties expected among the superposed nebulae of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 mag., because of in the general field. The corresponding the short color base line used in the actual value of the mean absolute magnitude, measures. A red scale is especially urgent about —6.5, will not be much improved for cosmological studies, which involve until Cepheids have been observed in a the effects of red-shifts ranging up to more representative collection of spirals 1000A or more. In order that the shifted than that available at present. radiation under investigation may come The data clearly indicate that the lumi- from a well known region of the unshifted nosity of the brightest stars in a nebula spectrum, it is desirable that the investiga- increases with the luminosity of the tions be made in the red. The procedure nebula, i.e., with the size of the sample. is now practical, because of recent im- Since the ranges in the two quantities, provements of red-sensitive emulsions, but Ms and Mn, are widely different (3 mag. it cannot provide quantitative data until and 6 mag., respectively), it is possible an accurate scale of red magnitudes is to express the data as a correlation be- available. The new data represent a first tween Ms and the difference, (Ms — Mn), step toward the establishment of the or its equivalent, the directly observable required scale. quantity (ms — mn). This procedure re- duces the dispersion in estimates of dis- BRIGHTEST STARS IN EXTRAGALACTIC tances of isolated field nebulae and of NEBULAE groups in which only a few of the brighter Hubble has measured the brightest stars members can be resolved. in about 80 spirals and irregular nebulae, on the definitive scale of magnitudes es- MOTION OF THE GALACTIC SYSTEM WITH tablished by Baade in Selected Areas 57 RESPECT TO THE NEARER EXTRA- and 68. The program includes nebulae in GALACTIC NEBULAE clusters, groups, and the general field, and the magnitudes extend down to about The improved distances have been used 20 and 21 with the 60-inch and 100-inch in an investigation of the motion of the telescopes, respectively. galactic system with respect to. the re- The data furnish a revised luminosity solved nebulae outside the local group. function of brightest stars based primarily When the known effects of the galactic upon a complete survey of the central rotation and red-shift are removed from region of the Virgo cluster down to nebu- radial velocities, the data suggest a motion lar magnitudes about 15.5, and reinforced of the general order of 200 km/sec, in the by data from nearer groups reduced to general direction of X = 170, 3 = +25. the same distance by means of red-shifts. Because of the particular location of the Provisional results suggest that the mean galactic system, only small fractions of its value of brightest stars in the Virgo cluster motion are reflected in the observed radial is about mPg = 20.2, with a range of the velocities of the other members of the order of 1.5 mag. in either direction. The local group, and they do not seriously fainter limit is beyond the reach of the alter the pattern of internal motions with- 100-inch, but the estimate is partially con- in the group as suggested by the uncor- trolled by the fact that the number of rected data. 20 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
SURVEY OF THE ANDROMEDA NEBULA from spectra of more than 500 nebulae observed at Mount Wilson. Spectral types Baade's survey of the south-preceding have been re-estimated on a uniform sys- outer region of the Andromeda nebula tem, relative weights assigned, probable out to 2?5 from the nucleus, in the ultra- violet, blue, red, and near infrared, has errors investigated, and some 20 nebulae been practically completed. Of particular reobserved in order to remove gross un- interest is an emission nebulosity found certainties and improve assigned weights. on the major axis, about 114' from the The spectral types (representing the nucleus. It is the outermost emission nuclear regions) vary systematically object thus far identified. Humason has through the sequence of classification obtained an excellent spectrum of this from mean values of G2.9 for 164 ellip- nebulosity, using a dispersion of 230 A/mm tical nebulae to F5.6 for 52 late-type spirals. at Hy; the radial velocity, —497 ± 10 The elliptical nebulae fall almost entirely km/sec (from 10 lines), indicates that, at within the narrow range Go to G5, but the this distance from the nucleus, differ- scatter increases conspicuously with pro- ential rotation (Kepler motion) prevails. gression along the sequence of classifi- The new velocity, since it is the first to be cation. recorded in the Keplerian branch of the A special investigation of the frequency rotation-curve, furnishes a much improved of emission in extragalactic nebulae (in estimate of the mass of the spiral, namely general, nuclear regions only) was based 11 1.0 X ro suns. This value represents the on 233 selected spectra in which A3727 material less than 114' from the nucleus, would probably be detected if present. As but the material at still greater distance Mayall found from fewer data, the fre- presumably would represent an almost quency increases systematically through negligible fraction of the total. the sequence of classification, ranging from 20 per cent of the elliptical nebulae IMPROVED VELOCITIES OF MEMBERS OF THE to 88 per cent of the late-type spirals. In LOCAL GROUP elliptical nebulae, with stellar populations Humason has also obtained spectra of of type II, emission is restricted to the low emission patches in three other members excitation line, A3727. It is the only direct of the local group, with the same disper- evidence available of the existence of inter- sion (230 A/mm at Hy), on each of which stellar material in these nebulae. The ad- it was possible to determine radial ve- ditional lines of higher excitation, which locities from 7 or 8 lines with probable appear in spirals, are presumably excited errors of 5 to 3 km/sec. These improved by the blue supergiants found in stellar velocities (—343 and —235 for IC 10 and populations of type I. IC 1613, respectively, and —30 and —34 for two patches in NGC 6822) confirm SUPERNOVA IN NGC 3177 the assignment of IC 10 to the local group A supernova found by Hubble in NGC and re-emphasize the absence of red-shifts 3177 (Sb) on March 15, 1947, at mPg = within the group. 16.8, was followed for three months until it reached mp^ = 18.9. The light-curve by SPECTRA OF EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE Baade and a spectrum by Humason iden- Humason has continued the work of tified the star as a supernova of type II, preparing for publication the data derived discovered about a month after maxi- MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY 21 mum. The radial velocity of the nebula, tance modulus is m — M = 27.0. Thus measured by Humason, confirmed the the supernova at maximum reached about assignment to the well known group Mpg = — II? with an uncertainty of about centered around NGC 3190, whose dis- 0.5 mag.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
RELATIVE TRANSITION PROBABILITIES dicate that additional work to improve both sets of data is justified. The measurement of the relative gf- A photoelectric photometer is being de- values (transition probabilities) of 471 veloped in the laboratory by Mr. William lines in 100 multiplets of the spectrum of W. Carter, of the California Institute of neutral vanadium (V1) has been com- Technology, for the direct measurement pleted by R. B. King. The list includes of line intensities in electric-furnace emis- the great majority of V 1 lines of astro- sion spectra. If successful, the apparatus physical importance in the region AX3042— will be used first to extend the measure- 6812, and is complete enough to permit a ments of gf-values in the spectrum of comparison of the laboratory and theo- Fei to higher-level lines than were retical intensities of lines in multiplets and obtained by absorption-spectra measure- of multiplets in supermultiplets. About ments. 55 per cent of the multiplets appear to exhibit normal line intensities, but the THE SPECTRUM OF DYSPROSIUM agreement between observation and theory for multiplets in supermultiplets is rela- The spectrum of the rare earth dyspro- tively poor. sium, with its modifications depending on The measurement of ^/-values for lines the laboratory light-source in which it is of neutral nickel (A/7 1) in electric-furnace produced, is being studied by A. S. King. absorption spectra is virtually completed, The examination includes wave-length but is limited to lines of excitation poten- measures of a large proportion of the lines, tial less than 0.5 volt. It will include most supplementing the lists at present avail- of the lines of astrophysical interest in the able, also a classification of lines according wave-length region AA3010-4400. to their intensities at different tempera- Investigation of the intensities of bands tures of the electric furnace, and the selec- in the Swan system of the carbon molecule tion, by means of the spark spectrum, of C2 is being continued. This has been lines arising from the singly ionized atom undertaken primarily to obtain data to aid (Z>y 11). The work thus far has covered in interpretation of the well known be- the region AX4700-9300, in which range havior of these bands in the spectra of about 2500 lines have been listed. R- and N-type stars, where, in many cases, A notable feature of the dysprosium the bandheads belonging to molecules spectrum in this region is the large num- containing the carbon isotope C18 appear ber of lines which are strong in the fur- to be abnormally strong as compared with nace at low temperature, many of these those due to molecules containing only having only moderate intensity in the arc the principal isotope C12. Preliminary, spectrum. The low-level lines of the Dy 1 semiquantitative comparisons by Sanford spectrum are thus selected; and also those and King between laboratory and stellar evidently from successively higher energy band intensities in the Swan system in- levels appear at higher furnace tempera- 22 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON tures and in the arc. In the latter sources, light passing through the slit is directed the more sensitive lines of Dyn appear* into an electron multiplier phototube; the These lines are found in the spectra of resulting photoelectric current is inte- several stellar types. grated, and the sum is continuously indi- cated by a counting device. With an ordi- FLUORESCENCE EXCITATION nary photomultiplier (931-A) and a rather crude circuit, the meter gave useful results A resurvey has been made by Bowen. on exposures with the coude spectrograph of coincidences between ultraviolet lines of A-type stars down to the fifth magni- that might lead to the excitation of emis- tude. If the best available tube (1P21) sion lines with abnormal intensities by a and a more refined circuit were employed, fluorescence mechanism. Three new co- the instrument would probably be useful incidences that may be of astronomical down to about the seventh magnitude. significance were brought to light by this An automatic guider for the 100-inch survey. One coincidence between Lyrnan telescope has also been developed by Bab- 3 and an ultraviolet line of 0 i appears to cock. This guider introduces a new and explain the abnormal intensity of the A8446 simple type of optical scanning, whereby line of O 1 in the emission spectra of sev- a rotating knife-edge modulates the star- eral stars. Another coincidence between light passing to a single photomultiplier A2795 of Mg n and a Zn line seems to and permits a phase-discriminating circuit provide an explanation for the abnormal to control the slow motions of the telescope intensity of a small group of Zn lines in in right ascension and declination in such the spectrum of x Cygni, observed by a way as to keep the star on the optic Merrill. axis of the guider and hence on the slit of the spectrograph. When properly ad- INSTRUMENTATION justed, the guider keeps the star on the The design of the direct-intensity micro- slit indefinitely with a precision fully equal photometer has been completed by HL W. to, if not better than, that of an observer Babcock and Nichols. The calibration doing manual guiding. The original spcctrograph for use with this micropho- guider, without any refinements, worked tometer is finished, and the construction on stars to the sixth magnitude or fainter. of the microphotometer is proceeding The temporary addition of a preamplifier rapidly. adds several magnitudes to its range. The- Babcock has constructed a photoelectric oretically, the limit of usefulness of a integrating exposure meter which is de- guider using an unrefrigerated 1P21 tube signed to aid la obtaining the correct ex- with the 100-inch telescope should be posure for spectroscopic photographs. In in the neighborhood of the thirteenth this instrument about 5 per cent of the magnitude.
MAINTENANCE, OPERATION, AND NEW CONSTRUCTION Early in 1946 the Observatory embarked be nearly completed by the end of the on an extensive two-year program of two-year period, except for a few items repair and modernization of its physical involving major shop construction. Be- plant. During the current year this pro- cause of the present labor shortage it has gram has progressed rapidly., and it should not been feasible to expand the personnel MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
of the shops to the point where they could starts and takes over the load in case of handle the increased load of this recon- failure of the power line from Pasadena. struction program in the scheduled period. The great usefulness of this plant was The following major items of this pro- emphasized after the breakdown of the gram have been completed during the power line during the storm of November current year: 11-14, 1946. 1. Visitors' gallery for the 100-inch tele- 6. Plate storage vault in Pasadena. In scope. the 43 years of its operation, the Observa- 2. Modernization of cottages and Mon- tory has accumulated a collection of over astery on Mount Wilson. This included 50,000 solar photographs, and over 50,000 the addition of a room and a deep-freeze spectrograms of 11,000 stars, as well as a unit at the Monastery. The efficiency and large number of direct photographs of economy of operation of the Monastery nebulae and other objects. In order to re- has been greatly increased by these new duce as far as possible all hazards to this facilities. invaluable collection of plates, additional 3. Photographic facilities on Mount Wil- fire walls and an automatic fire-alarm sys- son. All darkrooms have been provided tem have been installed in the plate vaults. with refrigeration units, and a central cold- All equipment (such as comparators and storage room has been installed for the storage of all unexposed plates on the measuring engines) that formerly involved mountain. the use of the vault for other purposes than 4. Rater for 100-inch telescope clock. plate storage has been removed in an effort This mechanical rater permits the rate of to reduce still further the fire hazard. the clock to be changed by remote control All contracts in connection with national from all observing positions without stop- defense projects were completed by Sep- ping the clock. tember 1, 1946, less than 4 per cent of the 5. Stand-by power plant. This is a small machine shop time for the year having gasoline electric plant which automatically been spent on these contracts.
THE LIBRARY During the year 1946-1947, the library By the bequest of Dr. Adriaan van has accessioned 216 volumes, 87 from bind- Maanen, who died in January 1946, his ing, 61 purchased, and 68 gifts, making a scientific library was left to the Mount total of 15,998 volumes. O£ the gifts, part Wilson Observatory. This valuable col- have come from Dr. Hale's scientific li- lection o£ about 500 volumes of bound brary, a bequest described In previous an- periodicals and publications of observa- nual reports, and a few from Dr. van tories, and separate volumes, has now be- Maanen's library. The yearly number of come the property of the Observatory; the volumes bound Is still small because of work of marking them with a special book- continued binding difficulties. plate and cataloguing them has begun.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ADAMS, WALTER S. The Newton Tercentenary ALLER, LAWRENCE EL A-type stars with ab- celebration in London, July 1946. Pubs. normal spectra. Astrophys. Jour., YOI. 106, A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 277-281 (1946). pp. 76-85 (1947); Mt W. Contr., No. 732, CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
ALLER, LAWRENCE H., and R. MINKOWSKI. The (1946); (abstract) Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, infrared spectrum of the planetary nebula pp. 244-245 (1946). NGC 7027. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 258- Refraction in astronomy. A. S. P. Leaf- 260 (1946). let, No. 220. 8 pp. (1947). BAADE, WALTER. A search for the nucleus of KING, ARTHUR S. Presentation of the Bruce Gold our galaxy. Read at Reno meeting A. S. P. Medal for the year 1942 to Dr. Jan H. Oort. (1946); Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 249-252 Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 229-232 (1946). (1946). BABCOCK, HORACE W. Zeeman effect in stellar Scandium in the stars. Trans. Electro- spectra. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 105, pp. 105- chem. Soc, Inc., New York, vol. 89, pp. 301- 119 (1947); Mt. W. Contr., No. 727. 305 (1946). Remarks on stellar magnetism. Read KING, ROBERT B. Relative ^/-values for lines of at San Diego meeting A. S. P. (1947); V1. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 105, pp. 376-389 Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 59, pp. r 12-124 (1947). (1947); Mt. W. Contr., No. 731. Magnetic fields of astronomical bodies. MERRILL, PAUL W. The spectrum of Z Andro- Phys. Rev., vol. 72, p. 83 (1947). medae in August, 1946. Astrophys. Jour., BOWEN, IRA S. Survey of the year's work at vol. 105, pp. 120-125 (1947); Mt. W. Contr., Mount Wilson. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. No. 728. 329-340 (1946). Atomic lines in the spectrum of R An- and P. SWINGS. The relative intensities dromedae. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 105, pp. of the coronal and other forbidden lines. 360-375 (1947); Mt. W. Contr., No. 730. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 105, pp. 92-95 (1947); Level of iron emission in the atmos- Mt. W. Contr., No. 725. pheres of Me variable stars. Pubs. A. S. P., See JENKINS, F. A. vol. 58, pp. 304-305 (1946). BURWELL, CORA G. See MERRILL, PAUL W.; Distribution of interstellar gas. Pubs. MILLER, WILLIAM C. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 354-355 () CONNOR, ELIZABETH. (Review) David Ritten- The principles of poor writing. Sci. house, astronomer-patriot, 1732-1796, by Monthly, vol. 64, pp. 72-74 (1947). Edward Ford. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, CORA G. BURWELL, and WILLIAM C. pp. 389-390 (1946). MILLER. Rapid outward motions in the at- The Cassini family and the Paris Ob- mosphere of the iron star XX Ophiuchi. servatory. A. S. P. Leaflet, No. 218. 8 pp. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 302—304 (1946). (1947). and O. C. WILSON. Components of in- DAVIS, DOROTHY N. The spectrum of (3 Pegasi. terstellar sodium lines. Read at San Diego Astrophys. Jour., vol. 106, pp. 28-75 (1947); meeting A. S. P. (1947); (abstract) Pubs. Mt. W. Contr., No. 733. A. S. P., vol. 59, pp. 132-133 (i947)- GiEENSTEiN, JESSE L., and PAUL W. MERRILL. See GREENSTEIN, JESSE L. The infrared spectrum of u Sagittarii. Astro- MILLER, WILLIAM C, and CORA G. BURWELL. phys. Jour., vol. 104, pp. 177-190 (1946); Hydrogen emission in the spectrum of Mt. W, Contr., No. 723. HD 197419. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 59, pp. 28- HOGE, EDISON R. The great sunspot group of 29 (1947). March and April, 1947. Read at San Diego See MERRILL, PAUL W. meeting A. S. P. (1947); Pubs. A. S. P., MINKOWSKI, R. New emission nebulae. Pubs. vol. 59, pp. 109-111 (1947). A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 305-309 (1946). HUMASON, M. L., and F. ZWICKY. A search for The distance of the Orion nebula. faint blue stars. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 105, Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 356-358 (1946). pp. 85-91 (1947); Mt. W. Contr., No. 724. The continuous spectrum of the Crab JENKINS, F. A., and IRA S. BOWEN. Transparency nebula. Ann. d*astropfaysique, vol. 9, pp. 97— of ocean water. Jour. Optical Soc. Amer., 98 (1946). vol. 36, pp. 617-623 (1946). See ALLER, LAWRENCE H. JoYs ALFRED H. Radial velocities and spectral MULDERS, ELIZABETH STERNBEMG. Sunspot activity types of 181 dwarf stars. Astrophys. Jour., during 1946. Pubs. A. S, P., vol. 59, pp. 12- vol. 105, pp. 96-104 (1947); Mt. W. Contr.? 16 (1947)- No. 726, • See NICHOLSON, SETH B. Faint emission-line stars in the Taurus NICHOLSON, SETH B. Jupiter's eleventh satellite. region. Read at Reno meeting A. S. P. Pubs. A. S. P, vol. 58, p. 356 MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
NICHOLSON, SETH B. The comet Schwassmann- Velocities for the system of Nova T Wachmann 1 (1925 II). Pubs. A. S. P., vol. Coronae Borealis. Read at Reno meeting 59> PP- 3 ( A. S. P. (1946); (abstract) Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, p. 240 (1946). Revised form of solar and magnetic The seventy-fifth anniversary of the Cor- data from Mount Wilson Observatory. Terr. doba Observatory. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, Mag., vol. 52, pp. 267-268 (i947)- I 6 and ELIZABETH STERNBERG MULDERS. Solar PP- 341-348 ( 94 )- and magnetic data, April, 1946, to March, Changes in the spectrum and velocity of 1947, Mount Wilson Observatory. Terr. Nova T Coronae Borealis. Pubs. A. S. P., Mag., vol. 51, pp. 472-473, 561-562 (1946); vol. 59, pp. 87-89 (1947). vol. 52, pp. 6^-66, 268 (1947)- High-dispersion spectrogram of T Tauri. See WULF, OLIVER R. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 59, pp. 134-135 (i947)- PETTIT, EDISON. The secondary maximum of T The spectrum of BD + 9°i633. Pubs. Coronae Borealis. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, A. S. P., vol. 59, p. 136 (1947)- pp. 255-258 (1946). The spectrum of a Orionis between An eruptive prominence of record height, Xio,ooo and ^10,915. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 59, June 4, 1946. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. pp. 136-138 (1947). 310-314 (1946). — Actividades astronomicas del Observa- The secondary maximum of T Coronae torio de Mount Wilson. Ciencia e investiga- Borealis. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 359-362. cion, vol. 3, pp. 97-102 (1947). (1946). STROMBERG, GUSTAF. Theories of light. A. S. P. The canals of Mars. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. Leaflet, No. 212. 8 pp. (1946). 5% PP- 5~i 1 (i947)- Summary of Mount Wilson magnetic observa- Photographing the canals of Mars. Pubs. tions of sunspots for May, 1946—April, 1947. A. S. P., vol. 59, pp. 125-129 (1947). Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 262—264, 315-318, Visual magnitude of Nova Puppis 1942. 377-380 (1946); vol. 59, pp. 36-42, 89-93, Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 59, p. 134 (1947). 145-149 (1947). RICHARDSON, ROBERT S. A century of sunspots. SWINGS, P. See BOWEN, IRA S. A. S. P. Leaflet, No. 213. 8 pp. (1946). WILSON, O. C. (Review) Photometric atlas of Astronomical observations from the stellar spectra, by W. A. Hiltner and R. C. moon. A. S. P. Leaflet, No. 219. 8 pp. Evans. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 273-275 (1947). (1946). Sunspot problems old and new. Pop. See MERRILL, PAUL W. Astron., vol. 55, pp. 120-133 (I947)- WILSON, RALPH E. The award of the Bruce Gold SANFORD, ROSCOE F. Spectroscopic observations Medal to Dr. Bernard Lyot. Pubs. A. S. P., of Rigel with high dispersion. Astrophys. vol. S9y PP- 53-5$ (i947)- Jour., vol. 105, pp. 222-228 (1947); Mt. W. WULF, OLIVER R., and SETH B. NICHOLSON. Ter- Contr., No. 729. restrial influences in the lunar and solar Reno meeting of the Astronomical So- tidal motions of the air. Terr. Mag., vol. 52, ciety of the Pacific. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 58, pp. 175-182 (1947). pp. 236-238 (6) ZWICKY, F. See HUMASON, M. L.
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY Washington, District of Columbia L. H. ADAMS, Director It was reported a year ago that, after a the measurement of thermal quantities, review of past work and a redefining of further investigations on selected an- aims, a newly integrated program for re- hydrous silicate systems, and certain field search at the Geophysical Laboratory had studies, and that active consideration been outlined, and that the program placed should be given at the earliest practicable primary emphasis on the study of the melt- date to other means for accomplishing the ing and solubility relations of silicates in main objectives of the program. the presence of water and other volatile During the past year a fresh start has components under pressure for the pur- been made on the "wet silicate" problem, pose of obtaining a more complete under- the "dry silicate" work has continued pro- standing of the genesis of rocks, other ductively, preparation has been made for geologic phenomena, and the constitution experimental work on thermal quantities, of the earth as a whole. In the presenta- some investigations interrupted by the war tion of objectives and general methods of have been rounded out, and the results of attack, it was recognized that necessary other previous researches have been put in elements of the program would include form for publication.
EQUILIBRIUM RELATIONS IN HYDROUS MIXTURES MAGNESIA—SILICA—WATER The method gives only preliminary orienting values, but in the system A series of studies (Bowen, Tuttle) on the system MgO—S1O2—H2O was carried MgO—SiO2—H2O it was ascertained quite out principally with the aid of the type of definitely that no liquid phase is formed pressure vessel or bomb already in use at at temperatures and pressures attainable the Laboratory, an autoclave in which the with this type of apparatus. Even with magnesium silicate is heated together with only solid phases and vapor present, it was a certain quantity of water. After being found possible to prepare all the more sealed, the vessel is heated to the desired common natural hydrous silicates of mag- temperature, and, depending upon the nesium and also the anhydrous silicates quantity of water added, a pressure of forsterite and enstatite. Moreover, these water vapor is developed which is known phases appeared in a systematic manner only approximately (because of our im- suggesting that equilibrium was attained perfect knowledge of the properties of or closely approached; but in order to have water at high temperatures), but with suf- full assurance of the attainment of equilib- ficient accuracy to permit useful conclu- rium it may be necessary to add another sions to be drawn. With this apparatus it oxide which will induce formation of is possible to determine the phases formed liquid at the temperatures and pressures at the calculated pressure and at the meas- of the experiments. To this end it is pro- ured temperature prevailing in the pressure posed to add K2O, but before proceeding vessel. farther it seemed desirable to investigate 27 28 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
the "dry" system K2O—MgO—SiO2) as is only 3/8 inch deep, so that one end is reported in a later section. permanently closed. The other end is The magnesium silicates formed in the finished with a cone of much smaller experiments now completed are common maximum diameter than the cylinder, and in certain varieties of igneous and meta- when in use the pressure vessel stands with morphic rocks, and a knowledge of their its closed end upward and its conical end ranges of stability with respect to pressure resting in a conical depression in a stain- and temperature would throw light on the less steel rod, which forms a cone-in-cone conditions of their formation in Nature. joint similar to that commonly used in A few experiments on the same materials pressure lines. In the stainless steel rod a have been made with another type of ap- minute axial bore is made which enters the paratus, described below, which was de- bottom (apex) of the lower cone and per- signed to render possible the direct meas- mits access of water vapor to the charge urement of the pressure in the system and in the small pressure vessel. A high- to facilitate all manipulations. With this pressure pump supplies water at a pressure apparatus it was possible also to go to a measured with a gauge. The pressure much higher temperature than with the vessel is held in position and the cone joint conventional pressure vessel. Some of the is kept closed by means of another stain- results obtained in this manner are sig- less steel rod, which rests on the upper, nificant in connection with the supposed closed end of the pressure vessel and to magmatic origin of certain serpentine which a downward pressure can be applied masses. Thus, synthetic serpentine when as a dead weight by means of a lever arm, heated to 9000 C at 15,000 lb/in2 water in a manner similar to that used in a pressure gave forsterite and enstatite. At testing machine. In practice, a charge of 8oo° C and 23,000 lb/in2 pressure it gave 8 to 10 mg of the material to be investi- the same products, and at 700 ° C and gated is placed in a minute platinum 30,000 lb/in2 it gave forsterite and talc, crucible, which is set on a silver pedestal in all cases without formation of liquid. that rests on the lower cone surface; the The last-mentioned pressure corresponds pressure vessel is placed in position over to an overburden of some four to five miles the charge; a weight is hung on the lever of impervious rock of density 2.7. No arm sufficient to balance the relatively serpentine magma and no formation of small pressure developed over the very serpentine in any manner can be regarded small area of the cone joint; a split furnace, as possible under temperature-pressure like that commonly used in organic com- conditions corresponding to those men- bustions but mounted in a vertical instead tioned immediately above. of the usual horizontal position, is swung into place around the pressure chamber and its accessory rods; and the chamber NEW TYPE OF PRESSURE APPARATUS is heated to the desired temperature, which The apparatus with which these and is measured by means of a thermocouple other results to be described were ob- inserted in the wall of the pressure vessel. tained (Tuttle) consists of a small cylindri- At the same time the water supply is cal pressure vessel made of stainless steel pumped up to the desired pressure, and with an external diameter of 9/16 inch, an the water, which is necessarily converted internal diameter of 3/32 inch, and a to vapor at the temperature of the chamber, length of 7/3 inch. The internal chamber is admitted by opening a valve which re- GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY mains open throughout the run. When 5 per cent in the high alumina composi- the run is completed the furnace is swung tions to about 20 per cent in the aside and a jet of air is directed against K2O'4SiO2 composition itself. At 30,000 the pressure chamber. By this means the lb/in2 pressure of water vapor there is equilibrium is quenched, and after release further lowering of the orthoclase liquidus of the pressure the charge can be removed curve amounting to about 40 ° C, and the for examination under the microscope and content of water in the silicate liquids at for determination of water content. liquidus temperatures is nearly doubled This apparatus has served to determine for the more aluminous mixtures, but is equilibrium up to 900 ° C at pressures up increased only about 25 per cent as the 2 # to 15,000 lb/in and at 800 ° C up to K2O 4SiO2 composition is approached. 2 30,000 lb/in in a variety of silicate mix- The other join (K2O'6SiO2—orthoclase) tures in which equilibrium can be obtained gives comparable results at 15,000 lb/in2, in one hour. At lower temperatures and but at 30,000 lb/in2 there is scarcely any pressures it is possible to determine equilib- additional lowering even though the rium in materials that require much amount of water dissolved in the liquids longer runs. By substituting for the stain- is significantly greater at the higher pres- less steel a material having greater "hot sure. Evidently, the tendency of increased strength" it will be possible to extend the pressure per se to raise the melting tem- range of experimentation. peratures acts counter to the effect of pressure in inducing a greater solubility of STUDIES IN THE SYSTEM POTASH— water and consequent lowering of melting ALUMINA—SILICA—WATER temperatures. It is possible, therefore, that these mixtures may exhibit a minimum The above-described apparatus has been melting temperature on their p-t curves, a used principally for determination of question that will be investigated further. equilibrium of potassium aluminum sili- Such a minimum melting temperature is cates with water (Bowen, Tuttle). Glasses of particular interest in connection with which had already been prepared by magma formation, and in the earth might Schairer and Bowen for their investigation give rise to an asthenosphere (a zone of of the dry system K2O—AI2O3—SiC>2 were easy melting) with rigid zones both above used in the investigation. The liquidus it and below it, a situation that would temperatures for compositions lying on account for some seemingly contradictory portions of two joins in this system have geophysical phenomena, such as isostatic been determined for two isobars, 15,000 adjustment, general earth rigidity, and lb/in2 and 30,000 lb/in2. The two joins deep-focus earthquakes. are the K2O*4SiO2—leucite join and the K2O*6SiO2—orthoclase join. The liquidus GRANITE—WATER temperatures as determined for dry melts on the former join are lowered, in the The new apparatus affords a simpler orthoclase field, by a nearly uniform means of studying the equilibrium of amount of about ioo° C due to water vapor granite with water, and some experiments at a pressure of 15,000 lb/in2. The amount are being made in continuation of Goran- of water dissolved in the liquids at the son's previous studies of these composi- liquidus temperatures increased from about tions (Bowen, Tuttle). CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
STEAM-QUENCHING FURNACE in this region does not intersect the critical The improvement of this apparatus pre- region. This leads to great complication paratory to the carrying out of a number in the phase equilibrium diagram of this of studies that have been planned has system. The solubility curves of both proved a somewhat troublesome matter, sodium metasilicate and sodium disilicate but work has been progressing satisfac- are retrograde below the critical tempera- torily (Morey, Ingerson). A new pressure ture of water, and each curve shows a vessel has been designed with a view to lower critical end point at a temperature eliminating some of the previous diffi- which is practically that for pure water. culties. Another type of apparatus consists Previous work has shown that with sodium of a pump, similar to that used by Bowen disilicate this end point lies not much and Tuttle, connected to one of the con- above 380 ° C and is at a pressure of the ventional pressure vessels by a screw order of 750 atmospheres. Moreover, the closure and suspended in an electric fur- intersection of the critical curve and solu- nace, the pressure being led into the ap- bility curve takes place while the pressure paratus through a capillary hole in the along the three-phase curve is still increas- plunger. This hole is threaded inside the ing with decreasing temperature. Since vessel and a capillary carries the water there is no intersection along the boundary down to the bottom. This was found to curve, it will show a maximum along its be necessary to prevent chilling of the p-t curve. Hence, some region of higher copper washer at the seal, with resulting Na2O content will show the transition leakage. A collar is threaded on the upper between these two types. The work on part of this capillary, from which four this system should be completed next year. quenching charges can be suspended. Many runs have been made with this FILTER AUTOCLAVE apparatus, and it has worked well. By proper control of the cooling rate it Work is being resumed with the ap- is possible to cool the charges without their paratus developed before the war for the "puffing up," an annoying and mysterious purpose of filtering high-temperature solu- behavior of specimens in the quenching tions in situ (Burlew). The apparatus was furnace. Several water determinations successfully used for measurements on al- have been made on homogeneous melts kali—carbonate—water solutions. A paper so obtained. It is difficult to summarize embodying the results of that investigation the results in tabular or graphic form, but (Burlew, Morey) will be completed at an it has been established that the composi- early date. Further work with the auto- tions at and near the eutectic between clave will be for the immediate purpose sodium disilicatc and quartz show a con- of determining more thoroughly its general tinuous solubility past the critical tempera- utility for equilibrium, studies in mixtures ture of water; that is, the solubility curve of silicates with water under pressure. EQUILIBRIUM RELATIONS IN ANHYDROUS MIXTURES NEPHEUNE—"POTASH NEPHEUNEW—SILICA the nepheiine solid solution in equilibrium Substantial progress was made on the with liquids, leuczte, and alkali-feldspars determination of the three-phase bound- in "petrogeny's residua system" (Schairer). aries necessary to define the composition of Suitable compositions in the very viscous GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY region near the feldspar-silica boundary connaissance showed that the fields of curve were prepared and put in furnaces to forsterite and periclase occupy a large por- crystallize for several months or even years, tion of the liquidus surface in this system. in order to ascertain whether crystalliza- The only compositions that do not lie in tion is possible, or whether because of either the field of forsterite or that of failure of the melts to crystallize it is im- periclase are in that portion of the system practicable experimentally to determine the with less than about 15 per cent MgO or phase relations in this particular region. with about 70 per cent or more SiO2. Two ternary compounds, one isometric and the other hexagonal, but as yet unidentified as ALBITE—ANORTHITE—SILICA to composition, were encountered in the Upon examination of the data previ- preliminary reconnaissance. ously obtained it was found that all results were not consistent, and that for the POTASH—MAGNESIA—ALUMINA—SILICA precise location of some of the three-phase Work on this quaternary system boundaries (those at the lower tempera- (Schairer) has been outlined, and K O— tures) longer runs than had been given 2 SiO glasses have been prepared for use were required. These longer runs were 2 as a source of K2O in making the quater- made during the year, and the data are nary compositions. Two planes which now essentially complete (Schairer). might be ternary systems within the qua- ternary system were selected for study. POTASH—MAGNESIA—SILICA These are forsterite—leucite—silica and potassium disilicate—forsterite—leucite. In order to approach the problem of the Reconnaissance compositions have been stability and crystallization relations of bio- selected, and six melts in the join forsterite tite in igneous rocks, a knowledge of the —leucite—silica are now in preparation. dry quaternary system K2O—MgO—AI2O3 —SiO2 is necessary before H2O can be PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS FOR included as an additional component PUBLICATION (Schairer). The ternary system K2O—MgO—SiO2 A summary paper giving the final is one of the limiting systems of this qua- diagrams for Na2O—AI2O3—SiO2 and ternary system. Since no information on K2O—A12OS—SiO2 and the principal re- the phase relations in the ternary system sults (but not the detailed data) was pre- was available, plans were made to begin pared and published (Schairer, Bowen) an investigation of it. Mr. Edwin W. under the title "Melting relations in Roedder, of Columbia University, who has the systems Na2O—AI2O3—SiO2 and been granted a one-year fellowship by the K2O—AI2O3--SiQ2." Carnegie Institution, will work with Another paper already prepared em- Schairer on this ternary system, beginning bodied the experimental results for the in September. system anorthite—leucite—silica and some In order that the work might be started of the applications to petrology (Schairer, promptly, nine compositions were pre- Bowen). A broad discussion of the origin pared to explore the general relations, and of leucite-bearing and other alkaline rocks quenching runs were completed on these was not included in this paper and is re- nine compositions. This preliminary re- served for a future paper to be written CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
when the system KAlSiO4—NaAlSiO*— attempt to determine the true eutectic with SiO2 is completed. tridymite. Numerous diagrams have been prepared Some time ago, a number of experiments for the systems Na2O—AUOa—SiC^ and were made on the melting of natural rocks K2O—AI2O3—SiO2 (Schairer), and the (Greig, Shepherd, Merwin). This work tables of experimental data are now com- began in an effort to determine the relative plete. The manuscripts of the detailed melting temperatures of granite and basalt papers will be completed at an early date. (diabase). After the determination of the Diagrams were made just before the war temperatures of complete melting and the for a paper entitled "The quaternary sys- temperature range of melting, the measure- tem CaO—FeO—MgO—SiO2. I. Some re- ment of the liquidus temperature was ex- lations in the join CaSiO3—akermanite— tended to cover a series of rocks ranging FeO" (Schairer, Osborn). The data are in composition from a typical basalt to about to be assembled for publication. siliceous obsidian. An effort was made to Another paper will present the results of find a practical method for more detailed studies on the melting relations in the phase equilibrium work on basaltic rocks. system FeO—AI2O3—SiO2 (Schairer), the Unfortunately, the melts reacted with all measurements on which were completed the containers that were tried, so that their in 1940. composition did not remain constant. It is Work on the system diopside—anor- now planned to write up for publication thite—silica (Greig) was undertaken some the results of this investigation with a years ago with the expectation that, except minimum of additional experimental for the region where two liquids coexist, work. the system would be a simple ternary one A comprehensive revision of the first with a eutectic, and that it would, there- three-component system worked out at the fore, involve but little work. The liquidus Geophysical Laboratory, namely, the sys- surfaces were readily located, but a slight tem CaO—AI2O3—SiO2, has been under- difficulty was encountered, arising from taken by Wright. The results of this work the circumstance that, although tridymite are important not only in petrology, but is the stable form of silica at the eutectic also in the cement industry, the research temperature, cristobalite rather than tri- organizations of which have encouraged dymite is always formed. There is reason the bringing up to date and republication to believe that the tridymite liquidus sur- of this basic information. face lies only slightly above the cristobalite The original work on the iron-copper liquidus surface, and it is, therefore, to be sulfides contained only abbreviated de- expected that the stable eutectic will be scriptions of the products. Subsequently, close to the measured metastable eutectic further studies of the textures of the prod- that has cristobalite as the silica phase. A ucts were made, and a series of natural- complication was found in the "binary" color photographs were taken (Merwin, system diopside—anorthite. Contrary to Greig). Plans are being made to assemble expectation, this system proved not to be a these results properly and publish them simple binary one. The results of the in- together with some of the color photo- vestigation are to be prepared for pub- graphs. lication without further experimental The old work on the system NatO— work on it, and in particular without an CaO—S1O2 has been assembled and studied GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY 33
(Morey). The material ready for publi- in the investigations carried out in con- cation includes a large number of mix- nection with the war work have been tures—more than in the original publica- declassified, steps have been taken to as- tion—made primarily for the density-index semble the results that are of more than study published with Merwin. A phos- ephemeral value and put the information phate system which is part of the ternary in form for publication. Some of this work system Na2O—K2O—P2O5 included within has produced results of direct or indirect the limits NaPO3—Na4P2O7—K4P2O7— applicability to the current program of KPO3 still requires some additional meas- the Laboratory, as, for example, the work urements (Morey). on artificial willemite needles (Ingerson, Other past investigations, the results of Tuttle, Geophysical Laboratory publication which are about ready for publication, in- no. 1090). Among papers scheduled for clude the phase relations in the systems early publication are those on the double tellurium—silver—gold and potassium di- fluorides of zinc (Ingerson, Morey); the silicate—sodium disilicate, and studies of systems K2O—ZnO—SiO2, ZnO—B2O3— transitions in compounds of silver with S1O2, and Zn2SiC>4—Zn2GeO4 (Ingerson, sulfur and other elements (Kracek). Morey, Tuttle); and the decomposition of As fast as the various subjects included analcite (Ingerson, Morey).
THERMAL QUANTITIES As was emphasized in the outline of the the values for the crystals and correspond- Laboratory's program for future research, ing glasses, combined with data on specific presented in the annual report last year, heats, the latent heats of melting at the effective application of the results of labora- melting point will be deduced. It may be tory measurements of silicate equilibria re- noted in passing that by a well known quires reliable data on specific heats, latent thermodynamic relation the latent heat of heats of fusion, heats of solution, and heats a mineral is related to the slopes of melting of reaction of rock-forming substances. curves in equilibrium diagrams of which The existing information on this subject the minerals are constituents. is wholly inadequate, and it is, therefore, Values of specific heats in some cases are •very important that active attention be already available, partly from the early given to thermal measurements. As a first work of this Laboratory and partly from step in setting up a calorimetric program, work performed elsewhere. For a well a careful survey of existing data on rounded program of thermal studies, it is rock-forming minerals was carried out important that further studies of specific (Kracek). The report embodying the re- heats be made in the near future. sults and conclusions points the way to- Apparatus for measuring heats of solu- ward the most profitable lines of experi- tion is under construction. It consists of mentation. a 900-cm3 gold calorimeter solution vessel For the immediate future we plan to (in which the mineral can be dissolved in carry out measurements of the heats o£ hydrofluoric or other acids, or in alkali solution, in appropriate solvents, of a num- solutions) and the associated calorimetric ber of the more important types of silicate equipment necessary for measuring the minerals, in both the crystalline and the heat evolved during the solution process. glassy condition. From the differences in Apparatus for the measurement of specific CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 34 heats at high temperatures will be added another mineral or combination of min- during the coming year. Calorimetric erals even when it is impossible by existing studies, for our purposes, may be divided experimental techniques to observe the into three categories: (a) collection of transformation directly. data for a specific purpose, that is, directed A splendid start has been made on the toward a particular petrologic problem; thermal part of our program through the (h) application of an indirect, thermo- efforts of Dr. Th. G. Sahama, who received dynamic, method for obtaining heats of an appointment as research associate of the transformation; and (c) research in calo- Carnegie Institution and who has been rimetry, directed toward improvement of generously accorded the privilege of work- existing methods and development of new ing initially at the Pacific Experiment Sta- methods. In the program as planned, the tion of the United States Bureau of Mines, emphasis initially is placed on the collection at Berkeley, California. Using the hydro- of data through the medium of methods fluoric acid solution calorimeter developed already developed. The data thus obtained by Dr. K. K. Kelley and his associates, should be fitted to a thermodynamic frame- Dr. Sahama has been attacking the general work in a more detailed manner than has problem of the stability of the ortho- been the custom heretofore. The sub- rhombic pyroxenes. As is well known, the stances awaiting study are so numerous magnesium compound MgSiO3 (enstatite) that it seems wise to select for immediate is a stable form, and of widespread natural study those that are the more important occurrence. The corresponding iron com- petrologically. Accordingly, we shall be- pound FeSiC>3 (orthoferrosilite) has not gin with measurements on wollastonite, been found in Nature and has not been diopside, and enstatite, to be followed by prepared artificially. However, isomor- orthoclase, albite, anorthite, leucite, nephe- phous mixtures of FeSiOs and MgSiOs up line, "potash nepheline," and various other to about 80 to 90 per cent FeSiOs are silicates and aluminosilicates that form known. Accordingly, it has been con- the more abundant constituents of rocks. cluded that the pure FeSiO3 is unstable. The essence of the indirect method for By determining the free energy change determining the stability relations of min- in the reaction (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 + SiO2 = erals is to measure the specific heats of the 2(Mg,Fe)SiOs with changing Mg-Fe ratio, appropriate compounds over a range of it should be possible to find out whether temperatures, including very low tempera- or not pure FeSiOs is thermodynamically tures, to determine also a heat of reaction stable, and, if it is unstable, where the sta- at a convenient temperature, and then to bility limit in the series MgSiOs—FeSiOs utilize a simple principle of thermody- lies. The solution of this problem in this namics so as to calculate the temperature way, if it should prove possible, would at which the reversible transformation in illustrate the importance, as well as the question takes place at one atmosphere possibilities, of the application of thermo- pressure, or the pressure at which the chemical and thermodynamic methods for transformation takes place at a specified investigating the formation of minerals in temperature. It is expected that this pro- natural rocks. This investigation may cedure will broaden our knowledge of shed light on the observation that ferrous thermal relations in petrology by allowing iron-magnesium silicate, if extremely rich us to determine the conditions under in iron, crystallizes in the form of the which a mineral may be formed from orthosilicate (fayalitc) together with GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY 35 quartz, and, if containing less iron, re- are sufficiently soluble in the hot HF solu- acts with silica and forms metasilicate tion can be determined. More specifically, (pyroxene). the heats can be measured for those silicate To solve this particular problem, meas- minerals of which about 1 gm of material urements of heats of formation and specific completely dissolves in about 800 ml of heats of the several compounds are neces- hydrofluoric acid during a time of at most sary. Fortunately, specific heats at low 30 minutes and at a temperature of no temperatures were previously measured at more than +750 C. It would be possible, the Pacific Experiment Station. The heats therefore, to make calorimetric determina- of formation of a number of natural tions on most substances on which a fer- olivines and pyroxenes, as well as of arti- rous iron determination can readily be ficially made Mg2SiO4, MgSiOs, and carried out by ordinary analytical methods. Fe2SiO4 prepared at the Station, have Of course, besides pure hydrofluoric acid, now been measured with the solution all other acids or acid mixtures not attack- calorimeter. ing platinum can be used as well. This calorimeter, as used for the determi- Although, for the time being, primary nation of the heats of solution of minerals in hydrofluoric acid solutions, is con- emphasis is to be placed upon the measure- structed in such a way as to allow meas- ment of thermal quantities by such tech- urements at temperatures somewhat above niques as are available for immediate use, room temperature, for instance, at +750 C. attention to the development of new meth- The solution vessel is made of platinum ods will be given as the thermal work so that hydrofluoric acid can be used as progresses, with the expectation that more solvent. Accordingly, with this calorim- exact and effective procedures will be eter all silicate or other minerals which found.
VOLCANIC PRODUCTS A variety of interesting rocks, incrusta- rocks, (2) the rocks altered by fumarolic tions, and miscellaneous products are be- activity, and (3) the condensates of the ing subjected to systematic chemical and fumarolic emanations. These emanations, microscopic studies (Zies, Merwin) for the issuing at a temperature of 350 ° C, consist purpose of obtaining a better understand- mostly of steam, but preliminary exami- ing of various aspects of volcanic activity. nation begun before the war revealed the Several weeks were spent in reviewing presence of an unusually large content of the samples that were collected at Santia- hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and sulfur guito (the new volcanic edifice located on dioxide. Hydriodic, hydrobromic, hydro- the old volcano of Santa Maria in Guate- fluoric, and boric acids were present in mala), the samples from San Miguel in much smaller amounts. In view of the El Salvador, and the samples from Batoer fact that these are commonly referred to as on the island of Bali in the Dutch East minor constituents, the quantities are sur- Indies. It has seemed preferable for the prisingly large. The approximate amounts immediate future to confine the work to of the acid constituents in one liter of the the study of samples collected on the aqueous condensate are as follows: HC1 various expeditions to Santiaguito. This and H2SO4, about 8.0 gm each; SO2, about work includes the study of (1) the fresh 0.4 gm; HI, 5 mg; HBr, 20 mg; HF, 65 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
mg; and B2O3? 55 mg. Even a casual it is believed that the effort should be glance at this list of constituents will im- made in order to show whether the rock press one with the desirability of enlarging extruded by Santiaguito is the actual our empirical background, by obtaining source of the volatile constituents. additional evidence from combined field In the course of these studies, it has and laboratory studies that will broaden been found that the fresh rock is of more our knowledge of the role of volatile than casual interest. The word "fresh" constituents in the formation of rocks. here must be used advisedly, for it appears Some time was spent in trying out vari- that the rocks have undergone significant ous known methods for the positive identi- changes during the slow period of their fication of the hydrobromic acid, and a extrusion. It is not improbable that the further effort was made to adapt the relatively low temperatures at which the chosen method for its estimation in the rocks reached the surface can be correlated highly acid condensates. This work is now well enough in hand so that the with the changes in mineral composition method can be applied to all samples col- and with the volatile constituents. In this lected. An attempt will also be made to connection, it should be noted that in 1940 find the various volatile constituents in the temperature of the extrusion of such the fresh rock. This may not prove feasible rocks was measured and found to be with respect to the minor constituents, but approximately 725 ° C.
STUDIES ON RADIOACTIVITY Several researches involving the distri- restrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Insti- bution of radioactivity in materials of the tution. These clays exhibited some very earth's crust were interrupted by the war. interesting radioactive properties. There Most of these were of sufficient importance is a definite rhythm in the radium con- to justify rounding out the investigations tent, the summer portions of the varves and putting the results in form for publi- having only about 60 per cent of the radium cation. During the past year, the work on content of the winter portions (Urry). the radium content of ultramafic rocks Moreover, the radium content of the (e.g., peridotites and dunites) has been summer portions of the varves increases completed, and one manuscript has been with time, whereas that of the winter por- prepared (Davis). This project was under- tions decreases. A time scale has been 'taken in co-operation with Dr. H. EL established by Antevs, but it has as yet Hess, of Princeton University, for the pur- proved impossible to tie this scale in satis- pose of shedding light on the connection factorily with the historical time scale. between mountain building and the in- One of the objects of investigating the trusion of masses of serpentine or perido- varved clays was to explore the possibility tite. A second manuscript dealing with that relations between the radioelements the interpretation of the results will be were similar to those that had previously ready soon. been found in ocean sediments. In this case Another project interrupted by the war the curves of radium content against time had to do with the radium content of would represent portions of one or another some varved clays obtained through Dr. of the curves that were given for the radio- E. A* Johnson, of the Department of Ter- elements in nonequilibrium systems. Anal- GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY 37 ysis of the data obtained for the varved for publication, may have long-range eco- clays indicates that this is possible, and, nomic importance because they appear to therefore, it may be feasible to extend explain the very different uranium con- Antevs' scale to the present. tents of fresh-water and marine black Messrs. O. W. Torreson and T. J. shales. Murphy, of the Department of Terrestrial Some determinations of the radium con- Magnetism, kindly collected for us this tent of meteorites have been made (Davis, spring (1947) for determination of the Urry) because of the bearing of such re- water content some fresh sealed samples sults on the radioactivity of ultramafic of the same varves from which samples rocks, mentioned above. The radium con- were obtained in 1940 by Messrs. Piggot tent of the iron meteorites and of the and Johnson. These determinations, which olivine-iron meteorites is not well estab- have been completed, are of interest in lished by existing results, which show wide other fields as well as our own. The discrepancies. It seemed desirable, there- radium content of the water portion of the fore, to make a few determinations (Davis, clays was also measured this year. Urry) on specimens of iron meteorites and Independent analyses of the summer and pallasites kindly contributed by the United winter curves of radium content against States National Museum. Results obtained years (Antevs) yield the same age for the by two different methods show puzzling varved clays of Hartford, Connecticut, differences and indicate that further re- namely, 18,000 years. Although the attack search on the methods of determining is to be regarded merely as a preliminary radium in the metallic parts of meteorites one, the measurements as planned by us is needed. have been completed, and the results are As a result of a conversation between being written up. Dr. Victor F. Hess, of Fordham Uni- versity, and Dr. Merle A. Tuve, Director of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- RADIUM AND URANIUM CONTENT OF netism, regarding the observations by Hess SEA WATER that the ionization produced by the heat An investigation of radioactivity rela- radiation from rocks is not accounted for tions in sea water was commenced just by the measured uranium, thorium, and before the war in collaboration with Dr. potassium content of the rock, Dr. Tuve Elizabeth Rona, now of Trinity College, proposed that a sample of rock with a and with the assistance of the Woods Hole negligible radioactive content be sought in Oceanographic Institution. The measure- order to test the idea that extraneous ioni- ments of the radium content of sea water zation might be produced by a cosmic-ray and also of a few samples of river water— transition in the mass of rock surrounding which proved to be of theoretical interest the ionization chamber. The Balsam Gap in connection with the work on sea dunite seems to be the most suitable for water—were completed in 1942. such an experiment, and we undertook Of particular interest is the ratio of to obtain an adequate sample for use by radium to uranium, which we find is Dr. Hess. much higher in river water and much As a further test of the hypothesis, an lower In sea water than the ratio per- experiment is being made (Urry) whereby taining to radioactive equilibrium. The the ionization produced by granite from results, which are now being assembled Quincy, Massachusetts, is measured, first, CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON in the natural state, and, second, after the was for the purpose of obtaining material addition of amounts of uranium, thorium, for mineral separation; and the second, by and potassium which are equivalent to Davis and Urry with Murphy of the De- the amounts of these contained in the partment of Terrestrial Magnetism, was granite. for the purpose of collecting about one Because of the interest attaching to the thousand pounds of the dunite to be used dunite deposits near Balsam Gap, North in the co-operative research, mentioned Carolina, two trips were made to this above, on some apparent anomalies in the locality. The first, by Davis and Urry, radioactivity of rocks.
OTHER INVESTIGATIONS In addition to the systematic study of the understanding of the genesis pf such volcanic products mentioned above, Dr. rocks to know whether there is actually Merwin, as research associate, has been such a transition or not. Dr. Felix Chayes preparing a series of diagrams representing has been given an appointment as research the densities, the refractive indices, and the associate of the Institution for the purpose refractive dispersions of organic liquids of conducting studies on the application that are of interest in connection with the of certain statistical methods to petrometry. determination of refractive index of min- Beginning in May 1947, he started field eral grains by the immersion method. work in New England areas and has A start has been made on a project for been collecting a series of specimens for the orderly application of statistical meth- examination. As the report year closes, ods to some fundamental problems in he is about to come to the Geophysical geology. There are those who believe that Laboratory to continue the investigation. progress in the broad field of rock forma- The co-operative work with the Depart- tion is handicapped by the lack o£ clear ment o£ Terrestrial Magnetism on deep correlation of laboratory experimentation seismic prospecting of the earth's outer with field observations, and that in many layers is progressing satisfactorily. Infor- instances far-reaching conclusions have mation concerning the status of the project been drawn by incomplete or haphazard will be found in the report from that utilization of existing data. As an example Department. of this, it has been stated that in the Bancroft region of Ontario, Canada, gran- During the year the following papers ite has been transformed into syenite and were completed and submitted to technical then into foyaite, and it is important for journals for publication.
SUMMARY OF PUBLISHED WORK (1088) Magmas. Norman L. Bowen. Boll, Gcol. magmas and the manner in which deriva- Soc. Amen, vol. 58, pp. 263-280 (1947). tive magmas arc formed. Address of the retiring president of the High-temperature studies of silicates in the Geological Society of America given at the laboratory tend to support the opinion, based annual meeting of the Society at Chicago, on field evidence, that basaltic magma is a December 26, 1946. primary magma and that most other magmas The address is concerned with some of the are derived from it. There is now a general much-discussed problems of pctrogeny, in- tendency to adhere to this opinion as regards cluding the nature and origin o£ primary the magmas that arc associated with surface GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY 39 volcanism and the formation of hypabyssal Temperature and composition data are given masses. The question whether the great deep- for eleven ternary invariant points and nine seated masses of granite and closely related binary invariant points in the system Na2O— rocks can be regarded as derived from ba- A12O3—SiO2 and for eleven ternary invariant saltic magma is much debated. Many investi- points and ten binary invariant points in the gators find no difficulty in accepting a large- system K2O—A12O3—SiO2. The outstanding scale differentiation in plutonic masses simi- features of the two ternary systems are briefly lar to that shown in some hypabyssal masses. presented. The very numerous data on which On the other hand, many turn to altogether the diagrams are based and a full discussion different processes for the production of most of the preparation of the compositions studied, granite. These range from the supposed re- quenching data, the results, and some of the fusion of the granitic shell of the earth, which applications will appear later. leaves the problem of the formation of this shell unsolved, to formation by metasomatic (1090) Artificial willemite needles. Earl Inger- replacement of pre-existing rocks by means son and O. F. Tuttle. Amer. Jour. Sci., of hydro thermal solutions, and even to ion vol. 245, pp. 313-319 (1947). wandering in the crystal lattices. There is Clear fluorescent needles of willemite have little prospect of early agreement on these been grown in heated bombs from SiO2 and - questions. Zn(OH)2 #Mn(OH)2, with ratios of length A fundamental if not a wholly dominating to diameter up to 1200:1 and with lengths position for basaltic magma being granted, it up to 3 cm. The length and length:width is important to know the exact nature of this ratio increased as pressure was brought below primary material. Whether primary basalt the critical pressure in an 18-cc bomb; also, has a notable water content or is nearly "dry" as the temperature was raised. Optimum is a question on which divergent views are pressure was about 1000 lb/in2 for an 18-cc held. A decision is not readily reached on bomb and about 4000 lb/in2 for one with a account of the possibility of contamination volume of 280 cc. by extraneous water, but a comparison of Fluorescence increased with increasing the mineralogy and grain of deep-seated and Mn(OH)2 up to about Zn(OH)2- surface manifestations seems to support the o.2Mn(OH)2. With higher concentrations, view that the water content is quite small and tephroite (Mn2Si04) crystallized along with that it is only in derivative magmas that water the willemite. Mn(OH)2 in excess of 0.006 may rise to notable proportions. appeared to modify the habit of the willemite, Pcridotite is regarded as a primary magma making the crystals shorter and thicker. by some investigators, and the existence of Runs in an unlined steel bomb sometimes such magmas with a water content high produced well formed crystals of fayalite in enough for direct formation of serpentine has the crucible containing silica. In one such been suggested. The balance of evidence run the temperature was 439 ° C; pressure, seems to favor the cumulative rather than the 240 atmospheres. orthomagmatic origin of peridotite and the The results indicate that if proper cogni- secondary nature of serpentine, but many zance is taken o£ geologic occurrence and difficulties remain in connection with serpen- other factors, crystal habit might give some tine "intrusives." indication of relative temperatures and pres- (1089) Melting relations in the systems Na2O— sures of formation, especially in sublimates ALO3—SiO2 and K2O—AI2O3—SiQ2. and in vesicles in extrusive rocks. J. P* Schaircr and N. L. Bowen. Amer. Jour. ScL, vol. 245, pp. 193-204 (1947). (1091) Liquid inclusions in geologic thermome- The phase equilibrium relations in the try. Earl Ingerson. Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 32, pp. 375-388 (1947). ternary systems Na2O—A12OS—SiOs and KfiO—AlaOg;—S1O2 are presented in this pre- A satisfactory method of determining tem- liminary paper by means o£ four diagrams. peratures of crystallization o£ minerals from CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON the contained liquid inclusions would aid in possible that this method may aid in the the solution of many problems of geologic revision of considerable parts of the scale of thermometry. The method has been in use geologic thermometry. for nearly ninety years, but recently pub- (1092) Testing gun steel and other alloys and lished data on the specific volume of water metals for resistance to surface cracking. at high temperatures and pressures allow Earl Ingerson. Amer. Inst. Min. and much more accurate determination of the Met. Engrs., Metals TechnoL, vol. 14, effect of original pressure than has been pos- Tech. Pub. No. 2223, 13 pp. (1947). sible before. These data are here applied to During the war, studies on gun erosion the liquid inclusion problem for the first time. were conducted at the Geophysical Labora- Data on the critical temperature of aqueous tory. The so-called heat checks in guns ap- solutions of alkali halides provide the basis pear to aid erosion. For this reason it was for better evaluation of the effect of con- desirable to develop a method for testing the centration. resistance of metals and alloys to surface The fundamental assumption is that a cracking under conditions of temperature, liquid inclusion cavity was completely filled pressure, and action of powder gases similar with fluid at the temperature and pressure to those obtaining in guns. under which it was formed. It must also be The test consisted in placing rod-shaped established that the inclusions are primary specimens with flat sides in a modified ero- and that no leakage has occurred. Other sion plug and allowing part of the hot explo- necessary assumptions are that the change in sion gases to flow past the surfaces during a volume of the mineral itself is insignificant series of shots. The flat sides facilitated ex- and that changes in volume and concentration amination and photography. The results of brought about by deposition of material from tests on various materials are summarized in the solution as it cools are such as not to tabular form, and remarks are made in the affect the results. text about most of the materials. Curves have been prepared showing the Three kinds of cracks are described: relation between degree of filling of inclusions (1) "heat checking," (2) "coarse cracking," and temperature of disappearance of the and (3) "post-fusion cracks." Their develop- vapor phase, both for pure water and for a ment and relations to grain boundaries are 10 per cent solution of NaCl and K.C1. Two discussed, and illustrated with photomicro- sets of curves show the relation between tem- graphs. Heat checking may be due to rapid perature of disappearance of the vapor phase, heating and cooling of the surface; possibly pressure at the time of formation, and tem- surface changes produced by the hot gases perature of formation. play a part. The coarse cracking is tentatively Observational difficulties are discussed, and ascribed to mechanical shock. Post-fusion one is illustrated by means of photomicro- cracks are produced where there is actual graphs. Uncertainties of interpretation are melting of the surface. also discussed, including those involved in In these tests, the erosion per round in- estimating original pressure. creases with increasing number of rounds. Measurements on quartz from pegmatites Erosion of the rods is caused by continued indicate temperatures below 250° C, includ- development of cracks and undercutting, with ing pressure corrections of 54 ° to 73 ° C for eventual tearing out of fragments, rather than specimens whose depth at time of formation by melting and "wiping off' of metal from can be estimated. As most other vein minerals the surface. and many of those in igneous and meta- morphic rocks contain liquid inclusions, it is (1093) Annual report for 1946-1947. GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
BIBLIOGRAPHY BOWEN, N. L. Magmas. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., TechnoL, vol. 14, Tech. Pub. No. 2223, 13 vol. 58, pp. 263-280 (1947). PP- (i947)- See SCHAIRER, J. F. and O. F. TUTTLE. Artificial willemite needles. Amer. Jour. ScL, vol. 245, pp. 313- INGERSON, EARL. Liquid inclusions in geologic thermometry. Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 32, 319 (i947)« SCHAIRERJ }. F. and N. L. BOWEN. Melting rela- PP- 375-388 (1947)- ? tions in the systems Na2O—A12O3—SiO2 Testing gun steel and other alloys and and K2O—A12O3—SiO2. Amer. Jour. ScL, metals for resistance to surface cracking. vol. 245, pp. 193-204 (1947). Amer. Inst. Min. and Met. Engrs., Metals TUTTLE, O. F. See INGERSON, EARL.
PLATE I
DERWOOD EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORY This Laboratory replaces the Kensington field station and provides the base for experiments in the high atmosphere, ionosphere, and related physical and solar phenomena, including experi- ments involving radio echo sounding, cosmic rays, solar noise, atmospheric ozone, and many re- lated effects. The building in the upper right at the circle is the main experimental building; across the road to the left are the Qunnsct huts for storage and auxiliary power, and immediately adjacent are the searchlight building and the cosmic-ray building. In the lower right building, rapid-run ionospheric recordings are conducted. At the lower left are the laboratory and associated radar for recording of solar noise, radio field intensity, and the like. DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM Washington, District of Columbia MERLE A. TUVE, Director
REVIEW OF MAGNETIC SURVEY AND OBSERVATORY PROGRAM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, 1904-1946 Introduction, As older programs initi- Much of the work here described was ated by this Department approach matu- made possible by the whole-hearted co- rity, it is appropriate to outline their history, operation of many individuals and organi- the main ideas inspiring their creation, zations. principal results achieved, and tasks left The early program of the Department. undone, with a forward-looking account The Department's program of magnetic of the future potentialities of these pro- survey and observatory work, now being grams. Publication of results of the mag- terminated, was set forth in general terms netic and electric survey of the earth and as two of three problems for attack in the of results of observations at observatories initial proposal of 1903 for the founding is nearing completion, and the time seems of a Department of International Research now ripe to review these large-scale past in Terrestrial Magnetism by the Carnegie operations of the Department, with in- Institution of Washington. The third terest in the high hopes which engendered problem suggested was that of magnetic the programs, and with the perspective observations in ocean depths and atmos- afforded by the passing of the years. In pheric regions, and experiments of limited much the same way we hope to review duration along these lines, instead of wide in future years the multifrequency iono- surveys, are included in our present pro- sphere-recording and nuclear-physics pro- gram. However, though the major pur- grams of the Department, from which pose stated was to investigate such prob- emphasis likewise is being shifted, with lems of world-wide interest as relate to the effort in fresh directions. magnetic and electric condition of the It is to be noted that these programs in earth and its atmosphere, there can be which the Department can claim with little doubt that in the background there some truth to have pioneered on a major was hope of discovering the origin of the scale are in no sense terminated. On the earth's magnetic and electric fields. contrary, they have expanded, usually far It is relatively easy to understand why beyond the scope of the most active phase the proposal for a world magnetic and of our participation, in the hands of others. electric survey would appeal to the imagi- This statement is not true as concerns the nation of the Trustees and President of magnetic survey of the oceans, which ter- the Institution in 1904. The earth's fields minated with the sinking of the Carnegie had been explored in only a few areas. in 1929, but the volume of new ocean The oceans, covering three-quarters of the magnetic measurements by airplane, after area of the globe, as well as the polar suitable instruments are developed, will no regions, were largely open gaps. In vast doubt in some years much surpass that areas such as the northern Pacific Ocean acquired previously. magnetic observations had never been 43 44 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON made. Here, then, was something to be up to that time the largest special appropri- done toward advancing scientific progress ation of the Institution, and the Carnegie which should be of lasting benefit to was launched June 12, 1909, in the presence mankind. of 3500 guests. The total original cost of It seems likely also that Dr. Bauer, the the ship fully equipped was $115,000. Her moving spirit in the founding of the De- early cruises were at once productive. partment, hoped much from the more ac- Andrew Carnegie himself was so im- curate mathematical representation of the pressed during this period with the work geomagnetic field which would be made of the Institution that he made available possible by a survey with wide coverage. in 1911 a new and large appropriation. Schmidt, in Germany, had earlier noted During the period from 1909 until her evidence based on inferior data suggesting destruction by fire in 1929, the Carnegie a nonpotential part of the earth's field, but made seven cruises covering all oceans, even this was incompatible with the ob- extending to the very boundaries of the served air-to-earth electric current. These north and south polar-ice areas. To- considerations also, strongly supported by gether with those of the Galilee, these men like Schuster abroad, led to expanded cruises totaled 361,413 nautical miles, and scope of the survey program, once under 3836 observations of magnetic declination way, including major emphasis on the and 2321 of inclination and horizontal in- more difficult phase of ocean magnetic tensity were made. Records were also work. obtained of atmospheric-electric potential In the enthusiasm of the time the ques- gradient and conductivity. In addition, on tion of a suitable laboratory for the new the last cruise, extensive data relating to endeavor was deferred, with funds de- topography of the ocean bottom, oceanog- voted rather to ocean work, and only raphy, and the biology o£ the ocean were modest quarters were occupied during the obtained and studied. The results have first few years. A wooden sailing vessel, now been published in many volumes. Galilee, was chartered and modified to At the same time, the survey program reduce the amount of magnetic materials on land was being vigorously pressed, with near observing platforms, so that magnetic chief emphasis on South America, Africa, survey measurements could be undertaken. Australia, the islands of the various oceans, Three successful cruises in the Pacific were and, as opportunity offered, the polar made during the years 1905 to 1908, but regions. There were in all over a hundred troubles due to magnetic materials within expeditions, which yielded not only meas- the ship were not completely eliminated. urements at thousands of stations, but also The effects of these magnetic materials intercomparisons and improvements of upon measurements of declination, inclina- magnetic standards in other countries. tion, horizontal intensity, and total in- Simultaneously, a laboratory program was tensity of the earth's field'varied with the begun which permitted extension to new time of cruise, roughness of passage, and work beyond that required for design and geographical location. In the interest of maintenance of instruments in the mainly economy and to improve the quality of observational program. This laboratory the results, plans and specifications for a phase of attack on the two major back- new nonmagnetic yacht, Carnegie, were ground problems, the cause of the mag- drawn up in 1908. In December 1908, the netic and of the electric field of the earth, Trustees made for this purpose what was became possible when the Department DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 45 moved to its present main building, much greater and increasing participation completed in 1914 at a cost of $68,000, by other organizations, stimulated by past on a site of some eight acres in suburban endeavors of the Department. Washington. The two riddles, the origin of the mag- Hopes for a vigorous laboratory ap- netic and that of the electric field of the proach were not realized in these earlier earth, remained unsolved, with further years. At that time the observatory pro- progress difficult and uncertain. Because gram required the attention of most of the of dissatisfaction with prospects for rapid staff, and it was necessary to devote much progress on these problems, attention was effort to the design and maintenance of directed toward the more accessible mag- the requisite observing instruments. The netic and electric variations. In this way organization of the observational material there arose the observatory program of the in final form was in itself no small task. Department during the period 1916-1920, By 1920, however, some theoretical inves- with particular emphasis on time varia- tigations of the data accumulated had been tions. In an important sense, however, it carried out, and though the description of was a continuation of the survey program, the earth's magnetic and electric fields because the estimates of secular change had been much improved, no real clue had depended for their accuracy on ascertain- emerged leading to their explanation. ing and removing effects of magnetic vari- Bauer showed that all except a small per- ations recorded at observatories, and be- centage of the earth's field was of internal cause it was possible only at the observa- origin. By this time a laboratory approach tories themselves to obtain accurate esti- by Barnett had shown that a rotating mates of secular changes. sphere becomes magnetic, but that the The observatory program, 1920-1930. amount of magnetization is far too small Following World War I, in which some to account for the earth's main field. Other of the staff were of help in the national studies by Swann also failed to solve the crisis, perhaps most tangibly in the de- problem. The observation of ions in con- velopment of magnetic navigation for air- siderable quantity over the oceans, even craft, and a little ahead of the times in the though sea water is considerably less radio- invention of the magnetic mine, ambitious active than the ground, was one factor postwar plans appeared for an observatory leading to the establishment of cosmic rays program. A good part of the staff formed as of extra-terrestrial origin. a skilled and efficient data-gathering or- There was uncertainty as to what profit- ganization, and experience had already able course might next be followed in rela- been obtained in operating magnetic and tion to the main field problems, which electric recording stations on a number of exist in no less degree today. There re- eclipse expeditions. mained, however, a lingering hope and The initial plan for establishing nine faith that the surveys would show in some magnetic observatories, mainly in the way a profitable approach, perhaps by southern hemisphere, seems to have been ascertaining the world-wide pattern of withdrawn in the face of practical con- secular change, not then at all available, siderations, in favor of establishing one which could be compared with that of in Australia and one near the magnetic other geophysical phenomena of the earth's equator in South America, thereby ma- crust. The surveys were therefore con- terially improving the world network of tinued, and on land were facilitated by observatories. Thus the observatory at CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 46
Watheroo, Western Australia, began oper- observatory, however, on the geomagnetic ation on January i, 1919, and that at equator proved to be opportune, and it Huancayo, Peru, on March 1, 1922. It has was a surprise to find that the daily mag- turned out that these choices of site were netic variation was more than twice as particularly wise and fortunate. large as expected. When explained in This period was, however, one in which later years, this feature was to become very there was at least an undertone of hesi- useful in attaining rather complete under- tancy in continuing the previous program, standing of this variation. Occasion was then already carried forward for nearly also taken to obtain recordings at other twenty years. In 1922 the main results sites, usually for a period of one year. In achieved were reviewed by a distinguished co-operation with the United States Coast group of scientists, a sort of informal board and Geodetic Survey, earth-current and of inquiry. They expressed general satis- atmospheric-electric elements were simul- faction with results achieved, and noted taneously recorded for many years at Tuc- that at least the observational aspects of son, Arizona. During this decade the terrestrial magnetism and electricity had routine accumulation of observatory and been rescued from what had approached survey data (including those for the more a state of chaos. It was decided to curtail extensive program of Cruise VII of the survey activities, since other agencies were Carnegie) all but swamped the facilities now active in such work, and to pursue of the Department. the observatory approach, which promised There were, however, new influences at a better chance of correlations with solar work early in the decade, which were and other phenomena, supported by labora- destined to affect profoundly the future tory and theoretical studies related to these development of the observatory program problems. in an unexpected manner. The informal The observing programs at Watheroo recommendation of the conference in 1922 and Huancayo included in the early years that a mathematical physicist be added to continuous recordings of magnetic field the staff brought Breit to the Department. components, earth-current potentials, and His first assigned task was that of examin- the vertical potential gradient and con- ing the possible relation of the earth's main ductivity, two of five desirable atmospheric- fields to the general theory of relativity, electric elements. The plans contemplated then comparatively new. It was quickly operation through a sunspot cycle. Valu- found that this line of investigation seemed able recordings o£ variations were obtained unpromising, and the search for other at these points, relatively remote from problems brought the suggestion of esti- other observatories, which helped consider- mating the height of the ionized layers ably, in conjunction with those from other In the atmosphere by means of radio waves. stations, in providing descriptions of these This resulted in the so-called Breit-Tuve variations on a world-wide scale. The high experiment, in which a pulse technique elevation of the site of the Huancayo sta- was evolved for sending and recording the tion (11,000 feet) seems to have provided return of radio waves at vertical incidence. no great advantage? The location of the The time taken for the waves to reach
1 the ionospheric layer gave an estimate of It was the intention to establish the observa- its height, since the velocity of the waves tory on the magnetic equator somewhere near seat level, tot the magnetic character of all sites High altitude was not regarded as being of any examined at or near sea level prohibited this. special advantage. DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 47 was known. Thus was developed a new source of the supply current maintaining technique for probing the upper atmos- the negative charge of the earth, which phere, which was much more analytical otherwise would be reduced to a fraction and unambiguous than the frequency- of its observed value in a matter of min- change interference method simultaneously utes. This possibility is being checked in developed by Appleton in England. This our present program, by attempts to meas- pulse technique also became important ure the assumed current flow from much later as a basis for engineering ap- thunderstorms up to the ionosphere, using plications such as radar. Although the instruments in airplanes flying above potentialities of the new technique in the thunderheads. study of geomagnetic variations were not Continuous measurements of vertical po- overlooked, the resources of the Depart- tential gradient and conductivity at the ment seemed inadequate to explore the Huancayo, Watheroo, and Tucson ob- new possibilities. After three years this servatories were studied. The results work was set aside, since the National found, though interesting, were masked Bureau of Standards was prepared to by uncertainties of various kinds due to undertake a large program in the radio local conditions, such as smoke from brush field. The Department's program was re- fires and smelters, and lack of local in- sumed about five years later. formation respecting time variations in the Following the pulse experiment, research amounts of large and small ions. It must was undertaken with high voltages in an now be acknowledged that the value of effort to study the forces involved in col- such records is uncertain in the absence lisions between electrons and electrons, and of additional simultaneous measurements between protons and protons. After some of the ionization of the air. years the experiments resulted in the dis- Two members of the Department, Gish covery of intense force fields in the neigh- and Rooney, introduced and developed borhood of the nuclei of atoms, and later early in this decade experimental ap- in experimental confirmation of the fission proaches in the study of natural and in- of uranium. These laboratory experiments duced earth currents. It was soon found as such had little relation to the objectives that the time variations in earth-current of the survey and observatory programs, potentials are probably adequately ex- but they gave expression to the hope that plained as produced by variations in a clue to the source of the earth's main geomagnetic fields of external origin. A field might be found among unexplored practical technique of measuring earth properties of the fundamental particles resistivity was developed which is now composing atoms. widely used in geophysical prospecting. In atmospheric electricity the decade Apparatus for making continuous meas-j 1920-1930 was marked by the discovery, urements of earth-current potentials were) based on studies of ocean electric measure- installed at Watheroo in 1923, Huancayo ments of the Carnegie, that the negative in 1926, and Tucson in 1931, and operated electric charge over the earth's surface as until 1946. The results confirmed the a whole varied periodically by about 30 general qualitative agreement expected on per cent of its average magnitude each 24 the basis of electromagnetic induction, and hours, independently of local time. This were of Interest in connection with certain result stimulated moderately successful electric-transmission and communication efforts to identify thunderstorms as the problems of engineering. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
By 1932, attempts to discover influences servatory, permitting direct observation of of solar eclipses on geomagnetic fluctua- solar phenomena. tions were abandoned. Some progress was In addition, seismographs were installed also made in providing more precise in- and operated at Huancayo in 1932. A later formation respecting the correlations of feature was the installation of cosmic-ray geomagnetic, auroral, and earth-current meters at Cheltenham, Maryland, in 1935; variations with solar phenomena such as Huancayo, Peru, in 1936; Christchurch, sunspots, stimulating efforts of the follow- New Zealand, in 1936; Teoloyucan, Mex- ing decade. ico, in 1937; Godhavn, Greenland, in 1938; The evolution of the observatory pro- and San Juan, Puerto Rico, in 1947. This gram, 1930-1940. The magnetic survey of was a co-operative observatory venture the earth was now beginning to provide a sponsored by the Cosmic Ray Committee of the Carnegie Institution. The previ- descriptive pattern of secular change. This ously inaugurated recordings of the at- pattern became apparent in the magnetic mospheric-electric elements and earth-cur- elements on a world-wide scale for the rent potentials were continued as sustain- first time, and was shown on Fisk's pre- ing programs, though expectations were liminary isoporic charts for 1922, published limited. The expanded observatory pro- in 1931. Although magnetic surveys on gram had thus become in effect a broad land were continued, mainly for the pur- program in geophysics, although under the pose of improving estimates of secular directorship of Fleming, who continued change, ocean surveys were perforce aban- the policies of Bauer, the major emphasis doned because of the loss of the Carnegie. was placed upon those theoretical aspects Accordingly the observatory program re- useful in explaining the geomagnetic ceived greatly increased emphasis and ex- variations. pansion after 1930. It was broadened to On April 8, 1936, a brilliant solar flare, include measurement of variations of the accompanied by a nearly simultaneous electron density and heights of ionized change in magnetic intensity, radio fade- layers of the ionosphere, first at Huancayo out, and earth currents, was observed by in 1932 and later in 1933 at Watheroo. Scott, Torreson, and Stanton. This was a Suitable practical and automatic apparatus direct linkage of a spectacular solar phe- was developed by Berkner and others to nomenon with terrestrial effects, though it send radio pulses yielding echoes from the now appears that the classic observation ionosphere which were continuously re- was in fact a hitherto discredited one of corded at a wide range of frequencies. simultaneous magnetic changes during a This multifrequency equipment was in- solar flare made by Carrington in 1859, and stalled at both Huancayo and Watheroo that Dellinger had already noted that solar by 1938, and at College, Alaska, in 1941. flares were sometimes accompanied by It was of particular importance in that it radio fade-outs. Nevertheless, the noting provided a record of events throughout of this effect was dramatic, and McNish the range of about 100 to 300 km and quickly found that the solar flare was al- higher within the ionosphere, for study in most simultaneously followed by an aug- connection with geomagnetic and other mentation of the daily magnetic variation phenomena observed at ground level Pos- on quiet days. sibilities were further broadened by instal- This essentially established the fact that, lation of a spcctrohelioscope at each ob- of several theories proposed to explain the DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 49 daily magnetic variation, the only one detail by various supporting researches tenable was the dynamo theory of Stewart- carried out within the Department by Schuster, later elaborated by Chapman. McNish and Vestine. On the observational According to this theory, the daily mag- side, Berkner and Wells noted increases netic variation is caused by electric cur- to iooo km in the height of the F-region rents produced in a conducting layer of (the highest layer) of the ionosphere dur- the atmosphere below the E-region (the ing magnetic storms, and Forbush dis- region of the ionosphere about ioo km covered that a decrease in cosmic rays above the earth's surface) by the motion usually appeared during the main phase of of the layer across lines of force of the magnetic storms. Neither of the latter earth's main field; the augmentation of phenomena is as yet adequately under- the daily variation is of course due to the stood. Consequently, it would seem that marked increase in ionization and con- much remains to be done before all the sequent increased conductivity accompany- effects connected with magnetic storms are ing the burst of ultraviolet light from the satisfactorily explained. sun during the solar flare. The radio fade- Bartels, in Germany, also a research as- out is due to absorption of the radio pulses sociate of the Institution, carried out ex- near or within the same conducting layer. tensive statistical studies, and made basic The changes noted in earth currents are improvements in statistical techniques of caused by the changing geomagnetic field. universal interest, in correlating solar and The dynamo theory also satisfactorily ex- geomagnetic disturbance. He showed how plains the particularly large amplitudes of geomagnetic variations could be used to the solar and lunar daily magnetic varia- indicate variations in solar ultraviolet light tions discovered at Huancayo, a conse- and corpuscular emissions, and devised quence of the noncoincidence of the geo- new measures of geomagnetic activity, the magnetic and geographic equators. so-called K-indices, now widely used in the Chapman, a research associate of the practical applications of radio communica- Institution in England, and his students tions. He also showed that the large developed, but did not complete, a theory lunar daily magnetic variation at Hoan- ascribing magnetic storms to effects of cayo could be explained in accordance electrically neutral streams of corpuscles with Chapman's dynamo theory for this of solar origin. They also estimated pos- variation. sible electric-current patterns within the The data from seismographs installed in atmosphere which could produce the large 1932 at Huancayo were not studied In the changes in the geomagnetic field during Department, but in the hands of Guten- storms, and roughly estimated the height berg and Richter of the Scismological of electric currents near the auroral zone Laboratory, Pasadena, were particularly to be about ioo km. Inconclusive study valuable in defining the earthquake zones was also made of the possibility that a part along the Andes and world epicenters, ant! of the storm field was due to an electric in the discovery of a silent zone for shock ring current encircling the earth at a waves propagated through the earth, in- distance o£ a few earth radii. It was not dicating a zone of discontinuity or velocity shown how the electric current patterns in change at a depth of several hundred the atmosphere could arise from neutral kilometers. streams of corpuscles emitted by the sun. There seems to have been no immediate These findings were further clarified in necessity which dictated the inauguration CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON of the Institution's program of recordings currents and atmospheric electricity were of cosmic-ray intensity at several observa- continued after 1930. In regard to earth tories. This was begun simply to obtain a currents, adequate data were obtained in continuous and world-wide picture of the polar regions at College, Alaska, and variations of cosmic-ray intensity. The re- Chesterfield, Canada, which permitted con- sults found would be completely unex- struction of a tentative map of general pected even today, on any reasonable basis global circulation of surface earth currents. within our experience. This program is The existence of the detailed relation was hence a fine example of the truth of the confirmed strikingly by the parallelism be- proposition that in geophysical research tween earth currents and geomagnetic vari- long-continued recordings of a new geo- ations during the large unexplained in- physical phenomenon will in the end turn crease in activity just after the winter up something of value, and is in a measure solstice near Tucson. These programs a justification for the blind faith in this were terminated at the end of 1946, though mode of attack in geophysics. By contrast, a few supplementary measurements of there was every reason why the Depart- missing particulars respecting ions were ment should have begun its cosmic-ray undertaken early in 1947 at Huancayo. program before 1920, when members of The latter measurements may make it pos- the staff had been for some years be- sible to interpret some aspects of the earlier wildered by the presence of ions in quan- continuous recordings. tity over the oceans; this might have led Electrical measurements in the strato- them to pioneer the development of the sphere on the balloon Explorer II showed field of cosmic rays. need for some modification of commonly The first important effect noted in the accepted propositions in physics respecting program of cosmic-ray recordings which the dependence on pressure of the mobility began in 1936 was the decrease by as much of negative ions, and the recombination as 10 per cent in cosmic-ray intensity dur- coefficient for small ions at lower pres- ing the main phase of magnetic storms. sures. A maximum in electric conductivity Examples were also found of intense mag- of the atmosphere was found at the height netic storms accompanied by little or no of 18 km. decrease in cosmic-ray intensity. Attempts The war program and the shift to were made by Forbush, following Chap- governments, 1940-1947. World War II man, to explain this effect as due to de- brought many highly technical develop- crease in the effective magnetic moment ments into application, with a resultant de- of the earth through the additive field of mand for highly specialized geophysical an equatorial ring current producing the information on an upprecedented and main phase of storms, but this point is world-wide scale. It was hence natural that not yet established. A more spectacular the accumulated data and experience of finding by Forbush during the current the Department should be brought into year was that in about ten years o£ records play in the application of geomagnetic and there were three increases, one as great as ionospheric knowledge to warfare. The 20 per ccnts in cosmic-ray intensity during main demand was for descriptive material large solar flares. This suggests the sun and engineering developments. and other light-emitting stars as the origin The effective use of magnetic mines by of cosmic rays. Germany early in the war stimulated an The early recording programs in earth active development program for various DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM kinds o£ magnetic mines and counter- significant feature of this work was that measures among the allied nations. The its general objectives were defined by the sensitivities and types of mines chosen for government, which likewise provided development, and for use in various parts under nonprofit contracts most of the funds of the world, were of course to some extent for completion of the projects. limited by the natural geomagnetic fluctu- A similar condition arose in the radio ations. K-indices for magnetic activity field. In the case of the ionosphere, an were also required in forecasting radio urgent demand arose for information per- communication conditions. New and more taining to radio communication in opera- accurate isomagnetic charts were required tional areas. This could be provided only in navigation and in the degaussing of by installation of additional ionosphere ships. stations with multifrequency recording The Department undertook the compila- equipment. The Department activities, tion of existing data on all classes of geo- supervised by Wells, included installation magnetic fluctuations, and especially their and operation of such equipment at Clyde, frequencies and average magnitudes in all Baffin Island; Reykjavik, Iceland; Maui, latitudes and longitudes, in a form suited Hawaii; Christmas Island; and Trinidad. for engineering applications. Of particular Service personnel were trained to operate value in this undertaking were the micro- equipment at many other stations, includ- filmed copies of magnetograms of the In- ing Guam, Okinawa, and Leyte. The De- ternational Polar Year, 1932—1933, and the partment's ionospheric station and mag- scattered published results available in our netic observatory at College, Alaska, was rather complete library. This work con- likewise operated under government con- siderably extended previous work in de- tract. The analysis of almost all iono- scription of the geomagnetic variations. spheric records obtained, including those Also undertaken was the task of preparing for Huancayo and, Watheroo, was under- new isomagnetic and isoporic charts. In taken by the Central Radio Propagation this way the results of voluminous surveys Laboratory, as was also the continuation on land and sea, made over many years of certain researches involving improve- by the Department and other agencies, ment of techniques of forecasting radio were used in improving the description of communication conditions initiated in the the earth's main field and its secular Department. change. In the process, the descriptive The temporary expansion of the De- results of magnetic observations made at partment by several fold in personnel and over a hundred observatories were derived budget during World War II effectively and collated, for the various geomagnetic emphasized the truth that modern sur- variations, in summarized form. This vey and observatory activities are better work was required for improving the iso- undertaken by governments, rather than in poric charts, which in turn made possible part by a relatively small organization such more effective use of existing data in the as the Department of Terrestrial Mag- preparation of main field charts. New netism. Accordingly, following the plans survey data were obtained through the made nearly thirty years ago, in 1946 the loan of magnetometers to other agencies, Department's observatories at Watheroo and magnetographs were built and in- and Huancayo were offered with complete stalled at various locations to meet the re- complement of equipment, after some quirements of the armed services. The changes in program, to the respective gov- CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
ernments in Australia and Peru. Other the atomic-physics program, verification survey and observatory activities financed and first measurements were made of the by the United States government had been tremendous forces between protons and terminated at the close of the year 1946. neutrons at very short distances, which It should, however, be noted that both are the forces that bind these particles the survey and the observatory program to form atomic nuclei. Resonance energy were in fact continued considerably longer levels for nuclear disintegration were also than was originally proposed. Our surveys found and measured. over the oceans had stopped in 1929, and Among the more important of the those over land in 1936. The original in- terrestrial-solar phenomena, now better tent was to undertake observatory work in understood as a result of the Department's regions neglected by others for a period observatory program, were the following: of one sunspot cycle, but, as previously determination that the daily and lunar mentioned, the appearance of new possi- geomagnetic variations are caused by the bilities during the period 1920-1930 made ultraviolet radiations from the sun and the it desirable to extend this effort over motions of the upper atmosphere in the another similar period. presence of the earth's magnetic field; Summary of main ideas and results. Ex- closer linkage of specific (solar flare) and planations of the earth's magnetic and average solar conditions with variations in electric fields were sought. In order that geomagnetism, the ionosphere, aurora, and the picture of these phenomena might be cosmic rays; the rather complete descrip- brought into sharper focus, thereby better tion on a nearly world-wide scale of geo- describing what it was sought to explain, magnetic variations of various periods at a magnetic and electric survey of the different times of the sunspot cycle and earth was carried out. The world patterns their possible electric current systems in of secular change were obtained for the the atmosphere. The world-wide pattern first time throughout the period 1905- of surface earth currents was estimated, 1945, and it was found that the electric and technique used in electrical geophysi- field of the earth as a whole varies periodi- cal prospecting was developed. The re- cally every 24 hours by about 30 per cent. sults of the observatory program were also The search for the cause of these phe- useful in practical applications such as nomena, however, was unsuccessful. By the improvement of radio communications • careful experiments Barnett showed that on a world-wide scale. magnetization by rotation could not ex- Future importance of magnetic surveys plain the earth's magnetic field, and a and geophysical observatories. Surveys of similar search by Swann, from a theoreti- the changing magnetic and electric fields cal approach, proved likewise unsuccessful. of the earth, an important part of the The results of magnetic surveys, however, human environment, should no doubt be have beea of great benefit in various continued, even after their causes have practical applications of geomagnetism, been satisfactorily ascertained. So far as and this work is now being extensively we now know, magnetic secular change carried on by others. A high light o£ the gives our only indication of rapidly chang- ionospheric work was the development of ing processes deep within the earth's in- ;' the pulse experiment, which was elaborated terior. There are also indications of slow later into the multifrcquency technique trends in vertical conductivity of the at- , for exploring the upper atmosphere. In mosphere over decades of time. Hence DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 53 the continuity should not be lost between nificance. It seems likely also that electric present-day and future descriptive knowl- surveys by airplane will contribute to the edge afforded by such surveys. solution of some of the problems of at- It seems well to emphasize, however, mospheric electricity. that these surveys have greater potential It is our view that the future activities interest if supported in other ways. There of geophysical observatories will be highly is little value merely in the making of productive and significant. Magnetic measurements to preserve continuity of storms and disturbances, not yet well human record. The present-day effort understood, have recently been found as- should therefore be directed more search- sociated in time with marked changes in ingly toward explanations of the phe- the ionosphere and in cosmic-ray in- nomena. Something will be learned from tensity, and these effects, also associated more ambitious world surveys of the gravi- with auroral phenomena, are completely tational field, and from seismic data, which unexplained. There will no doubt be like the geomagnetic field yield indications added recordings from time to time of respecting the earth's interior. Finally, ac- new aspects of geophysical phenomena, tive laboratory and theoretical approaches using new techniques. Thus, installation should be sought in order that there may of high-speed ionospheric and magnetic be desirable rapid evolution in the char- recorders, of enhanced sensitivity, is as- acter of such surveys and in the under- sured, as well as of more sensitive cosmic- standing of their results. There is little ray meters, solar radio-noise recorders, and point in too great detail, and in too fre- other instruments. Geophysical observa- quent surveys. Although contributions tions throughout the atmosphere using along laboratory and theoretical lines can rockets are already being undertaken. be expected from private institutions of There will be need to undertake these at research, the major survey activities can many points over the surface of the earth. be effectively undertaken only by or with Unfortunately, a counterpart of this direct the continuous financial support of gov- approach does not exist for probing the ernments, upon which the responsibility earth's interior. ultimately must rest. In the promising future before those Local detailed magnetic surveys by air- engaged in survey and especially in ob- plane over areas of geophysical interest, servatory work, the Department hopes as such as volcanoes, or from ships towing heretofore to make some contribution from survey instruments at considerable depth time to time in the development of new within the oceans, may be expected to techniques, in stimulating endeavor, and yield results of future geophysical sig- in the interpretation of measured results.
SUMMARY FOR THE REPORT YEAR 1946-1947 This first year of postwar operations our two observatories had achieved world- marks a major change in the activities of wide recognition as stations of paramount the Department, with the completion of importance in the uneven world distribu- the observatory and field-party work of tion of observing stations, and were recog- the world magnetic survey. nized as such by the governments and A survey of the situation at the end of scientific agencies in their areas. Second, World War II disclosed two things. First, our own estimate of the status of the prob- 54 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON lems for which they were established in- connected, and that initiative in attempting dicated that the most striking puzzles con- new experiments and making fresh ap- nected with the earth's magnetic and proaches will yield results of unexpectedly electric properties might be approached wide significance. more fruitfully by attempting geophysical Most of our studies in the past have experiments of relatively limited duration been concerned with descriptions of phe- than by expending most of the efforts of a nomena related to these puzzles, such as small group such as ours on a program of the small daily, annual, secular, and storm continued observations. Fortunately the variations of the large and unexplained governments of all nations are now much magnetic field, the contributions of the more alive to the importance of scientific ionosphere and earth currents to these activities, and the collection of geophysical magnetic variations, and the behavior of data over long periods is widely accepted ions and attachment particles in the air as an appropriate activity for a govern- which participate in the air-earth current. mental scientific bureau. Accordingly, a Because these problems of magnetism and decision was made to transfer by gift the electricity embrace the entire solid earth entire establishment of the two observa- and the atmosphere, and relate directly to tories to the governments of Peru and some of the great fundamental questions Australia, respectively. This proposal was concerning the structure of matter, there gratefully accepted as of July i, 1947, and also have been vigorous thrusts in several arrangements were made for the transfers. other fields of physics, including studies in In rounding out our activities toward high voltages and nuclear physics. The the completion of this matured program, Department is thus in reality a group of the publication of seventeen large volumes investigators trained in physical science of data and interpretation was undertaken. concerned with certain specific aspects of Much of the work of computation and geophysics and laboratory physics. study had been done previously, and as the Bearing in mind the special character of report year closes only minor editorial and the opportunity presented by the Carnegie assembly work remains to be completed Institution of Washington, with its un- on the last five volumes. usually large freedom of objectives, and The Department now turns to a new viewing the corresponding obligations emphasis on laboratory and experimental which go along with this freedom, it is work. Much of this will involve field agreed that we must make every possible trips, of course, as the earth is too large effort to emphasize creative work, ideas and varied to be studied in one spot. Two with new potentialities, and work which outstanding problems remain unsolved by lies on the front lines of knowledge. The our past program, namely, the origin or Institution has no external allegiance or cause of the main part (95 per cent) of the obligations, no students, stockholders, earth's very large magnetic moment, and voters, or other special groups to serve. the maintenance of the earth's electric This gives us an obligation to accept charge In spite of the constant current of greater risks than others, and we should many thousands of amperes from the air accordingly concentrate our efforts primar- to the surface of the earth. There are other ily on thrusting forward the very front striking problems relating to the physics lines of advancing knowledge. Every pro- of the earth, and there is ample precedent gram should be scrutinized at regular in- for our confidence that they are not dis- tervals and pruned or reoriented to meet DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 55 this criterion; any new problems or in- and program. Our co-operation with uni- terests or new men or activities should also versities and the resumption and expansion be required to meet it. It is probable that of the prewar program of Carnegie Insti- the front lines of inquiry in many fields tution fellows are of special importance in need to be more clearly mapped, in order this connection. that our efforts may be guided toward The activities of the Department and problems of importance in our time, in the interests of the research staff divide reasonable balance with opportunity, and naturally among three broad areas: (a) with some hope of definite progress to-| statistical and analytical geophysics, in- ward solution or toward new formulation cluding observatory results, (b) explora- —even failure has value. tory geophysics, and (c) laboratory physics There are serious restrictions as to pos- and biophysics. In the past the main sible size of staff and annual expenditures, emphasis of the Department has been in and accordingly our program must be the first area, but it has been agreed, with chosen with regard to its effectiveness as a the Department's observatory program al- stimulus or catalyst to the work of all other ready carried through two complete sun- groups concerned with a given field. These spot cycles, that there will now be a more considerations lead naturally to a major general shift of emphasis away from this emphasis on co-operative endeavors, in first area and toward the other two. which the Institution and the Department Our activities thus move toward those can be of great influence and value if we of a physics department with special em- are capable of vigorous leadership in fresh phasis on experiments in geophysics and and significant directions. biophysics, making intensive use of the Plans for co-operative activities, in which techniques and ideas of modern physics. other agencies play a larger part than the The biophysical program, which has Department, in magnetic work, in ex- evolved as a modest new outgrowth of our ploratory geophysics, in laboratory physics, work in nuclear physics and our studies and in biophysics will characterize the en- of the properties of the primary particles tire program of the Department for the of matter, is directed toward studies of next few years as the staff now views it. the fundamental physical properties of For any one subject or project only a living matter, and is carried on as a joint small group will be concerned here in the activity with the many biological groups Department (often not more than two or in the Washington area. thfee), and members of other organiza- tions will participate as importantly in our A surprising discovery was made during projects as ourselves. True research, how- the year in the cosmic-ray program. Long- ever—creative research—is always done in continued observations of cosmic-ray in- very small groups, rarely exceeding five or tensity have been made at various stations seven individuals. Hence this separation scattered over the earth during the past of the Department's staff, as in the past, twelve years as a part of the Department's into small discrete groups, with reasonable program. Variations of about i per cent fluidity for shifts between groups, is re- due to atmospheric changes and decreases garded as both realistic and healthy. It is of a few per cent caused by the increased expected that particular attention will be magnetic moment of the earth following paid to means for assuring the effective magnetic storms have been regularly noted, impact of young men on our staff leaders but a pronounced solar flare and radio CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON blackout on July 25,1946 was accompanied motive forces and electrical current sys- by a large increase in cosmic-ray intensity tems, such as those proposed by Dr. Walter at all stations except at the equator, simul- M. Elsasser, of the RCA Laboratories at taneous with the flare and radio dis- Princeton. To distinguish between these turbance and lasting for several hours. A theories is of fundamental importance to magnetic storm and its effects occurred as geophysics and to physics as well. usual about a day later. The observations The most fundamental lack is that of cannot be explained by the known change quantitative data on the behavior of the in the earth's magnetic moment due to earth's field with time. Measurements of ionization by ultraviolet light. It is diffi- the faint residual magnetization of the cult to see how the magnetic moment of annual layers of silt deposited by retreating the sun, usually assumed as the explana- glaciers at the end of the last ice age, about tion of the cut-off of low-energy cosmic 25,000 years ago, were resumed during the rays, can have been sufficiently altered by year with results of striking interest. Just the flare effects to permit a "beam" of prior to the war these experiments had cosmic rays to pass by, although we are indicated that the deviation of the compass involved in calculations which it is hoped direction from true north had varied in a may settle this point. The only evident fashion similar to the changes observed alternative is that the additional cosmic during the past 350 years. Numerous tests rays were produced by an accelerating this year have given strong evidence for the action associated with the flare at or near stability of this residual magnetization and the sun, possibly due to a local rate of hence for the reliability of these measure- change of magnetic field, as in a betatron ments as an indication of the compass accelerator. The origin of cosmic rays is direction in earlier epochs. In addition, so mysterious that a hint of this kind, new procedures have been developed, in- associated with our nearest star and hence volving the redeposit out of a water bath observable in some detail, with patience, in a magnetic field of the silt from single is of the greatest interest. Search of the layers, which give a tentative measure of records showed two similar occurrences in the intensity of the earth's magnetic field 1942, or a total of three in ten years. during that distant epoch. A preliminary The measurements by Dr. H. W. Bab- determination of that intensity at the time cock, of the Mount Wilson Observatory, on of the last glaciation has now been made the magnetic fields of the sun and of 78 from clays collected at Bradford, Vermont. Vlrginis have stimulated the British physi- This measurement indicates that the cist Blackett to speculate again on the pos- earth's field has been unchanged in in- sibility that the earth's magnetic field tensity for the past 30,000 years to within represents a fundamental phenomenon in the accuracy of the measurement. The which the magnetic field is dependent on material used was shown to be able to the mass and angular momentum of the carry the imprint of a field fifty times less body. There are other explanations of the or greater than the present value. The earth's field which depend on complex direction as well has remained substantially internal phenomena in the core of the constant. The clays were collected in New earth. Theoretical studies are accordingly England and were dated by the fine work being made in an attempt to link the of Dr. Ernst Aritevs, former research as- rotation of astronomical bodies with con- sociate of the Carnegie Institution. The vective motions producing internal electro- interpretation of the polarization of the DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 57 clays was obtained only after long and the fundamental physical properties of tedious work in the laboratory, using the living systems. methods of modern physics. It is expected The structure of the atomic nucleus that the measurement of other clays will offers another major problem. There is make it possible to extend this time scale ample evidence that the nuclear constit- to millions of years and thus to provide the uents (protons, neutrons, and possibly quantitative data necessary to distinguish alpha particles) are organized in some sys- between conflicting theories. The experi- tematic way. This is shown in the distri- ments and observations are being con- bution of the stable elements, the atomic tinued, and some tests are under way with masses, and many other properties such sedimentary rocks. There is a touch of as spin (angular momentum) and mag- romance in measuring a thing as subtle as netic moment. The system, however, is the earth's magnetic field as it existed not known. The quantum theory used 25,000 years ago. If these studies can be with such success in explaining the outer successfully extended to rocks and hence structure of the atom meets with great to a vastly greater period of time, im- difficulty in the nucleus, first, because the portant limits will be set on theories of forces are not known, and second, because the earth's main field, a stupendous mag- the approximations used in the electronic netic phenomenon which remains both a structure are not possible in the nucleus, riddle and a challenge. where many particles are interacting. In An interesting series of experiments us- view of these difficulties a model of the ing artificially radioactive tracer substances nucleus based on similarity to a liquid drop was carried out during the year by the has been found useful in some cases. This, cyclotron staff of the Department and however, gives only a rough approxima- their many colleagues in biology and medi- tion and fails to predict the periodicities of cine in the Washington area. Radioactive nuclear structure. Measurement of the samples were also supplied to a large angular distribution of the particles emitted number of investigators in many parts of in nuclear reactions gives a critical test of the world. The work here has been con- the theory of nuclear structure. During cerned primarily with studies of differen- the past year the electrostatic generators tial permeability and exchange through have been used to study the light elements, various membranes and cell walls in ani- and the cyclotron the heavy ones. The re- mals and in man. Although many of the sults obtained show that even the light observations, especially those related to the elements (lithium and oxygen) are not heavy metal compounds which were the simple in structure. Nor is the behavior war assignment of our cyclotron, are of of heavier elements (aluminum, copper, immediate interest to medical men, our and gold) predictable from the liquid-drop experiments and plans are directed toward model.
THE OBSERVATORY PROGRAM Preliminary negotiations looking to the year. As the decision to move forward shift of the observatories at Watheroo and rapidly with this transfer crystallized early Huancayo to the governments of the coun- in the report year, conferences were held tries in which they are located were initi- regarding the appropriate balance and em- ated before the end of the previous report phasis of activities at the two observatories, CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON to insure that a modernized program, well cided to stop all registrations of atmos- focused on areas of future importance, pheric-electric components near the surface would be under way before the observa- of the ground and turn to specific experi- tories were transferred. It was clear from ments, probably higher in the atmosphere, the start that the magnetic observations for further understanding of atmospheric- were important and were well carried out, electric problems. In order to permit better although it was found desirable to institute interpretation of the existing records, how- one or two changes in instrumentation. ever, the decision was made to record the The radio observations on the ionosphere additional elements above indicated for a and radio field-intensity recordings were period of a few months at Huancayo, and also considered basic. The present equip- these observations were started in the late ment for ionosphere studies has been in spring of 1947. operation for many years, and initiative Similar critical examination was given to was taken looking toward the availability the earth-current program. During many of new equipment for each station within years of observation at our two observa- the next several years, under the new tories and elsewhere, ample evidence ac- sponsors. The present shortage of equip- cumulated to show that the residual earth ment, and the high costs of manufacture, currents which can be separated from prevented its prompt acquirement. The local phenomena connected with the seismic, meteorological, and cosmic-ray ground electrodes could be accounted for programs at Huancayo were of clear almost entirely as induced currents in the importance, and are in a healthy state, earth brought about by the changing mag- and the spectrohelioscope observations at netic field, which field in turn arises from Watheroo fill a gap in that world program. variable currents of rather large magnitude The spectrohelioscope at Huancayo was in the ionized upper atmosphere. No evi- recalled for overhauling. dence was found, nor could it be expected Careful consideration was given to the from the physical dimensions of our instal- expected future value of the atmospheric- lations at the observatories, for electrical electric program. Observations of potential currents within or below the earth's crust gradient and conductivity had been made arising from internal causes, as these are at each observatory over a period of more at best indistinguishable from electrolytic than twenty years. Study of these data activity at the grounding electrodes. Mag- confirmed our earlier convictions that at- netic observations at the earth's surface are mospheric-electric measurements near the a more convenient and more analytical ground are largely a reflection of local measure of the variable currents in the circumstances, being affected by dust, upper atmosphere. Accordingly, the deci- smoke, and weather, and that any reason- sion was made to stop the earth-current able understanding of the detailed processes registrations at both observatories. In their involved would require separate added place, an effort to devise new experiments, registration of large ions, small ions, rate better suited to exploration of electrical of ionization, and other variables. Ex- conductivity and currents, especially in the pansion of the atmospheric-electric pro- deeper layers of the crust, would be made gram to include these items, though in- by the laboratory group. teresting, would at most result in a better The war activities of the Department understanding of detailed local processes relating to world-wide studies of the iono- near the ground. Accordingly it was de~ sphere, which involved the installation and DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 59 operation of ionospheric observatories at to the United States Coast and Geodetic a number of places beyond the continental Survey any functions needed for a center limits of the United States, have now been of information and activities connected transferred to the newly organized Central with terrestrial magnetism. Appropriate Radio Propagation Laboratory of the Na- discussions were held, and the Director of tional Bureau of Standards. Since world- the Coast and Geodetic Survey willingly wide interest in automatic multifrequency accepted the responsibility for enlarging its recording has led to the development of co-operative activities connected with arctic organizations such as this and other na- and antarctic expeditions, aerial surveys, tional laboratories to deal with these prob- magnetic standards, and correlation of lems, it has also been decided to encourage world-wide results in appropriate simple these organizations in the analysis of iono- tables. The Department will continue to spheric data so that the Department may foster the exchange of information, work- concentrate its efforts on pioneering re- ing closely with the Coast and Geodetic search with a view to developing other- Survey, and loans of our equipment for wise untouched aspects of the field. With expeditions and observatories, together the transfer of responsibility, the decision with arrangements for use of our absolute has been made to redirect the Depart- magnetic standards, will be made through ment's activities in upper-atmospheric re- 'that agency. search toward experiments designed to answer specific questions regarding the HUANCAYO OBSERVATORY ionized layers. As a consequence, in the future the ionospheric data from Watheroo The geomagnetic, ionospheric, seismic, and Huancayo will go directly to the and meteorological programs were main- Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, tained at the Huancayo Observatory dur- which is in effect a world center for such ing the report year. Fast-run magnetic studies. recording with the la Cour magnetograph, Despite its small size, the Department of and spectrohelioscope observations of the Terrestrial Magnetism, in part by reason sun's activity with the Hale instrument, of its connection with the Journal of Ter- were discontinued on July 31, 1946, and restrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Elec- the atmospheric-electric and earth-current tricity, has served as an informal world recorders were discontinued at the end of center for studies of the earth's magnetism. 1946. The weekly radio-telegraphic reports The standard of observatory measurements of K-indices were terminated at the same maintained at Watheroo and Huancayo time. A complete reduction and tabulation and the Department's instrument program of the final hourly values for all three mag- during the first two decades resulted in netic elements beginning with September world-wide intercomparisons against our 1946 was undertaken at the Observatory instruments, making them informal world instead of at the Washington office. At- standards. With the loss of the Carnegie tention was given to the appointment and most of our important activities in world- training of new Peruvian personnel and wide survey work were brought to an end, to problems connected with the expected although land parties continued for a few transfer of the Observatory to the Peruvian more years. When our two observatories government. Plans and estimates for new were transferred to government operation* buildings on the Observatory property it seemed test to transfer at the same time were prepared- The Institution provided 6o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
funds for a guest house for future visiting magnetometers used in field measurements investigators from all nations. and by comparisons of observatory stand- In March 1947 W. D. Parkinson arrived ards. The last primary standards built are at the Observatory from Washington to now nearly thirty years old. In anticipa- undertake special observations in atmos- tion of the grave need of maintaining the pheric electricity, particularly in connection international standards and of obtaining with the study of ion content and distri- international agreement on the value of bution in the air and its correlation with the gamma, the previous Director, John atmospheric conductivity. A. Fleming, initiated in 1934 the design of a new primary standard of great WATHEROO OBSERVATORY accuracy. This standard has now been completed. It permits, for the first time, The geophysical program of observation the measurement of any component of and recording of geomagnetic and iono- the earth's magnetic vector, although it is spheric data was continued throughout the principally designed for the measurement year. Recordings of the atmospheric- of H, Z, D, and /. Its constant is deter- electric elements were discontinued at the mined by the mutual inductance between end of 1946 after a continuous series over a primary coil and a rotating secondary 24 years had been obtained. The earth-, coil. The absolute value of this coil con- current recorder remained in operation but stant is known to three parts in a million. the values were not tabulated. The reduc- It is expected that this coil will be used by tion of the magnetic scalings to absolute the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- values was undertaken at the Observatory vey and that when its operation is satis- throughout the report year. Current iono- factory, it will provide a firm basis for the spheric data were supplied, as in previous adoption of a standard value for the years, to the Radio Research Board, Syd- gamma. ney, and the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory in Washington. The Institution provided funds for a PUBLICATION OF OBSERVATORY AND FIELD building for housing guest investigators. OBSERVATIONS THROUGH 1946 Additional staff quarters also were planned A necessary and interesting duty con- and partly constructed, as part of the nected with the termination of the Institu- program under the Australian government. tion's observatory and field-survey pro- The Observatory was transferred to the grams was the preparation during the year Australian government as of July 1, 1947, of a great volume of observations for pub- and will continue to operate under the lication—preparation much delayed by auspices of the Bureau of Mineral Re- World War II. Previous volumes have sources, of the Department of Supply and covered the results obtained on the ocean Shipping. surveys by the Galilee and the Carnegie, and numerous scientific papers have been PRIMARY STANDARD written on the basis of the observatory For many years the Carnegie Institution records. Nevertheless, further study and of Washington has played a leading inter- discussion of this tremendous amount of national role in developing and maintain- material was appropriate, and its publica- ing the magnetic standards of the world, tion in a form to permit analysis by other both by the construction of many of the groups was an obvious duty. PLATE 2
Newr absolute standard for magnetic fields built by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Construction was begun in 1938 and was completed in 1947 after interrup- tion by the war. Current coils mounted in grooves on pyrex glass cylinder are accu- rate to 0.00001 inch. This instrument will be used by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey for international calibrations. It is accurate to about three parts in a million. DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 61
Early in the report year it was decided electricity at various observatories, includ- that the results of researches in terrestrial ing Watheroo and Huancayo. These re- magnetism, ionospherics, cosmic rays, at- quire final editing, with the associated mospheric electricity, and earth currents tabular data, and final layout for publica- would be presented in tabular form in tion. Most of the work has also been com- seventeen volumes totaling approximately pleted for the remaining three volumes of 10,000 pages. Several thousand pages of the complete series; these will present tabulated data were already in hand at the observatory results on cosmic rays, earth beginning of the report year, and in the currents, and atmospheric electricity. ensuing eight months some 7000 additional In connection with this massive publica- pages of data and text were prepared by tion program it was acutely realized that a team of typists and tabulators. Miss Wai- the manpower requirements and costs of burn, of the Office of Publications of the complete publication have become so pro- Institution, has assembled the tabulated hibitive for continued observatory work data into suitable groups for publication in geophysics that a new approach is neces- in separate volumes, staff members have sary to insure that data of this kind be- provided manuscripts, and suitable draw- come accessible for study without waiting ings and photographs have been prepared. for final publication. Accordingly, recom- During the year six volumes of results have mendations were made at our two observa- been completed: two containing the mag- tories for relatively prompt publication of netic results from Watheroo for the years the vital summaries of their observations 1919 through 1944, a volume descriptive of using microfilm techniques, and a sug- the earth's main magnetic field and its gested small list for world distribution was secular change for the period 1905 to 1945, prepared. The Institution may use this a volume presenting the Tucson Observa- procedure in presenting some of the vol- tory earth-current results for the period umes in the above-mentioned list, particu- 1932 to 1942, the land and ocean magnetic larly those of a specialized character which results for the period 1927 to 1944, and will be studied and used by relatively few ionospheric results from College, Alaska, groups throughout the world. It is be- for the period 1941 to 1946, a total of lieved that microfilm is destined to become 3163 pages. Manuscripts for eight addi- an increasingly important vehicle for com- tional volumes have been prepared, cover- munication in specialized fields, although ing work on geomagnetism, the iono- it cannot entirely replace the delayed com- sphere, earth currents, and atmospheric plete publication of tabulated original data. EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL GEOPHYSICS The Department's research in experi- tics is changed appreciably within the life- mental and analytical geophysics is directed time of a single individual. Its surface toward four principal aspects of the whole cools and heats so slowly and imperceptibly field, namely, (1) studies of the earth's that it is difficult to tell whether we are crust, (2) studies of the upper atmosphere, entering or leaving an ice age. Its mag- (3) cosmic-ray research, and (4) analysis. netic field has such slow and imponderable changes that it is only with difficulty that STUDIES OF THE EARTH'S CRUST we are able to ascertain whether or not the The earth is such a large and massive main dipole field of the earth is indeed body that none of its physical characteris- changing. The earth has such great non- 62 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON uniformities in the small part that is avail- ferences in thermal electric power might able on the surface, and it is so difficult to cause circulating electrical currents deep reach very deep into its interior, that the in the core of the earth, and might have, problem of determining its physical struc- in spite of the statistical nature, a remain- ture and its physical history is almost un- ing effect large enough to cause the earth's solvable. observed field. The other possibility is that In the new exploratory approach of the the existence of a magnetic field is a funda- Department to the geophysics of the solid mental property associated with large rotat- earth there are two main parts. The first ing masses. If this were so, then all the is to determine its physical history by planets, and all stars, including the sun, reading the record of this history from the should also be large magnets, with a mag- evidence of the crust itself; the second, to nitude depending upon their mass and penetrate as deeply as possible beneath the angular momentum. surface in order to determine its internal The evidence for either set of theories is constitution. Such an exploratory program at present scanty and full of contradictions. requires both an expensive field examina- Accurate knowledge of the history of the tion of the earth by extensions of the al- geomagnetic field might go far toward ready developed techniques of geophysical distinguishing between the two sets. The prospecting and the development of new historical data available, which go back ones, and laboratory verification of the about 350 years, are not adequate for this, theories required to explain the field data. because the rnassiveness and conductivity Three main problems are now in view. of the earth prevent any appreciable The first concerns the magnetic history of change from occurring in much less than the earth; the second, the strength and 10,000 years. structure of the earth's crust to great If the first theory is correct, then it depths; and the third, the conductivity and would not be unexpected if the dipole field the temperature of the crust to great were to change drastically with time or depths. even to reverse. Historical evidence in- The magnetic field of the earth as It dicates that the field Is decreasing at the now exists can be described with some rate of 4 per cent per century. If this were accuracy. The origin and nature of most really so, In 1500 years the earth would of its short-time fluctuations are well have no field left, and on the other hand understood, and many of these can be the field 30,000 years ago would have been predicted reasonably well. These fluctua- 12 gauss. It Is, however, uncertain whether tions, however, are merely small perturba- or not the historical measurements are of tions of the main dipole field of the earth, sufficient accuracy to detect such a small and the cause of the main field Is as much change. a mystery now as it was a century ago. Before the war the Department made a There appear to be two possibilities. The small beginning in the measurement of first Is that the cause Is complex, the field the glacial clays of New England to de- being due to some fortuitous combination termine whether or not the earth's field of circumstances which can produce cir- had Indeed changed. An attempt was culating internal electric currents. For ex- made to deduce, from the polarization of ampler viscous flow of the interior matter the clays, the direction of the field at the of the earth might bring about tempera- time when they were laid down. This ture gradients, and these by reason of dif- was made possible by the development of DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
an extremely sensitive apparatus which The clays are best suited for this purpose, extended the previous sensitivity measure- since their magnetization is very simple ment by a factor of 100,000. The results and can be reproduced in the laboratory. showed that in direction at least, the field The intensity of the field at the time the was substantially similar to that of today, clays were laid down was deduced by the variations in direction amounting to measuring the polarization of the same ± 30 °, a variation similar to that observed clays redeposited in the laboratory with historically. These measurements have various field strengths. Thus was obtained a curve relating the intensity of the field in which the clays were deposited and the 22 x io~5 polarization of the freshly deposited clay. POLARIZATION OF SEDIMENTS For measurements of the clay in situ the -DEPOSITED IN THE LABORA average intensity about 30,000 years ago TORY IN A MAGNETIC FIELD; was determined to have been about the .THE VALUE FOR NATURAL . SEDIMENTS 30,000 YEARS OLD same as that of the present geomagnetic FALLS ON THE CURVE AT THE field within 10 per cent. The historically 'PRESENT VALUE OF THE measured change in the earth's dipole EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD moment can therefore be considered to be due either to inaccuracies of measurement or to a small and insignificant perturbation of the main dipole moment. The evidence thus does not eliminate the possibility that magnetization of the earth is not due to an inherent property of all rotating matter. POLARIZATION OF NATURAL ^ VARVE CLAYS The results are as yet preliminary, the question of geologic stability has not been Ho-PRESENT VALUE OF EARTH'S- MAGNETIC FIELD satisfactorily answered, and the time scale ARTIFICIAL FIELD INTENSITY- is too short to draw final conclusions. IN UNITS OF Ho 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Unconsolidated clays are available which cover a time scale of millions of years, and FIG. I. Studies of ancient clay deposits have are capable of yielding information on the shown that the compass varied around a north- erly direction, and the strength of the earth's intensity of the geomagnetic field over this magnetic field during the last glacial period was same period. The sedimentary rocks prob- the same as it is now. ably contain reliable information on the direction of the earth's field, although at now been extended to cover an additional present it does not appear that intensity 2000 years of the 6000-year chronology es- can be deduced from their polarizations. tablished by Antevs, beginning about 2000 Only a few of these have been measured, years after the period measured before the and they indicate that the field has re- war. The results are similar to the prewar mained substantially constant in direction measurements: there is an indication of a for many millions of years. There is every 300-year period in the variation of the expectation that the completion of this re- compass. search will yield a reliable history of the The most important and significant re- earth's field and thus provide the basic sults, however, have been obtained in the numerical data against which the two sets determination of the intensity of the field. of theories may be tested. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 64
Problems relating to the strength and starting with Columbia University and the structure of the earth's crust to great New Mexico School of Mines. Prelimi- depths have occupied geologists and physi- nary observations have been made on a cists for two hundred years, yet many series of small shots, chiefly for purposes of simple questions remain unanswered, be- instrument development, and as the report cause so few observational and experi- year closes portable instruments for eight mental techniques are available for ob- to ten observing stations are being com- taining information concerning the regions pleted. It is hoped that arrangements can even ten or fifty miles below us. Monu- ultimately be made to carry out observa- mental labors in geodesy have limited the tions of this kind in a number of regions acceptable hypotheses, and seismology has of particular geologic interest, including greatly increased our knowledge, especially the Appalachian range, the Canadian of the deeper regions and the central shield, the Caribbean, the Mississippi heavy core, during the past three or four Valley, and selected parts of the Rocky decades. Nevertheless we have but scanty Mountains. knowledge of the structure of the granitic One purpose of taking initiative in this and basaltic layers which comprise in gen- direction, perhaps of greater importance eral the upper 50 km of the crust. Evi- than the expected observations themselves, dence from gravity measurements shows is to interest a wider group of young that great blocks of the crust are essentially students in scientific geophysics, and to supported by "floating" at about the 100- bring fresh curiosity and imagination to km level, but above this level our knowl- the problems of everyday geophysics. Ter- edge of their rigidity and strength, and restrial magnetism is only one of these even their density distribution, is largely puzzles. New ideas and facts about the hypothetical. Some mountains appear to earth are of great human significance, and have "roots," and others not, and we are touch on man's philosophical relations in still uncertain regarding the processes giv- much the same way as astronomy. ing rise to mountain ranges, which have A third problem which has been given arisen many times in geologic history and only preliminary consideration involves are still evolving. the determination of the conductivity of Records of near-by earthquakes have the earth in a single bold, large-scale been the chief source of data concerning measurement of the deep conductivity. the granitic and basaltic layers which This has been considered in co-operation underlie the thin sedimentary rocks. In with Professor Slichter, of the University recent years a few observations have been of Wisconsin, and the Office of Naval Re- made on the earth waves produced by ex- search. Its aim is to estimate the con- plosions, and the large surplus of TNT ductivity and thereby the temperature of remaining in the hands of the government the deeper rocks o£ the crust, since the after the recent war may provide an op- conductivity is highly dependent upon the portunity to explore these layers by con- temperature. The method involves the use trolled experiments. A request was made o£ a number of mine-sweep generators to the United States Navy by the Institu- which can be borrowed from the Navy, tion for help in a scries of measurements together with a great amount of heavy of this kind to be sponsored by the Geo- copper cable, forming a loop through physical Laboratory and this Department which heavy pulses of current can be with a group of university investigators, passed. The magnetic field produced by DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM this loop will depend upon the conductiv- now in view. It has seemed profitable, ity and the susceptibility of the underlying therefore, to reorient the upper-atmosphere rocks. It is hoped that significant results program toward examination of special can be obtained down to a depth of 15 to geophysical problems, with expectation 20 km, but the experiment will be both that such research would form a stimulus costly and difficult in so far as the experi- to further evolution of the world-wide mental techniques are concerned. The program. necessary generators and cables have al- The basic geophysical questions con- ready been set aside by the Navy. cerning the outer atmosphere are: (1) What are the elementary particles of which the outer atmosphere is composed, and STUDIES OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE how do these vary with time? This ques- Research in geophysics of the upper at- tion relates not only to its chemistry and mosphere is of continuing interest to the the proportions of chemical elements at Department. Following the suggestion of the several heights, but also to products of early investigators that the transient photochemical reactions of dissociation changes of geomagnetism were the result from molecular to atomic states, and the of the flow of electrical currents in the at- ionization products of ultraviolet light and mosphere, it was natural that the Depart- energetic corpuscles. (2) What is the ment should turn to direct experiment to density, pressure, and temperature of the examine and expand these hypotheses. atmospheric envelope and of its constitu- The evolution of the Department's pro- ents at the several heights to its outer gram of upper-atmospheric research as our limits? (3) What are the regular and ir- knowledge of the atmosphere has ex- regular movements and flows of the at- panded is worthy of emphasis. Commenc- mospheric gas? (4) What external agen- ing with the original pulse-echo experi- cies, either hard or soft electromagnetic or ments in 1925, which demonstrated the corpuscular radiations, influence the struc- existence of ionized regions of the atmos- ture and constitution of the atmosphere? phere and measured their heights, the De- (5) What can be inferred of the nature partment's research turned to the develop- of these external agents from a knowledge ment of this technique and application of of atmospheric fluctuations, especially it in automatic recording systems and where evidence of these agents cannot methods. These methods produced curves otherwise be observed from the earth's from which the distribution of ionization surface? could be directly deduced, and provided The present world-wide program of continuous information on ion distribution automatic recording and observation in- through the atmosphere. sures significant progress toward solution These methods have now been generally of some o£ these general problems in the adopted by observatories everywhere over foreseeable future. Nevertheless, the tech- the earth. As the mass of data has ac- niques at hand do not provide enough cumulated, the general structure and many information to answer adequately the ques- of the principal phenomena of the outer tions proposed above. The Department is atmosphere have become evident. With therefore undertaking the development of the wide use of these techniques especially promising new methods for attacking under the impetus of World War II, the these problems, with the expectation of earlier objectives of the Department are substantially advancing the state of our 66 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON knowledge. Four general modes of attack 200 Mc/sec was obtained May 28, 1947, seem feasible and profitable for an organi- using some modified components from war zation of our size: (i) the adaptation of surplus radar sets. Signals dropped to a radio methods to entirely new kinds of low level when the directional antenna was measurement; (2) spot measurement using pointed away from the sun. On a radio rocket techniques in co-operation with receiver the solar "noise" sounds very other agencies; (3) aircraft measurements much like the internal set noise heard of atmospheric electricity at the limits of when the receiver is operating at high aircraft altitudes; (4) analytical deduc- sensitivity. This is known to fluctuate with tions based on the expanded experimental varying solar activity and to depend to evidence. These approaches are comple- some extent on the recording frequency. mentary: the rocket measurements make The objective of the research program is possible checks and absolute values not to obtain precise measurements of solar easily obtained by the radio methods, noise intensities and other characteristics whereas radio methods permit measure- at frequencies of 200 Mc/sec and lower. ment of time changes not possible with Results of the program are expected to rockets. By use of these approaches, to- contribute to basic knowledge of solar ac- gether with the more general mass of data tivity, the gaseous solar envelope, and the becoming available, it seems reasonable to fundamental problem of existence of a expect that a further real advance can be solar magnetic field—a matter which is made. open to speculation. Progress is being The work of the Department in this field made in design and assembly of instru- during the past year has been primarily ments for an attack on this problem. concerned with the reorientation of its pro- Measurement of solar noise may also be gram toward ^uch special experiments. A expected to aid in understanding of the substantial change in its physical plant mechanism responsible for some sudden has been involved, with transfer of its field and striking increases in cosmic-ray in- facilities at Washington from the Ken- tensity. These appear to be due to ac- sington Experimental Station to the new celeration of charged particles by some Derwood Experimental Laboratory and process on the sun during violent solar with the physical development of that flares. The intense cosmic-ray increase of laboratory. The end of the year has seen July 25, 1946 coincided with a great in- the Derwood Experimental Laboratory crease in solar noise. In addition to pro- completed to the point where effective ex- viding further evidence on the correlation perimental work can be commenced; in between the two phenomena, the polariza- fact, much has been done in a preliminary tion of the noise measurements may be use- way as the several parts of the laboratory ful for determining the rate of change of were made available. magnetic flux near the sunspot. This Staff discussions were fruitful in out- would indicate whether the consequent lining a general field of interest and in electromotive force could supply the energy formulating certain specific experimental for the cosmic-ray increases. projects. The following projects have been Thunderstorm project. This program is initiated during the report period. directed toward an answer to the funda- Radiojrequency noise from the sun. mental questions, Why does the earth have Confirmation of the arrival of radio noise a negative charge, and how is it main- signals from the son on a frequency of tained? Measurements of atmospheric DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 67 conductivity and potential gradient made obtained with this unique experimental during airplane flights above representa- tool should make new data available as a tive thunderclouds may prove or disprove basis for the interpretation and under- the theory that electrical current flow up- standing of many fundamental physical ward to the ionosphere from the many processes in the earth's outer atmosphere. thunderstorms scattered over the earth's One of the main questions of current in- surface is sufficient to maintain the earth's terest is whether part of the ionization negative charge. which causes a radio fade-out within a Co-operation of the United States Army few minutes after the observation of a Air Weather Service is assured, and close solar flare is due to particles from the sun liaison is maintained with the Thunder- traveling at roughly the speed of light. storm Advisory Committee. Arrangements This is of special interest in connection are made for installing the instruments in with the cosmic-ray increases described airplanes capable of flying over thunder- elsewhere in this report. clouds and for conducting experimental Upper-air roc\et experiments. New op- flights during the late summer of 1947, portunities for direct measurements in the using headquarters of the Thunderstorm region 100 km or more above the earth Advisory Committee, Wilmington, Ohio, have been opened by the experimental fir- as an operating base. ing of the V-2 and other rockets by the The instruments have been completed armed services of the United States. Mem- and preparations are made for construction bers of the Department's staff had close of additional units as required. wartime connections with this work, and Fine structure of ionosphere. The pano- have participated in the evolution of these ramic recorder which was used to make experiments and the associated scientific the first motion pictures of ionospheric programs. One experiment which is closely changes was loaned to the Central Radio related to our interests concerns the direct Propagation Laboratory, National Bureau observation of the large electrical currents of Standards, in January 1947. A fire at which circulate in the upper atmosphere the Sterling Field Station had damaged and cause magnetic variations at the sur- the Laboratory's ionospheric recording ap- face of the earth. Attention has been given paratus and left it temporarily without to preliminary designs for apparatus to adequate means of maintaining the con- record the magnetic changes expected tinuity of ionospheric data for the Wash- when a rocket passes through and above a ington area. The DTM apparatus was re- current sheet in the ionized regions. This turned in June 1947 to our Derwood would be of great interest in locating the Experimental Laboratory, where it is now level of the currents causing diurnal vari- being installed. ation, which latter changes greatly with Preparations are made for completing location, and would be of very special in- the developmental work on this apparatus terest if a rocket could be fired during a and for obtaining a representative series of magnetic storm. Further development of high-speed motion picture recordings of this project, in co-operation with the Navy ionospheric disturbances such as the radio and the Applied Physics Laboratory of fade-out, sporadic E, magnetic storm ef- Johns Hopkins University, is anticipated fects, and similar phenomena. The de- during the coming year. Other closely tailed information on rapid changes and related projects may be undertaken later fluctuations of the ionosphere which is in 1947 with the availability of additional 68 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON personnel and greatly improved laboratory propriate. Publications are listed in the facilities. These include (i) measurement bibliography. of the earth's magnetic field in the iono- sphere by radio methods, and (2) ex- COSMIC-RAY RESEARCH perimental measurements of the lower ionosphere. These experiments may be Probably the most valuable observations expected to help fill in existing gaps in the resulting from some ten years of continu- composite picture of our knowledge of the ous registration of cosmic-ray intensity at upper atmosphere. four or five stations, heretofore sponsored In general the over-all research plan is by the Institution's Committee on Coordi- to undertake specific experimental investi- nation of Cosmic-Ray Investigations, are gations on lines which are not being fol- of three sudden increases in cosmic-ray in- lowed by other agencies or which will tensity. Increases similar to those for supplement and extend work under way Cheltenham, Maryland, were observed at in other organizations. Planning is left Godhavn, Greenland, and at Christchurch, sufficiently flexible to permit the active New Zealand. All three increases began prosecution of fruitful developments such almost simultaneously with unusually long as may occur during the execution of a and intense radio fade-outs and solar flares research program and often lead to re- or chromospheric eruptions. The cosmic- sults exceeding in importance the original ray increases were similar and simultane- objectives. ous on the day and night side of the earth. A large percentage of the activities of Magnetograms from several magnetic ob- the Upper Atmospheric Section during the servatories indicate that the increase in report year has been devoted to reconver- cosmic-ray intensity cannot be ascribed to sion—terminating the wartime (and pre- changes in the earth's magnetic field due war) activities and starting on a new pro- to magnetic storms. Though the increases gram. War contracts with their final in cosmic-ray intensity might be ascribed reports were concluded late in 1946. The to changes in the sun's general magnetic publication program of the Department field, which might permit more cosmic rays has involved preparation of texts for several from outer space to reach the earth, such volumes of data, as detailed in another a mechanism should be equally effective section of this report. whether the solar flare occurred on the Close liaison and active participation front or back side of the sun, yet only have been maintained with organizations these three have been observed, all as- having common interests, such as the Joint sociated with flares toward the earth. Cos- Research and Development Board, Central mic rays are regularly observed to decrease Radio Propagation Laboratory, Institute of during magnetic storms. Radio Engineers, Applied Physics Labora- The implications of this discovery of tory, National Geographic Society, and abnormal increases in world-wide cosmic- other private or governmental organiza- ray intensities during a few great isolated tions. Formal and informal conferences solar eruptions are, of course, outstanding with domestic and foreign investigators in importance. The observation suggests have been stimulating and beneficial. The that a changing magnetic field associated Department has been represented at meet- with a sunspot or flare may act as a mag- ings of the principal technical societies, and netic accelerator giving cosmic-ray energies papers have been presented whenever ap- to charged particles. Similar processes on DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 69 or near many stars might then account for tion, a detailed study has been made to all cosmic rays. The question naturally determine requirements for coincidence arises: Are there cosmic-ray increases dur- counters and large ionization chambers with sufficient sensitivity and low statistical fluctuation to show the fine structure of cosmic-ray activity without ambiguities arising from the production of "bursts" due to nuclear processes pro- duced by cosmic rays when they strike our atmosphere or materials near the record- \RADtO FADEOUT ing instruments. Assembly I BEGAN 04*7 GMT SUDDEN of a very large cosmic-ray COMMENCEMEN MAGNETIC STORM ionization chamber for this AT 07h5 GMT 1 purpose is progressing. In order to provide ma- terial for statistical investi- gations of cosmic-ray varia- tions through one sunspot cycle, much of the effort during the report year has been devoted to the reduc- tion of data from continuous records. Since the work was interrupted by war research, some five or six years of records have accumulated from four stations. The re- duction of all the original records is now complete at least through 1945, in- cluding tabulated bihourly FIG. 2. Three striking increases in cosmic-ray intensity ob- means of cosmic-ray in- served shortly after commencement of violent solar flares and tensity corrected for baro- radio fade-outs. The origin of cosmic rays is a great puzzle, but metric pressure for Huan- this discovery indicates that some particles may be accelerated to cayo from June 1936 through cosmic-ray energies by great disturbances at or near the surface December 1945. Except for of the sun. If this is true, the same thing may occur on myriads of other stars. completion of the typing, the Huancayo data are ready ing lesser solar flares, perhaps too slight for publication together with summaries to be observed because of limitations of of the data from Cheltenham, Maryland, existing recording instruments ? As a step Christchurch, New Zealand, and Godhavn, toward obtaining an answer to this ques- Greenland. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
ANALYSIS descriptions of the geomagnetic field. This result is contrary to Schrodinger's findings Extensive new descriptions of the earth's based on Schmidt's analysis for 1885. main field and its secular change, 1905- The new analysis gave the co-ordinates 1945, mainly in more accurate mapped for 1945.0 of the north geomagnetic pole form, were unsuccessfully compared with as 78?6 N and 289 ?9 E, and for the south those of other geophysical phenomena geomagnetic pole as 78? 6 S and 109? 9 E; manifested in the crust. There were, how- these results differ from those of Bauer ever, aspects of these comparisons that for 1922 by only o?i in latitude and I?I in seem worthy of further examination. For longitude. example, there seems to be some correla- Calculations of the main field and its tion of secular change with general features secular change were completed for various of the stress distributions within the earth's levels within and beyond the earth's at- crust, deduced by Vening-Meinesz in his mosphere, providing useful data for studies attempt to explain faulting and topog- of electrical phenomena of the upper at- raphy of the earth's surface, again in mosphere. Vertical gradients of the main turn related to other crustal phenomena. field and its secular change were calculated Examination of this possibility is being for the earth's surface, but attempts to continued. correlate these with other geophysical A spherical harmonic analysis of the phenomena were unsuccessful. earth's main field for 1945.0 was begun Current functions which could produce and completed during the present report the main field and secular change cal- year, analogous to that carried out previ- culated for flow of currents on a thin ously for secular change. This analysis of spherical shell at depth 3000 km were carefully prepared magnetic charts in- found to be highly complex. This renders dicated that the fraction of the dipole it unlikely that a major part of the main component of the main field of external field or secular change could originate be- origin was less than 1 per cent of the ob- low the surface of the earth's central core, served surface field, and thus considerably though it might be admissible to postulate less than indicated by previous analyses. flow of current very near the surface of Examination, of the analyses of secular this core, as suggested recently by Elsasser. change at four epochs a decade apart in- H. W. Babcock, of Mount Wilson Ob- dicated a rather steady decrease of about servatory, has recently made the epoch- 20 gammas per annum in the dipole com- making discovery that various rapidly ponent, though the most recent decrease, rotating distant stars have intense mag- that for epoch 1942.5, is considerably less, netic fields. This result is of the highest and may indicate that the dipole com- interest in relation to the origin of the ponent of the main field is now diminish- earth's main field, and immediately fo- ing at a rate less rapid than during the cuses attention on electric-current hypoth- previous century. eses such as that of Elsasser. A theo- An external and nonpotential part of retical investigation is accordingly being the main field, and variation of the vertical directed toward discovering the effect of component of curl of field, postulated by rotation of a body upon internal fluid the Schrodinger unitary field theory could motions which could generate the geo- not be detected from analysis and compari- magnetic field, as well as those of astro- soas with the new and more accurate nomical bodies. Not unrelated to this DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM problem is our current analytical attempt field and its secular change, 1905-1945, pre- to check by actual calculation the possi- pared by Vestine and coworkers, was pub- bility that the increase in cosmic rays dur- lished. This volume summarizes in more ing solar flares may be ascribed to changes accurate mapped form the principal de- in the solar magnetic field. scriptive results and statistics of the ex- The unexplained average augmentation tensive magnetic surveys carried out on in earth currents during January, as com- land and sea by the Department and its pared with December and February, found collaborators. A forthcoming volume, The by Rooney for Tucson has likewise been geomagnetic field, its description and found in 12-year means for the solar daily analysis, summarizes new and extensive magnetic variation at stations throughout results of magnetic observatories through- the western hemisphere, but not in the out the world, and includes results of de- eastern hemisphere. tailed analysis of the main field and its One of the volumes based on the ob- secular change and studies of geomagnetic servatory and survey program, entitled fluctuations. Description of the earth's main magnetic
LABORATORY PHYSICS AND BIOPHYSICS
FERROMAGNETIC STRUCTURE been supposed, but depend in a very One of the remaining puzzles in the be- specific way on the dimensions, crystal havior of ferromagnetic materials is the structure, and other anisotropic energies of exact size of the smallest volume of ferro- the material. This made reasonable the magnetic material which has an intrinsic wide range of apparent domain sizes ob- saturation. It has been understood for a served by various methods, which gave long time that such small saturated vol- domain sizes with linear dimensions rang- 5 umes or "domains" were necessary to ex- ing from 5 X 10" cm, indicated by the plain magnetization curves. It was the scattering of polarized neutrons in iron, to 3 partial understanding of the effect of such about 10" cm, from measurements of microscopic volumes on microscopic be- Barkhausen effect and powder patterns. havior that led to the development of Kittel's theory predicted that a very thin 5 such widely differing magnetic materials film io~ cm thick or less would be a as Permalloy and Alnico 5. Yet much of single domain infinite in extent in the our knowledge concerning the character other two directions. of domains has remained of empirical and In co-operation with the Naval Ord- engineering nature. nance Laboratory, preliminary measure- In December 194^ Dr. Charles Kittel, ments were made on very thin films of of the Research Laboratory of Electronics iron, the Naval Ordnance Laboratory mak- at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- ing the thin films and the Department nology, proposed a theory for the struc- making the necessary magnetic measure- ture of ferromagnetic domains which was ments, which were possible with the ex- susceptible of experimental verification for tremely sensitive apparatus used to meas- very thin films. This theory was important ure the magnetization of clays. It was because it gave quantitative reasons for found that such very thin films were in expecting that the size and geometry of fact single domains saturated at about domains are not invariant, as had usually 16,000 gauss, and that this value of satura- CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON tion was independent of film thickness. bution measurements were undertaken on Although no exact magnetization curve the two proton groups occurring in the has yet been obtained because of the diffi- disintegration of oxygen by deuterons. culties encountered in dealing with such This is an interesting reaction for study, 16 minute amounts of material, the evidence since O (oxygen of mass 17) is supposed indicates that such films have a rectangular to have a closed-shell arrangement of magnetization curve in which the film neutrons and protons; an addition of a 17 actually always remains saturated, but in neutron to form O would then start a which the direction of magnetization can new shell. Also, both an excited energy be rotated fairly easily through 3600. In level, 850 kilo volts above the ground level, 17 other words, the film can be magnetized and the ground energy level of O are in any direction in its plane, but it cannot involved. With the emission of the shorter- 17 be demagnetized in the way that is possible range protons O is left in the excited for a normal magnetic material. The re- energy level, and with the emission of the sults of this investigation are still pre- long-range group it is left in its normal liminary, but there appears to be little ground level. The results with deuterons doubt of the behavior described above. of bombarding energies up to 1.15 million Thus, Kittel's calculations, together with volts indicated that the long-range proton this experimental verification, provide a group had a greater yield in the forward considerable quantitative advance in the direction with respect to the incident beam, understanding of the behavior of ferro- whereas the short-range group had a magnetism. greater yield in the backward direction. In the spring of 1947 the large pressure electrostatic generator was again put into NUCLEAR PHYSICS operation. With this, protons and deu- The two electrostatic generators of the terons up to 3.2 million volts were made Department have been used during the available, and the above series of measure- past year primarily for measurements on ments were extended to 3.2 million volts. the angular distribution of protons and It was found that the angular distributions alpha particles emitted in the disintegra- varied considerably with energy above 1.5 tion of several of the lighter elements. One million volts. A marked change occurred may hope to learn something of the nature in the energy region around 1.8 million of the nuclear-energy levels involved in a volts, where a competing reaction sets in, disintegration from a study of the angular in which neutrons are emitted. Dr. David distribution of the emitted particles, if a Inglis, of Johns Hopkins University, who situation cao, be found where the energy has assisted with these experiments, has levels are not too high above the ground been working on the theoretical analysis level of the nucleus. This is because the of the oxygen data. How far present nu- energy-level density increases with increas- clear theory can go in explaining the rather ing excitation energy, hence the effect of complex changes which occur in this re- neighboring levels becomes important. action is still uncertain. The first postwar effort was put into The angular distribution of the alpha getting the one-million-volt generator back particles emitted in the reaction of protons into operation. A voltage-stabilizing sys- bombarding lithium of mass 7 has been tem was Installed to Improve the per- studied. This reaction had been investi- formance of the machine. Angular distri- gated with proton energies up to 14 mil- DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 73 lion volts by several other research groups, before a good biophysical approach can be who found the angular distribution to made. The accuracy of measurement and obey a rather simple law with the yield of the micro-quantities capable of use both alpha particles equal to i + A(E)cos2Q, lead to new forms of instrumentation and where 0 is the angle the alpha particle permit a deeper probing of the life proc- makes with the incident beam of protons esses than was possible heretofore. The (in the center of mass co-ordinate system) selection of the problems and of the par- and the coefficient A(E) is a function of ticular animals or plants to be used has to energy of the bombarding protons. A(E) be based on a wide knowledge of general was found to reach a maximum at about i biology. Living processes up to now have million volts. We have extended these not attracted the attention of men trained measurements to 3 million volts and have in the physical sciences to any large degree. found that above 1 million volts an addi- Provision was made for an approach to tional term B(E)cos4Q is needed to fit the such studies just before the war by the data. Also the value of A(E) continues construction of the cyclotron at the Depart- to decrease with increasing E. ment of Terrestrial Magnetism. With this Preliminary observations with deuterons tool it is possible to produce the radio- bombarding lithium of mass 6 disintegrat- active materials necessary for such investi- ing to two alpha particles give a distribu- gations. During the war the cyclotron was tion above 0.75 million volts also of the intensively used for a series of medical ex- form i+A(E)cos2Q. Whether A(E) periments and tests with heavy metal again has a maximum value has not yet tracers carried out in collaboration with the been determined. Navy. The knowledge and experience A series of interesting observations was gained in nuclear physics work at the made during the year on the splitting of Department can be well utilized in the the deuteron when it encounters a target. field of biophysics. The fundamental part A beam of 15 MEV deuterons from the played in the life process by light, both in cyclotron gives rise to a marked emission plant and in animal, is another phase of of high-speed neutrons in the forward biophysics which has reached the stage of direction when it strikes a target of copper, experimentation that calls for techniques and this effect is enhanced with a target of a physical nature. With these facts in of aluminum. With carbon, on the other mind, a modest biophysical program has hand, the neutrons are still emitted in the been started with the co-operation of direction of their original velocity as biologists in other institutions. The radio- deuterons, but energy loss is evident. active tracer technique has been the basis of the first series of experiments directed toward problems of general interest in BIOPHYSICS physiology. The cyclotron has also been With the production of isotopes, both extensively used for the production of stable and radioactive, biology and general radioactive isotope samples, contributed to physiology have a new approach to many many biological and medical groups in the of their unsolved problems. The technique United States and in half a dozen foreign and the philosophy implied by these new countries. physical tools necessitate a knowledge of Passage of minerals from mother to and respect for two sets of training-—that embryo. In co-operation with the Depart- of the physicist and that of the biologist— ment of Embryology of the Carnegie Insti- 74 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON tution and with the Johns Hopkins Hos- period of time the aqueous humor and the pital, radioactive sodium (Na24) was fol- crystalline lens were removed. These lowed across the placental membrane to studies have established that the steady- the embryo from the ioth week of preg- state ratio of plasma sodium to aqueous- nancy to term. The rate o£ placental humor sodium is 0.920 in the guinea pig. transfer at various times m normal preg- Because of the difficulties of studying the nancies has been followed by this tech- metabolism of the eye and its various parts, nique, and it has been shown that the there has been, up to the present, very permeability of these tissues increases about little research in the physiology of this 70 times during the period o£ gestation. organ. The tracer technique permits a new Several modifications due to disease were approach to this topic. also followed. The fetus at the 12th week Permeability and rate of exchange of receives 160 times as much sodium as the sodium in the ovarian eggs of the frog. growing tissues require, and by the 40th The single-cell nature of the egg and its week it is receiving 1100 times as much as huge potentialities of development into a is required. complete animal have caused it to be the The origin of iron in the fetus. Previ- center of much investigation. Little is ously two views have been developed of known of its complex relations with its the origin of fetal iron: (1) that it comes external environment, and still less as to from the hemoglobin of the maternal red its internal specialization. In this study we cells which are destroyed by the placenta; have examined closely the permeability (2) that it is derived from the iron in the and the rates of diffusion in a specific cell, plasma which is put there from the iron the ovarian egg in both the living and the stores of the liver of the mother. By tag- dead condition. Quantitative differences ging red cells with radioactive iron in an in the diffusion of sodium into live and animal and then transfusing these red dead eggs have been studied. When dead cells into the pregnant animal, the radio- eggs are used, all the sodium is exchanged; active iron can be followed into the fetus. that is, the percentage of tracer sodium in In a similar manner the plasma iron can the eggs after standing in Ringer solution be tagged in an animal and this material containing these atoms is the same as the transfused into a pregnant animal. These sodium content of the solution. Half of studies are now under way and new meth- this exchange occurs in about 5 minutes. ods of iron determination have been de- Calculations for diffusion into a sphere the veloped. In a similar manner the perme- size of the egg show that the time of half ability of the placental membranes to exchange should be about 5 minutes. The chlorides is under study. dead egg acts like a sphere of Ringer solu- The rale of exchange of minerals in the tion, and the egg membrane forms prac- aqueous humor and lens of the eye. In tically no barrier. co-operation with the Department of Em- This behavior must be contrasted with bryology of the Institution at Baltimore, the conditions found in the living egg. At the rate of exchange of radioactive sodium the end of 4 hours only 10 per cent of the (Na24) between the plasma and aqueous sodium in the egg has exchanged, and humor of the eye and that between the nearly all this exchange occurs in the first aqueous humor and the crystalline lens half-hour. Evidence from radio-autographs were studied* The radioactive sodium, was shows that the Na24 is distributed through- injected intravenously, and after a definite out the whole egg as early as 30 minutes PLATE 3
Photographic imprint made by radioactive sodium diffusing into nucleus of frog's egg. Sodium is shown to be admitted or excluded by change in calcium concen- tration surrounding egg. This print is made from thin frozen egg after exposure of 6 minutes to solution containing radioactive sodium. DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 75 after the start of the exposure. Thus only termine in which cells antibodies are 10 per cent of the sodium in a live egg is formed. When a foreign protein is intro- freely exchangeable, and half of this is duced parenterally into an animal, gamma exchanged in about 15 minutes. This globulins are produced after a variable means that the outer membranes do not period of time which react specifically with greatly slow down diffusion of sodium the antigenic protein. Reactions then re- into the egg. It was demonstrated that the sult in precipitation, agglutination, detoxi- diffusion of Na24 into the eggs is essen- fication, etc., of the antigenic protein. tially a reversible process for short-time ex- The early work in this field seemed to posures, but exposures up to 19 hours gave indicate that the cells which produced the evidence of more exchange after some antibodies were the cells of the reticulo- hours. This may not be reversible. endothelial system. More recently, anti- Calcium excess or deficiency in the bodies have been shown to be present in ambient Ringer solution does not affect high concentration in lymphocytes. At the initial rate or amount of exchange of the National Institute of Health, Habel Na24. After several hours a difference be- and Endicott have studied the problem comes apparent: a deficiency of calcium with rabies virus in mice and have shown renders more of the sodium in the egg ex- that mice given 400 r whole-body X-radi- changeable, a fact which may possibly ation lose their ability to become immune indicate that some membranes belonging to rabies for a period of time which cor- to an inner structure of the cell have be- responds to the time required for the come more permeable. lymphoid tissue to regenerate. During this Radio-autographs of single egg cells. time there is no demonstrable damage to Radio-autographs of egg cells showed defi- the reticuloendothelial cells. nite rates of diffusion and localization of In co-operation with Dr. Endicott and Na24. The striking feature was that Na24 his group we have established the tech- was concentrated in the nucleus. An niques necessary for antigen-antibody estimate of the density of blackening of studies using tagged antigens produced the film shows that the nucleus contained in vivo with the choice of proper animals about twice as much Na24 per unit volume and controls as well as the development as the cytoplasm. Hence the nuclear mem- of chemical and biological procedures. brane is readily permeable to sodium, and Two experiments have been carried out the amount of sodium available for ex- with rather striking results. change is relatively greater in the nucleus Studies in Guatemala. The objects of than in cytoplasm. Distribution of sodium this study in collaboration with the Pan throughout the remainder of the egg ap- American Sanitary Bureau and the United peared to be relatively uniform, though States Public Health Service were as fol- our technique was not sufficiently refined lows: (a) to determine to what extent to detect local variations. The diffusion antimony administered as tartar emetic rate of the mobile sodium in the egg is localizes in the nodules and adult filarids of close to that in water. The diffusion of onchocercosis, using tartar emetic contain- sodium into the nucleus is influenced by ing radioactive antimony; (b) to determine excess or deficiency of calcium, in the the effect of BAL on the excretion of a surrounding Ringer solution. single dose of antimony in this form; (c) The physiology of the blood-forming to accumulate further data on the distribu- tissues. The aim of this project is to de- tion in the human body and excretion of CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 76 antimony administered in this form, with period the cyclotron was in very active use especial reference to the blood and urine. for both the laboratory physics and the As a result of these studies it was found biophysics program. Work on a number that BAL did not affect the elimination of of projects was facilitated when an outside the antimony compounds when used under beam was obtained. The sale of radio- our special dosing schedule. The adult active isotopes by the Atomic Energy filarids in this study showed very high Commission has had a double effect on specific uptake of the antimony, and the requests for cyclotron-produced materials. nodule containing the filarids also showed Some of the demand for the isotopes which some concentration of the antimony over can be produced by the "pile" has been the surrounding subcutaneous tissues used relieved, but additional interest has been as a control medium. stimulated in tracer studies. It appears that Pharmacology of heavy metals with spe- the nuclear reactor cannot produce in high cific application to tropical diseases. Thus specific concentrations such isotopes as Be7, far we have shown that regardless of the C11, F18, Na22, Mn53, Co57, Cu64, Zn65, As73. location of the adult filarid (thoracic cav- Hence the cyclotron is assured of continued ity, heart, or subcutaneous tissues), there usefulness in preparing tracer substances. has been a specific uptake of antimony and Shipments of radioactive material pro- arsenic by the adult parasite. These results duced by our cyclotron were made to have been found in man, dog, hamster, and numerous research groups in the United cotton rat. Concentration of these ele- States and to New Zealand, Sweden, Den- ments has also been found in the thyroid, mark, France, Australia, South Africa, parathyroid, and liver. After single or Great Britain, and Canada. multiple administration of these elements Long-range biophysics program. To date the concentration in the blood has always biophysics has little recognized standing as been low. In fact, 24 hours after dosage a separate scientific discipline. Neverthe- the blood level is usually the lowest con- less, there is a widespread conviction that centration found in the entire body. The the processes in living matter involve im- white rat, however, has reacted anomal- portant physical phenomena. How can ously to trivalent compounds of antimony physics best make its contributions to and arsenic, the blood level 24 hours after answering crucial questions concerning dosage being 100 times greater than that living matter? To date this question has found in any other animal Studies are under way now to determine the nature not been answered. The efforts of our of this difference. group of several physicists interested in biological problems will be directed during An improved method of tracer microg- raphy. Conventional methods of radio- the next several years toward the formula- autograph technique are limited by lack tion of questions in this field which can of resolution associated with film grain be regarded as fundamental to living sys- size. In collaboration with L. Jvfarton, of tems and yet can be made accessible to the National Bureau of Standards, a start attack and observation in terms of physical has been made toward removing this limi- processes. Most of the present specific prob- tation. The method employed uses an lems lie squarely across the three fields of electron optical lens system to obtain a physics, chemistry, and biology. Close col- magnified image of the radioactive source. laboration with certain workers in each Cyclotron operation. During the report field is necessary and planned. DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 77 OPERATIONS AND STAFF
CO-OPERATIVE WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT for use in researches pertaining to biology and medicine. In accordance with its general practice Much use has been made of data ob- of advancing projects through collabora- tained at our observatories in Huancayo tion with other individuals and organiza- and Watheroo, in connection with geo- tions, the Department has contributed to physical and ionospheric studies. Dr. D. F. many co-operative investigations. Martyn, of Commonwealth Observatory, In the field of geophysics the Depart- Mount Stromlo, Canberra, Australia, has ment collaborated with the Air Weather used Huancayo data exclusively in the Service in a project designed to ascertain preparation of an article on "Lunar tidal whether thunderstorms supply negative variations in the F-region near the mag- electricity to the earth at a rate which netic equator," and Dr. O. Burkard, Insti- would account for the electric field ob- tut fur Meteorologie und Geophysik, Uni- served in all typical fair-weather areas. versity of Graz, requested ionospheric data Volcanological investigations were carried from Huancayo for use in his investiga- out at Umnak Bay in co-operation with the tions of the question regarding the nature United States Geological Survey. of measured radiation. In order to assist in supplying necessary A research and development task-order magnetic data at sea, of which the world's contract was negotiated with the Office of hydrographic offices stand in need, the De- Naval Research on January 1, 1947? for partment prepared and forwarded detailed cooperative work with the Navy on the plans of the Carnegie to the USSR for use deeper layers of the earth's crust by ob- in planning a proposed nonmagnetic vessel. servations on seismic waves produced by Three sets of cosmic-ray plates were sent artificial explosions. to Peru in February 1947 for exposure at different altitudes to test the variation of THEORETICAL PHYSICS CONFERENCE frequency of cosmic-ray bursts with alti- tude. This experiment was undertaken The Ninth Washington Conference on in co-operation with the University of Theoretical Physics was held in Washing- Virginia. ton, D. C, October 31 to November 2, Co-operative plans were made for work 1946, under the joint auspices of the with Professor Amaldi, of the University George Washington University and the of Rome, who visited the Department for Carnegie Institution of Washington. The a period of two and a half weeks for con- subject of discussion was "The Physics of centrated technical discussion. Living Matter," and a group of investi- In the field of biophysics, we have co- gators in biology and in theoretical physics operated in a wide variety of ways. A joined in a series of informal meetings for month was spent by one of our investi- discussion of the border line between biol- gators in Guatemala in connection with ogy and physics. This conference is a con- filariasis studies in co-operation with the tinuation of annual meetings which were Pan American Sanitary Bureau and the interrupted by the war. It was attended United States Public Health Service. by representatives of twenty-four universi- Radioactive materials have been supplied ties, research organizations, and govern- to many institutions throughout the world ment bureaus. The principal purpose of CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 78 the conference was to interest and instruct The Department continued its support the theoretical physicists with regard to a of the Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism group of special problems on the frontier and Atmospheric Electricity under the edi- of biology. torship of Dr. John A. Fleming, retired Director of the Department. ADMINISTRATION AND OPERATION The Department was fortunate in hav- ing a number of outstanding guest in- The main laboratory of the Department vestigators attached to the staff for varying was repainted during the year, and new periods. These are named in the appended ceilings were installed in about half the list, which shows also the regular mem- rooms. Furthermore, as a symbol of the bers of the staff, most of whom were em- shift of emphasis toward new problems ployed for the entire report year. and activities, and to insure orderly han- The American Geophysical Union, dling of the older records and research which occupied office space in our main material, each member of the staff was laboratory for a number of years, moved shifted to a new room or laboratory early during the winter to more desirable quar- in the year to start on his new projects, and ters at the Administration Building of all valuable materials connected with past the Carnegie Institution, 1530 P Street, activities were transferred to a special Northwest. archives space in the attic. The Standardizing Magnetic Observa- LECTURES GIVEN BY NONMEMBERS OF tory was reroofed, and the interior was DEPARTMENT changed to make it more suitable for November 1946, two lectures were given laboratory investigations. by E. Amaldi, and one by Marcel Schein The remaining work on all war con- on cosmic rays. tracts still in effect on July i, 1946, con- April 2, 1947, "Terrestrial magnetism sisting largely of final reports and prepara- and the earth's core," by Walter M. El- tion of accounts, was terminated early in sasser. the report year except for one contract April 7, 1947, "Wartime development of with the Bureau of Ordnance, Navy De- physics in Holland," by H. B. G. Casimir. partment, which is delayed only for a April 9, 1947, "Physical basis of the final bill for publication of a completed domain theory of ferromagnetism (with volume of maps and data. Final payments application to the magnetic properties of have been received except for two war thin films and small particles)," by Charles contracts. Kittel. The construction of the main building May 9,1947, "Investigation of cosmic rays of the Dcrwood Experimental Laboratory by means of rockets," by Marcel Schein. was resumed in April and was practically May 19, 1947, "The origin of the uni- complete at the end of the report year. verse," by E. Teller.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ABILSON, P. H, Sec GAMOW, G. Inst. Wash. Year Book No. 45, pp. 91-95 ADAMS, W. S., J, A. FLEMING, and F. E. WRIGHT. (1946). Progress-report of Committee on Coordina- BARTTER, F. C.» D. B. COWXB, H. MOST, A. T. tion of Cosmic-Ray Investigations for the NESSJ and S. E. FOIBUSH. The fate of radio- period July 1945 to June 1946, Carnegie active tartar emetic administered to human DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 79 subjects. I. Blood concentration and excre- List of recent publications. Terr. Mag., tion following single and multiple intra- vol. 51, pp. 463-472, 583-589 (1946); vol. venous injections. Amer. Jour. Tropical 52, pp. 98-104, 296-303 (1947). Med., vol. 27, pp. 403-416 (1947). HELLMAN, L. M. See FLEXNER, L. B. BEAGLEY, J. W. Principal magnetic storms, Apia JOHNSON, E. A. Naval Ordnance Laboratory in Observatory, January to June, 1946; July to World War II. Rept. Naval Ordnance Lab., September, 1946; October, 1946 to March, August 1946, pp. 6-8 (1946). 1947. Terr. Mag., vol. 51, pp. 455"457 JONES, M. W. See LEDIG, P. G. (1946); vol. 52, pp. 92-93, 280-282 (1947). LAPORTE, L. See VESTINE, E. H. BERKNER, L. V. Naval airborne radar. Proc. LEDIG, P. G. Principal magnetic storms, Huan- Inst. Radio Eng., vol. 34, pp. 671-706 (1946). cayo Magnetic Observatory, January to CHERNOSKY, E. J. See LEDIG, P. G. March, 1946; April to September, 1946; COOPER, C. See VESTINE, E. H. October, 1946 to March, 1947. Terr. Mag., COWIE, D. B. The physical bases for the use of vol. 51, pp. 293-294, 569-571 (1946); vol. 52, isotope tracers in biology and medicine. (Ab- pp. 278-280 (1947). stract) Science, vol. 105, p. 634 (1947). M. W. JONES, A. A. GIESECKE, and E. J. See BARTTER, F. C; FLEXNER, L. B.; CHERNOSKY. Effects on the ionosphere at WILDE, W. S. Huancayo, Peru, of the solar eclipse, Janu- DUFFIN, R. J. Measurement of magnetic sus- ary 25, 1944. Terr. Mag., vol. 51, pp. 411- ceptibility with the Hughes induction bal- 418 (1946). ance. Terr. Mag., vol. 51, pp. 419-426 MCNISH, A. G., and B. TUCKERMAN. The vehicu- (1946). lar odograph. Terr, Mag., vol. 52, pp. 39- FLEMING, J. A. Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations. Terr. Mag., vol. MOST, H. See BARTTER, F. C. 5i, PP- 529™536 (1946). NESS, A. T. See BARTTER, F. C. Summary of the year's work, to June 30, PROCTOR, N. K. See FLEXNER, L. B. 1946, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, SCOTT, W. E. American magnetic character- Carnegie Institution of Washington. Terr. figure, CA, three-hour-range indices, K, and Mag., vol. 51, pp. 517-529 (1946), ^-indices, KA, for April to June, 1946; July The international scientific unions. Proc. to September, 1946; October to December, Amer. Philos. Soc, vol. 91, pp. 121-125 1946 and summary for year 1946. Terr. Mag., vol. 51, pp. 435-438, 505-508 (1946); See ADAMS, W. S. vol. 52, pp. 15-24 (1947)' FLEXNER, L. B., W. S. WILDE, N. K. PROCTOR, Five international quiet and disturbed D. B. COWIE, G. J. VOSBURGH, and L. M. days for October to December, 1945; Janu- HELLMAN. The estimation of extracellular ary to March, 1946; April to June, 1946; and total body water in the newborn human July to December, 1946. Terr. Mag., vol. 51, infant with radioactive sodium and deu- pp. 450, 560 (1946); vol. 52, pp. 87, 263 terium oxide. Jour. Pediatrics, vol. 30, pp. (1947). 413-415 (1947). Mean i£"-indlces from thirty magnetic See WILDE, W. S. observatories and preliminary international FORBUSH, S. E. Three unusual cosmic-ray in- character-figures, C, for 1945. Terr. Mag., creases possibly due to charged particles from vol. 52, pp. 25-31^(1947). the sun. Phys. Rev., vol. 70, pp. 771-772 SHAPLEY, A. H. American observations of rela- (1946). tive sunspot-numbers in 1945 for applica- Solar effects in cosmic rays. (Abstract) tion to ionospheric predictions. Pop. Astron., Science, vol. 105, p. 634 (1947). vol. 54, pp. 351-358 (i94^)- See BARTTER, F. C. See WELLS, H. W. GAMOW, G., and P. H. ABELSON. The ninth SCHOLZ, R. O. See WILDE, W. S. Washington Conference on Theoretical SULZER, P. G. Ionospheric measuring equipment. Physics. Science, vol. 104, p. 574 (1946). Electronics, vol. 19, pp. 137-141 (1946). GIESECKE, A. A. See LEDIG, P. G. TUCKERMAN, B. See MCNISH, A. G. HARRADON, H. D. Terrestrial magnetism and TUVE, M. A. In defense of freedom. Address at electricity. Arner. Year Book for 1946, pp. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak9 757-763 (i947)- Maryland, August 15, 1946. Applied Physics 8o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, pp. eroo Magnetic Observatory, April to June, 3-9 (1946). 1946; May to September, 1946; October to VESTINE, E. R, L. LAPORTE, and C. COOPER. December, 1946; January to March, 1947. Geomagnetic secular change during past Terr. Mag., vol. 51, pp. 457, 57i~574 (1946) ; epochs. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, vol. vol. 52, pp. 93-94, 283-286 (1947)- 27, pp. 814-822 (1946). WRIGHT, F. E. See ADAMS, W. S. VOSBURGH, G. L. See FLEXNER, L. B. WAIT, G. R. Some experiments relating to the MAJOR PUBLICATIONS electrical conductivity of the lower atmos- phere. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 36, pp. Magnetic results from Watheroo Observatory, 321-343 (1946). Western Australia, 1919-1935. By J. A. WELLS, H. W. Sporadic E-region ionization at FLEMING, H. F. JOHNSTON, A. G. MCNISH, Watheroo Magnetic Observatory 1938-1944. S. E. FORBUSH, and W. E. SCOTT. Researches Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol. 34, pp. 950-955 of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, (1946). vol. VII-A. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 175. and A. H. SHAPLEY. Eclipse-effects in F2- vi-f-1122 pp., 285 figs., 77$ tables (1947). layer of the ionosphere. Terr. Mag., vol. 51, Magnetic results from Watheroo Observatory, pp. 401-409 (1946). Western Australia, 1936-1944. By J. A. WENNER, F. Discussion of "Dimensions and units FLEMING, H. F. JOHNSTON, W. C. PARKINSON, of electromagnetic quantities," by G. J. Baker. J. W. GREEN, A. G. MCNISH, S. E. FORBUSH, Geophysics, vol. 11, pp. 381-382 (1946). and W. E. SCOTT. Researches of the Depart- Forces between linear circuits according ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, vol. VII-B. to O'Rahilly. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 36, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 175. vii-f-520 pp., pp. 294-296 (1946). 417 tables (1947). WILDE, W. $., D. B. COWIE, and L. B. FLEXNER. Description of the earth's main magnetic field Permeability of the placenta of the guinea and its secular change, 1905-1945. By E. H. pig to inorganic phosphate and its relation VESTINE, L. LAPORTE, I. LANGE, C. COOPER, to fetal growth. Amer. Jour PhysioL, vol. and W. C. HENDRIX. Carnegie Inst. Wash. 147, pp. 360-369 (1946). Pub. 578. v + 532 pp., 150 figs. (1947). R. O. SCHOLZ, and D. B. COWIE. Turn- Final values of elements of the geomagnetic over rate of sodium in the aqueous humor field at 5-degree intervals of latitude and of the eye measured by radiosodium Na24. longitude, epoch 1945. By L. LAPORTE, (Abstract) Federation Proc. Amer. Soc. C. COOPER, I. LANGE, W. C. HENDRIX, and Exper. Biol, vol. 6, no, 1, pt. 2, p. 227 (1947). E. H. VESTINE. Department of Terrestrial See FLEXNER, L. B. Magnetism, Carnegie Inst. Wash. 73 pp. WOOD, F. W. Principal magnetic storms, Wath- (1946).
STAFF AND ORGANIZATION
SCIENTIFIC STAFF Ukraine; C. Y. Chao, National Central Uni- versity, Nanking, China; C. L. Critchfield, Geophysics: L. V. Berkner, S. E. Forbush, O. H. George Washington University; W. R. Duryee, Gish, R. W. Goranson (from Geophysical National Institute of Health; J. W. Graham, Laboratory), E. A. Johnson, W. J. Rooney, Johns Hopkins University; C. M. Hudson, S. L. Scaton,* K. L. Sherman,* O. W. Tor- Office of Chief of Ordnance, War Department; reson, M. A. Tuvc, E. H. Vestine, G. R. Wait, D. R. Inglis, Johns Hopkins University; H. W. Wells. T. Murphy, University College, Dublin, Eire; Laboratory and Biophysics: P. H. Abelson, D. B. A. T. Ness, U. S. Public Health Service; Cowie, N. P. Heydcnburg, R. B. Roberts, M. A. T. H. Pi, National Central University, Nan- Tuvc king, China; Miss J. Roquet, Institut de Phy- Guests, Associates, and Visiting Investigators: sique du Globe, University of Paris; J. E. A. P. Bondarcnko, Kiev Institute of Geology, Sreb, Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hop- kins University; D. Whitchead, University of * Resigned. Virginia. DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 81
OPERATING STAFF Huancayo Observatory: T. Astete, M. Casa- verde, A. A. Giesecke, Jr., M. W. Jones,* Administrative: M. B. Smith, W. F. Steiner. H. Roller, P. G. Ledig, E. Melgar, W. D. Office and Clerical: J. J. Capello, Miss R. C. Parkinson. Dermody, W. N. Dove, H. D. Harradon, W. C. Hendrix, P. L. Moats, Miss H. Russell, Wotheroo Observatory: A. Bevis, R. J. Erskine, A. D. Singer. G. R. Feirclough, S. B. Hudson, H. Layton, Instrument Shop: B. J. Haase, L. A. Horton, A. E. McCall, D. L. Overheu, A. Parkes, J. G. Lorz, F. B. Thomas.* L. P. Tulley, F. W. Wood. Laboratory Assistants and Technicians: S. J. Fart-Time and Temporary 'Employees: There Buynitzky, J. B. Doak, E. H. Fogel,* P. A. were 42 part-time and temporary employees Johnson, C. J. Ksanda, C. A. Little, Jr. engaged during the year, usually for short Maintenance: C. Balsam, C. W. Burger, H. W. periods, whose work was concerned largely Hackley,* S. W. Malvin, E. Quade. with the completion of war-contract and publi- Observatory Wor\ and Computers: cation work. Miss M. Walburn, production Office: Miss E. Balsam, E. J. Chernosky,* assistant, was assigned by the Office of Publi- Miss I. Lange, W. C. Parkinson, W. E. cations to publication work at the Department Scott. for the entire report year.
* Resigned. * Resigned.
SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES FRANK T. GUCKER, JR., Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Studies on specific heats of aqueous solutions. A strong electrolyte dissolved in water determined the specific heats of solutions causes a contraction in volume, which in- of potassium chloride, sodium chloride, dicates a compression of the water mole- and sodium bromide from about 0.1 m to cules around the ions. Simultaneously, the near saturation, at 20 ° intervals from 5 to heat capacity of the solution is reduced 85 ° C. The results were similar for all below that of water. In fact, the apparent these salts. The apparent molal heat ca- molal heat capacity of the salt is often pacities plotted against the square root of negative, showing that the heat capacity of the molality increase most rapidly at low the solution is less than that of the water temperatures, where the curves are defi- it contains. The apparent molal heat ca- nitely of sigmoid shape, with a maximum pacity in dilute solutions is known to in- slope near the middle. At higher tem- crease linearly with the square root of the peratures they all are flatter. The appar- molality, as predicted by the Debye-Hiickel ent molal heat capacities at infinite dilution theory, and this relation often holds within increase rapidly from 5 to 25 ° C, but pass o.oi per cent in the specific heats, up to through a maximum at about 60 ° and concentrations of i or 2 m. The Debye- actually decrease to 85 °. For concentrated Hiickel theory does not predict the value solutions, the curves are flatter and the of the apparent molal heat capacity at in- maximum occurs at a lower temperature. finite dilution, but Zwicky has attempted These results indicate a discrepancy either to do so on the basis of the electrostriction in the P-V-T data for water or else in of the water, the heat capacity of which Zwicky's theory correlating electrostriction is known to be decreased by pressure, at and specific heat. Further experimental room temperature. However, on the basis and theoretical work is desirable along of Bridgman's P-V-T data for water, these lines, as well as an extension of the Zwicky calculated that pressure should in-, experimental study of specific heat of crease the heat capacity of water at tem- aqueous solutions to temperatures as near peratures above about 65 ° C, and predicted the critical as possible, which will be a similar increase for the specific heats of undertaken under this project. aqueous solutions of strong electrolytes. Our present results allow a calculation The present research was carried out to test of the standard entropies of these salts in this theory and obtain some precise specific aqueous solution, over the range of tem- heat measurements in a range where none perature we covered, from the values given existed. by Latimer, Pitzer, and Smith at 25 ° C. Dr. Frank W. Lamb used the differen- There is a surprisingly large decrease in tial calorimeter with variable heaters de- standard entropy between 5 and 850 C, veloped in this laboratory, and modified it nearly the same for all three salts, and to obtain precise results up to 85 ° C. He averaging 17 per cent.
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY Central Laboratory located at Stanford, California H. A. SPOEHR, Chairman The interruptions in the regular research his administrative duties at the end of programs of the Division, occasioned by June 1947. It is impossible for him to ex- the war, have not been without some bene- press adequately his appreciation of the fits. Opportunity was provided to gain a very cordial relations he has enjoyed for little more perspective on the objectives of many years with the President and ad- the major research programs, to examine ministrative officers of the Institution and basic aims afresh, and to give careful con- of the fine spirit of co-operation among sideration to the administrative as well as the staff members of the Division. He is to the scientific problems involved in an particularly grateful for the opportunity organized research program. Much of the which has been granted him to continue thought on these matters has inevitably his researches through the support of the been affected by altered social and even Institution and to be relieved of adminis- political influences which have made them- trative responsibility. The Institution has selves felt throughout the world. New been fortunate in obtaining the services scientific instruments, new modes of at- of Dr. Charles Stacy French, who assumes tack, and recently formulated concepts, the position of Director on July 1, 1947. many of which are the direct and indirect Recurrent in all dispassionate discussions product of war activity, are relatively easy of research programs, and of scientific en- to apply and install for the solution of par- deavor in general, is the more fundamental ticular problems. But important as are question of the function of science in our these features of a research program, in present-day society. Though this question many ways they are matters of subordinate has always in a measure engaged the significance. They give the impression of thought of scientists, the outgrowths of the growth and progress. In them is also in- war have forced it upon us as never before herent the danger that means may be in the history of thought. Along with substituted for ends. much of the rest of the world, the scientist In consonance with the changes de- is caught in a dilemma, one horn of which manded by present conditions, it seemed carries the free exercise of thought with but an opportune time for change also in uncertain support, and the other horn bears personnel. New research plans and under- the spirit of despotism with the promise of takings, for which the Carnegie Institu- ample support. In brief, we are endeavor- tion of Washington offers such unique ing to decide whether the highest function opportunity, should fittingly be entrusted of science is to understand and explain the to the men who are to carry them to com- phenomena of nature, to attain the truth, pletion. Of necessity these should be in the faith that the truth will make us younger men. So also, to achieve effective free; or whether we must regard this as development, responsibility is a salutary an outmoded concept of the function of attendant on opportunity. With these science, and consider that it cannot justify thoughts in mind, the Chairman resigned itself by simply understanding and explain- 86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON ing these phenomena, but rather must be- certain components of the leaf when this come the primum mobile to fashion man's is maintained at different temperatures. evolution. This is made possible by the fact that In the contemplation of this vexed prob- purely photochemical reactions are in- lem, which is so fraught with tremendous fluenced but slightly by changes in tem- consequences, the occupation with various perature, whereas ordinary chemical reac- aspects of the evolution of living beings tions obey rather definite laws in regard to exerts an influence for both humility and the influence of temperature on their rates. skepticism. The concept of a homocentric From these studies is evolving a concept of world, dominated by the will of man, or, a series of integrated photochemical and perhaps more properly, by the will of a thermochemical reactions through which few men, becomes a crumbling doctrine. simple inorganic and organic substances That something of the nature of evolution are elaborated into the highly complex has occurred, the great mass of scientific molecule of chlorophyll. evidence gives ground for belief. But for In the course of their evolutionary de- the vastly more significant question as to velopment plants have taken on an enor- how these changes occur, what causes mous diversity in form and structure. It bring them about and what mechanism has been one object of systematics and is involved—for the solution of these prob- taxonomy to discover order amid this di- lems we are only at the threshold of versity. By comparative study of the struc- knowledge. tures of plants it has been possible to trace The race of man is as the race of leaves: the development of groups of organisms Of leaves, one generation by the wind and to learn something of their present Is scatter'd on the earth; another soon status in relation to their early progenitors. In spring's luxuriant verdure bursts to light. While through their evolution plants have So with our race; these flourish, those decay. taken on this marked diversity in structure, # # # in habit of life, and, to a considerable ex- The first development of chlorophyll in tent, also in function, in respect to their the illuminated leaf is one of the most re- means of food manufacture they appear to markable phenomena in the plant world. have undergone little change. This con- This greening process makes the plant a clusion, the result of an extensive study self-sufficient organism, capable of manu- covering a wide variety of plants, is based facturing food by photosynthesis. The de- upon the observation that chloroplast pig- tailed chemical steps involved in the proc- ments, which are an essential part of the ess of chlorophyll formation are not yet photosynthetic apparatus o£ all plants, have fully understood, but some of them have varied little with the evolution of the now been more clearly elucidated. It has species of each major taxonomic group. been possible to differentiate several steps Even in the evolution of the main taxo- In the intricate chemical reactions which nomic groups of plants, the variation of lead to the formation of the complex these pigments has not been great. Only chlorophyll molecule. Some of these steps minor variations of the chlorophyll and are accomplished by means of light, others carotene pigments have been observed, ac- are purely thermal processes, probably ef- companied by somewhat greater variations fected by special enzymes. It has been of the xanthophyll pigments. It would possible to follow separately the course of appear, therefore, that whereas in many these two types of action by determiiiing respects the plant has adapted itself to DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 87
changed conditions and has modified its favorable form and yield with disease form and habit of life, the fundamental resistance and extension of activity into process of photosynthesis seems always to the dry summer. As was expected, some have required the same extraordinary of the hybrids are more successful in one delicate apparatus. location than in another. Grasses of the Another aspect of this apparent rigidity proper heredity must be selected for each of the synthesizing apparatus of the plant major climatic region, and there is now may be illustrated by the results obtained the possibility of a wide selection from the from culture of a unicellular alga, Chlo- combinations which have already been rella, under a wide range of environmental made. conditions. According to the culture con- These hybrids, of the genus Poa or blue- ditions selected, the chemical composition grasses, have been obtained by crossing of the plant varies enormously; under one distantly related species originating from set of conditions it will produce, for ex- very unlike environments. These species ample, 5 per cent of fat, and under another and many of their hybrids produce the set of conditions 85 per cent. In the first bulk of their seed by asexual means, and, case the cells maintain a high content of accordingly, breed true. The purpose of chlorophyll and appear dark green. In the this program was to explore the crossability second case, with high fat production, the and the inheritance of species that produce cells carry on their synthesizing work with most of their seed in this manner. One of about one-thousandth the quantity of the most promising grasses combines the chlorophyll found in the former and heredities of a giant bunch grass from are a yellow-green. The nature of the eastern Washington and a subarctic race chlorophyll pigments in the two cases is of the sod-forming Kentucky bluegrass the same; qualitatively the synthesizing ap- from Swedish Lapland north of the Arctic paratus appears to be a rigid one. The Circle. Another high-quality grass that amounts of the pigments, however, vary promises to provide much-needed summer .tremendously in the two cases, so that grazing in the latitude of Pullman, Wash- quantitatively the system appears to be very ington, is a hybrid between the same giant flexible, and this flexibility apparently is bunch grass and a race of Canada bluegrass also reflected in the chemical nature of the from the Mediterranean slopes o£ Asia products which accumulate. Minor. For California Coast Range con- v Nearly 300 interspecific hybrids, repre- ditions hybrids are now under test that senting 35 combinations, have now been combine the California bluegrass, which produced in the grass-breeding program is a tufted type, and various races of Ken- which this Division has undertaken in tucky bluegrass. These hybrids are su- co-operation with the Soil Conservation perior to the native Poas in this region, Service of the United States Department because they have a considerably more of Agriculture. Many of these hybrids and extended period of summer activity. their offspring are now under test in the The grass-breeding program has demon- field stations of the Institution and in the strated that hybrids can be produced be- nurseries of the Soil Conservation Service. tween such distantly related and unlike The test plantings at Pullman, Washing- parents having the asexual reproductive ton, and other field stations give promise mechanism. It has also shown that only that some of the new grasses will prove about one-third of the hybrids reproduce valuable, because they combine a very ascxually like their parents, and that the 88 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
remainder are sexual. The latter, however, The scientific contribution of this pro- segregate some very promising offspring, gram is now outweighing the practical part of which, in turn, may reproduce aspects, which have pointed the way to asexually. This question is being explored what can be done in improving plants of further, and it offers possibilities of select- agronomic importance that follow this ing out many new grasses unlike anything specialized method of seed formation. produced hitherto.
BIOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS
H. A. SPOEHR, J. H. C. SMITH, H. H. STRAIN, AND H. W. MILNER
CHLOROPHYLL FORMATION IN ETIOLATED cerning the role of protochlorophyll in LEAVES chlorophyll formation. Only a limited The investigations on the chemistry of amount of chlorophyll is produced by chlorophyll formation (Year Book No. 45, illumination of etiolated barley seedlings p. 104) have been extended by Dr. Smith at low temperatures, o° C. This fact argues to include analysis of the process at dif- for the existence of a limited quantity of ferent temperatures. By following the de- preformed precursor in the seedlings at velopment of greening in etiolated leaves the time when illumination is begun. Dur- under these conditions, some differentia- ing the period of illumination that is re- tion can be made between the reactions quired for maximum chlorophyll forma- which are dependent on light and those tion at o° C, protochlorophyll disappears, which are not. The results show that and the quantity of chlorophyll is directly chlorophyll formation is a combination of proportional to the amount of protochloro- pure photochemical reactions and thermo- phyll that was present initially in the chemical reactions, which are integrated leaves. This is perhaps the most direct in a complicated manner. evidence available at present to support the ProtochlorophylL Seedlings germinated theory of a physiological relationship be- and grown in the dark possess a small tween these two pigments. quantity of yellow-green pigment known If protochlorophyll is transformed into as protochlorophyll. For many years it chlorophyll by photochemical action, no has been known that when such seedlings change in ether-soluble magnesium, ex- are illuminated, this pigment disappears tractable from the leaves, should result, and chlorophyll is formed conconritantly. because, on a molecular basis, protochloro- Because of the concurrence of the disap- phyll contains the same quantity of mag- pearance of one pigment and the forma- nesium as does chlorophyll. It was dis- tion of the other, it has been assumed that covered, however, that on illumination, the protochlorophyll is the direct precursor of total ether-soluble magnesium increased to chlorophyll, the change being the result of a greater extent than was required by the a photochemical action. Similarities in the chlorophyll formed, in spite of the disap- chemical structure of the two pigments pearance of the protochlorophyll. The de- have strengthened this assumption* though termination of the constitution of this new no adequate proof of this relationship has ether-soluble magnesium compound re- been produced. mains a problem for future investigation. Exptriments performed during the past Because protochlorophyll is destroyed by year have yielded some information con- illumination, it must be regenerated in DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY order to account for the full production of of chlorophyll formation at 70 C. is also in chlorophyll, if protochlorophyll is to be accord with this supposition. Three stages regarded as the precursor of chlorophyll. are clearly discernible: first, a rapid rise Experiments have demonstrated that barley in chlorophyll content during the first two seedlings regenerate protochlorophyll when hours (photochemical reaction); second, a placed in the dark. Whether the rate of period of several hours in which the pig- regeneration is sufficient to account for the ment increases slowly (largely thermo- rate of chlorophyll formation remains to be chemical reaction); and third, a period of determined. very rapid pigment increase (integrated Chlorophyll 2, the first chlorophyll photochemical and thermochemical reac- formed. Analysis of the chlorophyll pro- tions). The results of these experiments duced by illuminating barley seedlings at indicate that when constancy of chloro- o° C, after they had been grown in the phyll content is attained it represents a dark, showed the presence of only chloro- condition of balance between destruction phyll a. The absorption spectrum of the and synthesis of the pigment. original ether extracts as well as chromato- The effect of illumination at different graphic adsorption analysis demonstrated temperatures on the total ether-soluble that if chlorophyll b was formed at all, it magnesium is not yet entirely clear. At was present only in an exceedingly small o° C, the effect of light on both the forma- amount. These results corroborate the con- tion and the destruction of ether-soluble clusions from other workers' experiments magnesium compounds is greater than on performed under different conditions, and chlorophyll itself. At 70 C, the ether- strengthen the general conclusion that in soluble magnesium compounds follow the early stages of greening chlorophyll a much the same course as chlorophyll, but is formed exclusively. the changes are more pronounced. At Greening at different temperatures. In 190 C, the total ether-soluble magnesium etiolated barley seedlings the initial stage increases more rapidly at first than the of chlorophyll formation is a photochemi- magnesium in chlorophyll; but in the later cal reaction, whereas the later stages are a stages of greening at this temperature, the combination of thermochernical and photo- increases of these two nearly coincide. chemical reactions. This is evidenced by These facts give evidence for direct photo- the fact that during the first two-hour chemical activity of the ether-soluble mag- period of illumination changes of tempera- nesium compounds, but are not sufficient ture affect the quantity of chlorophyll to determine the relation between the formed, and its rate of formation, very thermochemical and the photochemical re- much less than during later periods. actions. In a leaf which has been grown in the When etiolated barley seedlings are il- dark and is then illuminated, chlorophyll luminated under conditions such that dif- is rapidly formed and then undergoes ferent portions of the leaves are at two photochemical destruction on continued different temperatures, 40 and n°C, the illumination at o° C. At room tempera- portions at the lower temperature remain ture, however, there is a continuous rapid yellow, whereas the portions at the higher rise in chlorophyll content up to the maxi- temperature become green. Obviously, the mum attainable quantity. These facts in- effect of temperature on chlorophyll forma- dicate that synthesis and decomposition tion is local. may take place concurrently. The course Organic compounds of phosphorus. The CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON formation of ether-soluble phosphorus plants representing only a few taxonomic compounds accompanies the formation of groups. In order to gain a more compre- chlorophyll. At room temperature these hensive understanding of the nature of the compounds increase very rapidly at first, chloroplast pigments throughout the plant but reach a nearly constant quantity in kingdom, several dozen additional plants, the last stages of greening. At y° C. they representing a wide variety of taxonomic behave differently from what they do at groups, have recently been investigated by room temperature; they decrease for the Dr. Strain. In conjunction with earlier re- first few hours of illumination, then in- sults (Year Book No. 42, p. 79) this in- crease rapidly, the rise corresponding to creased information has provided new the rise in chlorophyll At o° C, the ether- clues to the composition, function, and soluble phosphorus behaves erratically, but evolution of the photosynthetic apparatus. on the whole increases. The connection Indications have been found of new rela- between chlorophyll formation and the tionships between particular pigments and production of organic phosphorus com- products elaborated by photosynthesis. pounds is obscure, but in the light of Suggestions have been obtained of new present-day concepts regarding photosyn- factors that may have determined the de- thesis and phosphorylation, it may be velopment of particular pigments in plants significant. subjected to different environmental con- ditions. Along with fresh concepts regard- ing the evolution of the photosynthetic CHLOROPLAST PIGMENTS apparatus, unsuspected relationships have It is a self-evident fact, yet one which been revealed among plants of several has been insufficiently realized, that the taxonomic groups. life and survival of plants throughout their Number of pigments. About 50 chloro- evolutionary development has depended plast pigments have now been isolated upon the utilization of radiant energy by from plants of various kinds, and there are the chloroplast pigments. Although a indications that many more have yet to be great deal is known about the changes of described. All these pigments fall into form and habit which plants have under- three principal groups: (a) the green, fat- gone in adapting themselves to various en- soluble chlorophylls, of which about 10 vironmental conditions on land and in the are known; (b) the yellow, fat-soluble sea, little is known of the concomitant carotenoids, usually subdivided into caro- changes that may have occurred in that tenes (hydrocarbons, with about 6 repre- function which is basic to all plants, namely sentatives) and xanthophylls (oxygen de- the process of photosynthesis. A clue to rivatives of carotenes, with some 20 or such possible changes may be obtained more representatives); and (c) the water- from a comparison of the chloroplast pig- soluble phycobilins, usually subdivided into ments of plants which have followed dif- red phycoerythrins and blue phycocyanins, ferent paths of evolutionary development, with a total of 4 or more representatives. in short, in representatives of widely dif- Distribution of the pigments in relation ferent taxonomic groups. to taxonomy and evolution. All plants Our present knowledge of chloroplast capable of photosynthesis contain one or pigments is based upon investigations of two chlorophylls, one or more carotenes, relatively few plants. Moreover, these in- and two or more xanthophylls. In some vestigations have usually been restricted to autotrophic plants, phycobilins accompany DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY the chlorophylls and carotenoids, but phy- same carotenes (3-carotene ± a-carotene). cobilins have never been found in the These facts support the view, long held by absence of chlorophylls and carotenoids. phylogeneticists, that all these organisms Distribution of the individual chloro- arose from a common ancestry. It is prob- plast pigments in the plant kingdom fol- able, therefore, that the chlorophycean an- lows a definite pattern. This distribution cestors of present-day green algae and of pattern is more dependent upon the evo- higher plants contained the same pigments lutionary (phylogenetic) development of now found in their descendants. the plants than upon the environment. Fossil green algae similar to those living All the autotrophic plants, ranging from today have been found in geological forma- the blue-green algae to the seed plants, tions believed to be several hundred million contain the same principal green pigment, years old. It is probable that the photo- chlorophyll a. Except for a small group of synthetically active pigments of these plants green algae (certain Siphonales), which have varied little, if any, in the course of contain large proportions of a-carotene, all these millions of years. In view of the autotrophic plants contain 3-carotene as great chemical lability of the chlorophylls the principal carotenoid hydrocarbon. and carotenoids, this constancy of the pig- These facts may be taken to indicate that ments in the course of countless genera- the chloroplast pigments originated from tions that have led to the evolution of a photosynthetic apparatus common to the multitudes of forms is truly remarkable. progenitors of the present-day plants. Pigments of the Siphonales. In the past From the investigations made thus far year, a minor variation of the xanthophylls it would appear that with the evolution of has been observed in the green algae of some of the principal plant groups there the order Siphonales. All species of this have occurred only minor variations of the group examined thus far contain a unique chlorophylls, but great variations of the xanthophyll and its ester in addition to the xanthophylls and phycobilins. It is sig- chlorophylls, xanthophylls, and carotenes nificant that certain chlorophylls (e.g., characteristic of other green algae. Some chlorophylls c and d) are restricted to a of these species were obtained from the few groups of lower plants. This is also temperate waters near Monterey, Cali- true of all the phycobilins and to a lesser fornia (through co-operation of Dr. Gilbert degree of some of the xanthophylls, some M. Smith and Dr. L. R. Blinks), others of the latter pigments occurring in several were collected in subtropical waters near groups. The uniformity of individual pig- Miami, Florida (by Dr. F. G. Walton ments within plants of each group shows Smith), and some were collected in the that pigment composition has not varied tropical waters of the Caribbean at Puerto with the evolution of the species. Variation Rico (by Dr. J. van Overbeek and Dr. of the pigments among plants of different H. F. Warmke). Formation of the un- groups must have occurred very early in usual xanthophyll in the Siphonales must their evolutionary development. have occurred before evolution of the Most green algae, mosses, ferns, and several species, which are among the oldest higher plants contain the same chlorophylls and most specialized of the green algae. A related group of green algae, the (chlorophylls a and b)9 the same xantho- phylls (lutein, neoxanthin, violaxanthin, Siphonocladiales, obtained also in Atlantic zeaxanthin^ and cryptoxanthin), and the and Pacific waters, was found not to con- CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
tain this uncommon xanthophyll, which, of chlorophyll a with oxygen production in therefore, may serve as an important photosynthetically active plants points to taxonomic character. a similar reaction mechanism for oxygen Chromatic adaptation and bathymetric liberation in all plants. distribution of algae. Owing to the selec- It has frequently been pointed out that tive absorption of red light by water, plants Vaucheria, an alga of the order Siphonales, growing more than a few meters below differs from other green algae in contain- the surface receive a preponderance of ing no chlorophyll b and in not forming blue-green light. As chlorophyll has less starch. These conclusions are presumably absorption capacity for blue-green light based upon observations made on the fresh- than for red light, it is usually assumed water species. It is not without interest that the presence of complementary pig- that a brackish-water species of Vaucheria ments which absorb blue-green light is has been found to contain much chloro- essential to the growth of algae in deep phyll b (about 40 per cent of the total water. Calculations based upon the spectral chlorophyll), and that, after exposure to absorption curves of the extracted pig- sunlight, it also contained a large amount ments show, however, that the high con- of starch. Obviously, with respect to centration of chlorophyll in the chloro- chlorophyll composition and to its capacity plasts would enable the plant to absorb a for starch formation, this species of large fraction of the incident blue-green Vaucheria resembles other typical green light even if complementary pigments were algae. not present. It has, moreover, been found Pigments and chromatographic adsorp- that green algae of the order Siphono- tion analysis. Experience gained through cladiales often grow near the greatest continued use of chromatographic adsorp- depths inhabited by plants, about ioo tion methods for the preparation and meters. Yet these organisms contain the identification of chloroplast pigments has same pigments found in shallow-water revealed new relations between adsorbabil- green algae and in higher plants. It would ity and the molecular structure of complex appear, therefore, from this and other evi- carotenoid molecules. With some adsorb- dence recently collected, that our ideas of ents such as powdered sugar, the adsorba- chromatic adaptation are in need of re- bility of carotenoid pigments is determined examination on the basis of more thorough largely by the hydroxyl groups and not by investigation of pigment content by the unsaturated, hydrocarbon portion of modern methods. the molecules. With other adsorbents such Pigments and the products of photosyn- as magnesia, adsorbability of the carotenoid thesis. Comparison of the individual pigments is determined by the unsaturated, chloroplast pigments with the principal hydrocarbon portion of the molecules as structural materials and storage products well as by the hydroxyl groups. Ap- synthesized by autotrophic plants has re- parently different adsorbents attract dif- vealed that no single pigment is associated ferent parts or regions of the complex with the formation of any one principal molecules. Maximum separation of mix- organic substance. The great variety of tures of similar pigments has been attained organic storage products in different species when the adsorbent attracts preferentially of plants suggests a complex and varied those structural regions that differ most. reaction mechanism for the production o£ This relation between adsorbability and organic matter. The universal association molecular structure may become a valuable DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 93 guide in the selection of adsorbents for use Considering the different effects of age in adsorption columns. upon cultures in the two gas mixtures, as well as the fact that the maximum yield THE SYNTHESIS OF ORGANIC MATTER BY and R-value with air are less than with CHLORELLA CELLS nitrogen for a culture of equal age, it is apparent that the very high yields and R- In previous reports on this subject (Year values attained in nitrogen cannot be Book No. 42, p. 83; No. 45, p. 109) men- reached in air. The extreme conditions are, tion has been made of a means of determin- of course, provided by cultures grown in ing the degree of reduction of the total a mixture of carbon dioxide and pure organic constituents of the cells of a oxygen. Under these conditions very small Chlorella culture and of its designation by yields of cells and low R-values are ob- the term R-value. The concept of the R- tained. Whether these differences in the value may be simplified somewhat by the nature of the products formed by the realization that it is proportional to the Chlorella cells under aerobic and anaerobic heat of combustion. conditions reflect differences in the course In a mineral nutrient medium limited in of the photosynthetic reactions, or whether available fixed nitrogen, Chlorella cultures the variation in the nature of the products reached higher yields and the cells were of results from subsequent metabolic reac- higher R-value when they were supplied tions, is a subject for further investigation. with 5 per cent carbon dioxide in nitrogen Another difference between cultures than when 5 per cent carbon dioxide in air grown in mixtures of carbon dioxide and was supplied. Also, it was noted that the nitrogen and those grown in carbon di- yield and R-value of cultures grown in 5 oxide and air appears in the effect of con- per cent carbon dioxide in nitrogen con- tinuous and intermittent illumination. In tinued to increase over long periods of cultures with nitrogen mixtures, essentially time. A comparative study of cultures the same yields and R-values were ob- grown in these two gas mixtures demon- tained under equal time of illumination, strated that with carbon dioxide in air the whether this was continuous or inter- maximum yield and R-value were reached mittent. By contrast, in mixtures with air, after 49 days of continuous illumination. intermittent illumination produced higher For such cultures the yield of cells was yields and higher R-values as compared 1.20 g. dry weight per liter and the R-value with cultures receiving continuous illumi- 58.72. A corresponding culture grown in nation on a basis of equal hours of illumi- 5 per cent carbon dioxide in nitrogen gave nation. Thus, the maximum yield and R- a yield of 1.63 g. dry weight per liter and value were reached after 49 days of con- an R-value of 61.87. ^n ^t cultures grown tinuous illumination and after 98 days of in the air mixture, after reaching a maxi- intermittent illumination of 12 hours in the mum, both the yield and the R-value de- light and 12 hours in the dark. The yield creased progressively with increased age. for the continuously illuminated cultures This is contrary to the experience with was iao g. dry weight per liter of the cultures supplied with carbon dioxide in culture with an R-value of 58.72, and for nitrogen, in which the yield and R-value the intermittently illuminated cultures the increased continuously with age up to 75 yield was correspondingly 143 g. and the days. It is not known, however, how much R-value 60.86. For other periods of time, longer such increase could be maintained. extending to 154 days o£ intermittent il- 94 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON lumination, the continuously illuminated panied by a decrease in the unsaponifiable cultures, on a basis of equal time of illumi- fraction from 12 to 3.3 per cent. It is ap- nation, were lower in both yield and R- parent from these figures that the increase value than the intermittently illuminated in R-value of the cells is caused principally cultures. It is not without interest that the by the increase in the fatty acid content. intermittently illuminated cultures in a The progressive decrease in unsaponifiable mixture of carbon dioxide and air are still fraction as the R-value increases shows that not equal to those grown in carbon dioxide no material accumulation of hydrocarbon and nitrogen in regard to yield and R- has taken place. value. The iodine number and neutralization Chlorophyll content of Chlorella de- equivalent of the total fatty acids show that, creases sharply as high R-values are at- as the R-value of the cells increases, there tained. For example, the chlorophyll con- is a small increase in the average molecular tent of cells with an R-value of 50 may be weight of the acids, and that this is ac- but 10 per cent that of cells with an R- companied by a definite increase in the value of 40. At the highest R-values at- degree of saturation. Both these trends tained, the chlorophyll content may fall to tend to increase the R-value of the acids less than 0.1 per cent of that of the dark- themselves. But the large increase in the green cells of low R-value. R-value of the cells is principally due to the increased quantity of the fatty acids rather than to changes in the composition THE LIPOIDS OF CHLORELLA of these acids. In an earlier report (Year Book No. 45, The fatty acids from each sample were p. in) was given the probable composi- fractionated by the lead salt separation and tion of Chlorella cells of different R-value, ester distillation methods. The fatty acids based upon calculations and certain as- from Chlorella cells appear to be almost sumptions. Mr. Milner has now carried entirely Cie and Cis members of the series. out chemical analyses of the lipoid fraction With the quantities available it was not of this plant material. For this purpose possible to estimate with any accuracy the larger quantities of cells of high R-value minor amount of lower and higher fatty had to be cultured. The quantitative ex- acids which may have been present. The traction of the lipins from this material principal saturated acid is palmitic, which is associated with some difficulties and en- varies between 8 and 17 per cent of the tailed the development of special methods. total. The quantity of stearic acid is small, In each case, the quantity of lipoid ob- 0.4 to 4 per cent. Unsaturated fatty acids tained by solvent extraction agreed well comprise about 85 per cent of the total, with the value calculated from the R-value there being 29 per cent of the Ci@ and 54 by the method just referred to. This con- per cent of the Cis from low R-value cells, firms the conclusion that it is lipoid ac- to 18 per cent of the Cie and 67 per cent cumulation which is mainly responsible of the Cis from cells of an R-value of 60. for the increase in R-value of developing The noteworthy feature of the fatty acids Chlorella cells. from Chlorella cells is the great unsatura- As the R-value of the cells increased tion of the liquid acids, particularly of the from 42 to 60, there was an increase in the Ci© fraction. These acids had 2x15 and fatty acid content of the lipoid fraction 2.18 double bonds per carboxyl group from from 28 to 87 per cent; this was accom- cells of an R-value of 42.5 and 54.9 respec- DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 95 tively. The Cis liquid acids from the same with increase in R-value occurs in the Cis two samples had 2.23 and 1.17 double rather than in the C16 liquid acids. It is bonds per carboxyl. Apparently the in- probable that there is little oleic acid in the crease in saturation of the total fatty acids cells of low R-value.
EXPERIMENTAL TAXONOMY
JENS CLAUSEN, DAVID D. KECK, AND WILLIAM M. HIESEY A major research project extending over the Soil Conservation Service of the United a period of five years has been brought to States Department of Agriculture, explores conclusion during the year with the sub- the evolutionary avenues in a group of mission for publication of a manuscript on asexually propagating plants of value on "Environmental responses of climatic races western range lands. In it, basic scientific of Achillea" This will appear as the third research and its practical application are number in the series "Experimental Studies combined. on the Nature of Species" (Carnegie Inst. Sixteen new Poas, all developed through Wash. Pub. 581). In it are detailed the re- hybridization between species belonging to sults obtained from transplant experiments different taxonomic sections and coming conducted in the climatic series of field from very different climates, were sent for stations across central California and from testing to the regional nursery of the Soil physiological experiments under controlled Conservation Service at Pullman, Wash- conditions, together with their implications ington, in the spring of 1946. These were (Year Book No. 45, pp. 112-117). studied in detail and compared with their A complementary paper prepared by the parental species in June 1947 by Dr. late Professor W. E. Lawrence, of Oregon Clausen in company with Dr. A. L. Hafen- State College, shortly before his death in richter and other members of the staff of February 1947 further rounds out the the Soil Conservation Service. Several of story. This paper, "Chromosome numbers these hybrids show promise, both on ac- in Achillea in relation to geographic distri- count of their favorable combination of bution," was prepared while Lawrence was characters and on account of their apparent a guest investigator at this laboratory. He ability to extend the length of the grazing had spent the year 1943—1944 and the season into the dry summer. summers of 1945 an<^ X946 here, working, The response of the bluegrasses in the in addition, on the climatic races of the garden at Pullman differs from that of tufted hair grass, Deschampsia caespitosa. divisions of the same individuals growing He brought to our group his thorough in any of the three environments at the knowledge of the classic approach to California transplant stations. Forms that ecology. By combining with that the ex- grow poorly at Stanford may be vigorous perimental approaches leading to the con- at Pullman, and vice versa. From these cept of climatic and other ecological races, preliminary tests we can begin to assign his papers have contributed to modern the new hybrids, with some confidence, to ecology. those kinds of climates to which they may The bluegrass program, employing be best fitted. Their fitness is largely pre- species of the genus Poa, has advanced determined by the characteristics of the materially during the year. This program, parental species, which, in turn, are in har- which is carried out in co-operation with mony with their native climates. The 96 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON apparent success of hybrids between such to a new environment. No plant can sur- remotely related species opens new possi- vive that is not timed in its development bilities to plant breeders for tapping un- with the seasonal and diurnal rhythms of utilized sources of variation in wild grasses. its climate. The evolution of such fitness Some of the superior wild strains used in is independent of, and precedes, the evo- these crossings had been saved from prob- lution of interspecific barriers. A species able extinction by their introduction into that occupies a series of climatically con- the nurseries of the Soil Conservation trasting environments may therefore con- Service. sist of many races. The analysis of the Early in 1947 fifty-one additional hybrid physiologic experiments on Achillea con- strains from other Poa crossings were ducted by Dr. Hiesey in the controlled given to the Soil Conservation Service for greenhouses at the California Institute of testing. On the basis of this year's experi- Technology has brought this clearly into ence, some of these will be grown in the focus. In the two species of Achillea that nursery at San Fernando, southern Cali- populate a transect across central Cali- fornia, and others at Pullman. Their Fi fornia, a dozen or so climatic races can parents are under test at the three altitudi- be distinguished, as described in the last nal transplant stations of the Institution. report. Their periods of activity and dor- The San Fernando nursery is 25 miles mancy are closely synchronized with the from the coast at 34° 15' north latitude; seasonal conditions in their native environ- the Institution stations lie in a transect ments and are as different as are the across central California near 38 ° north climates of this varied topography. But from near the coast to the crest of the Sierra among the most interesting racial differ- Nevada; and Pullman is at 46° 40' north ences are the requirements for different in a continental climate well east of the day and night temperatures, as brought Cascades. These plants are therefore sub- out in the controlled greenhouse experi- jected to tests in both a latitudinal and an ments. altitudinal range of environments that These experiments show that members should yield conclusions of both scientific of one species from adjacent geographic and practical importance. areas but in different climatic zones may Seed of six of the more promising Poa require very different temperatures and hybrids were sent to the Scottish Associa- light conditions for their best development. tion for Research In Plant Breeding at Achillea lanulosa from a mid-altitude on Edinburgh at the request of Dr. J. W. the west side of the Sierra Nevada de- Grcgor for winter-active grasses suitable veloped best under warm days and cold for the mild coastal climate of western nights, conditions characteristic of the Great Britain. The trial plantings made spring and early summer seasons in its there will further extend the range of native environment, when most of its climates under which the new Poas arc growth is made. Forms from a similar tested. altitude but on the Great Basin side of the Sierra Nevada develop most rapidly under warm days and warm nights. Alpines of THE PHYSIOLOGIC AND GENETIC BASES OF the same species from the Sierran crest CLIMATIC RACES were not activated by cither of these two A primary step in the evolutionary proc- sets of experimental conditions, but re- ess is the organism's development of fitness sponded when additional light was sup- DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 97 plied. This is consistent with the higher genes freely without disturbing the in- light intensity found at high altitudes. On tricate developmental processes in their off- the other hand, the races of Achillea mille- spring. The organization of groups of folium from northern latitudes in Den- plants into climatic races and into species, mark and Lapland are physiologically therefore, appears to depend upon geneti- similar to the Great Basin race of lanulosa cally determined physiologic differences. from so much farther south, for they also develop rapidly when both days and nights NEW HYBRID POAS FOR DIFFERENT are warm. They and the Great Basin ENVIRONMENTS plants are so constituted that they can take full advantage of the brief, warm summers The working principles of this program of their native environments. and the previous progress have been dis- In marked contrast with these, the Achil- cussed in Year Books Nos. 43, 44, and 45. lea borealis forms from the mild but uni- Briefly, the basic idea has been to utilize formly cool California coast grow best the gene supply from a much wider source under cool days and cold nights, but they than that of the individual species in order grow slowly, coming from an environment to produce outstanding hybrids of agro- with a long growing season. On the other nomic importance. The inheritances of hand, a giant race of this species from species fitting very different climates were moist habitats in the hot San Joaquin Val- combined to produce for intermediate ley utilizes primarily the long summer for climates hybrids having wider climatic its growth, and, even under controlled con- tolerance than either parent. The proba- ditions, develops most rapidly under warm bilities of success in such an endeavor are days and nights. enhanced by crossing forms that do not Such differences in physiological be- occur together in the wild; in those that havior between plants that are morpho- occur together, hybridization and natural logically so similar that taxonomists dis- selection have presumably already sorted tinguish them only with difficulty reveal out the best combinations. Advantage was remarkably close correlations between their also to be taken of apomixis as an aid in activity patterns and their native environ- quickly establishing desirable new non- ments. The existence of such correlations segregating hybrids. suggests the manner in which natural selec- The finding that two-thirds of the tion must operate. hybrids between apomictic parents were It is evident from these and other experi- sexual, and only one-third apomictic, was ments that the balance between the plant unexpected. Some of the apomictic hybrids and its environment is intricate, and that it were rather highly sterile, also, and some may be attained in different ways. Such were weak, but still others had qualities differences are controlled by heredity, as of promise. Compensation for the un- is shown by the genetic experiments on expected segregations was found in the climatic races of Potentilla glandulosa. great variety of recombinations obtained, Furthermore, a suitable balance with any many of which were very vigorous, afford- given environment may be obtained ing much more opportunity for selection through very different heredities, and than in strictly apomictic forms. plants that have evolved different genetic Eleven species of Poa have been utilized mechanisms for controlling their physi- in the crossings. These are Poa ampla ology may not be able to exchange their Merr., nevadensis Vzsey9scabrella (Thurb.) CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Benth., Canbyi Piper, and gracillima The first seven combinations listed in the Vasey, all west American bunch grasses; table have been the most successful. Five P. pratensis L., compressa L.? arida Vasey, species—ampla, scahrella, pratensis, com- and nervosa Vasey, of the rhizomatous pressa, and arida—enter into these. Of the group; and the two more distantly related II species tried in these experiments, then, species P. longifolia Trin., a bunch grass, these appear to have the gene sets (ge- and P. arachnifera Torr., a dioecious nomes) from which new forms can most rhizome grass. Forty different strains of successfully be synthesized. It is note-
TABLE 1
INTERSPECIFIC CROSSINGS IN POA
RACIAL COMBINATIONS
No. OF SPECIES COMBINATIONS Fi PLANTS No. suc- No. tried ceeding
1. Poa ampla X pratensis 10 10 162 2. P. ampla X compressa (and reciprocal).. 3 2 9 3. P. ampla X arida (and reciprocal) 1 1 2 4. P. scabrella X ampla 2 1 3 5. P. scabrella X arida (and reciprocal) 1 1 5 6. P. scabrella X pratensis 14 8 56 7. P. scabrella X pratensis X ampla 2 2 10 8. P. scabrella X compressa 2 2 5 9. P. scabrella X arachnifera 4 1 1* 10. P. Canbyi X pratensis 2 2 3 11. P. gracillima X pratensis. 1 1 12 12. P. gracillima X scabrella (and reciprocal) 2 2 18 13. P. nevadensis X compressa 4 1 4f 14. P. nevadensis X longifolia 1 1 It 15. P. nevadensis X pratensis 1 0 0 16. P. eervosa X scabrella. 1 0 0 17. P. nervosa X Canbyi. 2 0 0 Totals 53 35 291
*Sterile. ISubtethaL these species, from very different climates, worthy that it has been impossible to use were used in the crossings* Of the 53 Kentucky bluegrass, P. pratensis, as the hybrid combinations attempted, 35 sue- female parent in any of the hybrids, al- cceded5 resulting In 281 Fi hybrids and 10 though it was frequently used successfully triple hybrids, obtained from among more as the male parent. than 52,000 seedlings. Fourteen different interspecific combinations were made, RESPONSES OF THE POA HYBRIDS TO which arc listed in table 1. Many of these DIFFERENT CLIMATES were made several times, using different The new hybrids resemble wild species races. in that they fit certain.environments better PLATE I
FEMALE PARENT MALE PARENT
AsF.XT \L PROGENY OF HYBRID Big bliicgrass frntn Palouse Prairie, Washington, the subarctic form of Kentucky bluegrass from Swedish Lapland, and one of their nonsegregating hybrid lines. All these are shown as they grow at Stanford. DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 99 than others. Their practical utilization de- at the mountain stations than at Stanford, pends upon discovering to which climatic but were not tested at Pullman. These conditions they are best adapted. A few results indicate that the hybrids between examples will serve to illustrate the kind Poa ampla from eastern Washington and of differences in climatic response that have P. pratensis from Lapland require winters been uncovered. that are colder than those in the California Poa ampla X pratensis alpigena. One lowlands. of the most promising new Poas in the Poa ampla X pratensis. A 96-chromo- Pullman nursery is an apomictic 63-chro- some spontaneous hybrid of this combina- mosome hybrid between a giant form of tion, originating in the Pullman nursery the big bluegrass, P. ampla, from near Pull- and discovered among seedlings grown at man, and a subarctic form of Kentucky Stanford, was described in Year Book No. bluegrass, P. pratensis alpigena, from 44, pp. 76-77. It makes excellent growth Swedish Lapland (plate 1). It is moder- at Stanford, much exceeding in vigor either ately vigorous even as far south as Stan- parental species. It reproduces sexually, as ford, but becomes much more productive is shown by the segregation among the farther north at Pullman. It is unlike any second-generation offspring, which also known species of Poa. At Pullman it is a grow vigorously at Stanford. At Pullman, freely tillering, very leafy form that has however, this hybrid is less vigorous than inherited from ampla glaucous herbage, at Stanford and less vigorous than its ampla large inflorescences, and winter-active parent. habit, even when subjected to heavy frosts, An explanation of these different reac- and from pratensis alpigena rust resistance, tions in the two environments may be increased tillering, rigid culms that do not inferred from the characteristics of the lodge, and extended summer activity. This parental forms, neither of which is native hybrid does not benefit by being moved in the Stanford region. The ampla parent from Stanford to the higher altitudes of is unsuited to the conditions of the Cali- the Sierran transplant stations, but from fornia coastal valleys, because during the its performance at jPullman seems to be warm, early summer it is heavily attacked especially suited to more northern latitudes. by rust and can seldom mature seed. A 70-chromosome sister hybrid of the Forms of pratensis, likewise, are not ideally same parentage is morphologically very fitted to this environment, because the different. It is weak at Stanford, but at the winter dormancy of this species places it mountain stations is stronger, and there it at a disadvantage as compared with the flowers freely- Unlike its apomictic sister winter-active native plants in this mild hybrid, it is sexual and segregates freely climate. When, however, the ampla and in the second generation. At Stanford only pratensis inheritances are combined in the 19 out of 300 second-generation seedlings hybrid, a winter-active grass is produced survived, but at Pullman 80 per cent sur- that is fairly resistant to rust and that re- vived, and there, among others, very mains active well into the summer, far rhizomatous, summer-active, and late-flow- outperforming either parental species at ering forms are segregated. Some of these Stanford. At Pullman the more severe derivatives combine the best characters winters force the hybrid into dormancy, from both parental species and are very but the ampla parent remains active. The vigorous. Two additional hybrids of the hybrid is thereby at a disadvantage and same parentage also proved to be stronger produces less total growth during the 100 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
season than its ampla parent. Here, then, viduals are winter-active and most vigorous are two species which, for different reasons, at Stanford and others most vigorous at are unable to populate the Coast Ranges Mather. A study of the second-generation o£ central California, but whose hybrid is progenies now under way will provide successful in this environment rather than more information regarding opportunities at its place of origin in eastern Washing- for selection in this combination. ton, where both species grow spontane- These examples of differences in environ- ously. mental responses provided by three hybrid Not all the ampla-pratensis combinations combinations between different races of are winter-active at Stanford like the one Poa ampla and P. pratensis illustrate the described above. For example, a cross be- evolutionary possibilities in combining tween the giant form of ampla from the climatically different races of the same two Palouse Prairie near Pullman and a mon- species to produce forms suited to very tane strain of pratensis from a meadow at different climatic niches. Mather, at 4600 feet in the Sierra Nevada, Poa ampla X compressa. Only a few yielded offspring that are for the most part high-quality grasses are available to provide winter-dormant. Moreover, all the 57 first- grazing in the West during the summer generation hybrids of this combination months. Late flowering is associated with grew very vigorously in the very different prolonged vegetative activity and is one of climates of the Stanford, Mather, and the best means of keeping a grass green Timberline transplant stations. At Stan- during the summer. Poa compressa, the ford they undergo a short winter dor- Canada bluegrass, is one of the latest- mancy, but remain active during the dry flowering species, and a hybrid between a summer when the native Coast Range form of it from the Mediterranean slopes races of Poa are forced into dormancy. of Asia Minor and a late-flowering Palouse Their very rhizomatous character and rust Prairie form of Poa ampla is the latest of resistance are notable at this station. At all the Poa hybrids. It remains green Mather this population is even more uni- throughout the summer and is resistant to formly vigorous and much more floriferous rust. Unfortunately,* however, all except than at Stanford, a fact which indicates one of these hybrids are highly sterile. This that it is generally better fitted to these fertile individual proved to be sexual and montane conditions. At Timberline it sur- produced highly variable offspring, but the vives with surprising success, breaking its second hybrid generation was so weak at winter dormancy more rapidly than do Stanford that only 80 out of 240 seedlings any of the other hybrids tried at that sta- survived, and of these only 22 flowered. It tion and developing faster than those that was found that a sample of this second are winter-active at Stanford. The vigor- generation grown at Pullman was much ous, rapid development of this hybrid at more vigorous.. than that at Stanford, so the mountain stations and the relatively that the apparent hybrid incompatibility poor flowering of many individuals at in this case is influenced by the environ- Stanford suggest that it is better fitted for ment. Although some inferior forms ap- environments with colder winters. The peared at Pullman also, approximately 30 individual variation within this population per cent of the offspring were very vigorous is such, however, as to make possible the grasses that had inherited the rhizomes, selection of outstanding performers at any late flowering, and rust resistance of their one of the three stations, for some indi- compressa parent, and some of the size DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 101 and leafiness o£ their ampla parent. A Although these forms grow vigorously highly desirable grass can probably be de- through the winter near the coast, where veloped from this combination, but it only light frosts occur, at Mather and would doubtless require a climate with a Timber line the much lower temperatures cold winter and a warm summer, such as force them into winter dormancy. As a is found in our Great Basin areas. consequence they are considerably weaker Poa scahrella X pratensis. This hybrid at these stations than at Stanford, although between the California bluegrass and the they are stronger than their scabrella Kentucky bluegrass combines a winter- parent. At Pullman, also, most of the active, summer-dormant bunch grass with scabrella-pratensis hybrids are forced into a winter-dormant, summer-active rhizome winter dormancy and are less vigorous grass. Some 33 second-generation progenies than at Stanford, although still much of this combination have been studied, all stronger than their scabrella parent, which from hybrids between a coastal southern barely survives. The most successful hy- California form of scabrella and races of brid of this combination at Pullman re- pratensis from Lapland, Canada, the Sierra ceived its pratensis chromosomes from a Nevada, and the Great Basin. Some of Great Basin race coming from a climate these progenies are apomictic, others are not unlike that of Pullman. This hybrid sexual and segregating. was the only one of this combination that In the garden at Stanford this hybrid is remained green through the winter at as winter-active as scabrella, developing Pullman, and, accordingly, it had some culms in midwinter and flowering from advantage over the others. late February through March. It and the These tests indicate that the present apomictic, nonsegregating F2 progenies scabrella-pratensis combinations are best are also moderately summer-active, thus fitted for climates with mild winters, like lengthening the growing season over that those where scabrella is native. Here, from of the scabrella parent by a month or two the agronomic viewpoint, it is superior to in the early summer and again in the fall; the scabrella forms, because of its extended they are briefly dormant in midsummer. season of growth. By using pratensis races The pratensis influence has also increased from climates with severe winters, it may the number of tillers considerably, al- be possible to produce hybrids that can though this hybrid cannot be classified as tolerate colder winters. Through selection rhizomatous. The result is a freely tiller- in the progenies of sexual hybrids, it ing bunch grass that in the California should be possible to develop winter- and Coast Range environment is more produc- summer-active rhizomatous grasses for the tive and stays green longer than the native coastal slopes on the west sides of the scabrella. continents, where the winters are relatively Its sexual F2 progenies are also winter- mild. active, but they segregate summer-dormant and summer-active forms and also the en- PARTIAL APOMIXIS: AN EVOLUTIONARY tire gamut from strict bunch grasses to LABYRINTH fully rhizomatous types. Some of the most promising of these scgregants are summer- Most of the wild perennial Poas are par- active and rhizomatous, having the ad- tially apomictic, that is, they reproduce vantages of an almost continuous growing principally by seed formed without fertili- season and a sod-forming habit. zation, but 5 to 10 per cent of their off- 102 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON spring differ in appearance from the ous. One such apomictic strain, derived uniform apomictic sister plants and pre- from some 15,000 seeds of a 59-chromosome sumably arise through the sexual process. compressa X ampla hybrid, consisted of Such aberrant individuals are regularly 53 vigorous plants of the apomictic mater- weaker than the normal apomictic off- nal type and 13 weak, sexual aberrants. spring and accordingly are seldom seen in This is a fertility of only 0.44 per cent. A the wild. Aborted seed is also common very different situation was found in one in wild forms. Since the apomictic Poas of the fertile hybrids of scabrella X pra- are chromosomally very irregular, it is tensis which was predominantly sexual. It probable that not only the weak aberrant produced 55 apomictic and 185 sexual off- seedlings, but also the aborted seed repre- spring among a total of 240, and in this sent sexual offspring that are genetically case the two kinds of offspring were about so unbalanced that they are unable to equally vigorous. develop. A weak apomict throwing some vigorous Some apomictic species, such as ampla sexual aberrants was found in a 73-chromo- and scabrella, are only about 30 to 40 per some sister plant of the ampla X pratensis cent fertile, whereas in others, such as alpigena hybrids already mentioned. This pratensis, the seed fertility approaches 100 plant was predominantly apomictic, for per cent. But even in pratensis, highly 217 of 240 second-generation progeny were apomictic individuals may produce a small of the maternal type but so weak that only fraction of weak, sexual aberrants, and 70 survived the winter at Stanford and other individuals may be highly sexual. only a few were able to flower. In addi- Thus it is evident that apomictic and tion there were 23 variable offspring that sexual processes exist concurrently in this had arisen by the sexual process. Most of genus, and that apomictic and sexual fer- these far outperformed the apomictic off- tility may vary independently. spring, and one was outstanding—the best Although the sexual process is still active of all the hybrids of this combination—a in the apomictic Poas, the apomictic type tall, vigorous, many-culmed, very leafy and is maintained through selection, because strongly rhizomatous individual. In this the apomictic fertility is greater than the case there is a complete reversal of the sexual, and the apomictic offspring are the situation characteristic of wild apomicts, more vigorous. In the wild only those for the apomictic offspring are weak and apomicts survive which possess this kind the sexual much stronger. This is an in- of balance between the asexual and sexual dication that even the weak apomicts may processes. In the experiment field, how- in time yield superior offspring. ever, we find that many new situations It was mentioned that two-thirds of the arise when one apomictic species is crossed hybrids between apomictic Poa species re- with another. This can happen because produce exclusively by the sexual process. under cultivation natural selection does not Some of these are weak and rather sterile, operate so rigorously on the new genetic others are weak but fertile, still others are combinations as it would in the wild. strong but fairly sterile, and, finally, a few In the garden, for example, some hybrid are fertile and have a high percentage of strains are predominantly apomictic yet so vigorous offspring. sterile that they could not maintain them- In the sexual hybrid progenies of Poa selves under competition, although the off- not all the parental characters segregate spring they do have are sufficiently vigor- completely. For example, all the second- DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 103 generation progenies of scabrella X pra- transplant stations are increasingly being tensis were winter-active despite the fact realized, and many biologists have visited that the pratensis parent was winter-dor- the stations for various purposes. Dr. Th. mant. The explanation of this unexpected Dobzhansky, research associate of the Car- observation probably lies in the fact that negie Institution from Columbia Univer- all the Poa species used in these crossings sity, has spent his third consecutive sum- have high chromosome numbers, and there mer at the Mather station investigating is independent evidence that their chromo- native populations of the fruit fly Dro- somes are already much duplicated. In sophila along the Sierran transect. This hybrids between such species, the chromo- year he has studied the occurrence of these somes of each parent should be able to races in relation to season and altitude. pair between themselves, preventing segre- Dr. G. L. Stebbins, Jr., of the University gation of the characters determined by such of California, visited the transect from duplicated chromosomes. This theory is Mather to Timberline several times, study- supported by the observation that chromo- ing the genetic races of blue wild rye some pairing is as extensive in the Poa (Elymus glaucus) and California brome hybrids as in the parental species. Both (Bromus carinatus). He has also estab- parents and hybrids have some unpaired lished small, uncultivated test plots in sun chromosomes. Considerable segregation is and shade at Mather for studying the possible on account of random distribution establishment from seed of races and hy- of these to the gametes. brids of Bromus. The possibility exists in Poa that when Dr. Mogens Westergaard, of the Uni- hybrids between apomictic species are versity of Copenhagen, Denmark, visited formed which reproduce sexually, these Timberline station in order to study and may in later generations produce apomictic preserve for cytological examination alpine forms again. From an evolutionary point plants that also occur, or have close rela- of view and for practical breeding purposes tives that occur, in Greenland. He was such a situation would be of utmost im- accompanied by Dr. F. W. Went, of the portance, for a period of sexuality after California Institute of Technology, who crossing would be of benefit as a means of made a study of the dwarf alpine annuals more thoroughly exchanging the parental there and collected seed for growing under characteristics. controlled conditions. Apomixis is a remarkable means of stor- A round-table discussion was held at the ing potentially great variation for possible Mather station on the role of genetics, later use in the evolutionary process. It physiology, and environment in the evo- would indeed be of considerable practical lution of natural local populations, climatic and theoretical importance were we able races, and species. Almost all the par- to break the apomictic bond periodically, ticipants spent two days at Timberline releasing the variability and then sealing station either preceding or following the it up again after a period o£ recombination. session at Mather. Those attending in- The first of these steps has already been cluded: Drs. Th. Dobzhansky, Columbia taken. University; F. W. Went, California Insti- tute of Technology; Mogens Westergaard, USE OF THE STATION FACILITIES University of Copenhagen, Denmark; The natural opportunities for biological D. G. Catcheside, Cambridge University, studies in the environs of the Sierran England; M. J. Heuts, University of 104 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Leuven, Belgium; G. L. Stebbins, Jr., Uni- A decision was reached to search for a versity of California; Carl Epling, Uni- group of plants having as nearly as possible versity of California at Los Angeles; Reed ideal characteristics for co-operative investi- C. Rollins, Stanford University; Carl Shar- gations on genetics, cytology, physiology, smith, National Park Service, Yosemite; ecology, and evolution. A feature of this and Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey of the conference was that cytogeneticists, physi- Institution staff. ologists, and taxonomists began to see Informal progress reports on current re- clearly how the investigations in their search programs of the participants brought respective fields contribute mutually to a out the diversity of patterns of fitness to comprehensible picture of how the evo- environment of plants and animals, as lutionary processes operate. well as the similarities in the ultimate ob- Other scientists who attended the Mather jectives of the group. Emphasis was placed conference on evolution used the oppor- on the physiological development of the tunity to advance their own botanical in- organism as synchronized with the perio- terests at the Sierran stations. Particular dicities of the environment, and on the mention should be made of the representa- genetic control of the physiological re- tive collection of mosses and liverworts as- sponses. Examples were taken from recent sembled in the Harvey Monroe Hall investigations on natural races of Achilka, Natural Area around Timberline station Potentilla, desert annual plants, tomatoes, by Dr. D. G. Catcheside, of Cambridge Drosophila, the stickleback fish {Gaster- University, England, the first such from osteus), guayule (Parthenium), evening this area. All these investigations will con- primroses (Oenothera), interspecific hy- tribute to the knowledge of the flora and brids of Poa, and natural hybrids between the ecology of the Hall Area, a preserve wheat grass (Agropyron) and wild rye established for scientific purposes some (Elym us); and from germination experi- years ago by the Forest Service in which ments at Mather on climatic races and is found a characteristic sample of the high- hybrids of brome grasses. altitude flora of the central Sierra Nevada.
PALEOBOTANY
RALPH W. CHANEY
Our studies during the past year have records both in North America and in continued to place emphasis on the record Asia. of Tertiary forests in the John Day Basin It is therefore of particular significance o£ eastern Oregon. The Mascall and other to consider the time and place of appear- Miocene floras of western North America ance of the black oaks (subgenus Erythro- are largely composed of genera which came balanus) with deeply lobed leaves. They in from the north. Cretaceous and Eocene arc first recorded in rocks of Lower Mio- ancestors of many deciduous hardwoods, cene age in the Gorge of the Columbia such as Acer, Alnus, Betula, Carpinus, River east of the Cascades, and before the Cercidiphyllum, Fagtis, Quercus, and Ul- end of the epoch were among the most tnus, lived largely at high northern lati- numerous trees. They have not been re- tudes; their migration southward in post- corded much farther northward either in Eocene time is indicated by many fossil fossil or in living floras, and are wholly DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 105 unknown in Eurasia. Had they been species, and the more restricted distribu- members of the Arcto-Tertiary Flora, their tion of their survivors. remains might be expected to occur with The beginnings of such local extinction those of oaks of other types in the Eocene and restriction may be noted during the of Alaska, and in the Miocene of China, later Tertiary history of the western United where a flora including many holarctic States. Whereas the Miocene record in- plants has been found in Shantung; they cludes a wide range in leaf form among the should also be found in the modern forests black oaks, the floras of the Pliocene show of Asia, where other oaks are common. reduction in numbers, in size, and in vari- The only known ancestor of the deeply ability. Prevalence of semiarid climate over lobed black oaks has been recorded by much of the western interior since the MacGinitie in an Eocene flora from the Pliocene, and of dry summers adjacent to foothills of the Sierra Nevada. This flora the Pacific coast, seems directly related to from Chalk Bluffs contains numerous the smaller size and reduced number of genera which are believed to have migrated species of surviving black oaks as com- northward from low latitudes, and it is pared with their occurrence in the eastern wholly possible that Quercus jalapensis United States under a continuing summer- came with them. Students of modern oaks wet climate. During the same time, oaks have suggested a center of origin for the with small, thick leaves and an ever- black oaks on the plateau of Mexico, where green habit (subgenus Protobalanus) have there are many living species; in any event, greatly increased in numbers and range in they could scarcely have come to Oregon California and Mexico. With the oaks as from the north. with other Tertiary trees, climate appears From Miocene time down to the present, to have exerted a controlling influence black oaks have made up an important part over distribution, leaf characters, and sur- of the forests in North America. More vival. Climatic changes of the future may than most Tertiary fossils, they and other be expected to modify further the forests oaks provide an illustration of gradual as we know them today. speciation during geologic time, with sug- A remarkable case of the survival of a gestions both of divergence and of con- forest with little modification from Middle vergence into a meshlike pattern of de- Miocene time down to the present has velopment. Recent discussion with Pro- been discovered during comparisons of the fessor E. B. Babcock and Professor G. Mascall flora with existing vegetation. On Ledyard Stebbins, Jr. has indicated that the flood plain of the Wabash River in the high variability of leaf form in Quercus southern Indiana, most of the common is consistent with the genetic make-up of trees such as swamp cypress (Taxodium modern members of the genus. Like most distichum), red oak (Quercus borealis), widespread living plants, the oaks are shagbark hickory (Carya opatd), slippery heterogenic, including large numbers of elm (Ultnus fulva), and swamp cotton- bio types which may be grouped into more wood (Populus heterophylla) have Mio- or less distinct ecotypes. Ready interpol- cene equivalents in the Mascall flora which lination by wind has tended to accentuate lived thirty million years or more ago. their heterozygosity, and great genetic Several genera recorded as fossils no longer variability is the result. Ultimately we may live in Indiana, but the resemblance be- anticipate the extinction of many living tween these two units of vegetation is so io6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON close as to permit more than usually ac- their southward shift later in the Tertiary curate reconstruction of the Miocene period, constitutes another well docu- climate and topography of Oregon. mented record of plant migration under As was suggested above, the vegetation compulsion of climatic change. Lingering of the Eocene at middle latitudes appears behind, certain of the hardier members of to have had its origin largely at the south. the Neotropical-Tertiary Flora, such as Preliminary studies of the Clarno flora hind era, Cedrela, and Oreopanax, were from the John Day Basin are showing the absorbed by the Miocene floras from the presence of cycads and ferns, as well as north. Together with the black oaks above broad-leafed evergreens, whose living mentioned, these southern genera illustrate equivalents are confined to low latitudes. the manner in which plants from more The northward movement of these and than one center of origin may become other members of the early Tertiary forest, mingled in a fossil flora, and suggest an to which the group designation Neotropi- explanation for the survival of certain cal-Tertiary Flora has been assigned, and aberrant trees in the forests of today.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CLAUSEN, JENS, DAVID D. KECK, and WILLIAM M. sium and phosphorus in relation to chloro- HIESEY. Heredity of geographically and eco- phyll formation. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, logically isolated races. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 69, pp. 1492--1496 (1947). vol. 81, pp. H4-I33 (i947)- SPOEHR, H. A. The coming of age of the Ameri- HIESEY, WILLIAM M. See CLAUSEN, JENS. can Society of Plant Physiologists. Plant KECK, DAVID D. A revision of the Artemisia PhysioL, vol. 21, pp. 386-392 (1946). vulgaris complex in North America. Proc. STRAIN, HAROLD H. Conditions affecting the se- California Acad. Sci., vol. 25, pp. 421—468 quence of organic compounds in Tswett ad- (1946). sorption columns. Indust. and Engineering See CLAUSEN, JENS. Chem., analytical ed., vol. 18, pp. 605-609 SMITH, J. H. C. Organic compounds of magne- (1946). DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY Baltimore, Maryland GEORGE W. CORNER, Director The Department of Embryology is ing their full time to research in the happily able to report a year of undis- laboratory, and several medical students tracted work, during which all the mem- and other guest investigators giving part bers of the Department have been present time to research. and with a number of competent younger Dr. Walter S. Wilde, who joined the staff associates and guests have been engaged in 1944 as assistant and collaborator of upon their respective parts of our program Dr. L. B. Flexner, resigned in March 1947 of investigation. The details of their work to accept a very favorable appointment in will be reported below. the National Institute of Health. During In December 1946, Dr. Margaret Reed his relatively short connection with the Lewis retired from the Carnegie Institu- Department of Embryology, Dr. Wilde tion. Dr. Lewis was appointed "collabora- proved himself a fertile and stimulating tor" on January 1, 1915, and thereafter investigator. until the current year was continuously Washington Buno, M.D., professor o£ engaged in research in the Department of histology and embryology in the Uni- Embryology. Her numerous valuable con- versity of Montevideo, spent the year from tributions have dealt with problems of May 1946 to May 1947 in the Department blood cells and connective-tissue cells in on a Guggenheim fellowship. His work tissue culture, with various aspects of ex- on early abnormal embryos will be reported perimental cytology of the living cell, with below. vital staining, problems of growth and im- L. J. Wells, Ph.D., associate professor of munity in malignant tumors, and other anatomy in the University of Minnesota, related topics in the field of normal and came as Guggenheim Fellow from January abnormal cytology. In 1940, when Dr. to May 1947, Warren H. Lewis retired from this depart- Dr. S. Culver Williams, assistant pro- ment and joined the staff of the Wistar fessor in charge of dental anatomy in the Institute for Anatomy and Biology in Philadelphia, Dr. Margaret Lewis trans- University of Pennsylvania, devoted two ferred her work to the Wistar Institute, months in the summer of 1946 to the study remaining however a member of the Car- of early development of the teeth. Dr. E. negie Institution. It is a pleasure to add Carl Sensenig, at the time connected with that arrangements have now been made the Department of Anatomy in Tulane for Dr. Lewis to carry on at the Wistar University, New Orleans, returned in the Institute her investigations in immunity summer of 1946 as in the previous years, and resistance of cancer cells, which have to work on the embryology of the spinal attracted international attention. column. The staff now consists of five senior in- Mrs. Poldi Grabherr, staff photographer vestigators, including the Director. As- of the Chilean National Department of sociated with these is a varying number Health Laboratory, Santiago, spent a fort- (usually four or five each year) of fellows, night in the laboratory observing technical guest investigators, and other persons giv- methods in scientific photography, 107 io8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
PROGRAM OF INVESTIGATIONS Morphological studies. Dr. C. H. duous work on this subject, which will Heuser, curator of the Embryological Col- appear in volume 33 of Contributions to lection, has continued during the year his Embryology with drawings by Mr. Di- investigations on early stages of primate dusch based on intricate plastic-sheet embryos. In particular, he has prepared models by Dr. Ramsey. a model and made intensive studies of a Dr. Washington Burio devoted about human embryo lent to the Department by half his time to studying a collection of Professor Bradley M. Patten, of the Uni- abnormal early embryos of the rhesus versity of Michigan. This is of special monkey that were set aside by Dr. Heuser value in connection with the problem of when he and Dr. Streeter were making the origin of the yolk sac in man, a ques- their comprehensive study of the normal tion that has been much debated in recent embryology of rhesus (Contributions to years, and to which it is hoped the embryos Embryology, no. 181, 1941). The material of the second week being accumulated in thus placed at Dr. Buiio's disposal is this laboratory will ultimately give a clear unique, because the embryos were bred in answer. Dr. Heuser has also given con- the laboratory by Dr. Hartman and are siderable time to the study of the early accompanied by breeding data, by the endo- baboon embryos obtained at Johannesburg metria, and in many cases by the ovaries, by Dr. Joseph Gillman (see below, "Co- so that the condition of the uterus and operative activities"). corpora lutea may be studied. Dr. George L. Streeter has completed Dr. Sensenig continued his investigation another two stages of his extensive work of the embryology of the human vertebral on horizons of development (see recent column, which he proposes to carry on to previous Year Books), and has devoted deal also with the anomalies of develop- much time, during the year just past, to a ment, many of which, e.g. spina bifida, are study of the development of bone in human of importance in surgery. embryos, with special reference to the time Dr. Wells undertook a study of one of sequence of the stages of development and the most complicated topics in human em- their relation to the growth and differenti- bryology, the development of the dia- ation of other organs. phragm and the pleural cavities. Dr. F. P. Dr. Elizabeth M. Ramsey, of Washing- Mall, founder of this Department, was ton, has been spending two days each deeply interested in the same subject and week in the laboratory for several years wrote what was the standard contribution except when interrupted by her wartime in his day. Dr. Wells has been able to re- service at the National Research Council, investigate the same embryos that were making an intensive study of the develop- used and illustrated by Mall, comparing ment of the blood vessels of the placenta of them with many newer specimens. In the rhesus monkey. For this work a num- work of this type the command of model- ber of monkeys were especially bred by ing techniques possessed by the staff of Dr. C. G. Hartman and later by Dr. the Department is of especial value. Dr. Corner, and the placentas at selected stages Wells' models were demonstrated at the of pregnancy were prepared for study by April meeting of the American Association injection of the blood vessels with India of Anatomists. An article based upon them ink. Dr. Ramsey has completed her ar- will be published later. DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY 109
Mr. Lawrence R. Wharton, Jr., of Johns early 18th day of the menstrual cycle. Al- Hopkins Medical School, working under though this specimen is probably abnormal, the guidance of Dr. Streeter and Dr. Burns, these three specimens, constituting as they completed an account of a case of dupli- do the only preimplantation stages of the cation of the ureter in an embryo of the human ovum thus far observed, tend to collection, comparing it with a second, less prove that the segmenting ovum reaches advanced anomaly of the same sort gener- the uterine cavity early on the 4th day after ously placed at his disposal for study by ovulation (and fertilization). At this stage Dr. S. I. Kornhauser, professor of anatomy it has approximately six to eight blasto- at the University of Louisville. meres and as yet shows little if any seg- Collection of very early human embryos. mentation cavity. It still has a vitelline Dr. Arthur T. Hertig, of Boston, research membrane. associate of the Carnegie Institution of That two and indeed possibly all three Washington, and his colleague Dr. John of these very early human embryos are Rock have submitted a report on their probably abnormal is not surprising. Dr. work done under a special grant from the Corner has shown that in pigs about 30 departmental budget, from which the fol- per cent of all embryos are abnormal, and lowing is excerpted: that one-third of these are already defective During the past year twelve uteri ob- in the phase of segmentation. Thus, ability tained at operation, and thought likely to of an ovum to implant, even though it is contain early embryos, have been studied. or subsequently becomes defective, prob- Most of the effort was concentrated on ably requires more robustness of the em- seeking preimplantation phases of the bryo than does mere segmentation. Hence human embryo. Two such specimens were the "very bad eggs" are weeded out in this found free in the uterine cavity. The phase of development and will therefore younger specimen (no. 8450) consisted of be proportionately more numerous among eight blastomeres arranged in a discoid these very early embryos than among those instead of a spheroid form as normally ex- which have the ability to implant on the pected, and is considered to be abnormal. endometrium. It will be recalled that of The associated endometrium and corpus the 23 implanted human ova found by luteum indicated that the ovum was about Hertig and Rock in the past nine years, 3% days old. Coital data were not incon- almost 40 per cent show some abnormality, sistent with this estimate, but not precise often of such a serious nature that it is enough to be of much use. incompatible with normal continuation of The older specimen (no. 8452) was com- the pregnancy. posed of twelve blastomeres of various Experimental embryology. Dr. R. K. sizes, shapes, and staining densities ar- Burns has continued the study of opossum ranged in the customary spheroidal fash- embryos (pouch young) subjected to ex- ion. The specimen, which is estimated to perimental treatment with sex hormones. be 4 days of age, was found on the 18th He was able to resume on a small scale the day of the menstrual cycle. As in the program of new experiments, which had previous specimen, coital data are con- become impossible during the latter part sistent but not critically useful. of the war period because of the unavail- It will be recalled that in 1943 a free ability of experienced trappers. nine-cell morula (no. 8190) was discovered Miss Faith Wilson, fellow in zoology at in the uterine cavity on the late 17th or Johns Hopkins University, has been as- no CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON signed to this Department to do her thesis keys with the assistance of Dr. Corner and work under the direction of Dr. Burns and Mr. Rever, who have had much experience has made our laboratory her headquarters in abdominal surgery in the monkey. Suc- during the past two years. Miss Wilson cess in hypophysectomizing the fetal mon- is studying certain phases of embryological key would contribute much to our knowl- development of reproduction in the Syrian edge of the effect of the pituitary gland in hamster, Cricetus aureus. This little ani- fetal growth. The relatively long term of mal, similar to the rat in its anatomical gestation, and the thorough knowledge of structure, has the shortest gestation period the proportions and weights of fetal and known among mammals (except the mar- neofetal monkeys with which experi- supials). Its young, born only 16 days after mental material could be compared, made ovulation, are in some respects quite im- the enterprise tempting; but formidable mature at birth. This is particularly true technical difficulties were encountered and of the reproductive system, which is the it does not seem profitable to continue object of Miss Wilson's research. The testis along this line at present. and ovary do not exhibit the kind of in- Biophysics; growth; enzymes. The pro- ternal structure which indicates endocrine gram of investigation of the physiology of function until about 25 days after birth. the placenta as an organ of transfer, led by The chief aim of the investigation is to Dr. Louis B. Flexner, was explained at study the degree to which the sex pattern some length in Year Books Nos. 41 (1941- of the accessory sex organs may be altered, 1942) and 43 (1943-1944). As was men- during their relatively indifferent early tioned in last year's report, these researches stages, by administration of sex-gland hor- and associated studies on the still broader mones and by early castration. An effort questions of the permeability of blood is also being made to find out whether the capillaries elsewhere in the body, and the adrenal cortex influences the differentiation distribution of water in the tissues, have of the accessory sex organs. For this study been resumed after a lapse caused by the the hamster has another advantageous war. The Department of Embryology has peculiarity: in the newborn female certain been fortunate in having the active co- rudimentary male structures are more than operation of the Department of Terrestrial ordinarily well developed. The female Magnetism. hamster develops good-sized corpora caver- Dr. Gilbert J- Vosburgh, of the Depart- nosa, a relatively large glans clitoridis, an ment of Obstetrics of the Johns Hopkins os priapis, and even a rudimentary prostate University and Hospital, has actively par- glaad. If the adrenal cortical hormone is ticipated in the studies on general and androgenicj the female hamster offers a placental permeability. Dr. Louis Hell- test object in which such an androgenic man, a senior member of the same depart- property should show its effects with es- ment, has collaborated in consultation and pecial readiness. Miss Wilson's studies are by the provision of clinical material. Dr. progressing well and will, no doubt, reach Roy O. Scholz, of the Wilmer Ophthalmo- publication In her doctoral dissertation. logical Clinic at Johns Hopkins, has taken Dr. L. J, Wells, who before coming to part in studies on general permeability and visit the laboratory developed an ingenious especially on the transfer of fluids in the method of removing the hypophysis of chambers of the eye. the fetal rat by operation in utero, at- Dr. Flexner is also conducting research tempted a similar operation in two mon- under a grant from the Committee on DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY III
Growth, National Research Council, acting adult. The activity of acid phosphatase in for the American Cancer Society. The the liver at all stages of gestation is greater general aim of this program is to investi- than in the cerebral cortex, and unlike that gate the morphological and biochemical in the cortex is relatively low up to a gesta- changes which occur in cells during em- tion age of about 42 days, when it begins bryonic growth, to correlate these changes, to increase to the adult level, reached at and to relate them to -the onset of char- birth. acteristic functions in an organ. The liver Physiology of gestation. Dr. S. R. M. and cerebral cortex of the embryonic Reynolds has continued his comprehensive guinea pig are now being investigated study of the physiology of the pregnant from this viewpoint. With Virginia Peters, uterus and of the fetus. The results of this on leave from the National Cancer Insti- study are now appearing in various scien- tute, quantitative cytologic analyses of liver tific journals. A summary of those articles and cerebral cortex are being made for which were published during the year will the purpose of determining what propor- be found below, in the section on "Pub- tion of the growth of these organs is due lished research." Dr. Reynolds has found to the increment in volume of their several that calculable hydrostatic forces in the constituent morphological parts: hepatic uterine tissues play a large part in the re- cell cytoplasm, hepatic cell nucleus, extra- duction of local blood flow. These forces vascular blood-forming cells, and extra- depend upon the characteristics of growth cellular space in the case of the liver; of the uterus, the shape of the products of nucleus and cytoplasm of nerve cells and conception, and the prevailing hormonal extracellular space in the case of the cortex. relations of the ovary and placenta. De- Biochemical investigations with J. B. Flex- tailed studies of the rearrangements of the ner have as their major aim an evaluation blood vessels of the uterus during preg- of the energy-rich phosphate compounds nancy have shown how these interrelations (creatine phosphate, adenosine di- and tri- operate. Investigations of this sort point phosphates) as they may be related to rate the way toward better understanding of the of growth and to degree o£ morphological problems of advanced pregnancy and of and functional differentiation. The first the mechanisms concerned in the onset of step is to investigate the activity of phos- parturition- Dr. Reynolds has also studied phatases which are concerned, according the anatomy of the blood vessels of the to current concept, in liberating energy ovary, utilizing the beautiful technique of from these compounds. The critical time injection with a colored plastic substance in the development of adenosine triphos- (vinylite) followed by removal of the phatase activity in cerebral cortex and liver tissues by digestion with acid pepsin, leav- is at about the 42d day of gestation (term ing the blood vessels, or rather a cast of 66 days). Prior to this time the activity of them in durable plastic. The results of the enzyme is at a constant and low level. this study of the ovarian vessels are sum- At the 42d day the activity begins to rise marized below under "Published research." sharply to reach the adult level at birth. Dr. Reynolds has devised and con- Acid phosphatase in the cerebral cortex is structed, with the aid of Mr. Heard, of at a constant level of activity during the this Department, and of engineering firms whole of that period of gestation which has (in particular the Statham Laboratories, been studied, and is about twice as active Inc., Los Angeles, California), an instru- per unit dry weight of tissues as in the ment for recording the contractions of the CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
late pregnant and parturient human uterus. eye of the rabbit, have yielded information By the use of ingenious devices employing bearing upon the theory of the menstrual "strain gauges" which are highly sensitive cycle, part of which is detailed below to local pressure, and which can be applied under "Published research." to the patient's abdomen, the contractions Histology and physiology of the repro- of the underlying uterus may be detected ductive cycle; experimental teratology. at several places at once and may be re- Dr. George W. Corner, director, has con- corded on a paper tape. The apparatus is tinued his studies on the histology of the expected to be useful in studies of normal ovary. Ovaries from women of known and abnormal parturition, and will be put reproductive history, collected by Dr. E. J. into use at once in the Woman's Clinic of Farris, of the Wistar Institute, have been Johns Hopkins Hospital in collaboration subjected to study and are yielding in- with members of the Department of Ob- formation as to the structure of the early stetrics, Johns Hopkins University. human corpus luteum at successive stages Mrs. Lyla T. Bradin, a graduate student of development. Dr. Corner has also been of zoology at Johns Hopkins University, collaborator with Dr. Buno and Dr. Kaiser has been working under the direction of in the studies next to be reported. Dr. Reynolds, with financial support from Dr. Buno and Dr. Corner began during the Ciba Corporation, of Summit, New the year an experimental attack on the Jersey. Her investigations deal with the problem of prenatal mortality in mammals. susceptibility of newborn animals to oxy- Using rabbits, which are especially suitable gen deprivation. It is obvious that the for such experiments, the attempt was sudden substitution, at birth, of air breath- made to produce an unfavorable environ- ing for intra uterine respiration of oxygen ment for the early embryos by introducing borne by the mother's blood is a change toxic substances into the mother's blood to which critical adjustments must be stream. In a relatively large number of made. The young of various species differ experiments, a few anomalies of develop- widely as to the degree of maturity at ment were produced, presumably as a birth, and the response to oxygen depriva- result of the experimental procedure. Since tion appears to be an index of maturity. Dr. Buno's departure in May, Dr. Corner Utilizing this index, correlation is being has continued the work. sought between it and conditions existing At Dr. Corner's suggestion Dr. Kaiser in the uterus before birth, chiefly as these took up and expanded some unpublished are affected by the shape of the conceptus. experiments of Dr. Corner on the action Promising results are being obtained, of the drug prostigmine upon menstrua- which will be published at a later time. tion in the rhesus monkey. In recent years Dr. Irwin S. Kaiser devoted part of his a number of physicians have reported that time during the year to a study, under the this drug will bring on menstruation in general direction of Dr. Reynolds, of the women when the flow is delayed. Dr. effects of certain hormones and drugs, Corner conceived the idea of trying pro- i.e. the estrogens, acetylcholinc, atropine, stigmine on rhesus monkeys during the and the antihistarninic substance pyri- summer, when menstruation is generally benzaminc, upon the blood flow through in abeyance. The negative results of his the uterus. The observations, which were tests were confirmed by Dr. Kaiser, who made chiefly upon grafts of uterine tissue also tried the effect of prostigmine upon growing in the anterior chamber of the spayed monkeys treated with estrogen, DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY with and without progesterone in various breakdown of the endometrium resembling combinations. The menstruation-inducing menstruation do not have intricately coiled action of prostigmine reported in women endometrial arteries like those observed has therefore not been confirmed for mon- in Old World primates (human, chim- keys in the special circumstances under panzee, rhesus monkey, etc.). It is thus which these experiments were done. Sub- probable that the coiling is not per se sequent tests by Dr. Corner, in part on necessary for cyclic hemorrhage. the same individual monkeys, show that A paper by Dr. Kaiser on this subject, they are capable of menstruation-like bleed- offered in competition, won the Founda- ing in the summer, if given a brief course tion Prize of the American Association of of treatment with progesterone. Sudden Obstetricians, Gynecologists and Abdomi- termination of such treatment is usually nal Surgeons, awarded in September 1947. followed by menstruation-like bleeding. Dr. Kaiser also undertook a study of Cerebral blood vessels. Mrs. Dorcas H. the arteries of the uterine lining (endo- Padget, whose monograph on the develop- metrium) in various species of primates, ment of the cerebral arteries of man will using material from the Department's col- appear in volume 32 of Contributions to lection and also a number of specimens Embryology, is now working on a similar provided by courtesy of the Department study of the later development of the of Anatomy, Harvard Medical School. He cerebral veins, under a grant made to Dr. found that certain New World monkeys Corner for the purpose by the Life In- which are stated to undergo periodic surance Medical Research Fund.
CO-OPERATIVE ACTIVITIES The co-operative association with Dr. the baboon. Meanwhile the embryos previ- Joseph Gillman, of the University of the ously sent by Dr. Gillman have all been Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South serially sectioned and are under study by Africa, mentioned in Year Book No. 44 Dr. Heuser, as mentioned above. has continued. During the past year Dr. Co-operative enterprises carried on with Gillman sent two more baboon uteri. That Dr. A. T. Hertig and Dr. John Rock, of these both proved not to contain embryos Boston, with the Johns Hopkins obstetrical was disappointing, but not altogether a and ophthalmological clinics, and with the surprise, for all investigators who have Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of attempted the breeding of very early mam- the Carnegie Institution have been men- malian embryos have obtained a certain tioned in the section on "Program of in- proportion of infertile matings. Although vestigations." the fund provided for this work by the The facilities of the monkey colony have Carnegie Corporation of New York has been made available for experiments by been expended, the facilities set up in Dr. Roger B. Scott, of the Department of Johannesburg will continue, it is confi- Gynecology, Johns Hopkins Hospital, on dently expected, to furnish material for the experimental production of endome- embryological studies. Dr. Gillman visited triosis, a subject close to the interests of the laboratory again in July 1947, at which this department. As in former years, we time plans were laid for continuation of have housed several monkeys which are the effort to obtain implantation stages of subjects of a long-continued and thus far CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON negative experiment on the production of consultation with Dr. Carl G. Hartman tumors in monkeys by estrogenic hor- when the latter was a member of the mones, begun by Dr. C. F. Geschickter in Department.
THE CONTRIBUTIONS TO EMBRYOLOGY Since the foundation of the Department corpus luteum. The conclusions were of Embryology it has been the custom to summarized in the annual report for publish many of the completed investiga- 1944-1945, Year Book No'. 44. Pre- tions in a series of Contributions to Em- liminary note in Science, vol. 100, pp. bryology. The Contributions include suit- 270-271, 1944. able articles written by our own immediate 208. Harold Speert, The normal and experi- mental development of the mammary staff, by our colleagues in the Department gland of the rhesus mon\ey, with of Anatomy of Johns Hopkins University some pathological correlations. This when relevant to the Carnegie program is a comprehensive report with 19 of research, by visiting investigators, and plates dealing with problems not dealt in rare cases by outside authors, if they with or only tentatively discussed in have used material from the Department's Dr. Speert's several papers in various collections or in some other way have been journals 1940-1942 (see Index Medi- especially associated with the Department. cus for references). Experimental work in physiology and bio- 209. Emil Witschi, Migration of the germ physics from the Department laboratories cells of human embryos from the yol\ not requiring elaborate graphic illustra- sac to the primitive gonadal folds. tions is published in the special journals 210. Joseph Gillman, The development of the of those branches of science. gonads in man, with a consideration of the role of fetal endocrines and the Manuscripts for volume 32 were turned his togenesis of ovarian tumors. over to the Office of Publications in July These two articles, written by well 1946. Owing to wartime conditions, some known investigators on the basis of of them had been in hand, awaiting clear- studies made during visits to the Car- ance of volume 31, for as much as two negie laboratory, provide definitive years. The volume was almost ready for accounts of the embryology of the press at the end of June 1947 and will gonads and the germ cells in man. doubtless appear before this annual re- 211. George L. Streeter, Developmental hori- port is circulated. Inasmuch as the print- zons in human embryos. Description ing of the Contributions to Embryology is of age groups XV, XVI, XVII, and expensive and the edition, both of bound XVIII. Third of the series mentioned volumes and of reprints, is therefore lim- in Year Book No. 44, bringing the ited, the contents of the long-delayed survey and classification of the human volume will be summarized here for the embryos of the Carnegie Collection benefit of professional readers who may down to about 36 days ovulation age. wish to know what is forthcoming. 212. Dorcas Hager Padget, The development of the cranial arteries in the human The articles are as follows: embryo. Illustrated by comprehensive 207. George W. Comer* At\dine phosp-ha- graphic reconstructions. Mentioned in tase in the ovarian follicle and in the Year Book No. 44. DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY 115 PUBLISHED RESEARCH PHYSIOLOGY OF THE UTERUS rhesus monkey and the human species are During the year 1946-1947 the work of similarly measured, it appears that a simi- Dr. Reynolds on the physical forces in- lar change of form of the enlarging uterus volved in accommodation of the uterus to takes place at approximately the same pro- the growing products of conception (em- portionate phase of gestation. It is possible bryo, placenta, membranes, and amniotic and indeed likely that the analysis made fluid) yielded valuable results which he by Dr. Reynolds will help to explain the has published in the anatomical, physio- physiological and pathological phenomena logical, and obstetrical journals (see bib- of uterine accommodation in women. liography below). A summary of these Dr. Reynolds has measured the rate of results was presented at the annual meet- blood flow in the pregnant rabbit's uterus ing of the American Physiological Society. by the ingenious method of injecting a The following resume is based largely on small dose of cyanide into the uterine veins a general discussion which Dr. Reynolds and recording the time required for the published in the American Journal of Ob- poison to reach the carotid sinus and cause stetrics and Gynecology for June 1947, and a respiratory gasp. which sets forth in full detail the concepts He finds that the local circulation of he has developed. maternal blood in the uterus about the The work has been done on the rabbit. conceptus decreases gradually as the latter To make subsequent statements clear, the increases in size. Suddenly, as the con- reader should be reminded that in this ceptus reaches maximum spheroid size, a species the embryos are spaced along the profound decrease in uterine circulation two tubular horns of the uterus. As they (i.e. ischemia) takes place. As soon as the grow, each embryo causes local enlarge- conceptus changes shape, by elongation, ment of the surrounding uterus, in ap- the rapid circulation of maternal blood is proximately spherical form, so that each restored. uterine horn bears a series of nodular en- Hydrostatic forces within the uterus are largements. When pregnancy is about two- also related to the fshape of the conceptus. thirds advanced (about day 22), the con- While the latter is spheroid the radii in- ceptuses no longer increase in diameter, crease, with growth, in three dimensions, but enlarge lengthwise, so that the entire but after it becomes cylindrical only the uterine canal is filled out by the now lengthwise dimension increases. By simple roughly cylindrical conceptuses, and the calculation it is shown that the tension of uterine horn itself is no longer nodular but the wall now increases in linear rather cylindrical. than in geometric proportion, thus easing From his geometrical analyses and calcu- accommodation of the uterus to its con- lations Reynolds points out that the sig- tents during the period of greatest absolute nificant feature of this change of shape, growth of the conceptus. as it is related to pressure within the con- Reynolds has shown previously that the ceptus and to the flow in the uterine walls, growth of the uterus itself, necessary to is that in the last third of pregnancy the enable it to contain the conceptus, occurs radius of curvature of the transverse sec- chiefly during the period of maximum tion of the uterine horn no longer changes. uterine tension. Consequently, after the When the single-chambered uteri of the change in form, the uterine tissue, already n6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON sufficiently increased in amount, is "paid whole rabbit uterus observed following out" as it is stretched. estrogen administration is probably due to It is further shown by use of perfected changes in the myometrium. A different technical methods (plastic corrosions) that mechanism must be invoked to account for the uterine ischemia, mentioned above, and the phenomena seen in the endometrium. its ensuing relief follow a pattern which The possibility that estrogens act on may be explained on the basis of the hydro- endometrial blood vessels, dilating them, static forces and that the arrangement of by means of local production of a hista- the uterine arteries and veins is such as to mine-like substance can be explored, as make them readily adaptable to the abrupt Dr. Kaiser also reported to the American change of form. There is reason to believe Physiological Society, by the use of anti- that rabbit, monkey, and human have in histaminic agents. One of these, pyri- common the feature that during the phase benzamine, is found to cause no change in of principal elongation of the uterus, con- the color of a piece of endometrium grow- ditions are such that local tension of the ing in the anterior chamber of the eye and tissues about the region of entry and exit under the influence of estrogen from the of the uterine blood vessels is held to the animal's ovaries. It does, however, produce lowest possible level compatible with rapid an increase in the frequency and duration enlargement of the fetus. of contraction of the myometrium in the The period of transitory ischemia just graft. The implication, which requires before the change of form is a time of further study, is that the active circulation special danger to fetal nutrition. in the small endometrial vessels, under the Expulsive force of the uterus. At the influence of estrogen, is not caused by 1947 meeting of the American Physiologi- histamine. cal Society, Dr. Reynolds and Dr. Kaiser presented the results of experiments in THE OVARIAN ARTERY which the highly sensitive strain-gauge dynamometer was adapted to measure the Using the vinylacetate corrosion method, absolute expulsive force of the uterus (of Reynolds has demonstrated, in the rabbit, animals). The report concerned itself the previously unnoticed fact that the with the apparatus and technique. ovarian artery runs through the hilum of Physiology of the endometrial blood the organ in a conspicuously spiral course. pessels. At the same meeting Dr. Kaiser From the coils of this spiral artery, second- discussed the effects of certain drugs and ary branches carry blood to the tissues of hormones on the blood vessels of the endo- the ovary. Two suggestions are offered as metrium in intraocular grafts. Both atropin to the functional value of this striking and estrogens were found to halt the arrangement: rhythmic activity of the vessels. Estrogens (1) The coiling may serve to allow for also cause dilatation and increase the num- orderly lengthening of the artery as the ber of functioning capillaries. Atropine ovary is enlarged by successive pregnancies. does not prevent or reverse the action of This hypothesis has been tested experi- estrogens in this respect* These observa- mentally by Dr. Reynolds (Endocrinology, tions necessitate a revision of the so-called June 1947; see bibliography below) by cholincrgic concept of the acute action of causing the rabbit's ovaries to grow rapidly estrogens on the endometrial vessels. The by injection of gonadotrophic hormoee. increase in acetylcholinc content of the The spiral arteries were found to undergo DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY 117 wider spacing of their coils, with extension been chosen, because its placenta belongs of the loops so that two or three days after to the same type as the human (hemo- the stimulating injections the coiling had chorial) and because its period of gestation been altered to mere sinuosity. is long enough to permit separation of dif- (2) The coiling may serve to bring about ferent stages of development. orderly and rapid reduction of the blood The present research deals with the pressure in the artery. It follows from this permeability of the guinea pig's placenta that irregularities in the pattern of the to inorganic phosphorus. Radioactive so- ovarian artery may contribute to the de- dium hydrogen phosphate was used as the velopment of pathological states of the tracer substance; it was prepared in the ovary. This possibility receives a certain cyclotron of the Department of Terrestrial degree of confirmation from the observa- Magnetism. As usual in such experiments, tions of Reynolds on rabbits' ovaries in measured amounts of the tracer substance, which hemorrhagic cysts of some of the of known radioactivity, were injected into corpora lutea occurred as a result of the veins of pregnant animals. After ap- stimulation with gonadotrophic hormone. propriate intervals of time the fetuses were In these ovaries the injection-corrosion delivered by abdominal hysterotomy ("Cae- preparations of the blood vessels showed sarean section") under anesthesia, and the distortions of the coiled arteries in the amount of radioactive substance in them vicinity of the cysts. It is suggested that was determined by an electroscopic instru- distortion of the spiral artery may con- ment (pressure ionization chamber con- tribute to development of the cysts by nected to a string electrometer). The permitting the transmission of excessive necessary technical precautions and mathe- blood pressure during the growth of the matical calculations are explained in this ovary under the influence of gonadotrophic and previous articles by Dr. Flexner and hormone. his colleagues. The chief conclusions from the experi- ments are: (1) The rate of transfer of PERMEABILITY OF THE PLACENTA inorganic phosphorus per unit weight of During the current year another con- placenta increases about 10 times from the tribution on placental permeability has 31st day of pregnancy until term. (2) The been published by Drs. Walter Wilde, placenta is about 10 times as permeable to Dean B. Cowie, and Louis B. Flexner. water as to sodium, and about twice as Previous studies of the group led by Dr. permeable to inorganic phosphate as to Flexner have been devoted to comparing sodium. (3) Unlike sodium and water, the permeability of placentas of the four which in previous investigations have been principal types found in mammals. For found to be supplied to the fetus in this purpose radioactive sodium was used amounts much larger than the quantities as the test substance. A striking systematic incorporated in the growing tissues, inor- difference in permeability, related to the ganic phosphate reaches the fetus from the known differences in structure, has been maternal plasma in an amount approxi- demonstrated. mately equal to the total phosphorus re- The next step is to study the permeabil- tained in growth. The quantity of phos- ity of the placenta to various substances phorus thus retained by the fetuses is large which normally occur in the maternal as compared with the amount of inorganic blood. For this purpose the guinea pig has phosphorus in the maternal blood plasma. n8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
A ioo-gm. fetus, for instance, retains in mit practically complete equilibration of each hour 1.5 to 2 mg. of phosphorus, a sodium between blood and extravascular quantity about equal to all the inorganic water. The deuterium oxide goes every- phosphorus in its mother's plasma. The where in the body along with the ordinary implication is that maternal phosphorus water; the tagged sodium goes everywhere stores are essential in the maintenance of that ordinary sodium goes, that is to say, growth of the fetus and that these stores into all the extracellular fluid, but not into may be the organic molecules containing the cells, which it does not normally enter. phosphorus, from which the phosphorus is As a consequence of this difference, the liberated by enzyme activity as needed. sodium distributes itself between the blood, on one hand, and the fluid that lies be- DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN THE INFANT tween and about the cells and in the body Tracer techniques afford the possibility spaces, on the other hand. The water dis- of estimating the proportion of the total tributes itself between the blood, on one water in the body that is extracellular, i.e. hand, and all the rest of the body, includ- in the blood, other body fluids, and extra- ing the cells, on the other hand. Having cellular spaces in the tissues, rather than thus a larger space to fill, more of it (pro- within the cells. The volume of extracel- portionately) than of the sodium leaves the lular fluid in adult man has been meas- blood. Thus the blood sample after 3 ured repeatedly by use of sodium tagged hours has lost more of the heavy water with its radioactive isotope. The first such than of the tagged sodium. The difference estimate for the newborn human infant tells us what proportion of the water has has now been reported by Flexner, Wilde, gone into the cells; and the degree to Proctor, Vosburgh, Cowie, and Hellman. which the heavy water in the blood be- The results obtained give essential informa- comes diluted with ordinary water, ex- tion for the current studies on the perme- changing with it from the tissues, tells how ability of the human placenta, as well as a much of the body is water. The calcula- sharp, consistent answer to the significant tions are explained by Dr. Flexner and his questions: What proportion of the body, colleagues in their paper. by weight, in the newborn is water? and The result is that the newborn infant is how much of this water is extracellular? found to be 74.6 per cent water. This Sodium chloride, tagged by radioactive figure, obtained as described from living sodium having an intensity of radiation healthy infants, is almost exactly the same safely below that known to produce bio- as that found by previous investigators logical effects, was dissolved in water con- (lob and Swanson) who desiccated a still- taining deuterium oxide (heavy water). born infant. Flexner and his colleagues The solution was injected into a vein of found that the extracellular water in the the infant. Two and one half to three newborn infant is 43.5 per cent of the body hours later a sample of blood was drawn weight. This too agrees well with an from a vein. It is known that such an estimate (43 per cent) made by Harrison, interval is long enough to permit thorough Darrow, and Yannet by calculation from distribution of the heavy water, that is* to the chloride content of the stillborn infant. get it into equilibrium between the blood The new observations greatly strengthen and the water outside the blood vessels. available evidence that the process of It is also known to be long enough to per- growth is accompanied by an increase in DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY 119 the ratio of the intracellular to the extra- of modifying these dyes so as to make cellular water. them more effective in their action on tumors and less toxic for animals. THE ANATOMY OF HARELIP Dr. Ferdinand C. Lee, of the Johns MICROTOMY Hopkins Hospital Surgical Clinic, became One of the chief problems in the precise interested in the orbicularis oris muscle, sectioning of delicate structures such as which serves as a sphincter of the mouth, human embryos is distortion of the section because of his experience in several opera- caused by compression by the knife. Most tions for double harelip. Finding that it microtomes abruptly shear the section from is important to know how much of the the block of paraf&n or celloidin (or paraf- orbicularis oris is present in such cases, he fin-celloidin) in which the specimen is em- undertook a detailed study of a specimen bedded, by pushing the knife edge directly in the Carnegie Collection (no. 5605), a through the matrix. Thus the tissues are 5-months-old Negro infant whose body compressed in the direction of the cut. was presented by Dr. Harold Cummins, Although the error thus introduced may of Tulane University, because of multiple be minimized by proper embedding and congenital abnormalities. The deformities by skillful arrangement of the conventional of the hand and foot have been described microtome, residual distortion remains a previously by Dr. Streeter. Dr. Lee's de- problem even with expert technique. Mr. scription will be of interest in detail to O. O. Heard, senior modeler of the De- plastic surgeons. In brief, the orbicularis partment of Embryology, has given a good oris muscle in this child with double hare- deal of thought to this problem and has lip was found to be well developed at the attempted a solution by making the knife corners of the mouth but to become thin slice, rather than push, through the block. and fragmentary as the ala of the nose is To this end he modified an ordinary slid- approached. ing microtome by fitting it with a circular knife that is made to undergo rotary mo- ACTION OF DYESTUFFS ON TUMORS tion as it passes through the block, thus The observations of Dr. Margaret R. slicing through the tissues like the familiar Lewis, of the Department's staff, and her rotary meat cutter seen in butcher shops. coworkers at the Wistar Institute on the The knife, however, does not rotate con- effect of the dyestuff Nile blue on sarcomas tinuously, but stops for manual removal have been followed by tests of a large series of the section and then reverses its rotary of related dyes. Two dyes of the oxazine movement as it is returned to the starting series (Nile blue and cresyl violet), twelve point of the microtome track to begin the xanthine dyes, including acridine red and next cut. The cutting is done with a wet rhodamine B, and five acridine dyes were knife, as is usual in this laboratory in sec- found to stain transplanted sarcomas selec- tioning human embryos embedded in tively and to retard their growth when ad- paraffin-celloidin. ministered to the host mice in their diet. Mr. Heard had to design and construct All these dyes also stained spontaneous not only the knife and the knife-carrier mammary gland adenocarcinomata when assembly, but also a special machine for fed to tumor-bearing mice. sharpening the circular edge, under micro- Studies are under way on the possibility scopic observation, to a high precision both 120 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON of radius and of cutting edge. The ap- handling the sections, which to some ex- paratus is fully described in his paper. tent counterbalance the reduction of dis- The instrument as constructed causes tortion. Whether or not the circular knife about 40 per cent less compression of the ultimately wins general adoption, it is section in the direction of advance of the certain that the thoughtful work of knife, all other conditions being equal, i.e. Mr. Heard has greatly enriched the knowl- embedding media, knife angles, and work- edge possessed by our staff of the physical ing temperature. The use of a microtome and mechanical problems involved in the so unorthodox introduces new problems in cutting of thin serial sections.
DIFFUSION AND POPULARIZATION OF RESULTS Several members of the staff (Burns, active tracers, and took part himself. Dr. Flexner, Corner) each lectured once or Corner served during the year on the com- twice by invitation to the first-year medical mittee that organized a series of scientific students of Johns Hopkins University, broadcasts in the intermission of the Sun- Dr. Burns was asked to discuss his work day afternoon concerts of the New York before the seminar of the Department of Philharmonic Orchestra. On April 13 he Biology of Princeton University. Dr. Rey- gave the concluding talk of the series, nolds spoke by invitation to the Spring "Light on the blood capillaries." Seminar of the Ciba Corporation, Summit, Arrangements have been made by which New Jersey, discussing responses of the the motion picture films on cell growth, uterus to drugs. He also took part in a segmentation of the egg, and tumor cells panel discussion on menstrual disorders, made by Dr. Warren H. Lewis prior to his held by the Section on Obstetrics and retirement in 1940 are to be made available Gynecology of the American Medical As- for distribution by the American Cancer sociation at its annual meeting in June Society. The Department of Embryology 1947. In April Dr. Reynolds addressed a will retain title to the negatives, leaving large meeting of the (Negro) Women's them in the care of Dr. Lewis, who will Cooperative League, in connection with supervise the editing of the films and the National Negro Health Week, speaking on preparation of duplicate negatives from problems of the menopause. which prints will be made for distribution. Dr. Flexner gave the Director valuable A set of prints of all the films thus far assistance in arranging a symposium of the edited from negatives made in this labora- National Academy of Sciences on radio- tory has been deposited with us.
BIBLIOGRAPHY BURNS, R. K., JR. Review: Human embryology, Review: New aspects of John and Wil- by Bradley M. Patten. Anat. Rcc, vol. 98, liam Hunter, by Jane M. Oppenheimcr. pp. 103-105 (1947). Quart. Rev. BioL, vol. 22, pp. 62-63 (1947). CORNER, G. W. The ovary at the time of ovula- — Review: Patterns of mammalian repro- tion. In: The problem of fertility: pro- duction, by S. A. Asdell. Amen Jour. Phys. ceedings of the Conference on Fertility held Anthropoid n. s., vol. 5, pp. 100-101 (1947). under the auspices of the National Com- — Radio talk: Light on the blood capil- mittee on Maternal Health (edited by Earl laries. One of a series, "Serving through T. Engle), pp. 67-73, Princeton University Science/' by American scientists, on the Press (1946). New York Philharmonic Symphony pro- DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY 121
gram sponsored by the United States Rubber a concept of uterine accommodation. Anat. Company, and broadcast by the Columbia Rec, vol. 95, pp. 283-296 (1946). Broadcasting System. Pamphlet, New York — Relation of maternal blood-flow within (broadcast April 13, 1947). the uterus to change in shape and size of CORNER, G. W. Review: My eyes have a cold the conceptus during pregnancy; physio- nose, by Hector Chevigny. Yale Rev., vol. logical basis of uterine accommodation. 36, no. 3, pp. 542-544 (1947). Amer. Jour. PhysioL, vol. 148, pp. 77-85 COWIE, D. B. See FLEXNER, L. B.; WILDE, W. S. () FLEXNER, L. B., W. S. WILDE, N. K. PROCTOR, A spiral artery in the ovary of the D. B. COWIE, G. J. VOSBURGH, and L. M. rabbit. Amer. Jour. Obstet. and Gynecol., HELLMAN. The estimation of extracellular vol. 53, pp. 221-225 (i947)- and total body water in the newborn human Differential uterine tensions and the infant with radioactive sodium and deu- flow of maternal blood through the uterus terium oxide. Jour. Pediat., vol. 30, pp. 413— during pregnancy. Federation Proc, vol. 6, 415 (1947)- p. 188 (1947)- See WILDE, W. S. Adaptation of the spiral artery in the GOLAND, P. P. See LEWIS, M. R. rabbit ovary to changes in organ size after HEARD, O. O. Microtomy with a reciprocating stimulation by gonadotrophines: effect of circular knife and a mechanism for sharpen- ovulation and luteinization. Endocrinology, ing the knife. Rev. Sci. Instruments, vol. vol. 40, pp. 381-387 (1947). 17, pp. 227-232 (1946). Distortion of the spiral artery in the HELLMAN, L. M. See FLEXNER, L. B. ovary associated with corpus hemorrhagicum KAISER, I. H. Modification by anti-histaminic cysts. Endocrinology, vol. 40, pp. 388-394 agents of estrogenic effects on endometrial (i947>- blood vessels in intraocular transplants. Uterine accommodation of the products Federation Proc, vol. 6, p. 139 (1947). of conception: physiologic considerations. Effects of atropine and estrogens on Amer. Jour. Obstet. and GynecoL, vol. 53, endometrial blood vessels in intraocular pp. 901-913 (1947). transplants. Federation Proc, vol. 6, p. 139 and I. H. KAISER. Application of the strain gage dynamometer to quantitative See REYNOLDS, S. R. M. evaluation of uterine activity in experimental LEE, F. C. Orbicularis oris muscle in double animals. Federation Proc, vol. 6, p. 188 harelip. Arch. Surg., vol. 53, pp. 407-413 (1946). (i947)- LEWIS, M. R., P. P. GOLAND, and H. A. SLOVITER. SLOVITER, H. A. See LEWIS, M. R. Selective action of certain dyestuffs on sar- VOSBURGH, G. J. See FLEXNER, L. B. comata and carcinomata. Anat. Rec, vol. 96, WILDE, W. S., D. B. COWIE, and L. B. FLEXNER. pp. 201—220 (1946). Permeability of the placenta of the guinea PROCTOR, N. K. See FLEXNER, L. B. pig to inorganic phosphate and its relation REYNOLDS, S. R. M. The relation of hydrostatic to fetal growth. Amer. Jour. PhysioL, vol. conditions in the uterus to the size and *47> PP. 360-369 (1946). shape of the conceptus during pregnancy: See FLEXNER, L. B.
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New Yor\ M. DEMEREC, Director In many ways the year 1946-1947 was instability in all the cases examined. Two very different from any we have experi- separable factors are known to be associ- enced in recent times. In comparison with ated with the expression of instability. The the early postwar period, a definite im- first factor is concerned with the particular provement was evident in respect to the state of the unstable locus in cells of a accessibility of scientific instruments, labor- developing tissue. The state of a locus is atory equipment, and chemicals. Some reflected by the time of occurrence of improvement was noticeable also in the phenotypically visible mutations and by the obtainability of materials needed for the frequency and distribution of these muta- upkeep of our plant, but many essential tions. During development, the state of a items were still hard to procure. During locus may change abruptly. The second this year our Department received two factor is concerned with a change at the grants: one from the United States Public unstable locus that gives rise to a pheno- Health Service, for Kaufmann's research typically recognizable altered expression of dealing with the nature of the changes in- the locus. Both the changes in state and duced in the living cell by irradiation; and the change that alters the action of a locus the other from the American Cancer So- appear to be associated with events that ciety, for studies of the mutagenic capaci- occur during a mitotic cycle. During the ties of carcinogens. past year Dr. McClintock's attention has An expansion in research activities in been concentrated on one of these mutable general, brought about by the influx of loci because its actions and its location in new funds, has accentuated the shortage of the chromosomal complement are partic- scientific personnel. We have felt this ularly favorable for an analysis of the fac- shortage particularly as it relates to special- tors associated with mutability. Instability ized workers eligible for fellowship ap- of this locus occurs only when an inde- pointments. Fortunately, we have not yet pendently inherited dominant factor is like- experienced any difficulty in filling research wise present in the nucleus. When this assistantships. dominant factor is removed from the The research activities of the Depart- chromosome complement by appropriate ment are making satisfactory progress to- crosses, the mutability of the unstable locus ward the goals set by our program. In is completely suppressed. When the domi- McClintock's work on maize, a number of nant activator is reintroduced into the mutable loci have appeared during the nucleus by appropriate crosses, instability past few years in the cultures grown to of the locus reappears. Mutations at the determine the factors involved in a par- particular locus may be followed in all ticular but unrelated type of mutation tissues throughout the life cycle of the process. Preliminary investigations of some plant. In the sporophytk tissues muta- of these mutable loci indicated that a tions occur only late in development. common underlying phenomenon was In the endosperm, on the contrary, mu- probably associated with the expression of tations may occur at all stages In de- 1,23 I24 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON velopment. Changes in state o£ the un- caused by a position effect and do not de- stable locus, however, may occur at any pend on the production of the rearrange- time during the development of either the ment for their origin and expression. From endosperm or the sporophytic tissues. Al- a consideration of the extensive data that though changes in state of a locus and the he has now collected, Kaufmann has con- subsequent changes in frequency and dis- cluded that near infrared radiation acts tribution of visible mutations are inter- as a "sensitizing" agent in increasing the related, the alteration that is associated frequency of X-ray-induced chromosomal with a change in state and the alteration rearrangements by facilitating recombina- that results in a phenotypically visible tion, probably at the expense of restitution, mutation are distinct and separable. Be- among the group of potential breaks in- cause the action of the unstable locus duced by the ionizing radiation. The pre- chosen for intensive study lends itself to cise definition of the time of action of near cytological as well as genetic analyses, infrared radiation emphasizes the potenti- efforts are being concentrated on the visible alities of this agent as a tool in experi- chromosomal alterations that accompany ments designed to modify the recombina- mutations at the unstable locus. tion aspect of the process of induced McClintock interrupted her studies of structural change. the mutable loci in maize during the fall Working in Kaufmann's laboratory dur- and early winter of 1946 in order to con- ing the summer of 1947, Marcia Kelman tinue, at the California Institute of Tech- Iddles has extended the series of observa- nology, the investigations of the chromo- tions on the extent of nonhomologous somes of Neurospora begun several years association among the discs of the salivary- earlier. There were two primary objectives gland chromosomes of D. melanogaster. for this interim study: (1) to improve the About 350 cases of this type of association techniques so that chromosome conditions have now been observed in a study that in the important stages might be more is furnishing information concerning the readily revealed, and (2) to obtain a set of distribution of heteroehromatic and dupli- photographic illustrations of the behavior cated euchromatic regions along the vari- of the chromosomes during ascosporo- ous chromosomes of this species- genesis. These primary objectives were McDonald has continued her efforts to accomplished. In addition, a more detailed perfect methods for the preparation of and complete knowledge of chromosome purified crystalline enzymes. She was suc- organization and behavior was obtained. cessful in devising a method for the prepa- In an extension of the series of studies ration of ribonuclease—an enzyme capable utilizing near infrared radiation, Kauf- of depolymerizing ribonucleic acid but not mann has found that this agent, which desoxyribonucleic acid—free from all meas- previously had been shown to increase the urable traces of proteolytic activity. By frequency of X-ray-induced chromosomal using this enzyme in cytochemical studies, rearrangements in Drosophila melano- Kaufmann has been able to show that the gaster, decs not modify the frequency of chromosomes, as well as the nucleolus and X-ray-induced recessive lethal mutations in cytoplasm, contain measurable quantities this species. Since about 35 per cent of of ribonucleic acid. Kaufmann and Mc- these lethals were found to be associated Donald, with the assistance of Miss Helen with chromosomal rearrangements, it Gay, whose services have been provided by seems clear that lethals. of this type are not a grant from the United States Public DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS I25
Health Service, have also succeeded in de- mutation rate is high during the first few veloping a test for the in situ localization divisions, as compared with later divisions. of tryptophane-containing proteins. Beale perfected the method devised two MacDowell has confirmed earlier indica- years ago (Year Book No. 44, p. 115,1945) tions of a mother's-age factor in mice that for studying the mutation rate in dividing strongly modifies the incidence of spon- bacteria. He was able to follow the muta- taneous leukemia in hybrids from non- tion rate during about twelve bacterial leukemic mothers. Young mothers give generations. For mutation from B (bac- many leukemics, old mothers few. For a teria sensitive to phage) to B/i (bacteria new experiment to test the possible trans- resistant to phage Ti), the rate is 7 X io"9 mission of this inhibiting factor through per bacterial division. mother's milk, the four classes of young It was previously known that in the gall from old and young mothers divided be- midges (Diptera, Cecidomyidae) the nuclei tween young and old nurses have been of the germ-line cells (primordial germ born, nursed, and weaned. A filterable, cells, oogonia, spermatogonia) contain far virus-like agent of mild pathogenicity has more chromosomes than the somatic cells, been separated from the leukemic cells of and it was assumed that the germ-line cells line-I leukemia, with which it has probably were polyploid (octoploid, decaploid, etc., been long associated. according to the species). An investigation Within the past two years methods have made by White of a species of cecidomyid been developed by Demerec and his col- which is a pest of box hedges has shown laborators for studying the mutagenic that this assumption is untrue; and it now properties of chemicals, using Drosophila appears that there are two kinds of and bacteria. During the summer of 1947 chromosomes in cecidomyids—those that a general survey was made of the genetic are confined to the germ line and those effectiveness of carcinogens, which are sus- that occur both in the soma and in the pected by geneticists of being mutagenic. germ line. The former are eliminated Extensive experiments carried on by from the future somatic nuclei at one of Demerec with aerosols of a number of the early cleavage divisions. Dr. White has carcinogens and chemically related sub- studied the mechanism o£ this elimination stances have shown that mutations may be in the species mentioned above. He has induced by some of these in Drosophila also carried out work on the salivary- males, A considerable degree of correla- gland chromosomes of a number of species tion was observed between mutagenic and of gall midges. carcinogenic capacities, indicating a com- Professor Th. Dobzhansky, of Columbia mon causative relation between the two. University, research associate of the Car- The most obvious and probable relation negie Institution, has studied the dynamics between mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of changes occurring in Drosophila pseudo- is the one suggested by the hypothesis that ohscura by investigating natural popula- cancer may originate through a gene muta- tions of the fly in localities near the gardens tion occurring in a somatic cell. of the Division of Plant Biology o£ the Newcombe has made a detailed investi- Carnegie Institution at Mather, California, gation of the spontaneous mutation rate in and also by observing the behavior of mix- bacteria. He found that when resting bac- tures of various types under controlled teria are used to begin an experiment the conditions in the laboratory, where flies 126 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON are raised in specially constructed "popula- of this view by conducting specially de- tion cages." He has found that the pro- signed experiments with Drosophila. portion of certain types in wild populations During the year several changes in scien- changes with the season. Similar changes tific personnel have occurred. Dr. S. G. are observed under laboratory conditions Stephens, who had held the position of when the temperature is varied. Since these research associate since June 1, 1945, left changes are extremely rapid, the differences the Department in December 1946 to col- in the adaptive values between various lect cotton in Mexico and Central America types must be very great. Professor Sewall for the Empire Cotton Growing Corpora- Wright, of the University of Chicago, has tion and the United States Department of computed that, taking the adaptive value Agriculture. At present he is continuing of heterozygotes to be i.o, the adaptive research on the cytogenetics of cotton at value of one homozygote is about 0.7, and the Department of Agronomy, Texas Agri- that of another homozygote as low as 0.4. cultural Experiment Station. Professor The finding of such large differentials Michael J. D. White, of the University of among normal constituents of a natural London, stayed with us as a guest in- population is most unexpected, since it has vestigator from April through August customarily been assumed in modern bi- 1947. Dr. Evelyn M. Witkin held a fel- ology that the intensities of natural selec- lowship of the American Cancer Society. tion operative in nature are, except for ab- With the return of peacetime activity, normalities and pathological conditions, the benefits to be derived from our co- very low. The material accumulated by operation with the Biological Laboratory Dobzhansky on Drosophila is sufficiently of the Long Island Biological Association extensive to be compared with material ob- are increasing. The 1947 summer sym- tained by Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey, of posium on "Nucleic Acids and Nucleo- the Division of Plant Biology, in their proteins" brought to Cold Spring Harbor work on the local races of some plant a distinguished group of scientists in- species. It is of interest to note that the fly terested in the problems being investigated Drosophila fscudoohscura exhibits essen- by members of our Department, and pro- tially the same kind of differentiation into altitudinal races that has been observed by vided opportunities for our staff to discuss them for certain plants. their work with them. Of the approxi- mately 150 participants, seven had come It is well known that mutations that from Europe for the purpose of attending arise in the laboratory are mostly dele- the meeting. These were Professor and terious, or at best neutral, to the viability of their carriers. This seems to contradict Mrs. Edgar Stedman from Edinburgh, the view, now held by most biologists, that Professor J. N. Davidson from London, the mutation process supplies the raw ma- Professor J. M. Gulland from Nottingham, terials of evolution. The apparent 'Contra- Drs. H. Hyden and B. Thorell from Stock- diction is usually resolved by supposing holm, and Professor Andre Boivin from that some mutations, although harmful in Strasbourg. Three years ago, as part of a normal environment and in combination the summer activities of the Biological with genes normally present in the species, Laboratory, a course was organized by may be useful in other environments and Dn M. Delbriicfc on methods used in in combination with other genes. Dob- studies with bacteriophages. This course, zhansky has obtained evidence in support which has been offered each year since DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 127
then, is designed primarily for research versity. It brought to Cold Spring Harbor, workers who either expect to work with among others, the nuclear physicists Drs. phages or wish to obtain a better under- Leo Szilard and Aaron Novick, from the standing of the problems involved in such University of Chicago, P. Morrison, from research. It attracts particularly those scien- Cornell University, and R. B. Roberts, tists who are interested in the borderline from the Department of Terrestrial Mag- fields of biology, physics, and chemistry. netism of the Carnegie Institution, with This year the course was given by Pro- whom we were glad to discuss our fessor Mark Adams, of New York Uni- problems.
THE GENE
M. DEMEREC, E. M. WITKIN, H. B. NEWCOMBE, AND G. H. BEALE The principal object of our group dur- the aerosol, which is piped through plastic ing the past year has been the study of tubing into a half-pint milk bottle, where spontaneous and induced mutability in the large droplets occasionally thrown out bacteria (Escherichia coli) and in Drosoph- by the nebulizer are retained. From this ila. Using methods previously worked bottle the aerosol is piped into a similar out, an effort was made to determine the bottle containing fly food and the flies to mutagenic properties of various chemicals. be treated. Excess aerosol is carried from In this work we were assisted by Misses the bottle containing the flies through M. N. Crippen, Nancy McCormick, and another tubing into the air; or, if the Jessie Flint, Mrs. Jennie Buchanan, and chemical being used in treatment is toxic, Mr. John Derby, and during the summer the excess aerosol is passed through acti- months by Mr. W. E. Baty, science teacher vated charcoal before being discharged into at the Huntington High School, Misses the exhaust. Aerosol generation is started Margaret Lieb, Patricia St. Lawrence, by turning on the pump. Treatments are Dorothy Wei, and Reba Mirsky, and usually of long duration—up to 200 hours Mr. Clifford Tengelsen. or longer, depending on the toxicity of the chemical used. As a rule, flies are kept in the same bottle throughout treatment, MUTAGENIC POTENCY OF CARCINOGENS AND but the bottle is changed if it becomes too CHEMICALLY RELATED COMPOUNDS moist or sticky. The aerosol is generated During the past two years M. Demerec periodically, every 30 minutes for 30 sec- has developed an aerosol method for the onds. Since this is regulated by an electric treatment of Drosophila males with solu- time switch, treatment can be carried on tions of various chemicals. This method without any attention except for occasional was considerably improved during the examination of the flies to make certain summer of 1947 by the introduction of that they are surviving the treatment. By various technical refinements. At present, means of this system, flies are kept in an air pressure is generated by an electric air atmosphere containing an aerosol of a pump, and a constant air flow of approxi- chemical solution, and this atmosphere is mately 6 liters per minute is passed into renewed every 30 minutes. Since a major- a DeVilbiss glass nebulizer, no* 40, con- ity of the aerosol droplets have a diameter taining about 5 ml. of the solution to be of 1.5 microns or less, they arc able to used in treatment. The nebulizer generates penetrate into the tracheae of the heavily 128 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
tracheated testes, and thus the chemical war. As already reported (Year Book used in treatment may reach the sperm No. 45, pp. 156-157), it gave positive present there. results. Sperm from treated males was tested Since the work began we had been for possible genetic changes by the usual planning to test the mutagenic capacity of methods. For determining the frequency carcinogens; but we were hesitant to of gene changes, observations were made start work with aerosols of such poten- on X-chromosome lethals. In the early tially dangerous chemicals until we were experiments, the CIB method was used, certain that our method was effective. In but in all the more recent work Muller's 1940 we had made an attempt, in co- double-inversion stock sc8 wa B was util- operation with Dr. A. Hollaender, of the ized. The advantage of using this stock National Institute of Health, to induce is that cultures containing only a few flies mutations in Drosophila by raising them as well as those containing lethals can be for 12 generations on food containing di- tested with ease through another genera- benzanthracene, and also by treating the tion. Because of the difficulties involved flies so obtained with ultraviolet radiation. in such tests when CIB is used, cultures Both experiments gave inconclusive results. having a few flies are disregarded, and When proof of the effectiveness of the since they contain a larger proportion of aerosol method was obtained, experiments lethals than other cultures this tends to with 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene were under- lower the frequency of lethals shown in taken. As indicated in table 1, these gave the final results. positive results (Nature, vol. 159, p. 604, In the early part of the work, which 1947). was begun in June 1945 (Year Book No. With the aid of a grant from the Ameri- 39, pp. 215-216; No. 45, pp. 156-157)? can Cancer Society, the research to test several reducing and oxidizing chemicals, the mutagenic potencies of carcinogens was as well as dyes, were tested, but no evi- considerably extended, beginning in July dence of mutagenic effect was obtained. 1947. During the summer, tests were car- At that time the maximum length of ex- ried on with 21 carcinogens and related posure was 16 hours, and so it is not certain chemicals. These tests covered: (1) in- that a longer period of treatment might duction of mutations (lethals) in the X not have been effective in some cases. chromosome; (2) location of mutations Positive evidence that the aerosol method along the chromosome, in order to discover was effective in inducing mutations was possible specific effects; (3) detection of obtained when nitrogen mustard—methyi- chromosome rearrangements coincidental foV(bctachlorocthyl)arainc—was used. The with mutations, and cytological analysis of work of Auerbach and Robson, of the such rearrangements; and (4) detection of University of Edinburgh, had shown that translocations involving any two of the mutations may be induced in the sperm of four chromosomes, with cytological anal- Drosophila males by exposure to vapors of ysis of such translocations. These experi- cither mustard gas or nitrogen mustard. ments are still in progress, so that only a Therefore it was reasonable to expect that preliminary report will be given here. The an aqueous aerosol of nitrogen mustard tests concerned with induction of muta- would be effective. Our experiment was tions have progressed farthest, and some made as soon as the chemical became avail- of the data obtained in these experiments able to D5^ shortly after the end of the are given In table 1. Experiments with 17 DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 129 chemicals have advanced far enough so along the X chromosome, indicating that that these chemicals may be classified into the mutagens responsible for these muta- four groups so far as mutagenic capacity tions are not specific, but affect genes at is concerned: (1) positive; (2) probable, random. where the results so far are positive, but An examination of table 2 shows tests have not yet been carried through that three potent polycyclic hydrocarbon the third generation; (3) questionable, carcinogens—namely, dibenzanthracene, where results indicate a slight effect, and methylcholanthrene, and benzpyrene—are additional experiments are needed before also positive mutagens. Of the four a conclusion is reached; and (4) negative, chemically related noncarcinogens, pyrene
TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF DATA ON X-CHROMOSOME MUTATIONS (LETHALS) OBTAINED FROM MALES TREATED WITH SEVERAL CARCINOGENS
MUTATIONS TREATMENT No. SPERM DIFFERENCE D./S.E. TESTED No. % db S.E.
Control: none 1342 2 sesame oil 2540 7 total 3882 9 0.23 db 0.077 Positive: 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene. 3257 31 0.95 db 0.17 0.72 ± 0.19 3.8 methylcholanthrene 3727 24 0.64 ± 0.13 0.41 db 0.15 2.7 benzpyrene 4299 25 0.58 d= 0.12 0.35 db 0.14 2.5 sodium desoxycholate. . . 2561 26 1.02 db 0.20 0.79 ± 0.21 S.S ^-hydroxyazobenzene 2416 15 0.62 db 0.16 0.39 db 0.18 2.2 Negative: alpha-naphthylamine.., . 2591 5 0.19 ± 0.086 ^-diethylaminobenzene. . 1690 2 0.12 db 0.084 ^>-dimethylaminobenzene 3219 0.25 db 0.088 pyrene 1172 0.26 d= 0.15 where the data now available do not show and phenanthrene are not mutagenic, and any effect. See table 2. anthracene and benzanthracene are in the Up to now, chromosome aberrations questionable class, that is, they are either have been detected only in experiments nonmutagenlc or slightly mutagenic. For with dibenzanthracene and benzpyrene. the tested chemicals of this group, there- Three cases of inversion (one consisting of fore, the correlation between mutagenicity two inversions in the same chromosome) and carcinogenicity may be considered very have been found among 28 chromosomes good. carrying lethals induced by dibenzanthra- A carcinogenic member of the naphthyl- cene, and one inversion has been observed amine group (beta) has questionable muta- among 15 lethals from benzpyrene. genic potency, and a noncarcinogenic In the materials tested, induced muta- member (alpha) is nonmutagenic. In this tions have been distributed at random case the mutagenic potency of beta (as CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 130
tested with Drosophila), if present at all, through the tracheae and tracheoles. Since is not so high as its carcinogenic potency. the testes are well supplied with tracheoles, Of the six azo compounds tested, two a considerable amount of the aerosol must are mutagenic, two are probable, and two reach them. In order, however, that an are negative. In this group three non- aerosolized chemical may reach the sperm carcinogens are either mutagens or prob- and induce a genetic change there, it must able mutagens, whereas only one car- pass through the tracheolar cells, the hemo- cinogen (p-dimethylaminoazobenzene) has lymph, and the cells constituting the mem- brane of the testes. Any obstruction or TABLE 2 failure at any point along this path would
LIST OF CARCINOGENS AND RELATED CHEMICALS AR- reduce the effectiveness of the chemical or RANGED ACCORDING TO MUTAGENIC CAPACITY, suppress it entirely. Consequently, failure AS DETECTED IN DROSOPHILA to obtain positive results after treatment Positive mutagens: Carcinogenic with a certain chemical does not necessarily 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene yes mean that this chemical is not mutagenic; 20-methylcholanthrene yes it may mean that it is not able to enter any 3,4-benzpyrene yes of the several cells which it has to pass ^-hydroxyazobenzene yes sodium desoxycholate not tested through before reaching the sperm, that ^-aminoazobenzene no it is not able to pass through these cells in sufficient quantity, or that it is not able Probable mutagens: to penetrate into a sperm once it is reached. azoxybenzene no azobenzene no It is also to be expected that permeability for different chemicals may vary with the Questionable mutagens: tissues or that it may be different in dif- anthracene no ferent species. A similar set of conditions x,2-benzanthracene no probably has to be met when mammals are beta-naphthylamine yes treated with carcinogens. Negative: The results of our experiments show that alpha-naphthylamine no a majority of the carcinogens tested are pyrcne no mutagenic, and also that a majority of phenantnrene no p-diethylaminoazobenzene no the chemically related noncarcinogens are ^-diinethylamlnoazobenzene ..... yes not mutagenic. Nonmutagenic carcinogens acetylarninofluorine yes and mutagenic noncarcinogens were ob- served as well. Nevertheless, considering not shown mutagenic potency. This is the important role played by biological fac- being tested further with a higher con- tors in the expression of both mutagenicity centration. It is evident that among the and carcinogenicity, and considering the azo-group compounds used in our tests a biological differences between the materials larger proportion shows mutag&icity than in which these two effects were studied carcinogenicity. (Drosophila and mammals), the observed The experimental results can be seen in correlation between the two effects appears better perspective if the conditions under to be quite striking. From this correlation which the effect was produced arc kept in it seems unavoidable to infer a common mind* Presumably the aerosol droplets causative relation. This inference is further enter with air through the spiracles of a strengthened by the behavior of all known fly, and are distributed within the body nonchemical carcinogens, such as X-rays DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 131 and related radiations, ultraviolet rays, and mutations do occur with great regularity, heat, all of which are mutagenic. The most caused by some force as yet unexplained, obvious and most probable relation be- and that we have no means of stopping tween mutagenicity and carcinogenicity is or controlling their occurrence. Conse- the one suggested by the hypothesis that quently, if cancer originates through a cancer may originate through a gene muta- genetic change, our chances for finding tion occurring in a somatic cell. Such a ways to prevent it are very, very slight. cell and the cells derived from it by divi- We should be able to reduce its frequency sion would have their properties changed by avoiding contact with carcinogenic and so that they would behave as cancerous. mutagenic agents. In this effort a more This would mean that higher organisms extensive knowledge of the mutagenic possess a gene—or, more likely, a number capacities of various substances should be of genes—whose mutations can initiate a a valuable asset. cancer-type cell. Such mutations, in com- mon with a great majority of mutations in INDUCTION OF MUTATIONS IN BACTERIA BY other genes, occur spontaneously with a * CHEMICALS very low frequency. The human body has a tremendously large number of cells, how- Early in 1947, Dr. Evelyn M. Witkin, ever, so that it becomes probable that a fellow of the American Cancer Society, cancer-type mutation will occur a number began work on the induction of mutations of times among the cells of an individual. by chemicals in Escherichia coli. Demerec Not all of these need give rise to cancer, had described experiments (see Year Book since a large proportion of the cancer-type No. 44, p. 115) in which mutations in E. cells may be prevented by normal cells coli from sensitivity to resistance to bac- from dividing, or may be eliminated in teriophage Ti were induced by ultra- some other way. This hypothesis readily violet radiation and X-rays. It was re- explains the observed differences between ported that some of these mutations ex- various cancers, as being due to mutations press themselves before the bacteria pass in different genes. If a gene mutation is through the first division after irradiation responsible for the origin of cancer, then (zero-point mutations). In the investiga- all mutagenic agents would be expected tion of the mutagenic activity of chemicals, to increase the frequency with which such zero-point mutations to resistance to bac- mutations occur and consequently to be- teriophage Ti were used as the genetic have as carcinogens. In our fight against index of positive or negative effects. cancer, therefore, precautions should be Strain B/r of E. coli, the strain used in taken to avoid exposure to all rnutagens— the experiments of Demerec, was employed chemicals as well as radiations. Such pre- throughout. It was established first of all cautions, however, even i£ rigorously en- that bacteria from full-grown cultures of forced, would only lower the incidence of this strain, washed free of nutrient medium cancer; they could not entirely prevent its and resuspended in distilled water, undergo occurrence. There would still be a chance no changes, over a period o£ 48 hours of left for cancer-type mutations to occur incubation at 37 ° C, in the number of among the billions of cells that constitute viable cells and in the number of mutants the human body, and if such a mutated cell resistant to bacteriophage Ti (B/r/i). should continue to diYide it would give Thus, under these conditions there Is no rise to cancerous growth. We know that division or death of the bacteria, and no 132 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON spontaneous mutations to phage resistance a series to be investigated in an extensive occur. A given chemical was tested for survey, were selected because of their more mutagenic activity by the following pro- or less well defined physical or chemical cedure : The concentration of the chemical effects upon nucleoproteins or nucleic required to kill about 99 per cent of the acids. bacteria suspended in it in a standard time Sodium desoxycholate, which is known period (usually 2 or 3 hours) was de- to dissolve the desoxyribose nucleoprotein termined in preliminary toxicity tests. A complex of bacteria and animal tissues, full-grown culture of strain B/r was di- was found to be effective as a mutagenic vided into two equal parts, and each por- agent. In a typical experiment, the propor- tion was centrifuged to eliminate the tion of mutants among the survivors of a nutrient medium. The bacterial pellet of 3-hour exposure to a 5 per cent solution of one portion was resuspended in distilled desoxycholate was 58 per io8 bacteria, as water to serve as a control. The other was compared with 3 per io8 bacteria in the resuspended in the concentration of the controls. The sensitivity of B/r/i mutants chemical known to kill 99 per cent of the to the toxic action of the chemical was the exposed bacteria in the standard time same as that of the nonmutants, so that period. The two tubes were incubated at selection could not be responsible for this 370 C. for this period of time, and were increase. The mutants obtained after treat- then assayed to determine the number of ment with desoxycholate were stable and living bacteria per milliliter and the num- typical B/r/i mutants. The possibility ber of B/r/i mutants in a series of care- that the chemical might interfere with the fully measured samples. It was then pos- process of infection by Ti, thus permitting sible to compare the number of B/r/i the sensitive survivors of the treatment to mutants per ros living bacteria in the divide before lysis and give rise to new control with the number per io8 survivors mutants spontaneously, was carefully in- in the treated culture. When the number vestigated. It was found that desoxy- of B/r/1 mutants per io8 living bacteria cholate-treated bacteria are infected by was found to be significantly higher in bacteriophage at least as rapidly as un- the treated culture than in the control, ex- treated bacteria from the same culture. periments were conducted to determine Thus, interference with the action of the whether selection might be responsible for bacteriophage was eliminated as a possible this result. It was concluded that zero- explanation of the heightened proportion point mutations were induced by a given of mutants among the survivors. chemical if the following conditions were The number of induced mutations per met: (1) the proportion of B/r/i mutants io8 survivors was found to be directly pro- among the survivors of treated cultures portional to the time of exposure to a 5 was significantly higher than in controls; per cent solution of sodium desoxycholate. (2) selection in favor of the mutants could A similar linear relation was reported by be ruled out as responsible for this in- Demerec and Latarjet between the number crease; and (3) the mutants isolated from of induced zero-point mutations and the the treated cultures proved to be stable, X-ray dose. A comparison o£ the curves bona fide B/r/i mutants. obtained for X-rays and sodium desoxy- Four compounds have been tested for cholate reveals that a dose of 100,000 mutagenic activity by the procedure out- rocntgen units corresponds to an 8-hour lined above. These substances, the first of exposure to 5 per cent desoxycholate, in DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 133 that about no mutations per 108 survivors tion, sprayed with the phage Ti. By this are induced under each of these conditions. process all bacteria susceptible to Ti are Of the other compounds tested, pyronin eliminated and any clones of resistant Y and acriflavine, both of which are dyes bacteria survive to form colonies on further known to combine with nucleic acids, incubation. Thus mutations are detected showed positive mutagenic effects. Methyl as units, regardless of the numbers of in- green, another basic dye, was clearly non- dividuals that have descended from them. mutagenic within the limits of the experi- To determine the extent of growth, plates mental technique. incubated at the same time and for the It is hoped that this method can be de- same period were washed with saline and veloped as a rapid screening procedure for the resulting suspensions assayed. detecting mutagenic activity among vari- From these experiments it was found ous chemical groups, and as a tool for in- that clones of mutants appeared at a high vestigating certain aspects of chemically rate during early growth (12.0 per 10s induced mutations, such as dosage-effect bacterial divisions during the first genera- relations and delayed effects. tion on agar) and that the rate declined, after approximately four divisions, to 0.74 8 POSSIBLE DELAYED EFFECT IN SPONTANEOUS per io bacterial divisions. This latter MUTATIONS figure is approximately that obtained previ- ously (Demerec and Fano, 1945) from the Rates of mutation to phage resistance in proportion of cultures having no mutants. Escherichia coli have in the past been ob- If the high mutation rate obtained from tained in two ways: (1) by calculating the average number of mutants per culture from the proportion of small cultures hav- (2.7 per io8 bacterial divisions) were due ing no mutants, and (2) by calculating to a high rate during the period of rapid from the average number of mutants per growth, then one would not expect the culture. These have yielded figures differ- rate as determined from the appearance of ing by a factor of from 2 to 5 in the dif- resistant clones on agar to drop to 0.74 per ferent mutations studied, the latter method io8 until after a considerable period of giving the higher estimate in all cases growth. It may therefore be assumed that (Demerec and Fano, 1945). Such a dif- there is a delay in the phenotypic expres- ference could result from a high mutation sion of the genetic change determining rate during the period of rapid growth, or phage resistance. from a delay between the occurrence of On this basis the rate of genetic change the gene change and its phenotypic expres- would be greater than the rate of appear- n sion in the descendants of the original ance of resistant clones by a factor of 2 f genetic mutant. where n is the number of generations be- To discriminate between these two al- tween mutation and phenotypic change, ternative possibilities, Dr. H. B. New- regardless of whether the character was combe has made a study of mutation rate expressed in all 2* descendants simultane- in relation to the stage in the growth of ously or in only one. the bacteria. The method used was es- To obtain a better estimate of mutation sentially that employed earlier for investi- rate from liquid cultures, and to avoid the gating mutation in irradiated material statistical fluctuations inherent in the (Demerec, 1946). Bacteria were grown on method using scries of small cultures agar and, after varying periods of incuba- started from small inoeula., the increase in 134 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON resistant bacteria in cultures from large terpreted as due to a genuine increase in inocula was studied. In such cultures, the mutation rate during this division, to grown for a period of approximately six a failure of the bacteria in the early stages to seven generations, the estimated muta- of growth to adsorb phage, or to a physio- tion rate was 4.1 per io8 bacterial divisions. logical state favoring phenotypic expression The fact that this is larger than the figure of genetic resistance. Of these possibilities, obtained from cultures started from small an increase in the rate of gene change dur- inocula has been tentatively ascribed to ing the first division presumably would the carry-over in the inoculum, when it is not—in view of the delay postulated—be large, of a certain number of "hidden" detected until some time later; and the mutants which have not yet achieved failure to adsorb phage seems unlikely, phenotypic resistance. since it would have to be a matter of com- Assuming a delay, this is still a mini- plete failure over a period of two full mum estimate of the actual rate of gene generations. It is tentatively suggested, change, since it does not take into account therefore, that a greater than normal pro- the number of "hidden" mutants present portion of "hidden mutants" becomes at the end of growth. An attempt was phenotypically resistant during this divi- therefore made to estimate mutation rate sion. from clones of mutants known to be rela- tively old, in the belief that a greater pro- MEASUREMENT OF SPONTANEOUS MUTATION portion of the genetic mutants would have RATE acquired phenotypic resistance. Using the data of Demerec and Fano, and calculat- In 1943 Luria and Delbriick made a ing only from the culture in each series study of the rate of occurrence in bacteria having the highest number of resistant of mutations from phage sensitivity to bacteria, an estimated rate of 6.3 per io8 phage resistance. These workers adopted was obtained. Whether or not all the the technique of growing cultures of descendants of early mutations in these Esckerichia coli in liquid broth medium cultures had become phenotypically re- for given periods of time and subsequently sistant is not known, and upon this de- plating out known small amounts of the 8 pends whether the figure 6.3 per io is to culture onto nutrient agar, together with be considered an approximation to the an excess of phage. After further incuba- rate of gene change or whether it is again tion the number of resistant colonies on an underestimate. If the delay is of the each plate was counted, and estimates of order of that observed in irradiated ma- the mutation rate were made from (a) terial, as it may well be, then the true rate the percentage of cultures that did not of gene change would be many times this contain any resistant mutants at all, and figure. (b) the average number of resistant bac- The high mutation rate (12.0 per io8) teria per culture. Demerec (1946) modi- observed during the first division on agar fied this method by growing bacteria on is less easy to interpret. The distribution nutrient agar instead of in broth, and by over the plate of mutants that were Hot yet applying the phage as a fine aerosol, which phcnotypically resistant would not be ex- was sprayed onto the plates at a time when pected to give rise to a rate higher than the bacteria had increased to approximately that observed in liquid cultures, namely, the desired number. The advantage of 4.1 per io8. The difference might be in- this method was that clones of mutants DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 135 remained collected together and, after sprayed onto each plate, and after a further spraying with phage, could be counted as incubation period of 48 hours the numbers single mutations. The problem then was of phage-resistant colonies were counted. to determine accurately the number of The mutation rate was calculated simply bacteria on a plate at the time when the by dividing the mean number of mutant phage was applied. clones per plate by the total number of This has now been investigated by Dr. bacteria per plate (the number of mutants G. H. Beale. Growth of bacteria on nu- originally present on each plate before trient agar was measured by flooding the growth being zero, and the total number plates with dilute saline, scraping the bac- of, bacteria originally present being negli- teria from the agar with a glass spreader, gible in comparison with the final num- and assaying the supernatant solution thus ber). By this method it was found that obtained. It was found that the growth the mutation rate, expressed as the number rate on nutrient agar is practically identical of phage-resistant bacteria per cell division, with that in broth, and that the initial lag was 0.7 X io"8, and this figure did not vary period is also the same. As regards the significantly whether the rate was meas- stage at which growth rate on nutrient ured after 12 bacterial generations on a agar slows down, it was found that this plate or after 18 generations. It was there- is determined by two conditions: (1) the fore concluded that, provided the bacteria absolute number of bacteria on a plate, and are in an actively dividing condition, the (2) the size of individual colonies. Divi- mutation rate is a constant function of the sion slows down when the total number number of cell divisions. of bacteria on a plate exceeds io10 or when Further work has shown, however, that the number per colony exceeds 5 X io5 the mutations measured in these experi- (i.e., the number produced from a single ments constitute a composite group. It had bacterium by 19 divisions). It was also already been known that there are two found that if bacteria are taken from a kinds of mutants resistant to the phage fresh, unsaturated culture of titer ior bac- Ti—namely, B/i and B/1,5—and also that teria per cubic centimeter or less (which the phage Ti produces a mutant TiA may be chilled for 30 minutes), and plated capable of lysing B/i mutants. Cross- onto nutrient agar that has been preheated resistance tests have now shown that a to 370 C, growth starts immediately with- proportion of the B/i mutants are how- out any initial lag phase at all. Thus, by ever resistant to TiA, and that a proportion using bacteria from an unsaturated culture, of the B/1,5 mutants are sensitive to TiA. and by determining beforehand the growth Consequently each of the mutants B/i and rate on nutrient agar by the washing tech- B/1,5 exists in at least two forms. Further- nique, it is possible to estimate the number more, the relative proportions of B/i and of bacteria on a plate accurately, simply B/1,5 mutants nave ^ra found to vary from a knowledge of the number plated (from 1 per cent to 25 per cent B/i) in and the time o£ incubation. different experiments, depending on the Making use of this knowledge, nutrient- strains of bacteria and Ti phages used. It agar cultures were prepared, containing is therefore clear that the over-all constancy about 10s actively dividing bacteria. After of mutation rate caa only be guaranteed growth had been checked by chilling, ap- with one particular culture of iL coli and proximately io10 phage particles were one particular culture of the phage Ti. 136 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON ORGANIZATION OF THE CHROMOSOME
B. P. KAUFMANN, M. R. MCDONALD, H. GAY, K. WILSON, AND R. WYMAN During the past year our studies of the of supplementary treatment with near structure of the chromosome have pro- infrared radiation on the frequency with ceeded in general along the broad lines which X-ray-induced recessive lethal muta- indicated in Year Book No. 45. Analysis tions are produced in Drosophila melano- of the modifying effect of near infrared gaster. Earlier work, summarized in Year radiation on X-ray-induced lethal muta- Book No. 44, had shown that when near tions in Drosophila has now been com- infrared radiation (wave length about pleted, and a series of experiments has 10,000 A) is used prior to X-rays in the been undertaken to measure the effect of treatment of the spermatozoa, a marked this agent on the frequency of chromo- increase occurs in the frequency of detect- somal aberrations induced by a nitrogen able chromosomal rearrangements over mustard compound. Progress has been that in controls receiving only the X-ray made in developing techniques for the dose. On the other hand, pretreatment direct observation of the effects of ionizing with near infrared does not increase sig- radiations on living cells; other cytological nificantly the frequency of the dominant observations have extended our knowledge lethal type of change. The additional data of the specific patterns of nonhomologous now available indicate that such supple- pairing between the discs of the salivary- mentary treatment has no significant effect gland chromosomes of D. melanogaster. in this species on the frequency of pro- The chemical and histochemical studies duction by X-rays of sex-linked recessive for localization of chromosomal constitu- lethals. ents have advanced despite the necessity of Utilizing the CIB technique, we have surmounting innumerable technical diffi- examined about 10,000 F2 cultures (as in- culties, and have enabled us to plot in a dicated in table 1) obtained in experi- rough way the distribution within the cell ments in which near infrared rays and of different types of proteins and nucleic X-rays were tested independently and in acids. Close co-operation between bio- combination with each other. It is evi- chemist and cytologist has facilitated the dent from these data that near infrared progress of the work and enabled us to co- radiation in itself is not effective in induc- ordinate the chemical and histochemical ing the types of change that are repre- approaches to the problems in hand. Our sented among the group of recessive general program has also been furthered lethals. Nor does this type of radiation, by a grant from the United States Public when used prior to or subsequent to a Health Service, which has provided us 3000-roentgen dose of X-rays, modify to with an additional scientific investigator an appreciable extent the frequency of during the greater part of the year now induced lethal mutations, which is about ending. 7 per cent in all these cases. An additional step in the analysis in- MODIFYING EFFECTS OF NEAR INFRARED volved determinations of the frequency of RADIATION chromosomal rearrangement among the group of recessive lethals. For this pur- We have now completed the study3 out- pose, 100 of the 526 lethal mutations de- lined in Year Book No. 45, of the effect tected in our experiments were selected DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 137 at random in equal numbers from the from a consideration of dose-frequency re- combination-treatment series and the con- lations, that radiation-induced recessive trols, and analyzed by the salivary-gland- lethals and rearrangements result inde- chromosome method. Among the 50 de- pendently from a single type of primary rived from the combination treatment, 18, effect. Lea and Catcheside had previously or 36 per cent, showed gross rearrange- developed a detailed theory of the produc- ments involving the X chromosome; 11 tion of recessive lethals based on this as- were found among the 25 lethals examined sumption, but Fano has shown in a recent in the pretreatment series, and 7 among 25 note in Science (vol. 106, p. 87, 1947) that in the posttreatment series. In the control their theory meets with serious objections. group, 14 out of 50, or 28 per cent, revealed Dr. Fano, who is now on the staff of the X-chromosome rearrangements. The pre- National Bureau of Standards, was per- cise location of the lethal has not been mitted by that agency to spend the summer determined with respect to the points of of 1947 at Cold Spring Harbor, and thus
TABLE 1
LETHAL MUTATION RATE (C1B TESTS) AMONG SPERMATOZOA OF MALES EXPOSED TO X-RAYS OR TO X-RAYS + NEAR INFRARED RAYS
NUMBER TYPE OF TREATMENT PER CENT (X-RAYS IN ROENTGENS, NEAR INFRARED IN HOURS) MUTATIONS Sperms tested Lethal mutations
NIR (48hrs.).-- 2316 4 0.17 db 0.08 X-ray (3000 r). . 3393 253 7.46 ± 0.45 3000 r + 48 hrs. 1989 145 7.29 ± 0.58 48 hrs. -f 3000 r 1770 124 7.01 ± 0.61
breakage involved in each rearrangement, had occasion to apply the methods de- but in the light of other studies it is as- veloped in his recent comment on the Lea- sumed that a lethal and a breakage point Catcheside theory to a further discussion will coincide in a large proportion of cases. of the effect of combination treatments Rearrangements of the types represented with X-rays and near infrared rays. He has in this analysis had been found in our estimated the effect of supplementary treat- earlier experiments to increase about 50 ment with near infrared radiation (1) on per cent when treatment of the sperma- the frequency of sex-linked recessive tozoa with near infrared radiation pre- lethals, (2) on the fraction of these lethals ceded a 4000-rocntgcn dose of X-rays. which is associated with a rearrangement, Since we have not found a corresponding and (3) on the frequency of dominant rise in the frequency of the recessive lethals. This was done in each case on the lethals, it appears that the lethals associated assumptions: (a) that the lethals associ- with gross chromosomal alterations do not ated with a rearrangement are due to a depend for their expression on the pro- position effect, and (b) that recessive duction of rearrangements. This might lethals and rearrangements result inde- seem to confirm the inference, derived pendently from a single type of primary 138 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
effect. The symbols developed by Dr. (ib) In this case, it is K' = A + B + Fano for his note in Science have been C + D which should not be affected utilized in the calculations presented be- by infrared treatment. We can write low; A, B, C, and D represent classes of K' = A + B + C/(i - LGR) - lethals associated respectively with no re- C/(i - LGR) + C arrangement, a minute rearrangement, a - LGR viable gross rearrangement (VGR), and i - LGR C D = y an inviable (lethal) gross rearrangement C i - LGR (LGR). (i+D/C) (i-LGR)]. Using Fano's The frequency of viable gross rearrange- notation, D/C = pq; also 1/(1 —LGR) = ments among sperms available for test- i + LGR/(i - LGR) = i + (LGR/ ing will be indicated by x = VGR/(i — VGR) VGR/(i - LGR) = x + px. LGR). We have previously shown that Then: K' = y - \x [i - (i + pq)/(i +
this frequency is raised from about 30 px)], yi - y0 = \xi [i - (i + pq)/(i + per cent to about 45 per cent (i.e., by about pxi)] - \xa [i - (i + pq)/(i + pxo)], 50 per cent of its value) when infrared yi/yo — i = (^o/yo) "! (xt/xo) [i — (i + pretreatment is combined with 4000 roent- gens of X-rays. It will be assumed tenta- pxo) ]}. This difference is negative, since tively that the same increase of 50 per cent p ^ 1, q ^ 1, indicating that the prevalent takes place when the X-ray dose is 2000 or effect of infrared is to turn A'$ and S's 3000 r. It will also be assumed that the into unobservable D's. Its value is closest mean number of breaks per rearrangement to zero in the somewhat unrealistic case is independent of the X-ray dose (within p = q = 1; in this case, using fao/yo = those limits) and of the near infrared 1/3, Xi/xo = 1.5, xo = 0.2 (for 3000 r), we treatment. find y%/yo = 1 — 0.046. Thus a depression The frequency of sex-linked recessive of about 5 per cent or more would be an- lethals among sperms available for test- ticipated following pretreatment with near ing—i.e., A + B + C/(i - LGR), in infrared radiation on the assumption that Fano's notation—will be indicated by y. recessive lethals and chromosomal rear- The frequency of those among these rangements result independently from a lethals which are associated with rearrange- single type of primary effect, as indicated ments—i.e., C/(i — LGR)—is propor- in table 1. A depression of approximately tional to x and will be indicated as \x. this order of magnitude has in fact been (id) In this case the frequency o£ lethals obtained, although it cannot be claimed to of types A and B—namely, y — \x—should be significant. not be affected by infrared treatment, and (2a) The quantity to be estimated is will be called K. Hence, without infrared \xi/yi = (xi/xo) (yo/yi) (fao/yo). Using treatment, y = y& = K + ^x0; with infra- the data from (id), this amounts to 3/7 = red, y = yiz= K + J^XL With 3000 r and no 42.6 per cent at 3000 r. infrared, \x®/y® = 1/(1 + Kf\x®) *-* 1/3; (ib) Using the data from (ib)9 the same hence K/{xQ ~ 2 and yi/y® = (K/\x® + quantity amounts to 0.525 when- p = q = xi/xo)/(K/^xo + 1) = 3.5/3 = 7/6, since 1, otherwise to a still larger fraction. The xi/x* = 1.5. As stated previously, an in- data obtained experimentally are difficult crease of this magnitude, expected on the to appraise with respect to (id) and (2b), position-effect hypothesis,, was not obtained since the numbers are small and the stand- experimentally. ard errors correspondingly large. Four- DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 139
teen rearrangements were detected among The data provided by these near infrared the 50 lethals examined in the control studies now permit a more comprehensive series (28 per cent), and 11 among 25 (44 view than was previously possible of the per cent) obtained with pretreatment, action of near infrared radiation.in modi- which is the type of treatment that effected fying the frequency of X-ray-induced a 50 per cent rise in chromosomal rear- chromosomal rearrangements. Since near rangements. The increase (from 28 to 44 infrared radiation in itself is not effective per cent) can be reconciled with the value in inducing either lethal mutations or expected on the assumptions considered in chromosomal rearrangements, and since, (2b), but no great significance can be at- when used in conjunction with X-rays, it tached in view of the smallness of the does not alter the frequency of dominant sample. or recessive lethals, we are inclined to the (30 and b) According to current ideas view that this agent operates by so modi- on dominant lethals (see, for example, fying the materials of the chromosome Demerec and Fano, Genetics, vol. 29, p. that the chances of recombination are in- 348, 1944), the fraction of the number of creased among the potential breaks in- eggs fertilized by treated sperms which duced by the ionizing radiation. The develops into adults is given by the product precise definition of the mode of action of of three factors: (1) the fraction which is near infrared radiation emphasizes the fertilized by sperm having no unjoined potentialities of this agent as a tool for broken chromosome ends; (2) the fraction separating experimentally the breakage fertilized by sperm transmitting no lethal and recombination phases of the process of gross rearrangements; and (3) the fraction induced structural change. that escapes other, accidental causes of The studies combining X-rays and near death. The second of these fractions can infrared rays have been extended in an presumably be reduced "by infrared treat- effort to obtain a precise quantitative meas- ment combined with X-rays, and may be ure of the effect of posttreatment on the written as F(2) = 1 - LGR = 1/(1 + px). production of induced chromosomal re- The effect of increasing x is smallest, as arrangements. It had previously been usual, when p = 1. Taking, therefore, found that treatment of males with near p = 1, and (for 2000 r) x0 = 0.11, xi/xo = infrared rays for any considerable period 1.5, we find Fim/Foi2) = (1 + p*o)/(i + of time after exposure to X-rays accelerated pxi) = 0.95. In our previous study, re- the mitotic processes so that cells that were ported in Year Book No. 44, 51.4 per cent not mature at the time of X-ray treatment of the eggs hatched after a dose of 2000 r became available for transfer in copulation of X-rays, and 46.7 per cent when treat- sooner than if the males had been stored ment with near infrared preceded the X- at temperatures within the range from 18 ° rays. The ratio of these two percentages is to 28 ° C. The technical difficulties in- 0.91. volved in this type of experimental pro- These calculations based on a considera- cedure have been obviated by exposing tion of the effects of X-rays and near infra- females, inseminated by males previously red rays, together with all the remaining treated with X-rays, to the near infrared evidence, still indicate that no general rays under conditions so unfavorable for theory of lethals and chromosomal rear- oviposition that very few eggs are deposited rangements in Drosopkila is warranted on during the period of treatment. Larvae the basis of the information now available. developing from eggs laid subsequently, 140 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
following removal of the females to yeasted immersion objectives, of the giant neuro- food, have been utilized for salivary-gland- blast cells that cover the ventral surface of chromosome preparations that are now be- the embryo. We had anticipated that the ing analyzed to determine the frequency phase-difference microscope might be of of chromosomal rearrangement. considerable aid in obtaining good resolu- The effectiveness of near infrared radia- tion of the unstained chromatin threads, tion when used in combination with X- but in actual practice this optical system rays in increasing the frequency of chromo- provided little advantage over the ordinary somal rearrangement raises the question microscope, since the mass of cells under- whether such modification might be ob- lying the neuroblasts in our preparations tained if near infrared were combined with caused extensive and confusing diffraction other agents that induce chromosome patterns. As Dr. Carlson had demonstrated breakage. Chief among these are mustard in his earlier studies, however, the trained gas and the nitrogen mustards. We have cytologist soon learns to identify the vari- accordingly undertaken a series of experi- ous phases of mitosis in these hanging- ments to determine whether the process of drop preparations, and we were thus able structural change induced by nitrogen mus- to follow through mitosis cells which had tard, methyl-Z>zV(betachloroethyl)amine, is been irradiated at a carefully identified modifiable by pretreatment or posttreat- stage in the cycle. In this way we were ment with near infrared. The tests were able to ascertain, for example, that breaks begun recently, so that no statistically sig- may be induced in the chromosomes of a nificant data are available at this writing, cell irradiated at late prophase, and that but the study is being continued with the chromosome fragments can then be ob- assistance of Mr. Harvey Rothberg, Jr., of served at the succeeding anaphase. Ex- Princeton University, who has joined the tensive quantitative data remain to be col- group that is carrying this enterprise to lected before any appraisal can be made of completion. the relative sensitivities of different stages of mitosis. It will be necessary, moreover, to develop methods more adequate than OBSERVATIONS ON INDUCED CHROMOSOME those now available for maintaining the BREAKS IN THE LIVING CELL cultures in a state of active division for We have long considered that many of several hours following their recovery from the problems concerning the time and the mitotic inhibition that is effected by mode of action of ionizing radiations in even a small dose of X-rays. Experiments the production of chromosomal breaks along these lines are being continued at might be resolved by direct observation of Cold Spring Harbor. the living cell. The possibilities of such an
experimental approach were explored dur- NONHOMOLOGOUS ASSOCIATION OF BANDS OF ing the winter of 1946-19475 in coopera- SALIVARY-GLAND CHROMOSOMES tion with Dr. J. Gordon Carlson, at the Industrial Hygiene Research Laboratory The project reported in Year Book No. of the National Institute of Health in 43 of mapping the positions of heterochro- Bethesda, Maryland. Cultures of 14- to 16- matic and duplicated euchrornatic regions day embryos of various species of grass- along the chromosomes of Drosophila hoppers were prepared in a manner that melanogaster has been furthered by a scries permitted direct observation, under oil- of observations made during the summer DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 141 of 1947 by Marcia Kelman Iddles. Up to of nonhomologous association in the dif- the present time about 350 cases of pairing ferent chromosome limbs. As was to be between nonhomologous bands in the anticipated from previous observations, salivary-gland chromosomes of the Oregon- bands in the left limb of the second R stock have been analyzed. In these chromosome show the highest frequency, cases a strand of chromosomal material is whereas those in the right limb of this stretched between two bands or between same chromosome are least often involved. one band and a series of others that occupy In earlier studies there had also been in- different loci. Association of this type is timations of a high degree of association more frequent between bands in the same between the tips of the various chromo- chromosome limb than between bands in some limbs, but the data now available different limbs. Sometimes adjacent bands suggest that this end-to-end pairing is not are involved; the two bands may adhere much more frequent than the association at one end, but separate widely at the between the tips and various intercalary other to present a V-shaped or linear regions. pattern, the chromosome appearing broken open at these regions. Pairing of this type CHEMICAL AND HISTOCHEMICAL STUDIES has been observed to occur occasionally between the parts of a recognized doublet Another approach to the problem of the (for example, between 33A1 and 33A2, or organization of the chromosome at the between 70C1 and 70C2); more frequently submicroscopic level involves chemical it occurs in subdivisions, such as 3C, 11 A, identification of its constituent materials. and 12DE of the X chromosome, which Our experiments along these lines have are known from previous studies to in- combined the use of enzymes with various clude heterochromatic materials. Thus, by histochemical tests. Since such methods of accepting nonspecific pairing of the type analysis require enzymes of known purity described as an additional criterion for the and specificity of action, as well as reliable localization of heterochromatin, it has been histochemical procedures, we have devoted possible to map heterochromatic regions considerable energy to attaining these con- in the autosomes as well as in the X ditions. Isolation by chemical techniques chromosome. of various cellular constituents will enable Apart from the association of bands in us to obtain substrate materials for test- the presumptive heterochromatic regions, tube confirmation of the nature of the there is a great deal of what appears to be action of the enzymes being studied. In random pairing between a given band and the preliminary phases of the development a series of others that occupy various posi- of these methods we have gained some In- tions in the different chromosomes. Oc- sight into the organization of the chromo- casionally, corresponding bands in the two some with respect to the distribution of closely appressed homologues that consti- both proteins and nucleic acids during the tute the chromosome limb may each be various phases of mitosis. associated with a different band in another The preparation and assay of crystalline chromosome. An appraisal of these diverse enzymes. Experiments on the preparation observations must await a more complete and assay of trypsin, chymotrypsin, pepsin, analysis of the accumulated data. It has ribonuclease, and desoxyribonucleasc for been possible, however, to obtain a crude use in our histochemicai studies of chromo- quantitative determination of the amount some structure have been continued. The 142 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
results obtained emphasize once again the the question whether the loss of properties, dangers resulting from the assumption that considered by the latter group to be due crystallinity is of itself evidence of purity. specifically to the depolymerization of ribo- Conclusions as to enzyme specificity are nucleic acid, may not be attributed either to certainly unwarranted unless the enzyme the loss of protein or to the nonspecific loss being investigated conforms to all the of ribonucleic acid due to degradation o£ known criteria of chemical and biological the protein to which it was originally individuality, as indicated in Year Book bound. It was essential, therefore, to de- No. 45. termine the specificity of action of crystal- 1. The specificity of crystalline ribo- line ribonuclease before using it in our nuclease: A method for the preparation of studies of the chemical composition of the crystalline ribonuclease, an enzyme capable chromosomes.
TABLE 2
ASSAY OF VARIOUS SAMPLES OF CRYSTALLINE RIBONUCLEASE (All values are expressed in activity units per mg. protein nitrogen. The differences between columns 5 and 4 are a measure of the amounts of proteolytic precursors; those between columns 4 and 3, of the amounts of trypsin inhibitor.)
TRYPSIN UNITS X 10~6, ASSAYED AFTER RIBONUCLEASE SAMPLE UNITS Complete 1 hr. at pH 7.6 1 hr. at pH 1.0 activation
Ribonuclease 1 1,490 14 38 3$ 2 1,430 6 26 26 3 1,390 134 340 13,500 4 1,375 520 1,824 2,640 5 1,368 290 1,190 3,650 6 1,224 154 702 21,000 Trypsin 170,000 170,000 170,000 Chyinotrypsin. 45,000 45,000 45,000 of dcpolymerizing ribonucleic but not des- Samples of crystalline ribonuclease pre- oxyribonucleic acid, was described by pared In our laboratory by the method of Kunitz in 1940. Since that time various Kunitz, and samples prepared by Dr. workers have shown that at least some Kunitz In the laboratories of the Rocke- samples of ribonuclease had, in addition to feller Institute for Medical Research, were the ability to degrade ribonucleic acid, the tested for their ability to hydrolyze de- property of hydrolyzing proteins. It was natured hemoglobin. Several representa- not demonstrated whether this was due to tive assays are given in table 2. Every an intrinsic property of the ribonuclease specimen checked showed some proteoiytic molecule or to the presence of contami- activity, and many of the samples also nants. Numerous workers have used such manifested additional proteolytic activity preparations to demonstrate the presence after activation, thereby indicating the of ribonucleic acid in cytoplasm, nucleoli, presence of precursors. Some were also etc* The above findings, however, raised found to inhibit the action of trypsln^ and DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 143 to a lesser extent that of chymotrypsin, at tivity; for, although it was relatively simple pH 7.6 but not at pH 1.0. Experiments to destroy all the proteolytic enzymes while have now shown, however, that all these simultaneously destroying some of the properties were due to impurities present ribonuclease, it was much more difficult to in the preparations and not to ribo- destroy all the former without losing any nuclease itself, since (a) the ratio of these appreciable amounts of the latter. The activities to ribonuclease activity varied method finally devised consists essentially with the different preparations, and (b) it in boiling solutions of crude (or previ- was possible by varying the experimental ously crystallized) ribonuclease in 0.2 conditions to destroy differentially the saturated ammonium sulfate at pH 3 for various activities. 5 minutes and then fractionating such 1 The samples of ribonuclease tested preparations with ammonium sulfate be- were also found to clot milk and to hydro- tween 0.5 and 0.8 saturation. As can be lyze a substrate specific for trypsin, a- seen from table 3, which gives the results benzoyl-/-arginineamide. We are indebted of a typical preparation, this procedure to Dr. Joseph S. Fruton, of the Yale Uni- destroys all proteolytic and potential prote- versity School of Medicine, for the latter olytic activity but leaves the ribonuclease preparation. The proteolytic activity of the practically intact. The latter can then be ribonuclease could therefore be due to crystallized by a slight modification of contamination by both chymotrypsin and Kunitz' procedure. Ten different prepara- trypsin. Other peptidases may also be tions have now been made by this method. present, but these have not been tested for In no case has any measurable amount of experimentally. Assuming that one-half proteolytic activity been found; that is, er cent of the proteolytic activity was due to there was less than 0.005 P °f trypsin and one-half to chymotrypsin, the proteolytic enzyme as measured by the median value found for the proteolytic digestion of denatured hemoglobin. These impurities was 0.07 per cent, the range be- preparations did not degrade, proteolyti- ing from 0.035 t0 2*6 Per cent- Even these cally or otherwise, egg albumin, protamine, small amounts of contaminants, however, histone, thymus nucleohistone, or desoxy- may lead to erroneous conclusions when ribose nucleic acid. The absence of pro- ribonuclease is used as a specific tool; at teolytic enzymes in these preparations has least one such instance has been described been confirmed by Dr. Walter C. in published material. Schneider at the University of Wisconsin, The increase in proteolytic activity noted who found, in contrast with results with in some samples of ribonuclease after acti- some preparations previously tested, that vation was not due primarily to chymo- they had essentially no effect on the suc- trypsin, since there was little increase in cinoxidase system. milk-clotting ability. Calculated on the Localization of cellular materials. Chem- basis of trypsinogen, the precursor(s) con- ical analyses carried out in other labora- stituted from 0 to 12 per cent of the total tories during past years have shown that nitrogen. the chromosomes of higher plants and ani- 2. The preparation of proteolytic-free mals consist at least of desoxyribonucleic crystalline ribonuclease: Much effort has acid, histones, and tryptophane-containing been devoted to contriving a method for proteins. Little is known, however, con- the preparation of ribonuclease free from cerning the quantitative changes in the proteolytic and potential proteolytic ac- concentration, location, and organization 144 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON of these materials during mitosis. There cerning its in situ specificity. We hope that have been some intimations, derived by- our enzymatic studies will eventually settle using ribonuclease, that the ribose type of this controversy, but we still lack, despite nucleic acid might also be present in the our efforts to prepare them, the purified chromosomes. Since the possibility existed, crystalline preparations of desoxyribo- however, that the action of the ribo- nuclease necessary for critically evaluating nuclease preparations used in these tests the merits of the arguments pro and con. was attributable not to their nuclease but For coloration of ribonucleic acid, a series to their proteolytic properties, these ob- of basic dyes such as toluidine blue and servations were quite inconclusive. The safranin has been found satisfactory; the development of a method for the prepara- pyronin and methyl green combination de- tion of proteolytic-free ribonuclease, re- veloped by Pappenheim and Unna has also
TABLE 3
DESTRUCTION OF PROTEOLYTIC CONTAMINANTS
CRUDE RIBONUCLEASE
After boiling Before After and ammonium boiling boiling sulfate frac- tionation
Ribonuclease units per mg. N 646 789 894 Total ribonuclease units. •.. 1,000,000 960,000 828,000 Trypsin units X 10~6 per mg. N* 916 9 <0. Total trypsin units X 10~6* 1,420,000 10,944 <100 Potential trypsin units X 10~6 per mg. Nf 7,100 <4 <4 Total potential trypsin units X 10"~6t 11,000,000 < 5,000 <4,000
*Assayed after 1 hr. at pH 1.0. fAssayed after complete activation. ported in the preceding section, has now proved extremely useful. There is no satis- given us a tool that will permit a decisive factory method for selectively coloring the test for the presence or absence o£ this histone type of protein, since, with the ex- component. ception of tryptophane, all the amino acids We have used in this study—both sepa- and types of linkage that are present in rately and in conjunction with enzymatic proteins and that form the basis of all the degradation of the cellular components— protein color reactions are also present in hlstochemical tests capable of revealing the histoncs. They can be removed from the presence and location, or the absence, of cell, however, with 0.2 JV hydrochloric the different types of nucleic acids and acid. For localization of the tryptophanc- proteins. Most workers have relied upon containing proteins we have continued to the Feulgen reaction for the localization apply modifications of the Bates test re- of desoxyribonucleic acid, and we have ported in Year Book No. 45, Because of the temporarily adopted this test, recognizing drastic action of concentrated hydrochloric that certain objections may be raised con- acid on protoplasmic substances, it has been DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 145 necessary, in order to lessen the time of the and this preparation was immersed in a reaction, to make an extensive survey of the ribonuclease solution of ca. 400 ribo- effects on the reaction of (1) the concentra- nuclease units per milliliter (2.5 mg. en- tions of the different components of the zyme per ml.) at 60° C. In one-half hour, reagent (hydrochloric acid, p-dimethyl- the pyronin staining component had been arninobenzaldehyde, and sodium nitrate), completely removed from the acetic-alco- (2) oxidizing agents other than sodium hol-fixed root and partially removed from nitrate, (3) the age of the solutions, and the Navashin- and Helly-fixed roots. The (4) the various components that constitute Benda material was untouched by en- the ordinary cytological fixatives. We zymatic action after two hours, and the have now been able, by using smears and Bouin-fixed root showed such poor colora- sections fixed in alcohol-acetic acid and tion even in the control that no decision subsequently hardened, and by greatly in- could be made about the amount of diges- creasing the concentration of sodium ni- tion that had occurred. The type and con- trate, to reduce the reaction time for the centration of buffer in which the enzyme development of the blue color specific for is dissolved greatly modifies the concen- the indole nucleus (tryptophane) from one tration of enzyme required; under certain hour to between 30 and 60 seconds. In root conditions the buffer itself may effect the tips of Alliurn cepa and of Lilium tigri- removal of cellular materials, or it may num, we have found that the blue color interfere with the specificity of the stain- is pronounced in the cytoplasm and in the ing reaction. Veronal buffer alone was spindle. It is also conspicuous in nucleoli found to be highly effective in removing during the prophases and resting stages. the pyronin staining component from con- The chromonemata in our preparations trol sections. On the other hand, an en- have shown only a very pale blue color, zymatic solution containing ca. 700 ribo- and we are now attempting to improve nuclease units per milliliter dissolved in the reaction further, so as to determine 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.6, gave no more precisely the changes that occur in reduction in intensity of pyronin staining the concentration of the tryptophane-con- in 4 hours at 45 ° C, whereas the same taining proteins during the cycle of mitosis. concentration of ribonuclease dissolved in A comparison of color reactions before water at the same pH completely removed and after treatment with a given enzyme this component. Even the type of adhesive should permit determination of the efficacy used in affixing the paraffin ribbons to the of the enzyme in eliminating from the glass slide preparatory to digestion and cell the substrate being tested. In actual staining was found to alter the reaction. practice, however, clear-cut results often Pitfalls such as these have been recognized depend on the degree of control over a by students of histochemistry; they empha- series of accessory factors. As an example, size the necessity for formulating the pre- the action of the enzyme ribonuclease in cise experimental conditions under which removing ribonucleic acid from cells of a given test is carried out with each type of root tips has been found to be retarded or material. even inhibited by certain fixatives. In a Having taken these variables into con- typical experiment, sections of root tips sideration, and recognizing that our ex- fixed in five different fixatives—acetic alco- periments are still in their preliminary hol, and Heiiy\ Navashin's, Bcnda*s, and stages, we have nevertheless been able to Bouin's luids—were attached to one slide, demonstrate by histochemical methods that 146 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
mitotic chromosomes contain appreciable cific patterns of distribution, however, quantities of ribose as well as desoxyribose must await a detailed analysis o£ the action nucleic acid. The latter appears to be on cells at various stages in the mitotic restricted to the chromosomes, whereas the cycle of the nucleases and proteases when ribose type is present in the chromosomes, used independently and in combination nucleolus, and cytoplasm. Its distribution with each other. The completion of such seems to parallel that of the tryptophane- a study, in which we are now engaged, containing proteins, and it is indeed tempt- should lead us closer to an understanding ing to suggest that the two may exist in of the chromosome as a physiological as close combination as nucleoprotein. Spe- well as a morphological entity.
CYTOGENETIC STUDIES OF MAIZE AND NEUROSPORA
BARBARA MCCLINTOCK
THE MUTABLE DS LOCUS IN MAIZE reflected by the time of occurrence of phenotypically visible mutations and by General considerations. In last year's re- the frequency and distribution of these port a summary account was given of mutations. The second factor is concerned several newly arising unstable gene loci. with the mutation at the unstable locus The instability of all but one of these loci that gives rise to the phenotypically recog- was phenotypically expressed by the ap- nizable altered expression of the locus. pearance in an otherwise recessive plant During the development of a tissue, the of sharply defined sectors of dominant state of a locus may remain unchanged. tissue or of tissue showing an intermediate This results in a tissue showing one par- condition between recessive and dominant. ticular and readily recognizable type of Each of these sectors arose following a mu- variegation pattern. Changes in the state tation in the unstable locus occurring in an of a locus may, however, occur. These individual cell during the development of changes arise abruptly and appear to be the tissue. When an unstable locus is associated with an event that occurs during present, the tissues of the plant show a a mitotic cycle. Following such a change, pattern of variegation which is related to the variegation pattern is altered in the the time and frequency of mutations oc- descendants of this cell. There may be curring in particular cells during the de- fewer or, conversely, more mutations in the velopment of the tissue. Observations of descendent cells than would have occurred the behavior of the unstable loci have sug- had the event that gives rise to a change gested that a common underlying phe- in state not taken place. The evidence nomenon is associated with the expression suggests that the change in state may be of instability in all the cases examined. related to the reproductive cycle of the Several generalizations may be formulated chromosome, for it has frequently been concerning this phenomenon. Two sepa- observed that when a change occurs the rable factors are known to be associated state of the mutable locus in each sister with the expression of instability. The first chromatid may become altered. The state factor is concerned with the particular state of the mutable locus may be quite different of the unstable locus in the cells of a de- in the two chromatids, and the state in veloping tissue. The state of a locus is each chromatid, in turn, different from DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 147 that which existed in the immediate by genetic analyses in all stages of the life mother cell. In brief, it is the state of the cycle when a plant carries dominant alleles locus at a particular stage in development and Ds in one chromosome 9 and recessive that determines the time and rate of future alleles and a normal ds locus in the homol- mutations, and this state may be altered ogous chromosome 9. Whenever a disso- by an event occurring at a mitosis often ciation mutation occurs in a cell during the considerably in advance of the genotypic development of a tissue of such a plant, an mutation itself. acentric segment carrying the dominant During the past year attention has been factors is produced. This acentric segment concentrated on one of the mutable loci, is subsequently lost from the nucleus dur- because its action and its location are par- ing a mitotic cycle. The result is a nucleus ticularly favorable for an analysis of the having only the recessive alleles that are factors associated with mutability. Further- present in the homologous segment of the more, the type of action at this locus is ^--carrying chromosome 9. All the cells unique in its cytogenetic aspects and of arising from this cell will be recessive in considerable general interest in this respect genotype and also in phenotype, if the alone. In this one case, mutability is ex- expression of the particular recessive factor pressed not by a visible phenotypic change is cell-specific and if this phenotypic ex- in the action of a gene, but rather by dis- pression is not subject to changes that may sociation of the bonds that normally would be caused by diffusible gene products from maintain a linear cohesiveness of this locus the adjacent dominant cells. The presence with an adjacent locus in the chromosome. of a recessive sector in a mature tissue in- As an ultimate consequence of the muta- dicates that a dissociation mutation oc- tion, the chromosome is dissociated into curred in the ancestor cell that gave rise two completely detached segments. Be- to this sector. In plants of the given consti- cause one of these segments is acentric, it tution, therefore, the mature tissues can is not capable of directed movement in the be expected to show variegation for reces- spindle figure and subsequently is lost to sive sectors. From the size, frequency, and the nuclei of descendent cells. This mu- distribution of these recessive sectors in table locus has been designated Ds because any one tissue the state of the locus in this the most readily recognizable consequence particular tissue or sector of tissue can be of its action is this dissociation. By both recognized. cytological and genetic methods, the Ds Control of Ds activity by Ac. Accumu- locus has been placed in chromosome 9 at lating evidence indicates that the Ds locus approximately the position that demarcates will undergo dissociation mutations only the proximal third of the short arm. The when a particular dominant factor is acentric segment that is produced as a con- present. This factor is designated Ac be- sequence of a dissociation mutation is cause it activates Ds. Ac is probably lo- composed, then, of the distal two-thirds of cated in the long arm of chromosome 9, the short arm. This segment contains the but its exact position has not been deter- loci of most of the known mutants of mined. By the end of this growing season, chromosome 9. Collectively, these mutants the analysis of the action of Ac on the Ds affect characters of the pollen, the endo- locus should be well advanced. At the sperm of the kernel, the seedling, and the present time the evidence suggests the fol- mature plant. Consequently, dissociation lowing relations between Ac and Ds. If mutations at the Ds locus may be traced Ac is not present, the Ds locus is com- 148 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
pletely normal in behavior and indis- use of lactic acid, either in the fixing fluid tinguishable from ds. If, by appropriate or in the staining solution. Young anthers crosses, however, Ac is introduced into were fixed for 12 to 24 hours in a fresh the primary endosperm nucleus, the Ds mixture of four parts of 95 per cent alcohol locus again becomes mutable and disso- to one part of lactic acid. The sporocytes ciations may begin to occur shortly after in the meiotic prophase states were forced the introduction of Ac. Ac will not affect out of the anther in a drop of aceto-orcein; a normal ds locus, however; in the pres- a cover slip was placed over the drop, and ence of Ac, ds remains stable. the slide gently heated. An unusually Cytological aspects of the action of the sharp differential stain resulted. The cyto- Ds locus. Genetic evidence indicated that plasm was only slightly stained; the the dissociation mutations take place rela- chromosomes, in contrast, were brilliantly tively late in the development of the stained, and the centromeres were sharply sporophytic tissues. This was confirmed delimited in each chromosome. Consider- by cytological observations of the sporo- able stretching of the chromosomes some- cytes of Ds Ac plants. In the sporogenous times occurred, however, during the flat- cells of the anthers of the majority of tening of the sporocytes. When equal plants examined, the dissociation muta- parts of lactic acid and acetic acid were tions—recognized by the constitution of used in the fixative in place of lactic acid the chromosome 9 bivalent—most fre- alone, the chromosomes stained sharply quently occurred in a late-premeiotic nu- with aceto-orcein but were less subject to cleus or sometimes in the meiotic nucleus stretching during the flattening of the itself. Genetic and cytological evidence also sporocytes. A third method involved the indicates that dissociation mutations may restaining of aceto-carmine preparations be delayed throughout the period of with an orcein stain consisting of 1 per cent meiosis and only begin to take place in orcein in a mixture of equal parts of lactic the following gametophytic nuclei. In acid, acetic acid, and water. Brilliant con- some plants, however, dissociation muta- trast in staining resulted. Initial use of tions were observed to have occurred in this stain on the sporocytes did not give relatively young premeiotic nuclei. The satisfactory results. relation of this variable timing of dissocia- Some of the major aspects of chromo- tion mutations to the particular state of the some 9 behavior that are associated with Ds locus will be discussed later. the presence of the Ds locus were reviewed In making preparations of the sporo- in Year Book No. 45. It is now suspected cytes with the usual aceto-carrnine staining that the dissociation mutation process is techniques, considerable difficulty was en- not a simple breakage of bonds at the Ds countered in obtaining an adequate num- locus, although this is usually the eventual ber of well spread and sharply stained consequence. In making observations of meiotic prophase figures. Consequently, it the chromosomes, it was necessary to be was necessary to attempt an improvement able to identify accurately the Di-carrying in the techniques. Methods that had been chromosome in the sporocytes of a Ds ds developed in the fall of 1946 for the study plant. Crosses were made, therefore, be- of meiotic prophase chromosomes of the tween Di--carrying plants with morpho- fungus Neurospora were tried, and found logically normal chromosomes 9 and ds ds to be likewise superior for similar stages plants having a chromosome 9 with a in maize. These methods introduce the small terminal knob at the end of the DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS I49
short arm and a short duplication of sporocytes will yield some insight into chroma tin extending beyond the knob. the nature of the action that occurs as a The heteromorphic end of the short arm consequence of the combined presence of of the chromosome 9 bivalent in the the Ds and Ac loci. It will be necessary meiotic prophases of the resulting plants to observe many thousands of sporocytes allowed the Ds- and dV-carrying chromo- before a sufficient number showing aber- somes to be readily identified. In these rant types of chromosome 9 behavior can plants, a number of sporocytes were ob- be found. With the improved techniques served in which the ZXf-carrying chromo- recently developed, it is hoped that this some was deficient for the terminal two- may be more readily accomplished. Until thirds of the short arm as a consequence of this needed information has been obtained, a previous dissociation mutation in an it would be premature to attempt to pro- ancestor cell. In all cases, without excep- ject a sequence of events that result di- tion, it could be determined that only the rectly in a dissociation or in one of the Dx-carrying chromosome had been affected rarer types of alterations involving the Ds- by this action. Some sporocytes were ob- carrying chromosome 9. served, however, in which the Dy-carrying The stability of the state of the Ds locus. chromosome had not simply lost two- As mentioned previously, abrupt changes thirds of its short arm, but had been sub- may occur in the expressed pattern of dis- jected instead to some other modification, sociation mutations in a tissue or sector of whose history is not understood at present. tissue. The general pattern, in each case, Among the aberrant types, those showing is the product of the time, the frequency, the complete loss of the Dj-carrying and the distribution of dissociation muta- chromosome in a sector of sporocytes in tions that have occurred in individual cells the anther were the most frequent. In the during development. At present it is not recognized cases, the losses occurred earlier known to what extent these changes in the than the more frequently observed dis- expression of dissociation mutations are sociations at the Ds locus. In other cases, a controlled by altered conditions at either small sector of sporocytes was present in the Ds or the Ac locus, or at both, or by which the Dx-carrying chromosome was other genetic conditions not yet identified. missing; in these cases, however, a small Until further evidence has accumulated, ring-shaped chromosome was present in the observed patterns will be considered the cells of these particular sectors. This a reflection of the state of the Ds locus ring chromosome probably is composed of even though this restricted definition may a segment of the D^-carrying chromosome later require modification. The patterns 9, although positive identification could not of dissociation mutations are visible in be made. A few other types of aberrant tissues of plants that have a ^-carrying configurations also were observed. In all chromosome 9 with recessive factors in its these relatively rare types of aberrant be- short arm and a Dx-carrying chromosome havior, only the Z?
where the chromosomes are greatly ex- valents showed no relational coiling of the tended. In the previous investigation, the two homologues about each other, and it minute morphology of the extended was obvious that the distance between chromosomes could rarely be observed, but them was quite constant—amounting to with the present techniques this morphol- approximately half a micron—so that in ogy is sharply defined in many figures. their spatial relation they resembled rail- Mr. Singleton has succeeded in mapping road tracks. Technical methods were de- the chromomere organization of each of vised by Mr. Singleton for softening the the seven chromosomes. Each chromo- ascus wall in order to flatten the asci, and some has an individually recognizable also for achieving a sharp differentiation chromomere organization, including deep- of the spindle figures and the centriole. staining regions which, because of their From preparations kindly donated by Mr. positions in the chromosomes, probably Singleton, photographs were taken to il- represent the heterochromatic regions lustrate the peripheral position of the known to be adjacent to the centromeres. chromosomes in the spindle figures and the It can now be stated with certainty that no rather bizarre organization and behavior of heteromorphic pair of chromosomes is pres- the centriole in the third division in the ent in Neurospora crassa. These tech- niques have also made it possible to ob- ascus. serve more critically the mutual relations Though the primary objectives of this of the two homologues of a bivalent during interim study of the chromosomes of the mid-meiotic prophase stages, that is, Neurospora were fulfilled, a supplementary before diplotene. Many bivalents were ob- factor of possibly greater value was the served in which the two homologous progressive realization of the possibilities chromosomes were lying side by side but for utilizing this material in attacking a not in direct contact at any point along number of cytological and cytogenetic their length. These favorably oriented bi- problems, both old and new.
MOUSE LEUKEMIA
E. C. MACDOWELL, M. J. TAYLOR, AND L. LEWIS
MATERNAL INFLUENCE UPON SPONTANEOUS second backcross to inbred StoLi females LEUKEMIA when these mothers were old than when In previous Year Books the following they were young. steps have been recorded in the study of An experiment to confirm this influence influence of the mother upon the incidence of mother's age was started in 1944 (Year of spontaneous leukemia: (i) Less leu- Book No. 43, p. 140). During the present kemia appeared, in reciprocal first-genera- year the last mouse in this experiment died, tion hybrids between the leukemic strain and a preliminary, report can be given, al- C5S and the nonleukemic strain StoLi, though final figures await microscopic when the mother came from the non- diagnosis of certain cases. Young and old leukemic strain. (2) Less leukemia ap- StoLi females were mated at the same peared within either form of this cross time to the same C58 males; each mother when the Fi young were nursed by StoLi nursed her own young. Among the 75 than when they were nursed by C58 fe- female hybrids at whose birth the mothers males. (3) Less leukemia appeared in the were IO to 18 weeks old, the first death DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 153
from leukemia occurred at 309 days; by duced by normal tissue, it was observed 800 days, 70 per cent had died with leu- that the mice resisting leukemic cells of kemia. Among the 89 female hybrids at line I were regularly sick in about a week whose birth the mothers were 34 to 50 after the test dose, and later recovered. weeks old, the first leukemic death oc- Since the controls were dying at this time, curred at 570 days; by 800 days, 20 per cent this sickness seemed to be merely a phase had died with leukemia. Thus, with many in the process of resistance. But this con- fewer variables involved, the original in- dition became more interesting when the dications of a maternal age factor are fully same symptoms appeared in the same substantiated. If this factor that increases number of days after an injection of with age and inhibits the development of microsomic material prepared by Dr. leukemia should prove to be transmitted Claude by differential high-speed centrif- by the milk, it would not only provide an ugation from line I, and also after injec- interpretation for most of our observations tion with heated line-I cells (460 C. for 10 on maternal influence, but also offer an minutes), which do not transmit leukemia opportunity to isolate the substance so but do induce active resistance. For years transmitted. the cause of this sickness has been an out- An experiment to test for an effect of the standing question. age of the nurse has been in preparation Although many unsuccessful filtration during the past two years, and in the experiments with the early transfers of summer of 1947 the 400 test animals were line I were carried out by Drs. Richter and born (within a period of 24 days) and Zucker at the College of Physicians and nursed and weaned. As in the previous Surgeons, the recent development of ge- experiment, the fathers were all from the netic theory to include self-reproducing, leukemic strain and the mothers all from gene-like units free from chromosomes the nonleukemic strain: one group 9 to seemed to justify a return to filtration tech- 15 weeks old at the birth of their young niques. This was further justified by the (two-thirds being 11 to 12 weeks old); apparent activity of certain of Dr. Claude's the other group, 36 to 42 weeks old (one- centrifugates. After 1500 transfers, line I half being 38 to 39 weeks old). Newborn might give different results. The first ob- young from each group, which had re- jective was to obtain the contents of leu- ceived no milk from their own mothers, kemic cells as unchanged as possible, with- were nursed by mothers of the other out an intact cell. group; as controls, others were nursed by The following report covers work under- their own mothers or other nurses of the taken by Miss Taylor. Numerous pro- same age group. These mice are housed cedures were eliminated by finding intact in a room of their own, with the same cells in the product upon microscopic ex- number from one class in each box, and amination. Dr. Spiegelman, having had a with the four classes in rotation along the similar objective, proposed his technique shelves. of breaking cells by glass beads and carborundum powder in a slowly revolv- ing flask at a low temperature. Dr. Mc- A FILTERABLE AGENT ASSOCIATED WITH Donald co-operated in working out tech- LINE I niques, shared her cold room (o° C), and From the beginning of our studies on provided apparatus. The ground material, resistance to transplanted leukemia in- after passing through a pyrex fritted glass CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 154 filter, grade fine, was found by Dr. R. at the height of the sickness to a normal Miller to include the same population of host. The sickness appeared at the end of microscopic particles as before filtration, a week, and the same result followed a but whole cells were unquestionably elimi- second subtransfer. nated. This filtrate injected into leukemia- Drs. E. Racker and Mark Adams, of the susceptible mice (C58) failed to transmit Department of Bacteriology, New York leukemia, but a sickness appeared in a University College of Medicine, in summer week that could not be distinguished from residence at the Biological Laboratory, be- the condition mentioned above. Second came interested in this problem, and they and third treatments of the same mice have followed the work in detail and have with similar filtrates called forth no symp- made valuable suggestions. Both men were toms, but after the third treatment such inclined to interpret Miss Taylor's results mice were still susceptible to line-I leu- as indicating the presence of a virus, but kemia, even when given in a highly dilute subsequently in the hands of a virus dose. This result with cell-free filtrates specialist a bacterial infection was reported agrees with earlier experiments in which that caused intensive efforts for half the mice were inoculated with line-I cells sub- year to be turned toward a search for sig- jected to 46.5-50° C. for 10 minutes; the nificant bacteria. To this work Dr. Kelner, sickness was called forth, and after recovery of the Biological Laboratory, gave con- the mice were still susceptible to intact siderable time and assistance, and the bac- line-I cells. Miss Taylor discovered that teriological services of the Department con- curves of daily body weights show a char- tributed sterilized glassware and media. acteristic pattern for this sickness that But this endeavor was fruitless. Various records the course of the illness far more bacteria were found both in the trans- objectively than estimations of the reduced planted leukemias and in uninoculated activity, dampness of hair, and stickiness mice directly from the breeding colony, but of eyes that are its indications. For the there was little consistency in occurrence first week there is no weight deviation and their pathogenicity was in question. from the controls; then appears a precipi- Bacteria found in one transfer of a trans- tous drop of a gram or more a day for planted line would be entirely absent from about three days, followed by a leveling a later transfer without recognizable off and a slow rise that may not restore change in the characteristics of the line. the original weight for two or more weeks, When it gradually became clear that many days after other signs of sickness neither was the colony threatened by an have disappeared. Subsequent experiments epidemic, nor the transplanted lines by proved that the preliminary grinding was extinction, the road became clear to under- unnecessary for the transmission of the take the critical filtration experiment sickness. The simple passage of even a which, with Dr. Adams' active co-opera- highly dilute (io"f) suspension of leukemic tion, has just been carried out. A broth tissue through a pyrex fine filter gave a suspension of spleen from a mouse in- material that Induced the sickness in the oculated with line-I leukemia was passed regular time. Within wide limits the con- through a pyrex filter (fine); part of this centration of the dose made no difference. was inoculated into normal C58 mice and Further independence of this agent from part was passed through a Seitz filter and leukemic cells was demonstrated by trans- then inoculated. Both filtrates induced the ferring spleen from a filtrate-treated mouse characteristic symptoms and the sudden DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 155 weight loss beginning on the eighth day. with the transplanted leukemia of line I, It seems probable that this filterable agent has been found, which can be passed from has been present in line I for a long time mouse to mouse by tissue transplantation and has been responsible for the "sickness" without mortality or the appearance of that has held our attention. It has regularly leukemia. This agent has probably existed appeared in C58 mice about a week after in line I for more than ten years. A single first inoculation with line I, when death infection is followed by firm immunity, from leukemia was prevented by previ- which has been tested after two months ously induced resistance or was sufficiently and found still effective. All C58 mice delayed by high dilution of the dose of tested have been susceptible. The failure cells. Although this sickness has been ob- of mice immunized to this agent to resist served many times over the years, very even highly dilute doses of leukemic cells little can be said about its internal effects. indicates that the resistance that can be The white-blood-cell counts are high, and induced to line-I leukemia is a different the smears of blood have been called phenomenon. The action of this virus- leukemoid by Dr. R. Miller. Two mice like agent upon lymphoid tissues, how- killed at the height of the sickness after ever, is definitely leukemoid; and ques- inoculation with a filtrate showed mild tions are raised bearing on its origin, its lymphoid hyperplasia and moderately en- variations, its modification of the pathol- larged spleens. ogy of leukemia, and its possible influence To summarize, a filterable virus-like upon resistability and variability of agent of mild pathogenicity, carried along leukemic cells.
GENETIC STRUCTURE OF NATURAL POPULATIONS
TH. DOBZHANSKY, Columbia University, New Yor\
Cyclic seasonal changes in the genetic EXPERIMENTS WITH FLIES DERIVED FROM structure have been discovered in the popu- THE PINON FLATS POPULATION lations of the fly Drosophila pseudoobscura A simple apparatus called the popula- on Mount San Jacinto, in California (see tion cage has been constructed, which en- Year Books Nos. 40, 43, 44). The changes ables one to maintain populations of involve the relative frequencies of certain Drosophila pseudoobscura of known ge- gene arrangements in the third chromo- netic composition, and to study the changes some of the fly. The frequency of the so- called Standard gene arrangement de- that may occur under controlled laboratory creases during the spring and increases conditions (see Year Books Nos. 43, 45). during the summer, whereas the frequen- Some changes analogous to those known cies of the Chiricahua and Arrowhead to take place in nature have, indeed, been gene arrangements wax In spring and observed in the population cages. The wane in summer. The changes seem to early experiments were made with flics represent adaptive responses of1 the species descended from wild progenitors collected to the seasonal alterations in the environ- at the locality called PinoE Flats, on Mount ment in which it lives. This finding has San Jacinto, California. Artificial popu- presented an opportunity for an observa- lations were made consisting of flies with tional and experimental approach to the Standard and Chiricahua, Standard and problem of the action of natural selection. Arrowhead, and Arrowhead and Chin* 156 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON cahua chromosomes. It was found that at about 0.7, and that of CH/CH homo- a temperature of i6° C. the relative fre- zygotes as low as 0.4. The finding of such quencies of the chromosomal types present large differentials among normal con- in the initial population of a cage remain stituents of a natural population has been unchanged generation after generation. In most unexpected, since it has been custom- the same way, no changes take place in the arily assumed in modern biology that population at Piiion Flats during autumn the intensities of natural selection opera- and winter, when low temperatures pre- tive in nature are, except for abnormalities vail. But at temperatures close to 25 ° C, and pathological conditions, very low. changes do occur in the population cages, Moreover, these differentials characterize as they do in summer in the natural the chromosomal types only at relatively populations. Furthermore, these changes high temperatures, and seem to be di- proved to be of a very interesting kind. minished or removed altogether at 16 ° C. No chromosomal type entirely supplants The origin and the biological meaning of its competitor (an exception to this rule, so extraordinary a situation present a fas- found in a population of flies descended cinating problem. from Mather progenitors, is mentioned be- The first question that arises is whether low). Instead, the population gradually the adaptive properties of the ST, CH, and approaches an equilibrium state, in which AR chromosomes discovered in the Piiion the competing chromosomal types are pres- Flats population are intrinsic attributes of ent in definite proportions. In mixtures the chromosomes having these gene ar- of Standard (ST) and Chiricahua (CH), rangements. Indeed, these chromosomal and of Standard and Arrowhead (AR), types occur not only in the Piiion Flats the Standard chromosomes reach at equi- population, but also in populations o£ the librium a frequency of about 70 per cent. whole Pacific coast, from British Columbia In mixtures of Arrowhead and Chiricahua, to Lower California. Would the ST, CH, the equilibrium value of Arrowhead and AR chromosomes behave similarly, chromosomes appears to be around 75 then, regardless of the particular locality per cent. from which they were derived? Such a The failure of the competing chromo- similarity would, in general, be expected somal types to displace one another is best if the adaptive properties of a chromosome explained on the assumption that indi- were caused directly by the arrangement viduals homozygous for the respective of the genes in it (position effect). Chro- chromosomes (ST/ST, CH/CH, AR/AR) mosomes with the same gene arrangement have lower adaptive values (i.e., survive may behave diflEerently if their properties and reproduce at lower rates) than are determined by the quality of the genes the chromosome heterozygotes (ST/CH, that they carry. Observations and experi- ST/AR, AR/CH). Since the changes ob- ments on the populations of several locali- served in the population cages, as well as ties have, therefore, been undertaken. in nature, are extremely rapid (see Year Books Nos. 44, 45), the differences in the POPULATIONS LIVING AT DIFFERENT ELEVA- adaptive values must be very large. Pro- TIONS IN THE SIERRA NEVADA fessor Sewall Wright, of the University of Chicago, has computed that, taking the Thanks to the courtesy of the Division adaptive value of ST/CH heterozygotes of Plant Biology of the Carnegie Institu- to be 1.0, that of ST/ST homozygotes is tion, the writer has been able to make oi>- DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 157 servations on the population of Drosophila frequent than Drosophila persimilis (the pseudoobscura of the Sierra Nevada, using latter being rare at lower elevations), but as a base the facilities of the Division at samples obtained had 15 per cent, or less, Mather, California. The unfailing hospi- of ST chromosomes, and more than 40 tality of Drs. J. Clausen, D. D. Keck, and per cent of AR chromosomes. In contrast W. M. Hiesey, as well as of Drs. H. A. with Mount San Jacinto—where Standard Spoehr and C. S. French, the former and and Chiricahua do, and AR chromosomes present Chairmen of the Division, is grate- do not, show elevational changes—in the fully acknowledged. Mather is located Sierra Nevada the frequencies of the CH slightly more than 300 miles northwest of chromosomes are relatively uniform at dif- San Jacinto, at an elevation of about 4600 ferent elevations (or, possibly, increase feet, on the western slope of the Sierra slightly at the higher altitudes). Nevada. The details of the seasonal changes in the During the summers of 1946 and 1947, Sierran populations are not quite clear at samples of the populations of Drosophila present, although there is no doubt that pseudoobscura and of the related species seasonal changes do occur. The data now Drosophila persimilis were taken at Jack- available suggest that at Aspen Valley, sonville (elevation 850 feet), Lost Claim Mather, and Lost Claim seasonal changes Campground (about 3000 feet), Mather are rather pronounced, but that these (4600 feet), Aspen Valley Ranger Station changes are quite different in kind from (6200 feet), Porcupine Flat (8000 feet), those observed on Mount San Jacinto. In Tuolumne Meadows (8600 feet), and Tim- the three Sierran localities the relative fre- berline Station (9900 feet). These locali- quency of the ST chromosomes increases, ties form an approximate west-east transect while the frequency of AR decreases, as of the Sierra Nevada. The distance be- the season progresses from spring to tween the extreme localities, Jacksonville autumn. A reversal of the changes evi- and Timberline, is about 60 miles. dently takes place during winter. At The data are still incomplete, but the Pinon Flats and Andreas Canyon, on main conclusion that follows from them is Mount San Jacinto, no changes have been no longer in doubt. The populations that recorded in autumn and in winter, whereas live in the different localities sampled differ during the spring and summer ST and in relative frequencies of Standard and CH chromosomes are involved in the cyclic Arrowhead chromosomes, the differences alterations of frequencies. On Mount San being correlated with the elevations of the Jacinto, as well as along the Sierran tran- respective localities. The Jacksonville pop- sect, the fly populations of the higher locali- ulation contains about 45 per cent of ST ties reach maximum densities during late and 25 per cent of AR chromosomes. At summer, whereas in the lower localities Lost Claim, the average frequency of ST the populations contract in size during the falls to about 40 per cent, and that of AR summer, owing presumably to the ex- rises to about 35 per cent. At Mather, cessive heat. ST amounts to, roughly, 30 per cent, and The chromosomal composition of the AR to 35-40 per cent. At Aspen Valley, ST populations in the lower localities on San dwindles to between 20 and 30 per cent, Jacinto (Andreas, Finon) approaches in and AR rises to between 40 and 50 per cent. late spring and early summer that of the In the higher localities the species Dro- population of the higher locality (Keen sophila pseudoobscura becomes much less Camp), which at this time is expanding 158 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON in numbers. This fact has misled some vironments prevailing at lower elevations authors into believing that the changes in and at warmer seasons, whereas the car- the chromosomal constitution observed at riers of AR chromosomes prefer cooler Andreas and Pifion were due to an influx localities and seasons. If this is so, natural of flies from the higher localities. It stands selection would tend to increase the fre- to reason, however, that a migration of quencies of ST chromosomes in the popu- flies from Keen to Pifion and Andreas lations of the lower localities and during could change the composition of the popu- the summer, and to have the opposite effect lations of the latter two localities in the in the higher localities and during cold direction of the Keen population, but weather. could not produce the reverse change so It is most instructive to compare the as to make the changes cyclic. Moreover, results just outlined with those obtained the populations of Piiion and Andreas by Drs. Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey, of the change during the summer in the direction Division of Plant Biology, in their very away from the composition of the Keen important work on the local races (eco- population, at the time when the popula- types) of some plant species. These investi- tion of the latter locality is expanding and gators found that plant species that occur reaching maximum density. Finally, the in diverse environments are often differ- rate of dispersal of the flies is known to entiated into genetically distinct popula- be far too low to produce the postulated tions—races—which are adapted to survive migrations (see Year Book No. 45). and to reproduce most efficiently in the Comparison of the altkudinal differences particular environments of their occur- in the incidence of the chromosomal types rence. This is very often the case with in the localities of the Sierran transect with representatives of the same species grow- the seasonal changes in these localities is ing at different elevations. A transect of very instructive. It will be recalled that the Sierra Nevada, approximately coincid- the frequencies of ST chromosomes de- ing with the one used by the present crease, and those of AR increase, as one writer, has disclosed many excellent ex- ascends from the lower to the higher ele- amples of altitudinal races of plants. vations. However, in at least some of the Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey have explained localities, at mid elevations, the frequencies the origin of the adaptive differentiation of ST increase and those of AR decrease observed by them by supposing that natural as the growing season progresses and the selection leads to differential increases in weather becomes warmer. In other words, the frequencies of different genotypes in the populations of relatively higher locali- different environments. The genotypes ties come, during the warm season, to re- best fitted to survive in each environment semble in composition the populations of become established, then, as the predomi- the lower localities. One reason for exclud- nant, or exclusive, components of the popu- ing the migration hypothesis is that the lations in that environment. The fly Dro- population densities in the lower localities sophila pseudoobscura exhibits essentially dwindle when the populations of the the same kind of differentiation Into alti- higher localities begin to resemble the tudinal races that was found by Clausen, former in composition. The available facts Keck, and Hiesey in the plants studied by are consistent with the view that, in the them. Since the fly* however, is capable— Sierran populations, the carriers o£ ST at least at the lower elevations—of produc- chromosomes arc better adapted to the en- ing several generations per year, it under- DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 159 goes the process postulated by these investi- origin. The cages were kept at first at gators regularly and cyclically, twice every 25 ° C. The frequencies of the ST and AR year. chromosomes in these two cages converged, reaching an approximate equality by June- BEHAVIOR OF THE MATHER AND KEEN CAMP July 1946. Cage no. 32 was transferred in CHROMOSOMES IN POPULATION CAGES September 1946 to a cold room at 15° C. No changes took place in this cage until The observations on the altitudinal and January 1947. From then until June 1947, seasonal changes in the frequencies of the this cage was exposed alternately to room chromosomal types in the Sierra Nevada temperature and to a cold-room tempera- strongly suggest that these chromosomes ture of about 20 C. The transfers from have different properties from the anal- one temperature to the other were made ogous chromosomes on Mount San Jacinto. at first at approximately weekly, and later Beginning with the winter of 1945-1946, a at daily, intervals. No significant changes series of experiments has been conducted occurred till June 1947, although, taken at with population cages that contained face value, the frequency of ST rose known mixtures of chromosomes derived slightly (to 56-57 per cent). Since the from the Mather population in the Sierra competition of ST and AR chromosomes Nevada, and from the Keen Camp popu- from Pinon Flats leads to equilibrium at lation on Mount San Jacinto. These ex- about 70 per cent ST (see above), it may periments are now in the main completed, be taken as established that the Sierran but their results have not yet been sub- chromosomes and those from Piiion Flats jected to a proper mathematical analysis. have different properties. The competition The following statement of the results of of the AR and CH chromosomal types of these experiments is therefore tentative. Sierran origin also leads to a result clearly A population cage (no. 30) was started different from that obtained with the same in December 1945 with 33 per cent Stand- chromosomal types from San Jacinto; the ard and 67 per cent Chiricahua chromo- equilibrium value is about 57 per cent AR somes of Mather origin, and was kept at and 43 per cent CH for Mather chromo- 25 ° C. By June 1946 it contained about somes, compared with more than 70 per 77 per cent ST and 23 per cent CH. In cent AR and less than 30 per cent CH for September 1946 this cage was transferred Pinon chromosomes. to a temperature of 15 ° C. Its population The Keen Camp locality is only about underwent no further change till January 15 miles distant from Pinon Flats and 1947. The behavior of the ST and CH from Andreas Canyon. Despite such close chromosomes o£ Mather origin is, thus, geographical proximity, the Keen Camp about the same as that of the same chromo- population showed remarkably different somal types from Pinon (see above), ex- behavior from the populations of Pinon cept that the equilibrium value for ST and Andreas. In contrast with the regular seems to be slightly higher for Mather cyclic changes at these two localities, no than for Pinon. cyclic seasonal changes in the frequencies Two population cages (nos. 29 and 32) of the chromo'somal types have been ob- were started in December 1945 with mix- served with certainty at Keen. Instead, the tures, respectively, of 70 per cent ST and Keen population showed a sustained trend 30 per cent AR» and 19 per cent ST and of change from 1939 to 1946 (the period 81 per cent AR, chromosomes of Mather for which observations are available), i6o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
which led to a gradual increase in the fre- that the adaptive values of individuals quency of Standard, and to a decrease in heterozygous for chromosomes with dif- the frequencies of Arrowhead and Chiri- ferent gene arrangements are higher than cahua chromosomes (see Year Book No. those of chromosome homozygotes. The 45). It seemed a most intriguing problem populations of the Sierra Nevada include, to investigate whether the difference in be- besides the frequently occurring chromo- havior between the Keen population, on somal types having Standard, Chiricahua, the one hand, and the Pifion and Andreas and Arrowhead gene arrangements, some populations, on the other, was due to dif- less common chromosomal types, which, ferences in their genetic structures or to because of their relative rarity, could not differences in their environments. Experi- be used in artificial experiments. Only one mental evidence suggests that the former of these rare types, called Tree Line (TL), are at least partly responsible. A popula- was found in the Mather population in tion cage (no. 26) was started in November numbers which permitted its inclusion in 1945 with a mixture of 32 per cent ST and the experiments (its frequency at Mather 68 per cent AR chromosomes of Keen ranges from 4 to 10 per cent of the total Camp origin. The cage was kept at 25 ° C. number of chromosomes). By March 1946, an equilibrium was at- Population cage no. 31 was started in tained at 60 per cent ST and 40 per cent December 1945 with 45 per cent ST and AR, which persisted till June of the same 55 per cent TL chromosomes of Mather year, when the cage was transferred to a origin. By May 1946, the frequency of TL cold room at 15 ° C. No further changes had fallen to only 18 per cent, and by occurred until January 1947. The equilib- November of the same year to about 1 rium point for ST-AR chromosomes of per cent. It seems that in this cage the Keen Camp origin seems, then, to lie be- changes were leading to a complete dis- tween those for the same chromosomes of placement of TL by ST chromosomes. Pinon Flats origin and of Mather origin Such an outcome of the competition be- (see above). An experiment with AR and tween the two chromosomal types is pos- CH chromosomes of Keen Camp origin sible only if the heterozygotes (TL/ST) gave results resembling those obtained with are less well adapted, at least under the the same chromosomal types from Mather, conditions of the experiment, than the but differing sharply from the results with Standard homozygotes (ST/ST). flies from the geographically much nearer It may be asked why the Tree Line Piiion Flats locality. chromosomes continue to exist at all in the Mather population. If both the hetero- AN EXCEPTIONAL EXPERIMENT WITH zygotes, TL/ST, and the homozygotes, MATHER CHROMOSOMES TL/TL, are inferior to ST homozygotes, natural selection would be expected to In all the experiments referred to up to eliminate the TL chromosomes completely. now, whenever the composition of the A possible answer to this question is pro- population in a population cage underwent vided by the results obtained in population changes, these changes led to the establish- cage no. 33, which contained Tree Line ment of an equilibrium at which all the and Arrowhead chromosomes derived chromosomal types introduced into the from the Mather population. The out- population were preserved with definite come of this experiment was quite different frequencies. As stated above, this indicates from that of no. 31 described above. The DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 161 population of no. 33 reached equilibrium several problems relating to natural popu- at about 75 per cent AR and 25 per cent lations. TL. It must be concluded that the TL/AR The experiments were started in De- heterozygotes are adaptively superior to cember 1946, and are at present well under both TL/TL and AR/AR homozygotes. way. After some preliminary trials, the Now, in the natural populations of Mather following technique was adopted. Flies and other Sierran localities, the Tree Line, homozygous for a certain gene arrange- Standard, and Arrowhead chromosomes ment—say, for Standard of Mather origin always occur. TL/ST, as well as TL/AR, —are crossed, in regular Drosophila cul- heterozygotes are always present in these ture bottles, to individuals of the opposite populations, together with some ST/ST sex homozygous for another gene arrange- and AR/AR, and a few TL/TL, homo- ment of different origin—say, for Chiri- zygotes. Although the adaptive value of cahua from Pinon Flats. The offspring of TL/ST heterozygotes is low as compared this cross are all heterozygous for Mather with that of ST/ST, that of TL/AR and for Pinon Flats chromosomes. These heterozygotes is higher than that of offspring are placed in a population cage AR/AR, and possibly also than that of in numbers sufficient to produce an over- ST/ST. Natural selection would tend, population of larvae in the food introduced then, to retain TL chromosomes in the into the cage. Since the initial population population, but at a frequency level lower of the cage consists of heterozygotes only, than that of AR and of ST chromosomes. the first generation of eggs and larvae in This is precisely what was observed. the cage will necessarily consist of 25 per cent homozygotes of each of the two types (ST/ST from Mather, and CH/CH ARTIFICIAL POPULATIONS CONTAINING MIX- from Pinon), and 50 per cent heterozygotes TURES OF CHROMOSOMES OF DIFFERENT (ST/CH) for chromosomes of the two GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN different geographic origins. If at any de- As the experiments reviewed above had velopmental stage before the emergence demonstrated that chromosomes with the of the adults the two types of homozygotes same gene arrangement derived from geo- and the heterozygotes are not equally vi- graphically different populations may have able, the theoretical proportions, 25:50:25, different properties, the logical next step will not be realized among the adults. Ac- in the experimental program was to test cordingly, the adults of the first generation the behavior of populations composed of emerging in the population cages are chromosome types of different geographic tested for their chromosomal constitution. origin. Such populations may easily be Although such tests are very laborious if created artificially in population cages by many flics are involved, this experimental crossing flies whose ancestors were col- procedure is expedient. Indeed, compari- lected in different localities. In nature, son of the theoretical proportions with the they are probably rare, since the only way ratios in which the three chromosomal in which they can be formed is through constitutions actually appear among the accidental transport (for example, by adults permits a direct estimate of the co- wind) of individuals from one population efficients of the differential mortality that to a foreign territory. Nevertheless, the may have taken place in the population behavior of such artificial populations may cage. Such estimates arc difficult to obtain be very enlightening in its bearing on by any other procedure. l62 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Five successful experiments of this type, geographic origin are adaptively inferior carried out in collaboration with Miss C. to at least one of the homozygotes, the Madison, have given quite consistent re- selective process will lead to the estab- sults, showing that the viability of indi- lishment of one and to elimination of viduals heterozygous for chromosomes all other competing chromosomal types. with different gene arrangements of dif- Whether or not this will actually be the ferent geographic origin lay between the outcome of the experiments on populations viabilities of the two corresponding homo- of geographically mixed origin remains to zygotes. In all these experiments, chromo- be seen. somes from Mather and from Pinon Flats were involved. In four out of the five ex- ADAPTIVE EVOLUTION IN SOME POPULATIONS periments, the viability of the homozygotes OF DROSOPHILA PSEUDOOBSCURA for chromosomes of Mather origin proved to be higher than that of the homozygotes The evidence reviewed above permits for Piiion Flats chromosomes. some insight into the nature of the evo- The differential viabilities observed in lutionary processes which lead to the adap- the experiments described above may or tation of populations to their environments. may not reflect differences in the adaptive It has been known for some time that values of the individuals of the different natural populations of some species of chromosomal constitutions. It must be Drosophila vary with respect to the gene kept in mind that higher survival value of arrangement in their chromosomes, most a genotype in, for example, the larval stage of the variation being due to inversions of may be offset by lower survival or repro- chromosome sections. It is now clear that ductive value of the same genotype in the the evolutionary significance of the chro- adult stage. If, however, the observed vi- mosomal inversions is due to their prop- ability differentials may be taken as indi- erty of reducing or suppressing crossing- cations of the selective values in general, over in some chromosome sections in the then the outcome of the experiments with inversion heterozygotes. Thus adaptively population cages containing chromosomes valuable gene combinations, A'B'C'D' and of geographically different origins will be A"B"C"D", may exist in the same popu- radically different from that of the experi- lation without a constant loss of adaptive ments with mixtures of chromosomes de- fitness, owing to crossing-over and to the rived from the same population. As shown production of adaptively inferior types, above* individuals heterozygous for chro- A'B"C"D", A'B'C'D", etc. The possi- mosomes with different gene arrangement bility that some gene arrangements may be from the same population are, with the valuable because o£ the position effects single exception mentioned in the preced- which they produce is not to be dismissed, ing section, adaptively superior to chromo- but there can be no doubt that the adaptive somal homozygotes. Hence, in experi- properties of chromosomes in natural pop- ments of this kind, the selective process ulations are often determined by their gene leads to an equilibrium state in which all contents rather than by the gene arrange- competing chromosomal types are pre- ment. served. This is what happens in the The adaptive value of a chromosomal population cages as well as in natural type in heterozygotes with other chromo- populations. On the other hand, if the somal types present in the same population hcterozygotes for chromosomes of different may be more important than the adaptive DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 163 value of the same type when homozygous. swarms of derived species, each restricted This situation is made possible because, in to a small area and each ecologically many natural populations of Drosophila specialized. However that may be, the pseudoobscura—including the populations situation observed in Drosophila pseudo- that have been employed in our experi- obscura is among the best evidence avail- ments—structural (inversion) heterozy- able for the efficiency of natural selection gotes are more common than are the in evolution. The coadaptation of the homozygotes. The process of natural selec- gene complexes in local populations could tion, therefore, encourages the spread of not arise in any other way than through those gene complexes in the chromosomes natural selection. It is interesting to find with one gene arrangement which produce that in some populations the process of superior heterozygotes with the gene com- coadaptation has not been completed, and plexes carried by the other chromosomal one of the chromosomal types, such as types present in the same population. Tree Line in the Mather population, pro- This "coadaptation" of the gene com- duces heterozygotes adaptively superior to plexes apparently takes place separately the homozygotes only with some (Arrow- and independently in populations which head) but not with other (Standard) reside 300 miles, or perhaps even as little chromosomal types. Possibly this situation as 15 miles, from each other. A type indicates that one o£ the chromosomal (or types) of structural heterozygotes is types is a relative newcomer to the terri- evolved in each population, which is tory in which it is now found. adapted to the environment prevailing in It must not be supposed, however, that the particular region where that popula- the evolutionary pattern found in the tion lives. The coadaptation of the gene populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura complexes being independent in local pop- examined will occur in all organisms, or ulations, the hybrids produced when the even in all species o£ Drosophila. Perhaps populations are intercrossed are adaptively the most remarkable feature o£ this pattern inferior to the members o£ the parental is precisely that it permits an extreme populations. Thus, intrapopulational het- plasticity and diversification of the evo- erosis is compatible with a loss of vigor lutionary adaptations. In some of the San following hybridization of populations. Jacinto, and in the Sierran, populations of This, evidently, will restrict the effective- Drosophila pseudoobscura the biological ness of migration of flies from one popu- function of the chromosomal polymor- lation to another. It may also, under con- phism is at least partly concerned with the ditions which cannot be discussed in this adaptation to different seasonal environ- report, initiate the splitting of an originally ments. Yet in the Keen Camp population single species into two or more derived no seasonal changes occur. There is some ones, and the development of reproductive evidence that the chromosomal polymor- isolating mechanisms between the latter. phism in Drosophila persimilis and in Further studies in this field may lead to a Drosophila robusta h not connected with clarification of the very difficult problem, seasonal adaptation. Finally, some popu- why some species retain their unity despite lations of Drosophila pseudoobscura that a wide geographic distribution and despite occur in Arizona and In New Mexico are the occupation of a variety of environ- homozygous for a single chromosomal ments, while other species split up into type (Arrowhead). Thl$ may mean that, 164 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON occasionally, a highly adapted homozygous bility of their carriers below the normal type is selected, which would make the (wild-type) level. Mutations were looked chromosomal polymorphism unnecessary. for which would bring the viability of these strains back to normal. Some of the strains also showed development rates NATURAL SELECTION OF BENEFICIAL MUTA- slower than that characteristic of "normal" TIONS IN LABORATORY CULTURES OF flies; and mutations that might accelerate DROSOPHILA the development to the normal level were It is well known that mutations that expected. The technique of detection of the arise in laboratory cultures of Drosophila hoped-for mutations (or modifier recombi- are mostly deleterious, or at best neutral, nations) was as follows. The seven initial to the viability of their carriers. This fact strains, each in two parallel sublines, were seems to contradict the view, now held by kept in deliberately overcrowded cultures most biologists, that the mutation process for fifty consecutive generations. The male supplies the raw materials of evolution. progenitors of one of the sublines of each The apparent contradiction is usually re- strain received, in every generation, 1000 solved by supposing that some mutations, roentgen units of X-rays, the other subline although harmful in the environment. in receiving no treatment. The overpopula- which the species normally lives and in tion resulted in acute competition for food combination with other genes normally among the larvae and the adults, and in a present in the species, may be useful in stringent natural selection for genetic vari- other environments and in combination ants that would improve the viability, or with other genes. Indeed, the "normal" accelerate the development rate. At inter- species genotype is a product of a long vals of several generations, the viability process of natural selection which has and the development rates of all the sub- brought about an adjustment of this geno- lines were tested, with the aid of a genetic type to the "normal" environment; any method which cannot be described here mutation that is likely to be observed in in detail; suffice it to say that this method our experiments has probably taken place consisted in observing the deviations from many times in nature, and, consequently, the ideal Mendelian proportions that arose has had the chance of being tested by when the chromosomes of the lines sub- natural selection and of becoming a part jected to selection were tested against of the "normal" genotype. It follows, then, chromosomes marked by standard mutant that "useful" mutations can be found genes. mainly in experiments in which a living In eleven out of the fourteen homo- species is placed in "abnormal" environ- zygous sublines, statistically significant im- ments, or in which the initial materials provements of the viability were observed. have an "abnormal" genetic constitution. In seven sublines, these improvements This working hypothesis has been tested were quite striking; in some cases, the by means of experiments conducted, in viability of a line which acted as a semi- collaboration with Mr. B. Spassky, from lethal at the beginning of the experiment 1942 to 1946. was brought up to normal or nearly so. In these experiments, we used seven The improvements first became noticeable strains of Drosophila pseudoobscnra which in some of the lines near the beginning, were homozygous for second or for fourth in others toward the middle, and in still chromosomes known to reduce the via- others toward the close of the experiments. DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 165
Accelerations of the development rate were may have when homozygous. Two paral- also observed. No appreciable difference lel sublines of each strain were kept, one was noted between the X-rayed and the being treated with X-rays and the other untreated sublines. untreated, as described above for the In parallel experiments, the seven initial homozygous sublines. Recessive lethals or strains were kept for fifty generations in semilethals appeared in three of the un- a "balanced" condition. "Balancing" is a treated and in five of the X-rayed "bal- genetic technique whereby a chromosome anced" sublines. Three untreated and two is transmitted from generation to genera- X-rayed sublines did not change in via- tion through heterozygotes only, the homo- bility to any appreciable extent, and one zygotes not being used as parents. A untreated subline showed a slight improve- chromosome kept in a "balanced" condi- ment* The contrast between the homo- tion is sheltered from the effects of natural zygous and the "balanced" lines was thus selection, to the extent that any recessive very striking; improvements were observed mutant that arises in it is retained regard- in most of the former, and degeneration less of the viability effects that this mutant in most of the latter.
CHROMOSOME STUDIES ON GALL MIDGES
M. J. D. WHITE The gall midges (Cecidomyidae) are a and this conclusion seemed to be strength- group of dipterous flies which are unique ened when it was found that in another in that the number of chromosomes in the cecidomyid, Taxomyia taxi, whose haploid germ line (primordial germ cells, sperma- number is 4, the germ-line nuclei con- togonia, and oogonia) is very much greater tained 40 chromosomes, which was inter- than the number present in the somatic preted at that time as a decaploid condi- nuclei. Previous studies had shown that tion; in Taxomyia all the chromosomes in Miasior metraloas there are 48 chromo- are so nearly alike in size and shape that somes in the germ line of both sexes, 12 it is not possible to distinguish them cyto- in the somatic cells of females, and 6 in logically. the somatic cells of males. In this species Studies on another cecidomyid, Mon- the size differences between the individual arthropalpus huxi, carried on at Cold chromosomes are sufficiently great so that Spring Harbor during the months of April one can be sure that the male soma is and May 1947 have, however, rendered haploid and the female soma diploid. the hypothesis of germ-line polyploidy un- Actually, a number of the somatic tissues tenable for that species and hence unlikely are endopolyploid in both sexes, so that in the case of other Cecidomyidae. It much higher numbers of chromosomes now seems more probable that the germ occur in some of the somatic cells, but line contains a number of "extra" chromo- male and female embryos begin their de- somes which are not represented at all in velopment with haploid and diploid somas, the soma5 rather than that the somatic respectively, and this condition is retained chromosomes are simply present in the in some of the adult tissues such as the polyploid condition in the germ line. If nervous system. this is so5 the fact that in Miastor and Originally, the germ line of Miastor was Taxomyia the number of chromosomes in interpreted as polyploid (i.e.» octoplold), the germ line is a multiple of the haploid i66 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON number may be merely a coincidence. In are of two kinds, males and females. In future we shall refer to the chromosomes the embryonic condition they can be dis- which are present in both germ line and tinguished from pedogenetic embryos only soma as S chromosomes, the "extra" chro- by the fact that some of them (the males) mosomes which are destined to be elimi- have 6 instead of 12 chromosomes in their nated from the soma being referred to as somatic nuclei. E chromosomes. Recent work on Taxomyia and Mon- arthropalpus has shown that these species (which do not reproduce pedogenetically) SEX DETERMINATION IN THE CECIDOMYIDAE have 6 chromosomes in the male soma, 8 In Miastor and Oligarces (subfamily in the female soma. Thus they have not Heteropezinae) and Mycophila (subfamily established a condition of somatic haploidy Lestremiinae), pedogenetic reproduction such as exists in the male Miastor, but occurs, and has even become the main their males may be described as somatically method of multiplication, sexual genera- semihaploid, since they are haploid for tions occurring only at long intervals in two out of four chromosome pairs. Alter- nature. Under conditions favorable for natively, we may designate them as having growth of these species (which are all a complex sex-determining mechanism : fungus feeders), the larvae become sexually X!X2O (
able one to recognize the S chromosomes 6. Gland with one supergiant at this stage. The fact that the 28 chro- cell; nuclei of gland proper mosomes are of very different sizes pre- polytene, those of super- giant cell showing a com- cludes the possibility that the E chromo- bination of polyteny and somes are simply duplicates of the S chro- endopolyploidy Lestodiplosis spp. mosomes (which are all approximately the same size) and excludes the hypothesis of A number of unusual cytological condi- germ-line polyploidy, so far as Monarthro- tions were found in some of the species palpus is concerned. studied. In Camptomyia sp. one of the four chromosomal elements in the salivary- SALIVARY-GLAND CHROMOSOMES IN THE gland nuclei is very much thicker than CECIDOMYIDAE any of the others and shows peculiar prop- erties. In Dasyneura affinis and Contarinia Preliminary studies on the salivary-gland canadensis two of the four chromosomal chromosomes of a number of Cecidomyi- elements bear nucleoli, whereas the other dae were carried out during the summer species have only one nucleolar element in of 1947. It was found that the general the salivary-gland nuclei. Many species of anatomy of the gland varies considerably Cecidomyidae show two different kinds in the different genera, and that this in- of heterochromatin in their salivary-gland volves corresponding variations in the nuclei, "compact" and "diffuse." The cytology of the nuclei. In some Cecido- nucleoli always arise from diffuse hetero- myidae the salivary gland is of a simple chromatin, never from regions of euchro- type, as in Drosophila or Sciara, whereas matin or compact heterochromatin. With in others it may have a large basal reservoir the exception of one species of Lesto- or a pair of "supergiant" cells, very much diplosis previously studied, no individuals larger than the ordinary "giant" cells of heterozygous for inversions have been the gland proper. Both polytene and endo- found in any of the species of Cecidomyi- polyploid nuclei occur, and the two types dae investigated. may be found in different regions of the same gland. The following are the main GENERAL SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATIONS conditions that have been found: 1. Gland simple; all nuclei en- The chromosome cycle of the Cecido- dopolyploid (not polytene) Miastor myidae is radically different from that of 2. Gland simple; all nuclei all other animals hitherto studied, but its polytene ...... Campiomyia sp. genetical implications are by no means 3. Gland with basal reservoir; clear yet. Basically, all the genera investi- nuclei of reservoir polytene, gated have the same type of cytogenetic those of gland proper endo- mechanism, but Monarthropalpus differs polyploid Dasyneum affinis from the other genera previously studied 4. Gland with basal reservoir; in that a considerable number of the E nuclei of reservoir and of chromosomes is carried by the sperm (in gland proper polytene.... Coniarinta canadensis Miastor and Taxomyia the sperm trans- 5. Gland with two supergiant mits only a haploid set of S chromosomes). cells; nuclei of supergiant The significance of the E chromosomes cells and of gland proper is obscure. In any particular species they polytene . , , , , Cecidomyia seroiinm seem to be constant in number, so that DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS 169 there is no reason to believe that they are tissues of the embryo or larva, exerting a genetically inert to the same extent as the delayed effect similar to the "maternal "limited" chromosomes of Sciara or the B effects" now known in the genetics of chromosomes of maize. It might be sug- many species of organism. Such a sug- gested that they contain genes which func- gestion is obviously only tentative and can- tion only in the germ line and up to the not be tested until genetical work has been time of elimination in the soma (i.e., dur- performed on some species of cecidomyid. ing the first few cleavage divisions); but it Genetical studies are obviously impracti- is difficult to believe that their role is so cable on gall-making species such as restricted. It is possible that the proteins Taxomyia taxi and Monarthropalpus buxi, and nucleic acids of the eliminated chro- which have only one generation per mosomes are made use of as raw materials year, but might perhaps be attempted on for the synthesis of S chromosomes in the one of the fungus-feeding or predaceous cleavage nuclei, their role being similar to species, which breed rapidly. that postulated by Painter (1940) for the Like Drosophila, the cecidomyids lack chromosomes of the nurse cells, which also chiasmata in the males. Whether chias- become absorbed into the egg. But since the "nurse-cell mechanism" for supplying mata occur in the females, and if so materials for the synthesis of cleavage whether they are found only in the S chromosomes appears to be well developed chromosomes or also in the E chromo- in all the cecidomyid eggs that we have somes, is still undetermined; preliminary studied, it is difficult to see what advantage studies on the oogenesis of Monarthro- a second mechanism performing the same palpus did not yield a definite answer to function would have. Furthermore, if the this question. functions of the E chromosomes lacked Whatever the precise genetical signifi- genetical specificity, one would hardly cance of the peculiar chromosome cycle expect them to be so constant in number of the Cecidomyidae, it is clearly one (the "limited" chromosomes of Sciara spp. which is successful in an evolutionary vary both in size and in number from one sense, since the group constitutes one of individual to another and are totally absent the largest families of the Diptcra (a mini- in some species of the genus). It therefore mum of 900 species have been described seems probable that the E chromosomes of from the United States alone, in spite of the Cecidomyidae are not genetically inert the fact that there have been very few and, furthermore, that they possess genet- students of the group). Furthermore, the ical specificity. It is possible that their Cecidomyidae have been able to "colonize" genes do not cease to function when elimi- the most diverse habitats, some species be- nation occurs, but that they or the genie ing fungus feeders and others gall makers, products to which they give rise may persist while a large number are predators on for a considerable time in the somatic mites or other insects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIESELB, J. J. The size of somatic chromosomes C58 mice. Cancer Res., vol. 7, pp, 70-77 at different ages in the rat. Jour, GcrontoL, (>947)- vol. 1, pp. 433-44° i1^)- and G. G.\sic. Sex hormone effects on Chromosomes in lymphatic leukemia of chromosome size in leukemic and normal CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
lymphocytes of C58 mice. Cancer Res., KAUFMANN, B. P. Spontaneous mutation rate in vol. 7, pp. 65-69 (1947). Drosophila. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 81, pp. DEMEREC, M. Genetic potencies of carcinogens. 77-80 (1947)- (Abstract) Fourth International Cancer Re- and H. GAY. Frequency of recessive search Congress, p. 43 (1947). lethals induced in Drosophila by near infra- Mutations in Drosophila induced by a red rays and X-rays. (Abstract) Anat. Rec, carcinogen. Nature, vol. 159, p. 604 (1947). vol. 96, pp. 34-35 (1946). Production of mutations in Drosophila LATARJET, R. See DEMEREC, M.; LURIA, S. E. by treatment with some carcinogens. (Ab- LURIA, S. E. Spontaneous bacterial mutations stract) Science, vol. 105, p. 634 (1947)- to resistance to antibacterial agents. Cold Resistance to drugs. Ideas for Teachers Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. BioL, vol. n, (Nassau County Tuberculosis and Public pp. 130-138 (1946). Health Association), vol. 13, p. 2 (1947). and R. LATARJET. Ultraviolet irradiation and R. LATARJET. Mutations in bacteria of bacteriophage during intracellular growth. induced by radiations. Cold Spring Harbor Jour. BacterioL, vol. 53, pp. 149-163 (1947). Symp. Quant. BioL, vol. 11, pp. 38-50 See OAKBERG, E. F. (1946). MACDOWELL, E. C. Variation in leukemic cells DOBZHANSKY, TH. The new genetics in the Soviet of mice. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Union. (Review) Amer. Naturalist, vol. 80, BioL, vol. 11, pp. 156—174 (1946). pp. 649-651 (1946). MONTAGU, M. F. A. See DOBZHANSKY, TH. Cytology of evolution and evolution of OAKBERG, E. F., and S. E. LURIA. Mutations cytology. (Review) Jour. Hered., vol. 38, to sulfonamide resistance in Staphylococcus pp. 21-22 (i947)- aureus. Genetics, vol. 32, pp. 249-261 Effectiveness of intraspecific and inter- (*947)- specific matings in Drosophila pseudoobscura RIDDLE, O. Endocrines and constitution in doves and Drosophila persimilis. Amer. Naturalist, and pigeons. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 572. vol. 81, pp. 66-72 (1947). ix+3o6pp. (1947)- Adaptive changes induced by natural and ASSOCIATES. Studies on carbohydrate selection in wild populations of Drosophila. Evolution, vol. i, pp. 1-16 (1947). and fat metabolism with especial reference A directional change in the genetic con- to the pigeon. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. stitution of a natural population of Dro- 569. v + 128 pp. (1947). sophila pseudoobscura. Heredity, vol. 1, WALLACE, B., and TH. DOBZHANSKY. Experi- pp. 53-64 (1947). ments on sexual isolation in Drosophila, and M. F. A. MONTAGU. Natural selec- VIII. Influence of light on the mating tion and the mental capacities of mankind. behavior of Drosophila subobscura, Dro- Science, vol. 105, pp. 587-590 (1947). sophila persimilis, and Drosophila pseudo- and S. WRIGHT. Genetics of natural popu- obscura. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 32, lations. XV. Rate of diffusion of a mutant pp. 226-234 (1946). gene through a population of Drosophila WiTKiN, E. M. Genetics of resistance to radia- pseudoobscura. Genetics, vol. 32, pp. 303— tion in Escherichia coli. Genetics, vol. 32, 324 (1947). pp. 221-248 (1947). See DUNN, L. C; WALLACE, B.; WRIGHT, S., and TH. DOBZHANSKY. Genetics of WRIGHT, S. natural populations. XIV. A response of DUNN, L. C, and TH. DOBZHANSKY. Heredity, certain gene arrangements in the third race, and society. 115 pp. Penguin Books, chromosome of Drosophila pseudoobscura to New York (1946). natural selection. Genetics, vol. 32, pp. 142- GASIC, G. See BIESELE, J. J. 160 (1947). GAY, H. See KAUFMANN, B. P. — See DOBZHANSKY, TH. SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Ross G. HARRISON, Osborn Zoological Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Studies in experimental embryology. The grant from the Carnegie Institution across the median plane until it reaches has been applied toward the salary of a the ectoderm of the opposite side, with research assistant, who has been engaged which it then fuses. Being thus cut off chiefly in making additional models of the from the exterior, the nervous tissue in the regenerating brain and in counting mitotic region of the operation is left as a half- figures in these brains for comparison with tube, closed by neural crest derived from the normal. A considerable amount of one side but later distributed to both sides. time had to be spent in the study of addi- When the underlying mesoderm is left tional cases in order to obtain statistically in, an equal distribution of the neural crest significant results. This work is now com- is facilitated and the visceral skeleton is pleted and in type for publication in the normal in a large majority of cases. When October 1947 number of the Journal of the mesoderm is removed, the movements Experimental Zoology. A resume of the of the neural crest are often interfered with results follows. and the visceral skeleton on the side of Wound healing and re constitution of the operation is likely to be irregular and central nervous system after removal of defective. parts of the neural plate. In the course of After the neural crest moves out, the experiments designed to study the effect neural half-tube closes, either directly by of absence of certain portions of the central the two margins coming together, or in- nervous system on the differentiation of directly by the formation of a lamina, ex- its associated ear vesicles, interesting ob- tending from each border and ultimately servations on the regulation and restitution closing off the central canal by a thin epi- of the nervous system itself were made. thelial curtain. More frequently this ap- The experiments concern regeneration in pears to be mainly the product of the the brain after removal of portions of the ventral border. After direct healing, the neural plate in the early neurula stage in medulla is left usually with a thick roof Amblystoma punctatum. The variants in- and very small central canal throughout clude excision of one lateral half and both part of its extent, and dorsally a thin- halves of the presumptive hindbrain, either roofed passage often interrupted but simi- with or without underlying mesoderm and lar to the normal fourth ventricle. The with the wound covered by grafted ecto- fiber tracts do not develop normally in derm or left uncovered; also cases in which these cases. In the closure of the half-tube a lateral half of the entire brain was taken by the thin certain, a sharp crease is without mesoderm and the wound cov- formed in its wall at a varying distance ered. There are only minor differences In from the ventral margin. This becomes the healing and early behavior of the the central longitudinal sulcus and marks wounds in the various experiments. the future ventral mid-line of the regen- After removal of one-half the hindbrain erated medulla. The thin curtain of epi- region of the neural plate, the remaining thelium which closes the tube Iks at first neural fold develops normally but Inclines ventral, and touches the ootochord. 172 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Through rotation on its axis the nerve when the underlying mesoderm is intact tube is gradually righted and the sulcus than when it is excised. That there is a even passes over to the defective side for a genuine hyperplasia is shown by the excess short distance. The material thus passed weight of the two sides of the regenerating to the defective side is the original and nervous system over the weight of one principal contribution to its regeneration. side of the corresponding part in the nor- After bilateral extirpation of the pre- mal control, amounting to a mean of 152 sumptive hindbrain, the gap between mid- per cent in four hindbrain operations and brain and spinal cord is not filled in. 167 per cent after removal of the entire After extirpation of an entire lateral half half-brain. The more rapid cell division of the brain region of the neural plate, re- which produces the hyperplasia does not generation takes place likewise from the begin until some time after the operation, opposite side, although a minimal amount but it persists in a diminishing degree until of material may come from the spinal the larva begins to feed, at which time region, since the cord in such cases is in the hindbrain of the normal control it somewhat thinner on the defective side for has come almost to a standstill. some distance into the trunk region. Eyes A deficiency in the hindbrain probably regenerate from across the mid-line in all also stimulates greater mitotic activity in the cases in which a lateral half of the fore- more distant parts such as the telencepha- brain is removed. The retinal layers are lon. The figures here are, however, not complete, but the vitreous body is very highly significant, and further investigation defective and no lens has been found. is required. Further augmentation of the original contribution from the opposite side takes BIBLIOGRAPHY place through hyperplasia, which leads to HARRISON, ROSS G. Wound healing and reconsti- a mean relative restitution value of 71 tution of the central nervous system after per cent by the time the yolk is resorbed. removal of parts of the neural plate. Jour. The hyperplasia is significantly greater Exper. Z00L, vol. 106, pp. 27-83 (1947). DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH Cambridge, Massachusetts A. V. KIDDER, Chairman Success in archaeology, as in war, de- equipped to make copies and photographs, pends to a large extent upon an effective financed by the United Fruit Company, intelligence service and readiness to seize and led by Mr. Karl Ruppert, spent six upon and exploit the "breaks." This is weeks at Bonampak (Maya for "Painted strikingly illustrated by the events of the Walls"), as the site has been named by past season's field work, during which in- Dr. Morley. formation given by friends of the Division The murals depict processions, cere- and at once followed up led to two of the monies, warfare. The human figures, year's three most rewarding undertakings. nearly life-size, are executed with extraor- First among these, perhaps indeed the dinary naturalism. Costumes, ornaments, single most important discovery ever made weapons, and musical instruments are re- in the Maya field, resulted from word sent produced with remarkable fidelity and in in by Mr. Giles G. Healey, who has long great detail. There are long hieroglyphic been interested in the Division's activities. texts. The walls of this forgotten little In the winter of 1946 Mr. Healey pene- temple have yielded fuller data on many trated the rough and practically unex- aspects of Maya civilization at the height plored jungle west of the Rio Usumacinta of the Classic period than one had dared in Chiapas, Mexico, to photograph the hope would ever be recovered. Mr. Rup- primitive Lacandon Maya for a documen- pert's account of the expedition, with de- tary film on Maya antiquities and the scription of the paintings and of the very present-day Indians, which he is making fine sculptures that also came to light at for the United Fruit Company. Having Bonampak, appears in the body of this with difficulty gained the confidence of the report. Lacandon, who are suspicious of all whites The second important find of the season and are particularly loath to have them see can be traced back to the eruption of the the ancient temples at which they still con- volcano of Santa Maria in 1902, which duct ceremonies, he was led by them to a covered the neighboring slopes from the small group of ruins three days' journey highlands to the Pacific coastal plain with from the river. On entering one of the a meter of white ash. The region is one buildings, he was astonished to see that its of the principal coffee-producing areas in three vaulted rooms were covered from Guatemala, but to set out the coffee trees floor to capstones with brilliant mural it is necessary to dig through the ash and paintings, well down into the underlying soil. Sr. Mr. Healey notified the Division of his Vitalino Robles, of Quetzaltenango, owns find as soon as he was out of the bush, a plantation there, the Finca El Paraiso, and at our request returned in July, ac- which is indeed a veritable archaeologist's companied by the Division artist, Sr. An- paradise. Several years ago, in the course tonio Tcjeda. On the latter's report that of planting, his workmen uncovered a the paintings far surpassed anything series of stone slabs, Sr. Robles* an ardent hitherto known, a party fully staffed and amateur archaeologist, had the area cleared 273 174 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON of ash and, digging under the slabs, came nificance, for in clearing the frontal pave- upon a large cache of pottery. Always a ment we found enormous quantities of most helpful co-operator with the Division, fragments of fine plumbate vessels doubt- he halted work and sent word to our office less ritually broken. Mr. Shook's report in Guatemala City. Sr. Cesar Tejeda went on the El Paraiso work is appended. to El Paraiso and assisted in removing the Also adding significantly to knowledge vessels, many of which were of plumbate of Maya archaeology were several very im- pottery. This ware is of much archaeologi- portant tombs opened by Mr. A. L. Smith cal significance because it was very widely in the Department of Quiche, Guatemala, disseminated in trade throughout Meso- where in 1946 he had excavated a tomb of america. It has been the subject of inten- the Early Classic period in one of a group sive study by Miss Anna O. Shepard (Pub- of mounds in the outskirts of the highland lication 573). The El Paraiso plumbate Indian village of Nebaj. Facing that proved to be of a type not previously mound was another. Surmising that this known. For this reason it was desirable might contain other interments, he re- to obtain more material; in February Mr. turned to Nebaj in 1947 and became in- E. M. Shook and the Chairman, at volved in a most difficult but most highly Sr. Robles' invitation, carried on further productive piece of excavation. The excavations. mound's frontal platform proved to hold The digging revealed the fact that the a series of tombs, altars, and ceremonial pottery cache had been made in a large, caches so stratified that their age, relative low mound, its contours masked by the to one another, could surely be determined. heavy layer of volcanic ash. On widening The pottery vessels, incense burners, ala- and deepening the original Robles pit, we baster and marble vases, pyrite mirrors, encountered a rectangular tomb, its closely gold and copper ornaments, and mag- fitted wall and floor slabs painted red. It nificent carved jades recovered illustrate held two skeletons accompanied by much the development of local arts over a period plumbate pottery and jade. In another of some seven centuries; they prove that part of the mound were burials in great Nebaj was long the seat of an unexpectedly pottery urns. rich and flourishing community; and they While work at the mound was in prog- indicate that a lively trade was maintained ress, Mr. Shook investigated another out- with the great centers on the Rio Usu- cropping of stone slabs at a spring in a macinta. Mr. Smith's report appears below. near-by ravine. These turned out to be the The foregoing were the highlights of a outer edge of an extensive pavement most successful season, which included which, sloping upward, ended at a narrow various other field activities. masonry-walled, slab-roofed passage that A. L. Smith, before going to Nebaj, con- led into the side of the ravine. It was at tinued his survey of the northern high- first believed that this must be the entrance lands, mapping, noting, and photograph- to a tomb^ but when it was followed to ing ruins in the Department of Baja Vera- its end it proved to open into a round paz. Later he visited a number of sites in chamber^ 8 m. in diameter,, with two en- the Nebaj-Aguacatan-Sacapulas area in circling benches and a central pit full of the comp'any of Miss Tatiana Proskouria- ashes and burned stones3 evidently a com- kofif, who gathered material for reconstruc- munal sweat bath. It is of an entirely new tion drawings of sites and buildings of the type and was probably of ceremonial sig- sort contained in her Album of Maya DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 175 architecture (Publication 558). At Nebaj, Maya. Close touch is being kept with this Miss Proskouriakofr undertook the essen- work, which is yielding much information tial and in this case particularly difficult that bears on architectural and ceramic task of recording, on plans and sections, problems of interest to the Division. The the exact location of tombs, caches, and technical aspects of the project are being architectural features as they came to light handled by Messrs. S. H. Boggs and A. S. in the excavation of the mound. Trikj both former members of the Divi- E. M. Shook inaugurated a southward- sion staff; this year Mr. Gustav Stromsvik heading survey of archaeological sites on of the present staff was given leave to the Pacific slope and coastal plain. He supervise the restoration of the Zaculeu commenced operations in January, exca- ball court. vating at mound groups near Ayutla, on Another archaeological undertaking that the Mexican border. At the same time keys well with the Division's program is Dr. Philip Drucker, of the Smithsonian an examination by Dr. Robert Wauchope, Institution, began a similar survey on the also formerly with the Division, of Guate- Mexican side and worked northward. Dr. malan sites occupied at the time of the Drucker and Mr. Shook are keeping in Spanish conquest. The work is being done close touch with each other and their com- by the Middle American Research Insti- bined efforts will open up a region hitherto tute of Tulane University. almost completely neglected and one which An interesting and important de- not only was densely populated in ancient velopment has been the establishment in times, but was certainly always a highway Guatemala City of a very fine new anthro- for migration and commerce. Very in- pological museum. Mr. R. E. Smith, the teresting finds are to be expected. Division's local representative, has been Shock's investigation at Ayutla was in- acting as chairman of the government's terrupted by the opportunity to dig at committee on planning and installation. Finca El Paraiso, which is also in the zone This has occupied a large share of his of his projected survey; and just as that time during the year, an activity justified excavation was finished, the United Fruit by the fact that the museum will house Company sent word of discoveries at the Division's great collections from Tiquisate, still farther south on the coastal Uaxactun, Kaminaljuyu, Nebaj, and other plain, which had been made in breaking sites, as well as by the fact that the ample new land for banana farms. Given every storage space now become available will facility by the Company, Shook spent sev- permit transference from our office to the eral weeks at Tiquisate putting in test museum of the large and extremely valu- trenches and studying material that had able lots of potsherds gathered by us from come to light during the developmental all parts of Guatemala. In order to have operations. more ready access to these materials, the The Chairman, as stated, worked with office of the Division has been moved from Shook at El Paraiso. He visited A. L. downtown Guatemala to a building close Smith's diggings at Nebaj and made sev- to the museum. eral trips to Huehuetenango, in western The Division office has continued to Guatemala, where the United Fruit Com- serve as headquarters in Guatemala City pany is carrying on an extensive project for scientific workers from other institu- of excavation and repair at the ruins of tions. This year it has been so used by Zaculcu, the ancient capital of the Mam Dr. L. C. Stuart, of the University of 176 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Michigan, who is making a herpetological gathered by the late Dr. Manuel J. An- survey of the Republic; by Dr. Wauchope, drade. In December 1946 he made a trip of Tulane University; and by Dr. T. Dale to the Huastec Indians, a tribe in the Stewart, physical anthropologist of the Mexican state of Veracruz, who, although United States National Museum. Dr. speaking a Maya language, are now, and Stewart's work, under a grant from the apparently long have been, culturally quite Department of State, has been of great distinct from the main southern group of value to us. In past years, abundant data the Maya. have been gathered on the bodily make-up Desk activities of the Division staff have of the Yucatecan Maya, but no comparable also gone forward. Dr. S. G. Morley has information has been available regarding been engaged in preparation of guidebooks the various Maya-speaking groups of the to Chichen Itza and Uxmal, and has made highlands. Dr. Stewart measured, photo- further progress on a dictionary of Maya graphed, and blood-tested series of men hieroglyphs. His large and fully illustrated and women at Solola and Patzum. He book, The ancient Maya, was published also studied the considerable amount of during the year in English by the Stanford skeletal material accumulated by the Divi- University Press and in Spanish by the sion in past years, as well as that found Fondo de Cultura Economica in Mexico. during the Zaculeu excavations. He was Its wide sale, calling at once for a second supplied with a Division car and greatly printing, indicates how satisfactorily it fills aided by native interpreters put at his the long-felt need for a work on the disposal by Professor Antonio Goubaud, Maya suitable for the general reader. Director of the Instituto Indigenista Na- Dr. H. E. D. Pollock continued working cional. Professor Goubaud's assistance fur- up the great amount of data on the archi- nishes a further example of the hearty tecture of the Puuc area in Yucatan gath- cooperation the Division has always re- ered by him and Mr. Shook in the years ceived from the governments of Guate- before the war; Mr. Karl Ruppert, before mala and Mexico, the latter having granted leaving for Bonampak, was occupied with duty-free entry of the equipment and sup- architectural materials collected last year plies necessary for the Bonampak expedi- at Chichen Itza. Miss Tatiana Proskouria- tion and having delegated a staff artist of koff devoted herself to the intensive study the Instituto de Antropologia e Historia, of Maya sculptural art; Mr. J. E. S. Sr. A. Villagra, to accompany the party Thompson, to that of Maya hieroglyphic and work with Sr. Tejeda. For these and writing. Under part-time arrangements many other favors throughout the years, with the Peabody Museum of Harvard the Division is under deep obligation to University and the United Fruit Com- Dr. Alfonso Caso, former Director of the pany's Zaculeu Project, Dr. J. M. Long- Instituto; to Arq. Ignacio Marquina, its year worked on the pottery he obtained at present head; and to Dr. Eduardo No- Copan in the winter of 1946; Mr. Stanley guera, Director of the Institute's Depart- H. Boggs, on that from his excavations for ment of Pre-Hispanic Monuments. the government of Salvador at Tazumal. In the field of Maya linguistics, Dr. Nor- Mr. E. H. Morris continued preparation of man McQuown, by arrangement with the reports on finds of former years made in Department of Anthropology of the Uni- Arizona caves occupied by early South- versity of Chicago, is giving half his time western agricultural peoples. Miss Anna O. to study of the great mass of material Shepard completed a monograph on plum- DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 177 bate pottery and a paper on symmetry in ably well preserved paintings on the walls ceramic decoration, both of which are now and vaults of the only standing three- in press. chambered building. Mr. R. L. Roys continued his research On his return from the bush Mr. Healey on Maya-language documents of the early reported the find to the Chairman of the colonial period. Dr. F. V. Scholes' work Division, who at once arranged for Sr. on Yucatan in the sixteenth century goes Antonio Tejeda, Division artist, to go to forward, with the assistance of Miss Bonampak. In July Mr. Healey and Sr. Eleanor B. Adams, at the University of Tejeda spent five days at the site. The New Mexico, where he is now Dean of paintings, as shown by the sketches made the Graduate School. Dr. Robert S. at that time, were so remarkable and so Chamberlain has completed monographs important that it was considered impera- on the conquest of Yucatan and of Hon- tive to send an expedition for their com- duras. He has accepted a post as Associate plete recording. Professor of History at the University of In the winter of 1947 such an expedition Miami. Dr. Sol Tax, of the University of was undertaken, financed by the United Chicago, has given half time to prepara- Fruit Company and directed by Carnegie tion of reports on the Quiche and Cak- Institution of Washington. Personnel in- chiquel Indians of Guatemala; Sr. Alfonso cluded: Karl Ruppert, in charge; Gustav Villa R., full time to data gathered in Stromsvik, engineer; J. Eric S. Thompson, former years on the Maya-speaking tribes epigrapher; Antonio Tejeda, artist (all o£ of Chiapas. The completion of the fore- Carnegie Institution); Giles G. Healey, going historical and ethnological researches photographer, United Fruit Company; and will bring to a close the activities of the Agustin "Villagra, artist, Instituto Nacional Division in these fields. Under the respec- de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico. tive direction of Dr. Scholes and Dr. Red- Mr. Stromsvik reached Bonampak Jan- field, they have done much to throw light uary 31, having gone ahead to arrange upon the findings of the archaeologists and transportation and establish camp. Messrs. to render understandable the conditions Healey and Thompson arrived February existing today in Mexico and Guatemala. 15 and returned to Tenosique February 28, As of June 1, 1947, Miss Eleanor W. Mr. Thompson returning to the States, Ritchie resigned to be married, thus termi- and Mr. Healey again leaving for the ruins nating her long, faithful, and effective on March 6. The remainder of the party, service as Division secretary. proceeding by plane to Agua Azul on the Usumacinta River and thence by mules, BONAMPAK EXPEDITION reached the site March 17. Bonampak lies about 25 leagues south KARL RUPPERT and slightly east of the ruins of Yaxchilan Early in 1946 Mr. Giles G. Healey, em- at an elevation o£ 400 m. In this area ployed by the United Fruit Company to Mr. Healey has found a number of previ- make a photographic record of the Maya, ously unreported ruins. The site is rela- past and present, was in the eastern part tively small, compact, and carefully laid of the state of Chiapas, Mexico, filming out, with a main plaza measuring 90 m. some groups of Lacandon Indians, and by 110 m. and surrounded on three sides was directed by them to the site of by low mounds. The fourth side is defined Bonampak. Here he noted some remark- by a natural hill, 43 m. high, artificially 178 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON terraced, up which, from plaza level, a on the first landing of the terraced hillside broad flight of six steps rises to a wide are beautifully sculptured. One of the landing on which were found Stelae 2 and buildings on the upper landing contains a 3 and their associated altars. From this plain stela; inside four buildings are plain, landing the stairway, now wider by 12 m., slightly tapering, columnar altars. continues to a second landing on which are Building 1, with three chambers, con- seen two standing buildings. Building i, tains the wall paintings. The building has containing the wall paintings, is of three an over-all length of 16.50 m. and width rooms; the other is a single-chambered of 4.12 m. Its exterior construction is structure. A third platform or landing 14 similar to that of other buildings at the m. higher supports six standing buildings, site. In the upper zone there remain each with a single chamber. On top of the traces of stucco decoration and niches con- hill, reached by a well defined stairway, taining seated figures. The lintels are are a number of artificial mounds formed sculptured. A wide bench is built against by the collapse of structures. Though the the end and back walls of each room; eight standing buildings are in a surpris- from an offset at the spring line, the vault ingly good state of preservation, large trees rises in a slope with a single interruption. growing on the roofs will hasten their Beam holes, in pairs, are seen at two levels. disintegration. The recording of the paintings in Room The buildings in most cases rise from a 1 constituted the major project of the ex- simple plinth. The lower wall zones are pedition. The condition in which the plain; the masonry is of blocks with some paintings were found and the preparation slabs. The upper zones are faced with necessary before they could be copied is small, regular slabs, rise with a batter, and described by Sr. Tejeda: often show traces of stucco decoration. Growing out of the top of the building Only one structure has roof ornamenta- were great trees whose roots pierced the tion; it consists of a perforated roof comb masonry. In some parts where they have formed by a series of seven transverse rotted owing to the action of time or to the walls, 4 m. in height. The vaults show separation of the stones, the roots have per- much variation: simple soffit slopes, inter- mitted a constant infiltration of water, which rupted slopes, and stepped. The lintels of has deposited on the stucco walls a calcareous all standing buildings are of stone, four sediment that in some places is so thick that it is impossible to perceive what kind of of them sculptured. decoration existed. This destructive action is Only one of the five stelae found in the evidenced sometimes by petrified bubbles, and plaza is sculptured. This monument, now sometimes by a calcareous layer, just as broken, had a height of 5 m., width of though the walls had been painted white. 2.60 m.5 and thickness of 20 cm. It carries In some places the infiltration is so constant an Initial Series date of 9.17.?.?.? and is that it has washed away the paintings, mak- further sculptured with a single human ing recovery impossible. The humidity has figure. Also in the piaza are a number of also favored the growth of fungus, green and plain altars, circular and rectangular, one black. A factor that has contributed greatly of the latter resting 00 short wedge- to the destruction, especially where the walls are vertical as are the divisions between shaped legs. A crudely carved jaguar rooms, is the droppings of a great many bats figure, 2.13 in. long, lies in the northeast which have found a comfortable lodging in sector of the plaza unassoeiated with any the upper part of the vault. Finally, it is structure. The two stelae and two altars believed that the most dangerous element of DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 179 destruction is the capillary roots that have room were not recorded, some of the entered between the wall proper and the scenes, such as that in which blood is seen plaster surface that carries the paintings. The dripping from the ends of men's fingers, damage may be seen in places where the roots or those showing processions and probably have wedged out and displaced the painted battles, are of such interest and excellent stucco, now lying on the floor, almost pul- draftsmanship that their value is equal to verized. if not greater than that of the paintings Sr. Villagra, who also made copies of the copied this past season. wall paintings, and Sr. Tejeda began the long and tedious task of cleaning the walls before starting to draw. To obtain greater trans- GUATEMALA HIGHLANDS parency of the calcareous coating, once we had removed the thickest part, we applied EDWIN M. SHOOK water, but succeeded only in vaguely enliven- Mr. Shook resigned from his position ing the colors. It occurred to Sr. Tejeda to with the United States Government and try kerosene, and the result was a great suc- returned to the Division in August 1946. cess, as it was possible to observe in the Early in October he began preparation for paintings details which previously were not field work in the southwestern highlands known to exist. The kerosene is applied with and on the Pacific coast of Guatemala. An a brush, and the action endures approximately intimate knowledge of most of this area eight or ten hours, after which it disappears and the contiguous region of Chiapas, by absorption and volatilization. It does not hurt the colors, and serves temporarily to Mexico, had been gained during three impede the formation of fungus. years' service on the government's Cin- chona Procurement Program. As complete Never before had such a wealth of Maya a record as possible, under the circum- wall paintings been available, nor had any- stances, had been made of the archaeologi- thing been found comparable in subject cal remains throughout the zone. The in- matter, detail, and execution. On the walls formation thus gathered showed that the and vault of this one room thirty-four narrow strip of hot coastal plain from sea human figures are portrayed. In the center level to approximately 300 m. elevation of the back wall are three figures wearing had witnessed the ebb and flow of pre- elaborate costumes and ornate headdresses. Columbian Indian culture from the earliest To their left is a group of musicians, some horizons known in Guatemala to the time blowing long trumpets, some carrying of the Spanish conquest. Sites ranging gourd rattles, others carrying turtle shells from small clusters to great groups of which are struck or rasped with a forked mounds, each over a kilometer In extent, stick. One man stands behind a vertical line the banks of the many streams cross- drum with a skin stretched over the upper ing the fertile plain. The site of Itzapa, end. The figures to the right bring offer- just across the Mexican border In Chiapas, ings or are in positions of adoration. The Is typical o£ the large rules. With a few first band on the vault is of hieroglyphs exceptions, the remains above the 300*111. and groups of human figures; above this, elevation on the Pacific slope of the cordil* on the vault and capstones, are large bold lera are small and widely scattered. masks. Tafiimulco Is typical of these sites. Not In the time spent at the site the artists until the broad inland ¥a!ky$ and plateaus were able to copy the paintings in only one north of the volcanic mountain range are chamber. Although those in the middle reached does one encounter ruins of con* i8o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
siderable size. An examination of private of Cuilco, were visited and a large stone archaeological collections and surface sherd monument and urn burial discovered. The samples from southwestern Guatemala monument, carved in the round and de- showed plumbate pottery to be most abun- picting a full standing human figure, stood dant down the Rio Cusulchima and on the lowest step of the principal pyramid. Naranjo valleys, fanning out over the The burial of a young adult was found Pacific slope and coastal plain from these below the top floor of the same pyramid drainage systems. in a large red ware urn with another The first activity of the field season was pottery vessel inverted over the lower as a a reconnaissance of the northern half of cover. Although surface sherds were ex- the San Marcos Department and the Rio amined and samples collected, no plumbate Cuilco valley of southern Huehuetenango, ware was seen at any site visited on the not only to search for the source of plum- trip. This is of particular significance in bate pottery, but to fill the remaining void the continuing search for the manufactur- in the archaeological picture of south- ing center of this most widely traded western Guatemala. A suitable base of Mesoamerican pottery. operations was established at the United The second part of the field season con- States Government cinchona plantation, sisted of a series of excavations on the Finca El Porvenir, situated on the south Pacific coastal plain paralleling the Guate- slope of the Tajumulco volcano. The trip mala-Mexico frontier. El Sitio, the first from El Porvenir to San Marcos and site investigated, is an enormous group of Tejutla was made by automobile on Oc- mounds formally arranged around plazas tober 23. Thereafter, a ten-day circuit of with monuments of plain columnar basalt. 200 km. was made on foot and horseback The ruins lie along the east bank of the to Sipacapa, San Miguel Ixtahuacan, An- Rio Gramal, a small tributary of the Rio tigua Tutiapa, Cuilco, Canibal, Tectitan, Suchiate, 18 km. north of Ayutla, on the Tacana, Ixchiguan, back to Tejutla, and highway to Catarina and Malacatan. Five then by car to El Porvenir. Over thirty test pits were sunk: four through plat- minor sites were recorded. Each of the forms and mounds from surface to sterile modern towns mentioned, with the excep- subsoil, the fifth on level ground at the tion of Ixchiguan, had one or more north edge of the site away from ancient archaeological ruins within the town or construction. This last test produced a on the outskirts* The most important zone mixed lot of material from two distinct appears to be the Cuilco valley, where re- occupations of El Sitio. The earlier be- mains occur at short intervals on both longed to the Middle Culture horizon sides of the river; others are situated in contemporaneous with the Miraflores phase tributary valleys and on spurs of the Sierra in Kaminaljuyu, whereas the later occupa- Madre directly above the Rio Cuilco. One tion occurred during the post-Classic well preserved hilltop site, Pueblo Viejo, period, as plumbate pottery was well repre- 8 km. southwest of Sipacapa, has exposed sented. The burial of an important per- masonry of cut semiblock and slab stones sonage was found below the floor of a laid in mud mortar. At Chilipe, 7 km. terrace or platform. A huge pottery urn south of Cuilco, a well defined open-end covered by another inverted vessel con- ball court was found, the only ball court tained the body, jade beads, and orna- seen on the trip. The previously known ments. Other burial furniture was on the ruins of El Reparo, 10 km. below the town outside, including, a finely carved stone DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 181
scepter. The major occupation and great- locate its base and associate the stela with est architectural activity took place at El the ceramic material. The structure with Sitio during the Late Middle Culture which the monument was associated had period. been built during the early period, but A small site, La Libertad, on the east surface sherds of plumbate also indicated edge of the highway, 14 km. north of that El Jobo had a more recent occupation. Ayutla, was next investigated and proved A small site, Buena Vista, just south of to be contemporaneous with the late oc- El Jobo and possibly an outlying group of cupation at El Sitio. Plumbate sherds oc- that large center, produced from the cen- curred in each level of the stratigraphic cut. tral fill of a mound a large plumbate Similar evidence was recovered at Santa burial urn containing the skeletal remains Romelia, where a group of scattered of a child, and a beautiful jar of the same mounds on both banks of the Rio Seco, ware. 10 km. north of Ayutla, indicated a small There are many archaeological ruins on village rather than a large ceremonial the fertile strip of land from Ayutla to center like El Sitio. Again, plumbate was Ocos between the Rio Suchiate and the evenly distributed from top to bottom of Naranjo. The major sites are Santa Clara, the test cut and amounted to 30 per cent Los Limones, and La Zarca, 6, 10, and 13 of all sherds. Here the results show that km. respectively below Ayutla. Another plumbate pottery served a utilitarian as plumbate burial urn containing an infant well as a ceremonial purpose. skeleton was found in a mound at Santa At Ayutla single small groups of mounds Clara, and a ball court of the open-end may be found anywhere on the plain be- type was discovered. tween the Suchiate and Melendres rivers. On the Hacienda Los Limones there are During the leveling for a railroad siding, two sites: one on the east bank of the about 75 cm. of the ground surface was Suchiate, the other on the west side of the cut down and archaeological material Naranjo. The latter has a type of con- equivalent to Santa Romelia and La Liber- struction hitherto unknown on the Pacific tad was exposed. Just east of Ayutla on coastal plain. The substructures consist of the west side of the Rio Melendres another a hearting of sandy brown earth encased major site, El Jobo, comparable in size by masonry terrace walls of small, selected to El Sitio and Itzapa, was discovered. river-worn stones laid in lime mortar and Pyramidal mounds up to 15 m. in height finished with a heavy layer of excellent and a multitude of lesser structures, ar- lime plaster. The lime was derived from ranged in an orderly manner around sea shells; in many instances the unsuc- plazas, extend approximately 1 km. along cessfully burned shells or their fragments the riverbank. A finely carved stela of the appear in the mortar. Unfortunately the Itzapa style, and two urn burials accom- short stay at Limones produced no pottery panied by some forty pottery vessels were to aid in the placement of this site in the found in El Jobo. The burials and furni- cultural sequence. ture belong to the Middle Culture horizon La Zarca is a major site located on the and are contemporaneous with the early east bank of the Suchiate. No excavations occupation of El Sitio. Unfortunately the were undertaken, but a ceramic sample stela had been disturbed and broken in was obtained from the local farmers, who recent times and lay at the foot of a mound. are constantly unearthing archaeological An unsuccessful attempt was made to specimens during crop planting. The ma- 182 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
terial showed that La Zarca had the same planned to devote from three to six days occupational range as El Sitio and what there, thoroughly recording all data. It appears to be a postplumbate period. Char- actually required six weeks, so rewarding acteristic of this phase are red-on-cream were the excavations. ware tripod bowls with tall, birdhead- A north-south trench was dug through effigy feet. Some of these bowls have stria- the mound's center, disclosing its construc- tions on the interior similar to grater bowls tion. It was an earth-and-stone-filled plat- or molcajetes from late horizons in the form with vertical exterior walls heavily Valley of Mexico. backed with waterworn boulders. The The small, briefly investigated site of platform probably once supported a struc- La Victoria, 17 km. south of Ayutla and ture of perishable material. Within the 3 km. inland from the ocean, produced a platform was found a red-painted, stone- relatively high percentage of solid, hand- lined, richly stocked tomb sunk through modeled figurines of the so-called Archaic subsoil prior to the platform's construction. type, now assigned to the Middle Cultures. It contained the skeleton of an adult seated Again the presence of plumbate in the cross-legged on the floor, backed against surface levels indicated a more recent the north wall, facing south. Another occupation. human skeleton lay diagonally across the The third part of the field season, from floor of the tomb. Around the dead, cover- late January to early March, was spent on ing the available floor space, had been Finca El Paraiso, a coffee farm on the placed a wealth of furnishings; the tomb Pacific slope at 1000 m. elevation. El was then filled, and other offerings were Paraiso is located in the Chuva zone of the piled in a heap above the closed tomb. Department of Quetzaltenango, 10 km. This was the pottery cache discovered by by road north of Colomba. The owners, the Robles in 1943. The tomb and cache Srs. Vitalino and Benjamin Robles, during contents included jade and shell beads and the course of coffee cultivation, have made ornaments, obsidian lancets, an iron-pyrite important archaeological discoveries over mosaic mirror, nine pottery bells, three a period of many years. The majority of drums, one flageolet, one whistle, three the objects they found came from an in- figurines, nine spindle whorls, and over significant-looking low mound on a level sixty-seven vessels. Plumbate was the most bench of land jutting out from the main abundant ware found in this tomb. mountain range. Undoubtedly, the mound Near the platform's center, 3.50 m. be- was the principal structure of a small vil- low the surface, another interment had lage occupied during Late Classic and been made before construction of the post-Classic times. In the upper part of mound. Two large pottery urns, each con- the mound the Robles found two gold taining an adult body, were found side by disks associated with effigy plumbate pot- side, each covered by an inverted vessel. tery; in 1943, assisted by Sr. Cesar Tejeda, The furnishings, both inside and out- they encountered a cache of many vessels side the urns, included jade beads and without metal at a greater depth. The ornaments, small black polished pebbles, specimens were made available to the Divi- an iron-pyrite incrusted mirror, pottery sion for study, and a generous invitation spindle whorls, and vessels. Several of the was extended by the Robles to make latter are of plumbate ware. Many caches further Investigations in El Paraiso. Ac- of one or more pots were found through- cordingly, Dr. Klddcr and Mr. Shook out the fill of the mound, some having DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 183 been put there during construction, others obtained on the use of the circular struc- near the surface having possibly been ture or on the method of roofing. It is buried after completion of the mound. believed to have been roofed and possibly We believe that the two thin gold disks to have served as a ceremonial or com- and effigy plumbate vessels discovered by munal sweat bath. The ceramic material the Robles belong to the later of these from La Gruta proved the contempora- caches. neity of the circular structure and the West of the platform the land slopes village site at El Paraiso. sharply to a ravine called La Grata, from The fourth part of the field season, from the head of which issues a spring of cool, mid-April through May, was spent in ex- crystal-clear water. Carvings on natural ploration and excavation on the lower rock outcrops and the abundance of pot- coastal plain south of Tiquisate in the De- sherds led the Robles to investigate. They partment of Escuintla. Recently the United uncovered a line of flagstones and a rich Fruit Company began clearing this area deposit of sherds, and had the fortitude to for new banana plantations, digging deep resist further digging until our arrival. drainage canals and building roads, in the The flagstones proved to be those of a course of which work a wealth of archaeo- broad paved terrace facing the spring. A logical material was exposed. Through the stone stairway descended to the terrace kindness of the Company officials and par- from the direction of the village site above. ticularly the Tiquisate manager, Mr, A. L. At a right angle to the natural slope of the Bump, the opportunity was offered the ravine's north side, an underground pas- Division to investigate the area. Excava- sage, large enough to permit a short man tions were made on Ticanlu, Tacana, to walk erect, led 7 m. Into the hillside Zunll, and Tollman farms, and surface from the paved terrace. At that distance sherds collected at Las Trozas, Huisisil, a stairway ascended to the interior of a Ixtepeque, and Pacaya. Many of the ruins circular structure somewhat resembling a bordered on a dry stream bed between the Southwestern Pueblo kiva. It consisted of present Nahualatc and Naranjo rivers. If a central lire pit encircled by two flagstone the stream dried up or radically shifted its benches, one above and set back from the course during the occupation of these sites, lower, like seats of an amphitheater. The it must have had a profound effect 00 the maximum inner diameter of the top bench inhabitants. The excavations in four of the was 5.65 m. The level of this bench aver- ancient settlements along the dry stream aged 1 m. below the soil surface prior to the bed proved that they iourished vigorously 1902 eruption of Santa Maria volcano, during the Early and Late Classic periods- which added about 1 m. of pumiceous ash Then activities abruptly ended and the to the Paraiso region. The fire pit of the area, at least that part investigated* was circular structure was filled with broken abandoned. No effigy or Tojil period metates and unworked boulders, all se- plumbate or postplumbate material was re- verely burned. The passage served as a covered in the excavations or was seen in drain as well as an entrance, as far as the any of the private collections in Tiquixatc. terrace below, where a well made, stone- Prior to the Early Classic surge in Tiqui- lined, slab-covered drain channeled the sate, apparently a thinly scattered popula- low of water along one side of the terrace tion inhabited she zone, as a small amount to the ravine. No conclusive evidence was cif Middle Culture material was found. 184 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Diagnostic of this period are solid, hand- east end, the latter northwest about 8 km. modeled figurines and certain forms of down the valley. At the time of the con- Usulutan ware pottery. quest the Spaniards attempted to conquer During the field season, visits were made the valley of Rabinal, but were driven out, to Copan and Zaculeu to keep abreast and it was not until after the Indian rulers with the work of others. Dr. Kidder and at Cahyup and Chuitinamit were converted Mr. Shook briefly inspected the ruins of to Christianity by Las Casas and Father San Cristobal, Department of Totoni- Angulo that the Spaniards finally occupied capan, and Piedra Parada, Santa Isabel, the valley. Canchon, and Virginia, Department of The ruins of Cahyup lie about 2 km. Guatemala. They also began the recording north of the village of Rabinal. There are of the immense Robles Collection of pot- five groups. The main group crowns the tery and artifacts in Quetzaltenango. Mr. top of a hill some 250 m. above the valley. Shook continued compiling information The twenty-two structures that form this on modern sweat baths and on the manu- group are located in and around three facture of archaeological counterfeits in plazas and consist of temples placed on Guatemala. high platforms, long single-room buildings with multiple doorways, and altar plat- forms. The single-room buildings form GUATEMALA HIGHLANDS two or three sides of a plaza and face upon A. L. SMITH it; temple structures are placed in the plaza The work carried on during the 1946- and are associated with one or more altar 1947 field season consisted of the following platforms. One of the most interesting activities: reconnaissance in the Depart- structures at Cahyup is a large pyramid ments of Baja Verapaz and Quiche; ex- supporting two temples, each resting on cavations at Nebaj, Department of Quiche; its own platform. Two other groups are visiting various sites in the Departments on hills to the north and northeast of the of Huehuetenango, Baja Verapaz, and main group; the remaining two groups lie Quiche in order to gather material for in the depression between the hills. Ir- reconstruction drawings. regularly placed on the slopes leading During the first five weeks of the sea- down into the depression mentioned above son's work, Mr. A. L. Smith, assisted by are short terraces which undoubtedly once Sr. Cesar Tejeda, carried on archaeological supported houses of perishable materials. reconnaissance in Baja Verapaz. Six sites A most unusual construction was found were visited: Cahyup, Chuitinamit, Pichcc, on a high hill about 1.5 km. north of the Toloxcoc, Pachalum, and El Porton. Plans main group. This proved to be a solid, of these sites were made, individual build- round masonry structure 240 m. high ings measured and photographed, archi- with five terraces rising to a flat top. It tectural details recorded, and, where pos- may have been used as a watch tower or sible, surface collections of pottery re- signal post. covered. The two most interesting ruins The ruins of Chuitinamit consist of were Cahyup and Chuitinamit in the eight groups extending along the top of Rabinal area. Both of these are fortified a ridge about 300 m. above the valley. The sites of the conquest period situated on the general direction of the ridge is northeast crests of high hills on the north side of and southwest. The groups are well sepa- the valley of Rabinal, the former at its rated so as to form definite units. With DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH l85 the exception of two ball courts, a type of Jeronimo on the road to Salama. There construction not found at Cahyup, the two is no masonry showing here, only a group sites have similar structures arranged in of mounds on three sides of a large plaza. much the same way. The ball courts are After leaving Baja Verapaz, Smith and of typical conquest site design, with end Tejeda, accompanied by Miss Proskouria- zones enclosed by high walls and stairways koff, moved to Nebaj, Department of leading out at either end. One of the Quiche, where comfortable quarters in the courts had never been completed. South- local pension served as a base for the re- west of the most northeasterly group, two mainder of the field season. Most of the high defense terraces protected the rest of time at Nebaj was spent in excavating the the site from attack. The upper slopes of frontal platform of a large mound in the the ridge, close to the various groups, were mam group of the ruins of Nebaj. This dotted with house platforms. These, of mound has the same shape as a mound which there were over 400, were small facing it, in which, during the 1946 field platforms of stone with a terrace in front of season, Smith excavated a corbel-vaulted each. Both Cahyup and Chuitinamit have tomb of the Early Classic period. Leaving many well preserved standing structures Tejeda to find the entrance of the passage- that show a great deal of Mexican in- way into a similar tomb, Miss Proskouria- fluence. A good example of this, which koff and Smith visited other sites to gather occurs at both sites, is twin temples stand- material for reconstruction drawings. ing on a common pyramidal substructure. The first ruin visited was Chalchitan, a Pichec, another hilltop site, lies directly valley site in the Department of Huehue- across the valley from Chuitinamit. It is tenango. Here the ball-court group, rather a small group comprising a temple and than the whole site, was chosen for investi- altar and several low platforms. Toloxcoc gation. In the Sacapulas area of the De- stretches along a high ridge about 7 km. partment of Quiche the fortified hilltop southeast of Rabinal. There is very little site of Chutix Tiox and the valley site of standing masonry left, just low platforms Xolchun were selected. Throughout the with post holes, small shrines, and con- season, when opportunity offered, other siderable terracing. Pachalum is another sites were visited for the same purpose: hilltop site just east of San Jeronimo. in the Ixil area of the Department of Stretching along the crest of a hill about Quiche, the ball-court sites of Oncap, Hull, 300 m. above the Salama valley, it is a Tziquay (see pi. 1), Vicaveval; in the fairly extensive ruin of the type of Rabinal area, Cahyup and Chuitinamit, In Chuitinamit. The main plaza has a Sacapulas two tombs were found, one *it temple in its center and several altar plat- Chutix Tiox, the other at a new site forms, and is bordered by long, low, one- called Xolpacol, about 6.5 km. from Saca- room buildings. There is no ball court, pulas on the road to Agoacaun. Un- but there are outlying platforms and ter- fortunately, both tombs had been robbed, racing. Locally the ruins arc known as but their shape could be determined; h "Pueblo Viejo," but as this term is often proved to be very different from that of used for sites lying near villages, it seemed tombs found at earlier sites Chutix Tiu\ best to distinguish the site by calling it and Xolpacol being of the late, conquest Pachalum after the hill upon which it tvpe. The tombs, which were in struc- rests. El Porton, a valley site, is on a na- tures, had two chambers e^ch, an inner tional plantation about 1 km- out of San circular one which \v*i<* the v.\mh prorer. i86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
and a rectangular antechamber consider- slabs were used. Still later, in post-Classic ably larger in area. The two parts of each (plumbate) times, tombs were roofed with tomb were joined by a doorway blocked wooden beams supporting stone slabs. In by a stone slab. all periods multiple burials were the Returning to Nebaj, after their first ab- custom. sence, Miss Proskouriakoff and Smith Furniture from the tombs and objects learned that Tejeda had uncovered an found in caches vary according to the style altar below which was a burial of eleven of the period with which they were associ- skulls. He also had uncovered a paved ated. Such material consists of pottery, ramp leading downward beneath the fron- alabaster and marble vessels, pottery tal platform of the mound. At this point whistle figurines, beautiful jades in the Tejeda left Nebaj to resume his studies at form of beads and carved pendants and the University of Mexico. He was re- plaques (see pi. 2), shell ornaments, crystal placed by Mr. Douglas Binney. Further pendants, pyrite mirrors, flint laurel-leaf excavations disclosed that the ramp de- blades, copper and gold ornaments, in- scended to the entrance of a long passage- cense burners, and the remains of a codex, way leading into a corbel-vaulted tomb part of one page of which depicts a priest similar to the one found in the opposite or ruler in costume. It is interesting to mound in 1946. Unfortunately, the vault note that at Nebaj outside influence seems had collapsed, and it was necessary to dig to be from the Maya of the Rio Usuma- down from the top of the frontal platform cinta area rather than from the Mexicans. in order to get into the tomb. This re- Unfortunately very little architecture was quired digging a pit 8 m. wide and 12 m. found. The outer structures had been deep. The tomb, the earliest found, had ruined by agriculture, and the inner struc- been placed in sterile ground well below tures had been cut through or partially the foundation of the earliest structure. removed to put in late tombs. Throughout During the excavation required to get the work architectural features that came into this tomb, a series of eight tombs and to light and the positions of tombs and twenty-one caches was found associated caches were recorded on plans and sections with six superimposed stairways belonging by Miss ProskouriakofT. In May she and to a sequence of platforms, several of Binney had to leave, the former to return which were painted red. Fortunately the to the United States. At this time Mr. tombs and caches were so stratified that Gustav Stromsvik joined Smith and as- their relative positions in time could be sisted him in the completion of the established. They cover a span of some excavations. 700 years of occupation, from the Early During the operations at Nebaj two new Classic period through the post-Classic sites were visited, Caquixay and Tuchoc. period of plumbate pottery. The tombs Caquixay is about a two-hour horseback vary in construction. In Early Classic ride east of CotzaL It is a well preserved times large chambers were constructed and site of the Huil type, namely, a ball court roofed with corbeled vaults, whereas and adjoining plaza with an altar plat- smaller and narrower tombs were closed form in the center of the latter. The ball with large stone slabs extending from wall court is of the open-end variety and had to wall In Late Classic times the large the stucco remains of what appeared to vaulted tombs were abandoned and only be a human head with feathered head- long, narrow chambers roofed with large dress in the center of cither playing wall PLATE I
•Vv
Tziquay, one o£ the sites on the Flnca San Francisco, Department of Quiche, Guatemala. Reconstruction drawing by T. Proskouriakoff. PLATE 2
1 Jade breast ornament from Nebaj. A 5 /i-inch plaque, dating from about the ninth century, depicting a priest or ruler. The finest piece of Maya jade carving that has yet come to light. DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH I87
Tuchoc, about halfway between Caquixay the United Fruit Company, he found to and Cotzal, is a site of the same type. be in better condition—better bushed, kept Other new sites were located through the in better trim, and the monuments better kindness of Colonel Arthur Binney, United marked with descriptive signboards—than States Naval Attache in Guatemala, who ever before. took Smith on several flights over the San Some fear has been expressed that the Andres Sajcabaja area. This area, which surface of the sandstone monuments at lies about 27 km. northeast of Quiche, Quirigua has been deteriorating because consists of a large open plain about 1200 m. of exposure to the sun during the past above sea level. As a result of the survey thirty-six years. The high forest in which six sites, which from the air appear to be they were formerly buried in deepest shade in a good state of preservation, were was felled in 1911 by the School of Ameri- located on the plain. can Research, to remove the danger of Owing to the length of time taken in falling trees' breaking the monuments, the excavations at Nebaj, several investi- which had occurred in several cases previ- gations had to be postponed until some ous to that time. A decade ago, Dr. Morley future date. Among these are a ground sprayed Stela K with an English prepa- reconnaissance of the Sajcabaja area, the ration intended to protect sandstone build- mapping of the fortified site at Xolpacol, ings from deterioration, by sealing in the and an attempt to find at either Chutix surface of the stone, thus preventing or Tiox or Xolpacol an undisturbed late retarding erosion. His examination of the tomb of the type which was noted this Quirigua monuments this spring con- season but of which both examples had vinced him that the spray had been most been robbed. The discovery of such a successful. tomb at one of these conquest-period sites The local Fruit Company officials were would be of the greatest importance, as so co-operative as to carry out Dr. Mor- it should contain objects in use shortly ley's recommendation that the bushed area before or at the time of the conquest. in the Great Plaza be extended. As cleared of trees many years ago by the School o£ American Research, only the YUCATAN, GUATEMALA, HONDURAS western half of the Great Plaza had been S. G. MORLEY exposed. This not only reduced the ap- On November 11, 1946, Dr. Morley parent size of the plaza by half, but also reached Mexico City, where he remained failed to disclose its function as an amphi- for a week, most of the time in conference theater, a large three-sided enclosure sur- with the Hon. Adrian Recinos, former rounded by ascending tiers of stone seats. Ambassador of Guatemala to the United The Great Plaza now appears in its true States, who translated his recent book, The character. ancient Maya, into Spanish, and also with The new National Museum of Guate- the staff of El Fondo de Cultura Eco- mala was not yet completely installed in nomica, the publishers o£ the Spanish edi- April, but sufficient progress had been tion, which appeared in the late spring. made in displaying the large amount of During the winter Dr. Morley was in stone material, especially the Piedras Yucatan. In April he went to Guatemala, Negras stelae and altars, to indicate that where he visited the ruins of Qulrigua, it would be one o£ the leading archaeologi- which, thanks to the care given them by cal museums of America when finished. i88 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
The trip Dr. Morley made to Copan in at Santa Fe, became vacant. The managing late March was his fifteenth. He found boards of these two organizations had the ruins in a better state of conservation tendered this position to Dr. Morley, who than ever before, owing to the extensive has been associated with both organiza- excavations, repairs, and conditioning op- tions for many years. Dr. Bush gave Dr. erations of the Carnegie Institution during Morley permission to accept the provisional the past twelve years, and to the super- directorship, to serve without salary so long visory care given them by the government as he should be connected with the Car- of Honduras. negie Institution of Washington, from A fragment of a new Initial Series was which he retires July 1, 1949. With this deciphered. This was discovered by Sr. understanding Dr. Morley accepted the Raul Pavon Abreu, Director of the Mu- position offered him by Mr. Paul A. F. seum of Archaeology, History and Eth- Walter, president of the managing board nology of Campeche, in the debris of of the School of American Research, to Mound 7 at the western end of the Court of take effect as of June 1,1947, pending final the Hieroglyphic Stairway. The inscription approval at the annual meeting of the joint was very unusual in that its corresponding boards on August 23. It is hoped that an period glyphs faced to the right instead of amalgamation of all the scientific organiza- to the left as is overwhelmingly the case tions in Santa Fe, anthropological as well in other inscriptions, and the correspond- as historical, may be achieved under plans ing coefficients were also on the right sides for reorganization already in course of of their period glyphs instead of on their being carried out. left sides. The reason for this inversion of the usual order was aesthetic, arising HIEROGLYPHIC RESEARCH from the desire to have the hieroglyphs of this inscription face the central axis of J. E. S. THOMPSON the building on which they had originally During the past year Mr. Thompson been carved. Although the introducing has continued work on the introductory glyph and the day and month signs are volume to his study of Maya hieroglyphic still missing, this whole Initial Series may writing. This has entailed many unex- be read as (9) .8.8.16.10 (6 Oc 3 Kayab). pected forays into territories which, at the Before returning to Yucatan, Dr. Morley inception of the study, had been deemed visited Tegucigalpa, where he called on sufficiently known to need no further ex- Professor Angel Hernandez, Minister of ploration at this stage of the work, but Public Instruction of Honduras, and con- which, it turned out, had to be probed in gratulated him upon the splendid care the order to round out the introductory survey government of Honduras is taking of the of the subject. Consequently, the first ruins of Copan, perhaps the most spec- volume is not yet completed, but fuller tacular archaeological site of the Maya Old information on specific problems compen- Empire. Dr. Morley returned to Yucatan sates for the delay. For instance, as our April 19 and to the United States at the knowledge concerning the subject of the end of May 1947. hieroglyphic texts accompanying divina- Owing to the death of Dr. E. L. Hewett tory almanacs in the Maya codices ap- last December, the directorship of the peared inadequate even for this initial School of American Research and the Mu- stage, Mr. Thompson devoted much time seum of New Mexico,, a joint institution to that matter, with the result that he now DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 189
feels that he can get the general sense of Mr. Thompson was at Bonampak, Chia- most of those texts, and can offer specific pas, in February and made drawings of translations of a number of the constantly such glyphs on the frescoes as were then recurring glyphs. visible. Among the sculptured dates re- The problem of the hieroglyphic writing covered at that site are: is not one that can be quickly solved. Lintel 4 (9. 8. 9.15.11) or (9.11.2.10.11) Progress in the past has been discourag- 7 Chuen 4 Zotz' ingly slow, but now with each additional Stela 2 (9.17. 5. 8. 9) 6 Muluc 17 Yaxkin year of research, the speed increases Stela 2 (9.17.18.15.18) 12 Etz'nab 1 Ceh slightly. During the past year a number of Stela 4 9.17.15. 0. o 5 Ahau 3 Muan glyphs have been identified, and one or There is also an Initial Series on the two additions have been made to the very murals of Temple 1 which Morley has small list of affixes of known meaning. read as 9.13.0.3.4 7 Kan 12 Zee. The lin- Work on the illustrative material for the tels of this same temple have yielded two volume continues to be rewarding, and rather uncertain dates, and there is a badly the linguistic side of the work has pro- weathered Initial Series of Katun 17 or 18 gressed, largely as a result of the very help- on the magnificent Stela 1. It is evident ful co-operation of Mr. Ralph L. Roys. that Bonampak was a center of the A point has now been reached at which hierarchic cult for a long period. the absence of full linguistic material on lowland languages and dialects related to MAYA SCULPTURE Yucatec is making itself felt. It is not im- probable that good dictionaries of such TATIANA PROSKOURIAKOFF Maya languages as Choi, Tzeltal, and The summer and early fall of 1946 were Tzotzil would yield homonyms corre- devoted to the preparation of the text sponding to apparent examples of rebus which is to be an exposition of the results writing in the glyphs, for which homo- of researches in Maya sculpture carried on nyms are lacking in Yucatec. The situation during several seasons. The study deals is roughly what one might expect were one chiefly with general trends of development endeavoring to reconstruct Latin from in the lowland Maya area as a whole, and modern Italian, but without access to full these have been briefly summarized in a material in Spanish, Portuguese, and previous report. Their more detailed state- French. Members of the Summer Institute ment brings out certain points in regard to of Linguistics, who have much unpub- the regional distribution of traits which lished linguistic material from all lowland suggest changes in the degree of contact Maya groups except Chorti, have proffered existing between separated sites of the their co-operation in this work, a generous Maya area at different periods of its history. offer which should prove most helpful. For the eighth cycle, the material is One chapter and several appendixes of very meager, and it is not possible to give the introductory volume remain to be a clear description of the prevalent styles written, and, in addition, a very thorough or their distribution. Strong similarities revision will be necessary. The greater part between Maya sculpture of this period and of the glyphs to be used as illustrations certain monuments which have been at- have now been drawn, and it is hoped that tributed to other cultures on the periphery the illustrative material will be completed of the Maya area may be significant. The by the end of the year. carving on the Hunac.ib mouth of the 190 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Cave of Loltun, the stela at El Baul which terrupted by a field trip to the highlands bears a disputed early date, the sculptures of Guatemala in connection with the of Santa Margarita and San Isidro Piedra survey of that area reported by A. L. Parada in the Department of Quetzal- Smith. It was resumed in May, when we tenango, and certain monuments of Kami- were very glad to acquire the services of naljuyu exhibit traits characteristic of the Miss Kisa Noguchi in the preparation of earliest phase of the Early Classic period. illustrations which will be the basis of the Since the seventh-cycle and early eighth- method of stylistic appraisal proposed in cycle dates suggested by the inscriptions the study. on some of these mortuments fall outside
the known range of Maya sculpture, stylis- CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY tic comparison cannot be used to confirm them, but it may in some degree overcome ANNA O. SHEPARD the reluctance to assign these sculptures to The principal activities during the cur- an early horizon. rent year have been preparation of ma- At the end of the Early Classic period terial for a ceramics handbook, study of (in the first quarter of the ninth cycle) the a punch-card system, and preliminary anal- Maya style appears as an integrated and ysis of Usulutan ware. In addition, a distinctive entity wherever sculptures of section was added to a paper on the this period are found. This period is fol- symmetry of abstract design, previously lowed by a hiatus, and when sculptural ac- considered completed. Early material from tivity is resumed, at about 9.8.0.0.0 or the Pueblo region recently published by 9.9.0.0.0, sculpture shows marked regional Dr. J. O. Brew suggested the new section, differences. Copan retains many charac- which is devoted to all-over patterns and teristics stemming apparently from early a review of evidence of the influence of Peten, and its style is closely related to that basketry design on early pottery design. of the Leyden Plate. The most advanced The purpose of the ceramics handbook characteristics seem to appear first in the is threefold: (1) to present for the archae- western half of the area and to the north, ologist that part of technical and scientific indicating that the impetus of the new de- ceramics which is applicable in our field, velopment came from either of these two (2) to summarize and critically to evaluate directions. As the Late Classic period methods of archaeological ceramic descrip- progresses there is a rapid fusion of re- tion and analysis, and (3) to consider the gional styles, and particularly a spread place of ceramic data in archaeology and eastward of Usumacinta traits. Complexes to examine the basis of our interpretations. of traits noted at the beginning of the There has long been need for an outline period at Piedras Negras become common of ceramics written expressly to give the in Copan after 9.14,0.0.0. Another group of archaeologist background for understand- traits links the Usumacinta and specifically ing the technical features of pottery, par- Yaxchilan with the Puuc area of Yucatan. ticularly as scientific knowledge of the Although such stylistic similarities do not clay minerals has undergone marked ad- in themselves demonstrate direct contact vance in the past twenty years and much between sites, they furnish valuable leads pertinent information has appeared only for the study of the relations existing be- in technical journals. The review of ana- tween diverse regions. lytical procedures will cover shape and In the winter of 1947 the study was in- decoration as well as technical features. A DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH number of methods developed in our own such as that started in the Cambridge work will be described, and attention will office of the Division of Historical Re- be given to field tests for the archaeologist. search is beginning to be recognized as a Our ceramic studies have reached the requisite for comparative work; but with stage at which a comprehensive review has the ordinary indexing system it soon be- become desirable. Extensive summariza- comes unwieldy, and locating specimens tions and comparisons require means of and returning them to the file is discourag- sorting rapidly the accumulated data. The ingly time-consuming. Punch cards fully practicability of a punch-card system for meet this difficulty, since with a sound and hand sorting has been tested in both tech- comprehensive code a wide variety of nical and stylistic work. Immediate ap- classes and of specific traits can be sorted plication of the system in technological rapidly; moreover, filing is eliminated. analysis was found in an index of our Considerable time has therefore been given collection of some 3500 thin sections. A to the development of systematic classifica- code covering provenience, period, pottery tions of vessel shapes, decorative tech- classification, paste composition, and vari- niques, and design styles to insure a logi- ous technical features has been devised, cally consistent ancl comprehensive code. and cards have been printed. Sections of A trial set of cards prepared for Usulutan Peten and Copan pottery have been in- ware is being used to test the code. It is dexed to date, and the advantages of the hoped that when the system is perfected, method have been effectively demon- other institutions will be sufficiently in- strated. Punch cards have proved no less terested to adopt it and thus initiate a co- applicable in stylistic analyses, particularly operative project for exchange of material. of entire and restorable vessels. Revision A number of archaeologists, including a of method in these studies is desirable be- large group of Mexican authorities, have cause our material is limited in extent and been consulted on the code for cultural is scattered. To base comparative and dis- regions and have shown a splendid spirit tributional reviews on published illustra- of co-operation. tions is time-consuming and often unsatis- Usulutan, the principal type of pottery factory. Doubtless the fact that the bulk analyzed during the current year, is one of archaeological ceramic material Is in of the more widely distributed wares of the form of sherds has directed and re- the Archaic period and therefore affords stricted our studies more than we ordi- opportunity for study of contacts and narily realize. We have inevitably been spread of influence on that horizon. led to give undue prominence to secondary Neither the decoration, which is simple features such as color, texture, and wall and geometric in a technique long mis- thickness because they are easily de- understood, nor vessel form, which is termined in the fragment, which may give varied and elaborate, has so far shed light only a hint of vessel shape and design. on centers of production or on volume and Consequently ceramics as an aspect of ma- extent of trade. The ware occurs mainly terial and artistic culture has been neglected in the region of younger volcanic forma- for potsherds used as a tag for place and tions of Guatemala and Salvador; most period. Without depreciating the potsherd, of it Is tempered with volcanic ash. When one may point to the desirability of bring- these conditions obtain, the feasibility of ing together a record o£ available, sig- using paste composition to distinguish nificant, entire vessels. A photographic file pottery from different sources may be qutv 192 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
tioned, and the Usulutan study can there- eastern Arizona. These textiles were found fore be considered a test case. The pre- in a cave which yielded timber dates liminary microscopic examination of a ranging from A.D. 473 to 478. Despite large collection from Miraflores and their age, the sashes were in a perfect state smaller samples from Copan, a number of of preservation, and it was possible to re- localities in Guatemala, and several in cover every detail of the technique em- Salvador has been encouraging. Eight ployed in their manufacture. The material distinct varieties of ash associated with dif- was dog hair, hand-spun into slender ferent types of clay have so far been noted. threads which were flat-braided into long, Their distribution indicates distinct sources, narrow bands adorned with bead-strung and it is clear even from the preliminary tassels and fringes at the ends. The largest examination that the ware was made in a is 3 m. long by 6 cm. wide, composed of number of districts and that there was 119 individual strands. Analysis of these considerable interchange between them. sashes throws additional light on the Relations will be plotted in detail as anal- virtuosity of the early aborigines of the ysis proceeds. Possible local variation in Southwest in the art of weaving. style will also be studied by correlating Some two months were spent in record- form and composition. This evidence ing and photographing a collection of bears on the question of broad trends in specimens from a cave near Durango, ceramic history. It has appeared that the Colorado. This collection, property of the pottery of the Archaic period exhibits less Mesa Verde National Park Museum, con- regional specialization than that of the tains the only perishable materials of Classic, a possible difference which sug- Basket Maker age that have been found gests a general parallelism with Pueblo in the region. Results of the study will ceramic development. But individual styles be incorporated in a report on excavations are less conspicuous among the predomi- in the vicinity of Durango conducted by nant monochromes of the Archaic than Carnegie Institution in 1939 and 1940. among the polychromes of the Classic, and The remainder of the year was devoted the fundamental obstacle in testing this to a detailed analysis of Anasazi cloth generalization has been uncertainty as to sandals from the Four Corners region of amount of exchange and inability to dis- the Southwest. The Anasazi developed tinguish indigenous from imported pottery sandal-making into a fine art which con- by appearance alone, except in the case of tinued to be practiced for a full millen- a few striking types. There is now as- nium, roughly from early in the second surance that composition will afford a century o£ the Christian era to about 1250. reliable basis for investigating the problem Upon the manufacture of their footgear of local specialization in this area as it has they lavished their utmost in mechanical in others. skill and artistic ability. Certain of the sandals exemplify some of the most com- EARLY CULTURES OF SOUTHWESTERN plex finger weaving that the world has UNITED STATES ever seen. Richness of ornamentation is equally extensive and intricate. It is of EARL H. MORRIS two kinds: colored, attained by the intro- Early in the year 1946-1947, Mr. Morris duction of dyed weft threads; and struc- completed the study of a group of Basket tural, produced by devious manipulations Maker ceremonial sashes from north- of the weft strands in the uncolored areas. DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 193
Of no other early American art in perish- 4. In the course of the achievement of the able media have so many examples sur- first three objectives, special problems vived. Hence it is felt that a complete of particular interest, either for general record of the life history of this art is both linguistics or for workers in the related justifiable and important. Work toward fields of Maya archaeology and eth- nology, would at least be indicated, if this end, which was halted by the war, was not worked out exhaustively. resumed by the artist-draftsmen assisting B. The general goal of the Maya linguistic Mr. Morris, as soon as they were released research: The research was designed not from service. It is expected that this work so much to produce the last word on all will continue without further interruption problems of Maya linguistics as to com- until complete data have been obtained plete basic research and arrive at basic and put in form for publication. conclusions of a sort that would put Maya linguistic research on its feet scientifically. LINGUISTIC RESEARCH C. Necessity of the work: That this research NORMAN A. MCQUOWN was necessary is beyond all possibility of question. The available materials of a Mr. McQuown undertook the continua- descriptive nature were thoroughly anti- tion of the work on the Maya Linguistic quated. In the field of comparative Maya Project on September 1, 1946. He devoted linguistics, deficiencies in the descriptive the first month to familiarizing himself data made it impossible to arrive at conclu- with and making an inventory of the Maya sions based on anything more than the materials collected by the late Dr. Manuel most superficial kind of inspection. J. Andrade and elaborated by Abraham D. Status of the project at present: Of the M. Halpern during the relatively brief objectives mentioned above (A), Andrade period which he was able to devote to this went a long way toward realizing the first, the compilation of material. With regard task (see Year Book No. 40, pp. 308-309; to the second objective, he had, before his No. 41, pp. 274-275). A program of work death, almost arrived at the completion of for the year 1947 was sketched out. In this, a grammar of Yucatecan Maya, but had Mr. McQuown was guided by the interim put nothing on paper with regard to the report on the state of the project prepared other languages. For all the languages by Mr. Halpern in July 1946, before he except Yucatec, the material is in the form left for duty with General MacArthur in of raw field data. With regard to the Japan. The more important parts of this third objective, Andrade accomplished report are outlined here: little or nothing. With regard to the fourth, he called attention to the possi- A. The basic aims o£ the work on the Maya bilities inherent in the application of languages: dialect-geography techniques to at least 1. The glaring deficiencies in the amount the Guatemalan languages and had be- and quality of available primary source gun to collect materials on which such a material should be corrected. study could be based, but he had not 2. A certain amount of the material col- initiated the work of processing the mate- lected should be synthesized in the rials toward this end. form of grammatical sketches. E. Materials collected by Andrade: 3. The material should be examined from 1. Huastec: a rather extensive body of the point of view of comparative lin- text materials, vocabulary and para- guistics, so that ultimately the general digmatic material for the Potosino lines of development of the Maya dialect* and a relatively small body of language family could be laid down. material of the Veracruz dialect. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 194 2. Yucatan-Guatemala languages: an ex- to settle all the doubtful points and tensive amount of material on Yucatec, would even enable the investigator to Mam, and the Panajachel dialect of make use of untranscribed phonograph Ca\chiqud; a moderately extensive records. amount of material on Quiche and It is now customary among linguistic Que\chi; small bodies of material on field workers to supplement text material Po\omam, various Tzutuhil and Cak- by extensive collections of paradigmatic chiquel dialects, Aguacatec, and Ja- material relevant to the analysis of the caltec* texts. Andrade's technique was somewhat 3. Chiapas languages: very small amounts different from this. His questions were of material. standardized for all languages in order to F. Condition of the materials: Linguistic ma- facilitate comparison on certain specific terials in the form of raw field notes are points of grammatical structure. This ma- rarely susceptible to immediate exploita- terial is extremely useful, but needs some tion by anyone other than the original col- supplementation. lector. The process of collection of field G. Recommendations for further work of material is such that every investigator is compilation: forced to adopt certain expedients which 1. The investigator should have the op- depart in one way or another from stand- portunity to familiarize himself with ardized practice, and an investigator rarely the phonetics of the various languages leaves a complete record of such de- through direct field work. partures and the reasons for them. With 2. The investigator should have the op- Andradc's death, a great deal that he portunity to collect further paradig- knew but had not written down was lost matic material. irrevocably. 3. The investigator should devote some There are certain inconsistencies in re- • time to the collection of folfyloristic cording. In many cases one cannot be texts where obtainable. sure which of two or three variant re- H. Recommendations for further descriptive cordings represents the norm for any given and comparative work: word and which are variations from the 1. The Yucatec grammar is already well norm. In some cases, one can decide on handled, so little or no further work the basis o£ the notes that the balance need be done there. of likelihood is in favor of one variation 2. A grammar of the Potosino dialect of rather than another. An unsolved phonetic Huastec should be an immediate task. question of major importance in all the 3. Concentration on Mam in the Yucatan- languages is the presence or absence of Guatemala area is recommended, since phonemic length and accent. In most the Mam materials are among the most cases of variant recordings, different inter- extensive in the collection, and one pretations are possible, but if one operates can expect to find certain archaic entirely from Andrade*s field notes, it is features preserved in Mam which difficult, perhaps impossible, to decide have been lost in some of the other which interpretation best fits the facts. languages. These difficulties exist if one relies ex- 4. If time permits, one of the Chiapas clusively on the field notes as they stand languages should be investigated in- or on the phonograph records, which tensively and the others merely sur- unfortunately fail one on many of these veyed. points. A short period of field work, in 5. The dialect study of the Cakchiquel which an investigator would have the and Tzutuhil area should be carried opportunity of observing the phonetics at out, but should be treated as a pilot iirsf hand, wouM, however, be sufficient study In which the objective would be DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 195
to formulate the types of problems that various languages of the family, and for arise and to indicate the methods reconstructing Proto-Maya. which are applicable. Mr. S. L. Bradshaw, commissioned by 6. The elucidation of the internal rela- the Institution to prepare the manuscript tionships within the Maya family and of Andrade's Yucatec grammar for the the reconstruction of Primitive Maya printer, completed his work and submitted should be prime objectives. the manuscript early in 1947. 7. It is very probable that in the course It is hoped that by 1950, the general out- of reconstructing Primitive Maya, the lines of a comparative Maya grammar may scholar engaged on this task will find leads indicating the direction in which be laid down. external relationships must be sought. ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE HIGHLAND MAYA Mr. McQuown accordingly devoted the following two months to getting ac- T. D. STEWART quainted with Andrade's phonetically and The late Dr. Ales Hrdlicka had planned phonographically recorded Potosino Huas- to visit Guatemala in December 1943 to tec materials, and with the dictionary ma- take measurements and observations on terials compiled by Halpern from the raw the highland Maya, but he died in Sep- data. It soon became apparent that a small tember of that year. His successor in the number of fairly important phonological curatorship of the Division of Physical problems and a large number of morpho- Anthropology, United States National Mu- logical questions could not be solved on seum, Dr. T. D. Stewart, finally under- the basis of the available material. Ac- took this work during the first three cordingly, a field trip to Las Armas, San months of 1947. His trip was made in co- Luis Potosi, Mexico, was undertaken; nine operation with the Guatemalan govern- days were devoted to the collection of a ment and under the program for co-opera- vocabulary of about 2000 items, a consider- tion with the American republics through able amount of paradigmatic material re- the State Department and the Smithsonian lated to the verb, and a couple of texts. Institution. In addition to studying the With this material, together with general living, Dr. Stewart examined the avail- notions obtained from the survey of the able prehistoric skeletal remains, especially previously collected material, it was pos- those recovered at San Agustin Acasa- sible to work out the sound system and a guastlan (A. L. Smith and A. V. Kidder, beginning was made toward working out Explorations in the Motagua Valley, the morphology and syntax. The elabora- Guatemala, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub, 546, tion of the materials gathered on this field 1943), at Kaminaljuyu, and at Zaculeu. trip was continued during the first six The main objective of Dr. Stewart's trip months of 1947, when the major portion was to obtain information about the high- of Mr. McQuown's time was devoted to land Maya which would enable him to teaching linguistics in the Department of make comparisons with the lowland Maya Anthropology at the University of Chi- of Yucatan* These two groups, although cago. A start was made on the compilation rather widely separated geographically and of a Spanish-keyed comparative Maya exhibiting differences in material culture, vocabulary, from which will be drawn the nevertheless belong to the same linguistic cognate material to be used in working out stock. According to J. Alden Mason (The the sound-correspondence matrix for the Maya ami their neighbors, 1940^ p* 70), 196 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
"The Mayan stock is unusually homo- within one linguistic subgroup, the Cak- geneous both as regards geographical loca- chiquel. First at Solola, Department of tion and linguistic differentiation. It is Solola, and later at Patzun, Department of really too unified for even the major divi- Chimaltenango, he obtained comparable sions to deserve the rating of 'families/ and series of males, 82 and 72 respectively. At many of the so-called languages' differ Patzun, moreover, he obtained a series of only dialectically." Since language is fairly 35 females. All together this is the largest resistant to change (more so than material series from one highland linguistic group culture), considerable interest attaches to thus far studied. the question whether this linguistic homo- In addition to the routine anthropo- geneity reflects a similar status in physical metric measurements, observations, and type. photographs, the records obtained this Anthropometric records on the Maya season include blood groups (A, B; M, N), Indians of Yucatan, obtained through the taste sensitivity to phenyl-thiocarbarnide, interest of the Carnegie Institution by palm- and fingerprints, and hair samples. G. D. Williams and Morris Steggerda, Arrangements have been made for Dr. have already been published (Maya-Span- William C. Boyd, of Boston University ish crosses in Yucatan, Papers Peabody School of Medicine, to analyze the blood Museum, Harvard Univ., vol. 13, 1931; groups and taste records, and for Dr. Anthropometry of adult Maya Indians, Harold Cummins, of Tulane University Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 434,1932; Maya Medical School, to analyze the dermato- Indians of Yucatan, Carnegie Inst. Wash. glyphics. Pub. 531, 1941). For the highland groups Preliminary inspection of the anthropo- of Guatemala, on the other hand, only two metric records indicates that the Cak- anthropometric studies are on record, one chiquel are lighter-complectioned, slightly by Oliver La Farge and Douglas Byers lighter in weight, longer-headed, narrower- (The Year Bearer s people, Tulane Univ. faced, and broader-nosed than the lowland Middle Amer. Research Ser., Pub. 3, 1931) Maya of Yucatan. Also, there are some sig- and the other by Ada d'AIoja (Sobre la nificant metrical differences between the variahilidad de algunos caracteres antro- samples frorfi Solola and Patzun, a fact pometricos observados en grupos de In- which suggests that, as suspected, inbreed- digenas Centroamericanos, Inst. Panameri- ing is producing local varieties in the cano de Geogr. e Hist., Pub. 43, 1939). highlands. Neither of these Guatemalan studies, In his examination of the skeletal re- which are themselves not very well known, mains Dr. Stewart gave special attention includes comparisons with Yucatan. to evidences of cultural practices, such as Dr. Stewart undertook the collection of artificial deformation of the head and data that would supplement those already dental mutilation. The former, almost uni- available and at the same time allow their versal in the collections examined, mostly fuller interpretation. Since in Guatemala consisted in flattening of the occiput in the the municipio, being endogamous, is the vertical plane ("cradleboard deformity") basic unit for ethnic study, as Dr. Sol Tax combined with frontal flattening. Previ- has shown (The municipios of the mid- ously this type had been reported only western highlands of Guatemala, Amer. from Tajumulco (Skeletal remains from Anthropologist, vol. 39, 1937)* Dr. Stewart Tajumulco, Guatemala, Monogr. School restricted his study to two municipios Amer. Research, 1943). In other cases, es- DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 197 pecially at Kaminaljuyu, only frontal flat- a photograph of the original for the Car- tening was present. Also, at Zaculeu some negie Institution of Washington. evidence of the so-called "lambdoid" de- The first third of the manuscript is com- formity was found in skulls from the most posed largely of Maya translations of recent tombs. European astrological and calendrical ma- As for dental mutilations, five examples terial (Year Book No. 45, pp. 220-221), of filed teeth were observed in the Zaculeu which appealed to the interests of the more collections. One of these is a new type, or Hispanicized element of the Indian popu- at least not included in the Borbolla key lation; but most of the remainder is de- (Types of tooth mutilation in Mexico, voted to the native lore. The Codex Perez Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthropol., vol. 26, covers a wide range of Maya learning and 1940), whereas the others are types known pays much attention to the augural or from elsewhere in the Maya area. divinatory aspects of the Maya calendar. It is regarded as desirable that the ex- Here are predictions of the coming of the perience gained in this successful first Spaniards and the new religion, prophecies season be utilized for the extension of these for the tuns or years, and others for the observations elsewhere. For example, it is 20-year periods called katuns with their important to learn to what extent in the valuable historical allusions. Of especial highlands the barrier of language is an aid interest are the famous Mani Chronicle, in the formation of physical types. In this several isolated historical narratives, and a connection the Quiche, neighbors of the version of the creation story differing in Cakchiquel, or the Mam, neighbors in turn some respects from any that has been pub- of the Quiche, should be more fully lished. As in other Books of Chilam studied. If the records are made by one Balam, we find indications of the close as- observer, moreover, they will be more uni- sociation between history and prophecy in form and less subject to multiple personal the Maya mind. One passage presents an biases. important aspect of native Maya astrology, and there are several long explanations of Maya chronology. In spite of some chrono- HISTORY OF THE MAYA AREA logical errors, these disquisitions add con- RALPH L. ROYS siderably to our knowledge of the native During the past year the comparative terminology and the point of view of the study of the Books of Chilam Balam has Indians who were endeavoring to pre- been continued. Especial attention has serve the old traditions. Besides the ma- been given to the Codex Perez, and a terial not found elsewhere, there are paral- guide to this manuscript has been prepared lels of passages in other Books of Chilam to accompany the reproduction in the Balam; but in general the Codex Perez Peabody Museum of Harvard University. versions are fuller and furnish more details. The Codex PeYez consists of extracts In a previous report (Year Book No. 44, which J. Pio Perez copied from various pp. 181-183) attention was called to chron- Maya manuscripts, apparently during the ological concepts expressed in certain second quarter of the nineteenth century. prophecies in the Books of Chilam Balam A large part of it was taken from the lost of Tizimin and Mani. For the better Book of Chilam Balam of Manl. There understanding of this aspect of Maya have been transcriptions, but only in receat science, a tentative translation has been years was Dr. S. G. Morley able to obtain made of a series of prophecies for the 20 198 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
tuns of a Katun 5 Ahau alleged to begin study of data previously assembled and in 1593. In its present form the series is the investigation of additional documentary the work of eighteenth-century compilers, series, chiefly encomienda papers and and the chronological setting is incorrect; proofs of services of conquerors, soldiers, but the greater part of the content appears and early settlers of Yucatan. The collec- to have been copied from earlier manu- tion of the data is now nearing comple- scripts. Although it seems plain that the tion, and during the coming months the prophecies really apply to the tuns, more final study should begin to take form. emphasis is placed on the year-bearers. It Miss Adams has carried forward her in- is true that pessimism predominates in vestigations of the foreign corsairs who other Maya prophecies, but here the news scourged the coasts of Yucatan in the is almost invariably bad. The language is sixteenth century. The spadework re- often symbolic. Mythological allusions are search for this study, which has neces- frequent, but only rarely are they to the sarily included the study of a wide range better-known and more important deities. of supplementary sources in addition to A number of the names, such as Chac- those directly relating to events in Yuca- uayab-xoc ("great demon shark"?) and tan, is now virtually complete. Miss Chac-mumul-ain ("great muddy croco- Adams will spend a considerable part of dile"?), suggest fabulous monsters. Fauna the coming year in writing up the data as names are sometimes preceded by a numer- a separate monograph. ical coefficient, such as Ah Uucte-cuy ("7- These two studies will help to lay the owl") and Ah Uuc-ch*apat ("7-centi- foundation for the general history of Yuca- pede"). These may be mythological per- tan in the sixteenth century, the major sonages, but the close association of the project of Mr. Scholes at present. For this name Ah Buluc-am ("7-spider") with larger work some documentary research Montezuma suggests that it was considered remains to be done, but the major series of to be the Maya name of the latter. documents have been rather thoroughly During this period work has been done surveyed or extracted. The general plan on collecting and cataloguing material of the history has also been worked out in from sixteenth-century sources for a study some detail, and outlines have been made of the political geography of the Yucatan for several chapters. peninsula at the time of the Spanish con- Finally, considerable time has been de- quest, a joint project of Dr. Scholes and voted to the reading of proof of the history Mr. Roys. Time has also been devoted to of the Chontal Indians of Acalan-Tixchel, reading proof of the history of the Chontal now in press. Indians of Acalan-Tixchel.
HISTORY OF THE MAYA AREA
HISTORY OF THE MAYA AREA ROBERT S. CHAMBERLAIN FRANCE V. SCHOLES AND ELEANOR B. ADAMS Mr. Chamberlain's work has consisted Work has been done on collecting and of an investigation of the Spanish conquest cataloguing material from sixteenth-cen- period, roughly 1517-1550, in Yucatan, tury sources for a study of the population Tabasco, Honduras, Chiapas, and adjacent and political geography of the Yucatan territories. His writing is based primarily peninsula, a joint project of Mr. Scholes on extensive research in documents exist- and Mr. Roys. This work has included the ing in the Archivo General de Indias de DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 199 Sevilla, the Archivo Historico Nacional, history of Chiapas, 1540-1544, when Fran- Madrid, the Archivo General del Gobierno, cisco de Montejo, who was also Adelantado Guatemala City, and to a lesser degree in of Yucatan and Governor of Honduras, the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, the Ar- was governor of that province. This has chivo General de Simancas (Spain), and been done in a brief monograph which is the Archivo General de la Nacion, Mexico being published as Contribution 46 in the City. This research has helped to close im- Contributions to American Anthropology portant gaps in the history o£ the former and History (Publication 574). Spanish provinces named above, to correct 4. Through the histories of the conquest earlier accounts, and to re-evaluate, or and colonization of Yucatan and Hon- evaluate for the first time, the course of duras, Francisco de Montejo has been re- events. vealed as one of the truly great Spanish Mr. Chamberlain's research has made conquistadors and administrators. Mon- possible the preparation of two major tejo's career has hitherto been neglected. works, one on the conquest and coloniza- He was a man of great stature and vision, tion of Yucatan, and the other on the an empire builder in the real sense. Mr. conquest and colonization of Honduras, Chamberlain is drawing up an outline on for publication by the Carnegie Institution which to base a biography, as such, of of Washington, and brief monographs and Montejo. articles for publication by the Carnegie In addition, on the basis of documents Institution of Washington and by various from the Archivo General del Gobierno, historical journals. Because of the inter- Guatemala City, it has been possible for locking nature of much of the documen- the first time to give an account, even tary source material, the preparation of the though a very brief one, of the early manuscripts of the two major studies was history of the town and province of San carried on concurrently, the manuscripts Miguel, now the southern part of the being completed some months apart. Republic of El Salvador, The principal new contributions to During the period which Mr. Chamber- Spanish colonial history resulting from lain has had under study, fusion of Euro- Mr. Chamberlain's work have been: pean culture, as represented by the Span- 1. The history of the conquest of Yuca- iards, with native New World cultures, tan has been corrected, amplified, and re- and mixture of European and Indian races interpreted. not only began but progressed rapidly. 2. The history of the conquest of Hon- Spanish governmental, religious, economic* duras has been fully told. Five unknown and social forms, institutions, and attitudes years, 1539-1544, important for the govern- were speedily imposed on the Indians. At mental evolution of Honduras and for the the same time the Indians sought tena- extension of the conquest, have been added ciously to cling to their own cultures. It is to the history of the province. The con- this continuous and fundamental clash quest of Higueras, the western and, in the and fusion of European and native Ameri- colonial period, the most important part can cultures and races which have given of Honduras, has been more fully told, most of the Spanish American countries and new interpretation has been given to their past, present, and future form and the early history of the province as a aspect. It scarcely need be pointed out whole. that greater knowledge of the past and 3. Four years have been added to the present of the countries and peoples of 200 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Latin America is becoming increasingly Proskouriakoff, was distributed in De- important in view of the fact that the cember 1946. United States is now forging more closely The Maya Chontal Indians of Acalan- than ever before its political, economic, Tixchel: a contribution to the history and military, and cultural bonds with the other ethnography of the Yucatan Peninsula nations of the western hemisphere. (Publication 560), under the joint author- ship of France V. Scholes and Ralph L. HISTORY OF SCIENCE Roys, is completely in galley proof, and the GEORGE SAHTON gravure facsimiles of the Chontal Text are made. It is expected that this book, the Introduction to the history of science. second in a series of historical studies, will Most of Dr. Sarton's time was devoted to go to final press before the end of 1947. proofreading of volume III. At present The manuscript of a third volume in this the page proofs of the whole work have group, Robert S. Chamberlain's The con- been read (xxxv + 1910 pages), but the quest and colonization of Yucatan, 151J- compilation, editing, and printing of the 1550, has been prepared for the printer and indexes remain to be done. It is hoped that the whole work may be published will shortly be presented for publication. before the end of 1947. Dr. Chamberlain's next manuscript, The conquest of Honduras and Higueras, is Editing of his. Publication of Isis by now being edited. the Harvard University Press was slowed Excavations at Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala up In 1946 but is now improving. During (Publication 561), by A. V. Kidder, J. D. this year there were published nos. 85, 105-108 of Isis, forming the first halves of Jennings, and E. M. Shook, with techno- volumes 32 and 37 and the second half of logical notes by Anna O. Shepard, was volume 36. These five numbers comprise printed early in 1947, but lack of binding a total of 501 pages, with 8 plates and 35 facilities has delayed its distribution. De- figures, and include 33 main studies, 70 livery is expected in July. In addition to notes, 99 reviews, and about 1000 bib- over 300 pages of text, the book contains liographic items. 207 figures, about half of them gravure, of Lecturing in Harvard University. Two which four are in color. courses were delivered this year, dealing Anna O. Shepard's Plumbate: a Meso- respectively with the history of science american trade ware (Publication 573) from the sixteenth to the seventeenth cen- awaits paging. Much of the text is ar- tury, and with the history of modern ranged to face the specific illustration be- science, the number of students being 212 ing discussed. Of its 44 figures, about two- and 350. Efforts are being made to reduce thirds are gravure. the size of these audiences. Volume IX of Contributions to Ameri- Ancient science down to Epicures. Work can Anthropology and History (Publica- on this project had to be stopped until tion 574), now in galley proof, contains volume III is finished. four papers: An archaeological reconnais- sance in the Cotzumalhuapa region, Es- PUBLICATIONS cuintla, Guatemala (no. 44), by J. Eric S. Thompson; Textiles of pre-Columbian MARGARET W. HARBISON Chihuahua (no. 45), by Lila M. O'Neale, The long-delayed Album of Maya archi- professor of decorative art in the Univer- tecture (Publication 558), by Tatiana sity of California, Berkeley, to which is ap- DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 201 pended a chemical analysis of the coloring 73), The "Tortuga" of Coatlan del Rio, matter by Michael Kasha, of the uni- Morelos (no. 76), and Stone objects from versity's Department of Chemistry; The Cocula and Chilacachapa, Guerrero (no. governorship of the Adelantado Francisco 80), by R. H. Barlow; Otomi looms and no de Montejo in Chiapas, 1539-44 ( * 4^)> quechquemitls from San Pablito, State of by Robert S. Chamberlain; and The sym- Puebla, and from Santa Ana Hueytlalpan, metry of abstract design, with specific State of Hidalgo, Mexico (no. 78), by reference to ceramic decoration (no. 47), Bodil Christensen; Easter ceremonies at by Anna O. Shepard. San Antonio Palopo, Guatemala (no. 81), The artifacts of Uaxactun, Guatemala by Elsie McDougall; The treble scroll (Publication 576), a 76-page monograph symbol in the Teotihuacan and Zapotec by A. V. Kidder, has been released for cultures (no. 74), by Horace Neys and final printing. It forms part of the general Hasso von Winning; and Drawings of survey of work at Uaxactun, reports on Tajumulco sculptures (no. 77), by Antonio the architecture and ceramics to be written Tejeda. The last constitutes an illustrated by A. L. and R. E. Smith, respectively. supplement to Excavations at Tajumulco, Early in 1947 the Division issued a small Guatemala (Monograph 9 of the School Guide hoo\ to the ruins of Copan (Publi- of American Research), by Bertha P. cation 577), by Gustav Stromsvik, with Dutton and Hulda R. Hobbs. maps of the site and halftone illustrations John M. Longyear III wrote Cultures of outstanding features. A brief mention of books recommended for a general back- and peoples of the southeastern Maya ground of Maya culture is appended. frontier as no. 3 in Theoretical Approaches To the third volume of Notes on Middle to Problems, a series published by the American Archaeology and Ethnology fif- Division to offer a forum in which tenta- teen numbers were added during the year. tive solutions and hypotheses are presented Six papers from members of the staff, Miss to stimulate interest in the final synthesis Proskouriakoff and Messrs. Kidder, Roys, of Middle American cultural history. Shook, Stromsvik, and Thompson, are In addition to seeing these publications listed in the bibliography at the end of through the press, Mrs. Harrison is en- this report. Authors outside the Institution gaged In editing the manuscript of The contributed the remainder; Some Mexi- Maya chronicles, by Alfredo Barters can figurines of the colonial period (no. Vasqucz and Sylvanus G. Morley. Work 70), The codex of the Derrumbe del on her dictionary of archaeological terms Templo Mayor (no. 72), Some exam fits is temporarily halted pending revision of of Yeztla-Naranjo geometric ware (no. ceramic nomenclature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JULY I, 1946—JUNE 30, 1947
CHAMBERLAIN, ROBERT S. Plan del siglo XVI Amcr. Neptune, vol. 6, pp. 2-14. Salem, para abrir tin camlno de Puerto tie Caballos Mass. (1946). a la bahfa de Fonseca en sustitucion de la H\RRISON, MAKGARIT W. RiblkigfYifta cic A. V. ruta de Panama. An. Soe. cle geog. e hist., Kidder. Bol. Bibliogruiko de Antropologfa vol. 21, pp. 61-66. Guatemala (1946). Americana, vol. % PP- 337~34*» Mexico ——• The Spanish treasure ieet of 1551. (1946). 202 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
KIDDER, A. V., and E. M. SHOOK. "Rim-head" — A seventeenth-century Malay dictionary.
vessels from Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala- Car- Isis, vol. 37S pp. 68-69 (i947)- negie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Research, — Early observations of sun spots. Isis, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. and vol. 37, pp. 69-71 (1947)- Ethnol., no. 69 (1946). A curious Greek idea concerning the LONGYEAR, JOHN M. See STROMSVIK, GUSTAV. maximum height of mountains and depth MORLEY, SYLVANUS G. The ancient Maya. Stan- of seas. Isis, vol. 37, p. 71 (1947). ford Univ. Press (1946). Spanish edition When was the cause of endemic goiter published by El Fondo de Cultura Eco- recognized? Isis, vol. 37, p. 71 (1947). nomica, Mexico. Were the ancient Chinese weights and The Maya. Life, vol. 22, pp. 51-67 measures related to musical instruments? (June 30, 1947). Isis, vol. 37, p. 73 (1947). PROSKOURIAKOFF, TATIANA. An album of Maya SHOOK, EDWIN M. Blowguns in Guatemala. architecture. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 558 Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Re- (1946). search, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. and J. ERIC S. THOMPSON. Maya calen- and EthnoL, no. 6j (1946). dar round dates such as 9 Ahau 17 Mol. See also KIDDER, A. V. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Re- SMITH, ROBERT E. Magmfka ceramica anaranjada search, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. en el Peten, Guatemala. Plastica, pp. 2, 10. and EthnoL, no. 79 (1947). Guatemala (1947). ROYS, RALPH L. The Book of Chilam Balam of Review of Archaeological investigations Ixil. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical in El Salvador, by John M. Longyear. Amer. Research, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. Antiquity, vol. 12, pp. 190-191 (1946). and EthnoL, no. 75 (1946). STROMSVIK, GUSTAV. Guide book to the ruins SARTON, GEORGE. The strange fame of Deme- of Copan. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 577 trio Canevari. Philosopher and physician, (i947)- Genoese patrician, 1559-1625. Jour. Hist. and JOHN M. LONGYEAR. A reconnaissance Medicine, vol. 1, pp. 398-418 (1946). of El Rincon del Jicaque, Honduras. Car- Floating docks in the sixteenth century. negie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Research, Isis, vol. 36, pp. 153-154 (1946). Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. and Sixty-ninth critical bibliography of the EthnoL, no. 68 (1946). history and philosophy of science and of the TAX, SOL. The education of underprivileged history of civilization (to December 1945). peoples in dependent and independent terri- Isis, vol. 36, pp. 170-248 (1946). tories. Jour. Negro Education, vol. 15, Time is money. Isis, vol. 32, pp. 19-23 PP- 336-345 (1946). (i947)- The towns of Lake Atitlan. Microfilm Hippocratic oath in Arabic. Isis, vol. 32, Coil. MSS on Middle Amer. Cultural An- p. 116 (1947)- thropol., no. 13. Univ. Chicago Library The date of Urbano of Bologna. Isis, (1946). vol. 32, p. 118 (1947). THOMPSON, J. ERIC S. The dating of Structure Barlaam's logistica. Isis, vol. 32, p. 119 44, Yaxchilan, and its bearing on the se- (I947>- quence of texts at that site. Carnegie Inst. The astronomical summary of Theo- Wash., Div. Historical Research, Notes on dores Mctochites. Isis, vol. 32, p. 120 (1947). Middle Amer. Archaeol. and EthnoL, no. • • Qualification of teachers of the history 71 (1946). of science. Isis, vol. 37, pp. 5-7 (1947). ' See tdso PROSKOURIAKOFF, TATIANA. BIBLIOGRAPHY NOVEMBER I, 1946—OCTOBER 31, 1947
PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTION 577. STROMSVIK, GUSTAV. Guide book to the ruins Year Book No. 45, 1945-1946. Octavo, xxxiv + of Copan. i6mo, 76 pages, 27 figures, 3 maps. 13 + 235 pages, 1 text figure. 5yS. VESTINE, E. H., LUCILE LAPORTE, ISABELLE LANGE, CAROLINE COOPER, and W. C. HEN- 175. Vol. VILA. FLEMING, J. A., H. F. JOHN- STON, A. G. MCNISH, S. E. FORBUSH, and DRIX. Description of the earth's main mag- W. E. SCOTT. Magnetic results from Wath- netic field and its secular change, 1905-1945, eroo Observatory, Western Australia, 1919— Quarto, v +• 532 pages, 150 text figures, 53 1935. Quarto, vi -f 1122 pages, 285 text tables. figures, 778 tables. (Researches of the De- partment of Terrestrial Magnetism.) PUBLICATIONS BY THE PRESIDENT OF Vol. VII-B. FLEMING, J. A., H. F. JOHNSTON, THE INSTITUTION W. C. PARKINSON, J. W. GREEN, A. G. BUSH, VANNEVAR MCNISH, S. E. FORBUSH, and W. E. SCOTT. Science, strength, and stability. Electrical En- Magnetic results from Watheroo Observa- gineering, vol. 65, no. 11, pp. 508-512 tory, Western Australia, 1936-1944. Quarto, (Nov. 1946). vii 4- 520 pages, 1 map, 417 tables. (Re- searches of the Department of Terrestrial The scientist and his government. The Chem- ist, vol. 23, no. II, pp. 421-432 (Nov. 1946). Magnetism.) Vol. VIII. WALLIS, W. F., and J. W. GREEN. Response to address by Edward L. Moreland Land and ocean magnetic observations, on occasion of presentation of Hoover 1927-1944. Quarto, vii 4- 243 pages, frontis- Medal, January 30, 1947. In Vannevar piece, 5 text figures. (Researches of the Bush, Hoover medalist, pp. 11-15 (New Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.) York: Hoover Medal Board of Award, Vol. XII. I. SEATON, S. L., H. W. WELLS, 1946). and L. V. BERKNER. Ionospheric research at The scientific way. Technology Review, vol. College, Alaska, July, 1941—June, 1946. II, 49, no. 8, pp. 463-464, 482, 484, 486 (June SEATON, S. L., and C. W. MALICH. Auroral 1947). research at College, Alaska, 1941-1944. Publications reprinted Quarto, v + 397 pages, 24 text figures, 340 The builders (Technology Review, Jan. 1945; tables. (Researches of the Department of see Year Book No. 44). Reprinted in: Terrestrial Magnetism.) Giving form to ideas: a college reader (ed. 558. PROSKOURIAKOFF, TATIANA. An album of Egbert S. Oliver), pp. 408-410 (Odyssey Maya architecture. Folio, 36 plates, 72 pages, Press, New York, 1946). 58 figures, 1 map. Modern exposition (cd. William H. Daven- 561. KIDDER, ALFRED V., JESSE D. JENNINGS, and port and Paul Bowcrman), pp. 78-80 EDWIN M. SHOOK. Excavations at Kami- (Harcourt, Brace & Co., New York, 1946). naljuyu, Guatemala. Quarto, ix + 284 pages* The modern omnibus (ed. Franklin P. Rolfe, 207 figures (4 colored), 2 maps. William H. Davenport, and Paul Bowcr- 566. CLARK, HUBERT LYMAN. The echinoderm man), pp. 78—80 (Harcourt^ Brace & Co., fauna of Australia: its composition and its New York, 1946). origin. Octavo, iv + 567 pages. A course of study in English for experi- 569. RIDDLE, OSCAR, and ASSOCIATES. Studies on mental use. Grade twelve—first semester. carbohydrate and fat metabolism; with es- Resource units for English 7 (prepared pecial reference to the pigeon. Octavo* v -f under direction of John W. Bell), pp. 128 pages, 6 text figures. 52-54 {Bureau of Curriculum, Board of 572, RIDDLE, OSCAK. Endocrines and constitution Education, City of Chicago, fae. 1947). in doves and pigeons. Octavo, ix 4- 306 As we may think (Atlantic Monthly* July pages, frontlspieces 6 plates, 187 text figures. 1945; see Year Book No. 44)- Reprinted in 576, KIDDEEJ A. V. The artifacts of Uaxactun, The pocket Atlantic, pp* 275-5^0 (Pocket Guatemala. Quarto, v 4- 76 pages, 87 figs. Books, Inc., New York, Nov. 1946). aoj
INDEX (Figures in italic type refer to pages in the Report of the President)
Binney, Douglas, 186 biochemical investigations, 11-12., 86-87, 88-95 Abelson, Philip H., vii, 80 See also biophysical and biochemical studies (em- publication by, 79 bryology); chromosome, organization of; gene Adams, Eleanor B., historical studies, 177, 198 biological sciences, viii, xi Adams, Leason H., vii Committee on, v report of Director of Geophysical Laboratory, 27- studies in, 11-13, 85-172 41 # See also laboratory physics and biophysics Adams, Mark, 127, 154 biophysical and biochemical studies (embryology), Adams, Walter S., vii, ix, 3, 5, 6 12.-13, 110-111, 117-119. See also laboratory studies in stellar spectroscopy, 5, 14, 15, 16 physics and biophysics publications by, 23, 78 biophysics, see biophysical and biochemical studies administration, offices of, x (embryology); chromosome, organization of; Agassiz, Alexander, vi, xii gene; laboratory physics and biophysics Aller, Lawrence H., 6, 17 Bjerknes, V., ix publications by, 23, 24 Blakeslee, Albert F., viii Amaldi, E., 77, 7$ Blinks, L. R., 91 anatomy, see embryology Bliss, Robert Woods, v, xxi, xxiii Andrade, Manuel J., 176, 193, 194, 195 Boggs, Stanley H., 175, 176 Antevs, Ernst, 36, 37, 56, 63 Bondarenko, A. P., 80 anthropology, studies in, 195-197 Botanical Research, Department of, viii archaeology, studies in, 13, I73-I75> I77-I93 botany, see plant biology astronomy, vii, xi Bowen, Ira S., vii, 4, 5 Committee on, v report of Director of Mount Wilson Observatory, studies in, 10, 3—22 .3-25 astrophysics, see astronomy studies in stellar spectroscopy, 10, 14, 22 atomic physics, see laboratory physics and biophysics publications by, 24 Auditing Committee, v, xxi Bowen, Norman L., vii Auditor, xxi, xxiii studies on equilibrium relations, 27, 29, 30, 31, 38 Report of, xxviii-xxxvi publications by, 38, 39, 41 Boyce, Joseph C, ix Boyd, William C, 196 B Bradford, Lindsay, v, xxi, xxiii Bradin, Lyla T., studies in embryology, 112 Baade, Walter, vii, 4, 5 Bradshaw, S. L., 195 nebular investigations, 6, 17, 19, 20 Breit, G.> 46 publication by, 24 Brookings, Robert $., vi Babcock, E. B., 105 Buchanan, Jennie S., 127 Babcock, Harold D., vii, 4 Buno, Washington, studies in embryology, 107, 108, solar research, 9 112 Babcock, Horace W., vii, 4, 56, 70 Burd, Sylvia, 5 studies in stellar spectroscopy, 10, 3, 15, 16, 22 Burlew, John S., vii publications by, 24 studies on equilibrium relations, 30 bacteria, see gene Burns, Robert K.» viii, 120 Baldwin, George J., vi studies in experimental embryology, 109, no Barbour, Thomas, vi publication by, 120 Barlow, R. H.s publication by, 201 Bursar, Office of, x Barrera Vasquez, Alfredo, 201 Burwell, Cora G., 5 Bartels, J., 49 studies in stellar spectroscopy, 15 Bartter, Fred C.» publication by, 78 publications by, 24 Baty, Wilton E., 127 Bushs Vanncvar, v, x, xxi, xxiii» 1S8 Bauer, Ailene J., x Report of the President, i"i$ Bauer, Louis A., vii, 44, 45, 48 publications by, 203 Beach, Alice S., 5 Beagley, J. W., publication by* 79 Beale, Geoffrey H., viii studies on the gene, 125, 127--13 5 Bell, James F., v, xxi Cadwalacler, John L,» \i, xii Berkner, Lloyd V., vii, 14, 48, 49, 80 Calbway, Samuel, x Campbell, William W, vi publications by, 79* 203 < Biesecker, Earle B-, x cancer research, #rr hhphy -.i«! an
Carlson, J. Gordon, 140 Derby, John, 127 Carnegie, the, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 59, 60, 77 Derwood Experimental Laboratory, 66, 67, 78 Carnegie, Andrew, xi, xiii, 44 Desert Laboratory, viii, 14 Carnegie Corporation of New York, xi, 113 Didusch, J. F., 108 Carter, William W., 21 Dobzhansky, Th., ix, 103 Carry, John J., vi studies on genetic structure of natural populations, Casimir, H. B. G., 78 12, 125, 126, 155-165 Caso, Alfonso, 176 publications by, 170 Caspari, Ernest W., viii Dodge, Cleveland H., vi, xii Catchesidc, D. G., 103, 104 Dodge, William E., vi ceramics, see archaeology Drosophila, see genetics Chamberlain, Robert S., viii Drucker, Philip, 175 historical studies, 177, 198-200, 201 Duffin, R. J., publication by, 79 publications by, 201 Dunham, Theodore, Jr., vii, 4, 5 Chaney, Ralph W., ix Dunn, L. C, publication by, 170 studies in paleobotany, 104-106 Duryee, W. R., 80 Chao, C. Y., 80 Chapman, Sydney, 49, 50 Chaycs, Felix, vii studies in pctromctry, 38 ecology, viii. See also experimental taxonomy chemistry, see biochemical investigations; geophysics Elsasser, Walter M., 56, 70, 78 Chernosky, Edwin J., 81 Embryology, Department of, viii, 12-13, 14, 73, 74, publication by, 79 107-121 Christenstn, Rodil, publication by, 201 report of Director of Department of, 107-121 chromosome, organization of, studies on, 123, 124, embryology, studies in, 12-13, 73~75> 107-121, 136-146 171-172 Clark, Hubert Lyman, publication by, 203 England, Joseph L., vii Claude, A., 153 Epling, Carl, 104 Clausen, Jens C, viii, 126, 157, 158 equilibrium relations in anhydrous mixtures, studies studies in experimental taxonomy, 12, 95—104 on, 30-33 publication by, 106 equilibrium relations in hydrous mixtures, studies Cotfeen, Mary F., 4 on, 10-11, 27-30 solar research, 9 Eugenics Record Office, viii Cole, Whitefoord R.» vi Executive Committee, v, xi, xxi, xxiii College (Alaska) Observatory, 48, 50, 51, 61 Report of the, xxiii Connor, Elizabeth,, 5 experimental embryology, studies in, 109—no, 171— publications by, 24 172 Cooper, Caroline J., publications by, 80, 203 Experimental Evolution, Station for, viii Corner, George W., viii, 120 experimental taxonomy, studies in, 12, 87-88, 95-104 report of Director of Department of Embryology, 107-121 studies in embryolojfjy, 107, 108, 109, no, 112, publications by, 120-121 Fano, Ugo, 137, 138 CoMiuc-Ray Investigations, Committee on Coordina- Fassett, Frederick G., Jr., x tion of, 48, 68 Fenner, Charles P., vi cosmic-ray research, see geophysics, experimental and Ferguson, Homer L., v, xxi analytical; magnetic survey; observatory program Finance Committee, v, xxi, xxiii Cowif, Dean B,, vii, 80, 117, 118, 119 Fleming, John A., vii, x, 48, 60, 78 pub!lotions by, 78, J% 8ot 121 publications by, 78, 79, 80, 203 Grippen, Marion N., 127 Flexner, Josefa B., in CritchneM, Charles L, 80 Flexner, Louis B., viii, 107, 120 Cummint, HaruUl, 119, 196 biophysical and biochemical studies (embryology), c\t>%^\ see experimental taxonomy; genetics; tumor 12-13, %io, 117, 118 studies publications by, 79, 8o» 121 Fiexncr, Simon, vi D Flint, Jessie, 127 VuiU, Hush R, vii Forbes, W. Cameron, v, xxi? xxiii IXmiipnjt, diaries B.f viii Forbush, Scott E., vii, 49, 50, So I ),iirs D<»r;»thy N.t publication h}\ 24 publications by, 78, 79, 80, 203 lAi«\ f»ifr«?i»n L.« vii French, Charles Stacy, viii, 13, 85, 157 tfuil.1.** an radL'tactivify* 3 4, 37, 38 Frew, William N., vi, xii Day, Arthur L.» ^11 Fruton, Joseph S., 143 IMaiv*, Vt*\\mc A., v, *xi» xiili I^kik'k, Mt, 126
rcy-nt nf Director rS Oepartmrnt of Genetics, 123— Gagc9 Lyman J., vi, xii galactic nebulae and star clouds, studies on, 16-17 Galilee* the, 44, 60 170 gall midges, chtrornosome studies on, 125, 165—169 INDEX 207
Gamow, G., publication by, 79 Herrick, Myron T-, vi Gasic, G., publication by, 169 Hertig, Arthur T., ix Gay, Helen, studies on organization of chromosome, studies in human embryology, 109, 113 124, 136—146 Hess, H. H., 36 publication by, 170 Hess, Victor F., 37 gene, studies on, 12^ 125, 126, 127-135 Heuser, Chester H., viii genetic structure of natural populations, studies on, morphological studies, 108, 113 12, 125-126, 155-165 Heuts, M. J., 103 Genetics, Department of, viii, 12, 14, 123-170 Hewitt, Abram S., vi report of Director of Department of, 123—170 Heydenburg, Norman P., vii, 80 genetics, studies in, 12, 123-170. See also experi- Hickox, Joseph O., vii, 4 mental taxonomy solar research, 7 geology, see geophysics; paleobotany Hiesey, William M., viii, 126, 157, 158 geomagnetism, see geophysics, experimental and ana- studies in experimental taxonomy, 12, 95—104 lytical; magnetic survey; observatory program publication by, 106 Geophysical Laboratory, vii, 10-11, 27-41, 64 Higginson, Henry L., vi, xii report of Director of, 27-41 historical research, vii, xi geophysics, experimental and analytical, studies in Committee on, v (Department of Terrestrial Magnetism), 11, 55- studies in, 13, 173—202 57^ 61-71, 77 Historical Research, Department of, viii geophysics, studies in, 10—11, 27—41, 83. See also Historical Research, Division of, viii, 13, 14, 173-202 geophysics, experimental and analytical report of Chairman of Division of, 173—202 Giesecke, Albert A., Jr., vii, 81 history of Maya area, studies in, 177, 197—200 publication by, 79 history of science, studies in, 200 Gifford, Walter S., v, xxi, xxiii Hitchcock, Ethan A., vi, xii Gilbert, Cass, vi Hitchcock, Henry, vi Gilbert, Walter M., 14 Hoge, Edison, vii, 4 Gillett, Frederick H., vi solar research, 7 Gillman, Joseph, ix publication by, 24 studies in embryology, 108, 113, 114 Hoover, Herbert, v Oilman, Daniel Coit, vi, xii, xiii hormones, see physiology of reproduction Gish, Oliver H., vii, 47, 80 Howe, William Wirt, vi, xii Goland, Philip P., publication by, 121 Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, Goranson, Roy W., vii, 29, 80 51, 54, 57, 58, 59-6o, 61, 69, 77 Goubaud, Antonio, 176 Hubble, Edwin P., vii, 3, 5 Grabherr, Poldi, 107 nebular investigations, 19, 20 Graham, J. W., 80 Hudson, C. M., 80 grasses, see experimental taxonomy Humason, Milton L., vii, 4, 5 Green, J. W., publications by, 80, 203 nebular investigations, 20, 21 Green, Louis C., 6 publication by, 24 Greenstein, Jesse L., 5, 15 Hutchinson, Charles L., vi, xii publication by, 24 Greig, Joseph W., vii studies on equilibrium relations, 32 Gueker, Frank T., Jr., ix studies on specific heats, 83 Iddles, Marcia Kelman, 124, 141 Ingerson, Earl, vii studies on equilibrium relations, 30, 33, 39, 40 H publications by, 39, 40, 41 Hafenrichter, A. L., 95 Inglis, David R., 72, 80 Hale, George E., vii, 23 International Scientific Relations, Adviser on, x Hal pern, Abraham M., 193, 195 Investment Office, x Harradon, H. D., 81 ionospheric research, see geophysics, experimental and publications by, 79 analytical; magnetic survey; observatory program Harrison, Margaret W.» viii, 200-201 publication by, 201 Harrison, Ross G., ix J studies in experimental embryology, 171—172 publication by, 172 Jameson, J. Franklin, viii Hartman, Carl G., 108, 114 Jeans, Sir James, 5 Hay, John, vi, xii, xiii Jenkins, F. A., publication by, 24 Healey, Giles G., i$t 173* 177 Jennings, Jesse D., publication by, 200, 203 Heard, O. O., m, 119, 120 Jessup, Walter A.» vi publication by, 121 Jewett, Frank B., v, xxi Hellroan, Louis M., no, 118 Johnson, Ellis A,» vii, 36, 37, 80 publication by, 79, 121 publication by, 79 Henclrix, W. C, 81 Johnston, Henry F., publications by, 80, 203 publications by* 80, 203 Jones, Mark W.» vii9 81 Hernandez, Angel, 188 publication by, 79 208 INDEX
Joy, Alfred H., vii, 4, 5 M studies in stellar spectroscopy, 12, 13, 14 McCHntock, Barbara, viii, 14 publications by, 24 cytogenetic studies on maize and Neurospora, 123, 124, 146-152 K McCormick, Nancy, 127 Kaiser, Irwin H., 112, 113, 116 McDonald, Margaret R., viii, 153 publications by, 121 studies on organization of chromosome, 124, 136- Kasha, Michael, 201 146 Kaufmann, Berwind P., viii McDougall, Elsie, publication by, 201 studies on organization of chromosome, 123, 124, MacDowell, Edwin C, viii 136-146 studies on mouse leukemia, 125, 152-155 publications by, 170 publication by, 170 Keck, David D., viii, 126, 157, 158 McLaughlin, Andrew C, viii studies in experimental taxonomy, 12, 95-104 McNish, Alvin G., 48, 49 publications by, 106 publications by, 79, 80, 203 Keith, MacKenzie Lawrence, vii McQuown, Norman, linguistic studies, 176, I93~I95 Kidder, Alfred V., viii, 14 MacVeagh, Wayne, vi, xii report of Chairman of Division of Historical Re- magnetic survey and observatory program (terrestrial search, 173-202 magnetism), review of, 43—53, 53—54 studies in archaeology, 175, 177, 182, 184 magnetism, see solar research; terrestrial magnetism publications by, 200, 201, 202, 203 maize, cytogenetic studies on, 123—124, 146—152 King, Arthur $., 21 Malich, C. W., publication by, 203 publications by, 24 Mall, Franklin P., viii, 108 King, Robert B., vii, 5 Marquina, Ignacio, 176 laboratory investigations (Mount Wilson), 9, 21 Mason, Max, 3 publication by, 24 Maya, see historical research Kittel, Charles, 71, 72, 78 Mellon, Andrew J., vi Kracek, Frank C., vii Merriam, John Campbell, vi studies in geophysics, 33 Merrill, Paul W., vii, 4, 5, 6 Kunitz, M., 142 studies in stellar spectroscopy, 12, 13, 15, 16, 22 publications by, 24 Merwin, Herbert E., ix laboratory investigations (Mount Wilson), 21-22 studies in geophysics, 32, 33, 35, 38 laboratory physics and biophysics, studies in, 47, 52, meteorology, see observatory program (terrestrial 55. 57, 7i~74 77, 7^ magnetism) Lamb, Frank W., 83 Miller, R., 154, 155 Lange, Isabellc, Si Miller, Roswell, v, xxi publications by, 80, 203 Miller, William C, 6, 15 Larj^k'v, Samuel P., vi, xii publications by, 24 Ljporte, Lucile, publications by, 80, 203 Mills, Darius O., vi, xii I StarJet, Raymond, 132 Milner, Harold W., viii publications by, 170 biochemical investigations, 88-95 Lawrence, Ernest O., v, xxi Minkowski, Rudolph, vii, 4, 5 Lawrence, W. E.f 95 nebular investigations, 6, 16, 17 Lcdig, Paul (V., vii, 81 publications by, 24 publications bv, 73 Mirsky, Reba, 127 Lee^ Ferdinand C, 119 Mitchell, S. Weir, vi, xii, xiii publication by, 121 Monroe, Parker, x Vukemia, see m«»use leukemia Montagu, M. F. A., publication by, 170 Lewis, Limit II, studies on mouse leukemia, 152-155 Montague, Andrew J., vi Lewis, Margaret Reed, 14, 107 Moore, Charlotte E., 9 tumor studies if»7, 119 Morey, George W., vii publication by, 121 studies on equilibrium relations, 30, 33 lewis. Warren H., 107, 120 Morgan, Henry S., v, xxi Lifb, Margaret, 127 Morley, Sylvanus G., viii Lin^bcr^h, Chart's A., vi studies in archaeology, 173, 176, 187-188, 197, Lhhl'Ai, Wi!iiam, \i, xii 201 Lm^rl-jch, h Stanley, x publications by, 202 morphological studies (embryology), 108-109 JjKdinth, l>>tToihv IX, % Morris, Earl H., viii L:kt!^f, Hrnrv Clalw^f, \i studies in archaeology, 176, 192-193 l.*x.4\vir* l-hnM, III 176 Morrison, P., 127 pw^lifcjfji n% In, 2' 1, 202 Morrow, William W., vi, xii Lr*?*ijjs, .V?r.*»! L, 1, xxi Most, H., publication by, 78 Mount Wilson Observatory, vii, xxi, 10, 3-25, 56, 70 report of Director of, 3-25 f * »»Ti 1, !, Athz\ 4 mouse leukemia, studies on, 125, 152-155 h}\ 170 Mowbray, A. G., 6, 15 208 INDEX
Joy, Alfred H., vii, 4, 5 M studies in stellar spectroscopy, 12, 13, 14 publications by, 24 McClintock, Barbara, viii, 14 cytogenetic studies on maize and Neurospom, 123, K 124, 146—152 McCormick, Nancy, 127 Kaiser, Irwin H., 112, 113, 116 McDonald, Margaret R., viii, 153 publications by, 121 studies on organization of chromosome, 124, 136— Kasha, Michael, 201 146 Kaufmann, Berwind P., viii McDougall, Elsie, publication by, 201 studies on organization of chromosome, 123, 124, MacDowell, Edwin C, viii 136—146 studies on mouse leukemia, 125, 152—155 publications by, 170 publication by, 170 Keck, David D., viii, 126, 157, 158 McLaughlin, Andrew C, viii studies in experimental taxonomy, 12, 95-104 McNish, Alvin G., 48, 49 publications by, 106 publications by, 79, 80, 203 Keith, MacKenzie Lawrence, vii McQuown, Norman, linguistic studies, 176, 193-195 Kidder, Alfred V., viii, 14 MacVeagh, Wayne, vi, xii report of Chairman of Division of Historical Re- magnetic survey and observatory program (terrestrial search, 173-202 magnetism), review of, 43—53, 53—54 studies in archaeology, 175, 177, 182, 184 magnetism, see solar research; terrestrial magnetism publications by, 200, 201, 202, 203 maize, cytogenetic studies on, 123-124, 146—152 King, Arthur S., 21 Malich, C. W., publication by, 203 publications by, 24 Mall, Franklin P., viii, 108 King, Robert B., vii, 5 Marquina, Ignacio, 176 laboratory investigations (Mount Wilson), 9, 21 Mason, Max, 3 publication by, 24 Maya, see historical research Kittel, Charles, 71, 72, 78 Mellon, Andrew J., vi Kracek, Frank C., vii Merriam, John Campbell, vi studies in geophysics, 33 Merrill, Paul W., vii, 4, 5, 6 Kunitz, M., 142 studies in stellar spectroscopy, 12, 13, 15, 16, 22 publications by, 24 Merwin, Herbert E., ix laboratory investigations (Mount Wilson), 21—22 studies in geophysics, 32, 33, 35, 38 laboratory physics and biophysics, studies in, 47, 52, meteorology, see observatory program (terrestrial 55> 57> 71-76, 77> 78 magnetism) Lamb, Frank W., 83 Miller, R., 154, 155 Lange, Isabelle, 81 Miller, Roswell, v, xxi publications by, 80, 203 Miller, William C, 6, 15 Langley, Samuel P., vi, xii publications by, 24 Laporte, Lucile, publications by, 80, 203 Mills, Darius O., vi, xii Latarjet, Raymond, 132 Milner, Harold W., viii publications by, 170 biochemical investigations, 88-95 Lawrence, Ernest O., v, xxi Minkowski, Rudolph, vii, 4, 5 Lawrence, W. E., 95 nebular investigations, 6, 16, 17 Ledig, Paul G., vii, 81 publications by, 24 publications by, 79 Mirsky, Reba, 127 Lee, Ferdinand C, 119 Mitchell, S. Weir, vi, xii, xiii publication by, 121 Monroe, Parker, x leukemia, see mouse leukemia Montagu, M. F. A., publication by, 170 Lewis, Linda E.» studies on mouse leukemia, 152-155 Montague, Andrew J., vi Lewis, Margaret Reed, 14, 107 Moore, Charlotte E., 9 tumor studies, 107, 119 Morey, George W., vii publication by, 121 studies on equilibrium relations, 30, 33 Lewis, Warren FL, 107, 120 Morgan, Henry S., v, xxi Lieb, Margaret, 127 Morley, Sylvanus G., viii Lindbergh., Charles A., vi studies in archaeology, 173, 176, 187—188, 197, Lindsay, William, vi, xii 201 Lingebstch, J. Stanley, x publications by, 202 linguistic studies, 193-195 morphological studies (embryology), 108-109 Locanthi, Dorothy D., 5 Morris, Earl H., viii Lmlge, Henry Cabot* vi studies in archaeology, 176, 192-193 Lonjrycar, John M., Ill, 176 Morrison, P., 127 publications by, 201, 202 Morrow, William W., vi, xii L
Mudd, Seeley G., v, xxi Posnjak, Eugene, vii Mulders, Elizabeth S., 4, 5 Prentis, Henning W., Jr., v, xxi, xxiii solar research, 7 President, v, x, xi, xxi, xxiii publications by, 24, 25 Office of the, x Murphy, T., 37, 38, 80 Report of the, 1-15 publications by, 203 N pressure, see equilibrium relations Pritchett, Henry S., vi nebulae, see galactic; extragalactic Proctor, N. K., 118 Ness, Arthur T., Bo publication by, 79, 121 publication by, 78 Proskouriakoff, Tatiana, viii Newcombe, Howard B., viii studies in archaeology, 174, 175, 176, 185, 186, studies on the gene, 125, 127-135 189-190 Neys, Horace, publication by, 201 publications by, 200, 201, 202, 203 Nichols, Edgar C, 6, 22 Publications and Public Relations, Office of, x, xi Nichols, Richard F. F., x purpose, see objects Nicholson, Seth B., vii, 4 solar and planetary investigations, 7, 8, 10 publications by, 24, 25 Noguchi, Kisa, 190 Noguera, Eduardo, 176 Racker, E., 154 Novick, Aaron, 127 radioactivity, studies on, 36-38 nuclear physics, see laboratory physics and biophysics Ramsey, Elizabeth M-, 108 Recinos, Adrian, 187 Redfield, Robert, ix, 177 Rentschler, Gordon S., v, xxi Oakberg, Eugene F., publication by, 170 Rever, A. G., no objects of the Institution, xi, xii, 3 Reynolds, Samuel R. M., viii, 120 observatory program (terrestrial magnetism), 43-53, studies in physiology, /_?, 111, 112, 115, 116, 117 publications by, 121 5SS4, 57-6i, 77 Richardson, Robert S., vii, 4 Olsen, Barbara, 5 O'Neale, Lila M., 200 solar research, 7, 8 Osborn, E. F., 32 publications by, 25 Osborn, William Church, vi Richmond, Myrtle L., 4 solar, planetary, and stellar investigations, 10, 12 Riddle, Oscar, publications by, 170, 203 P Roberts, Howard S., vii Roberts, Richard B., vii, 80, 127 Padget, Dorcas Hager, 113, 114 Robles, Vitalino, 173, 174, 182, 183 paleobotany, studies in, 104-106 Rock, John, 109, 113 Palomar Mountain Observatory, xxi, 3, 5 Roedder, Edwin W., 31 Parkinson, W. D., 60, 81 Rollins, Reed C, 104 Parkinson, Wilfred C, vii, 81 Rona, Elizabeth, 37 publication by, 80, 203 Rooney, William J., vii, 47, 80 Parmelee, James, vi studies in terrestrial electricity, 71 Parsons, Wm. Barclay, vi Root, Elihu, vi, xii, xiii Paton, Stewart, vi Root, Elihu, Jr., v, xxi Pavon Abreu, Raul, 188 Roquet, J., 80 Pepper, George W., vi Rosenwald, Julius, vi Pershing, John J., vi Rothberg, Harvey D., Jr., 140 Peters, Virginia B., 111 Roys, Ralph L., viii Pettit, Edison, vii, 4 historical studies, 177, 189, 197-198, 200 solar and stellar investigations, 8, 11 publication by, 201, 202 publications by, 25 Ruppert, Karl, viii photosynthesis, see biochemical investigations studies in archaeology, 173, 176, 177-179 physics, see astronomy; biophysics; terrestrial sciences Russell, Henry Norris, 5 physiology of reproduction, studies in, 111-113, 1x5— Ryerson, Martin A., vi 117 Pi, T. H., 80 Piggot, Charles S., vii, 37 planetary investigations, 10 Plant Biology, Division of, viii, 11—12, 13, 14, 85— Sahama, Th. G., vii 106, 125, 126, 156 studies on thermal quantities, 34 report of Chairman of Division of, 85—106 St. Lawrence, Patricia, 127 plant biology, studies in, 11-12, 85-106. See also Sanford, Roscoe F., vii, 4, 5 maize studies in stellar spectroscopy, 13, 14, 21 Plant Physiology, Laboratory for, viii publications by, 25 Pogo, Alexander, viii Sarton, George, viii Pollock, Harry E. D., viii studies in history of science, 200 studies in archaeology, 176 publications by, 202 INDEX 210
Schairer, John F., vii stellar spectroscopy, studies in, io, 3-4, 5> 6, 12-16 studies on equilibrium relations, 29, 30, 31, 32, 39 Stephens, S. G., 126 publications by, 39, 41 Stewart, T. Dale, studies in anthropology, 176, 195- Schein, Marcel, 78 197 Scherer, Paul A., x, 14 Storey, William Benson, vi Schneider, Walter C., 143 Strain, Harold H., viii Scholes, France V., ix biochemical investigations, 88-95 historical studies, 177, 198, 200 publication by, 106 Scholz, Roy O., no Streeter, George L., viii, ix publication by, 80 morphological studies, 108, 109, 114, 119 Schwarzschild, Martin, 5, 14 Stromberg, Gustaf, publication by, 25 Scott, Roger B., 113 Stromsvik, Gustav, viii Scott, Walter E., vii, 48, 81 studies in archaeology, 175, 177, 186 publications by, 79, 80, 203 publications by, 201, 202, 203 Scares, Frederick H., 5 Strong, Richard P., v Seaton, Stuart L., vii, 80 Stuart, L. C, 175 publication by, 203 Sullivan, James F., x seismology, see geophysics, experimental and analytical Sulzer, P. G., publication by, 79 Scnseni^r, E. Carl, 107, 108 sun, see solar research Shapley, A. H., publications by, 79, 80 Swift, Dorothy R., x Sharsmith, Carl, 104 Swings, P., publication by, 24 Shepard, Anna O., viii Szilard, Leo, 127 studies in ceramic technology, 174, 176, 190-192, 200, 201 publication by, 200 Shepherd, E. S., 32 Taft, Charles P., v Shepley, Henry R., v, xxi, xxiii Sherman, Kenneth L., vii, 80 Taft, William H., vi Shook, Edwin M., viii Tatel, Howard E., vii studies in archaeology, 174, 175, 176, 179-184 Tax, Sol, ix publications by, 200, 201, 202, 203 ethnological studies, 177 silicates, see equilibrium relations publications by, 202 Singleton, Jesse R., 151, 152 taxonomy, see experimental taxonomy; paleobotany Slichtcr, L. B., 64 Taylor, Martha J., studies on mouse leukemia, 152- Sloviter, Henry A., publication by, 121 155 Smith, A. Ledyard, viii Tejeda, Antonio, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179 studies in archaeology, 174, 175, 184-187, 190, 201 publication by, 201 Smith, F. G. Wilton, 91 Tejeda, Cesar, 174, 182, 184, 185, 186 Smith, Gilbert M,, 91 Teller, E., 78 Smith, fames H. C, viii Tengelsen, Clifford L., 127 biochemical investigations, 88-95 terrestrial electricity, see geophysics, experimental publication by, 106 and analytical; magnetic survey; observatory Smith, Robert E,» viii program studies in archaeology, 175, 201 terrestrial magnetism, see geophysics, experimental publications b}\ 202 and analytical; magnetic survey; observatory Smith, Theobald, vi program solar research, 7-10, See also observatory program Terrestrial Magnetism, Department of, vii, 11, 13, 14, (terrestrial magnetism) 7» 36» 37* 38, 43-8i, no, 113, 117, 127 *jiectrracnpy, see astronomy report of Director of Department of, 43-81 Speert, Harold, 114 terrestrial sciences, vii, xi Spochr« Herman A,, viii, 13, 14, 157 Committee on, v biochemical investigations, 88-95 studies in, 10-11, 27-83 report of Chairman of Dhi&ion of Plant Biology, Thaycr, William S., vi thermal quantities, studies on, 33-35, 83 j'uhheatum in, io€ Thompson, J. Eric S., viii S^wjnfr, John CM \i, xli studies in archaeology, 176, 177, 188-189, 200 $nht I E , 80 publications by, 201, 202 Sumon, H. E.> 4$ Tolman, Richard C, 3 tfars, itt Mrj)Ai investigations; stellar spectroscopy Torrcson, Oscar W., vii, 37, 48, 80 Sftbbins (y, LeiHanJ* frn 103* 104, 105 Trik, A. S., 175 StrbMns, J»»!, ix, 5 Trippc* Juan T., v, xxi Hrudif* in stellar and nebular photometry, 4, 5, 4 Trustees, Board of, v, xis xxi, xxiii, j, 4, 5, 44 1:, 17, i *' Abstract of Minutes of, xxi Sr:%ln\^nf Kdj?ar» committees of, v, j farmer, vi Tuckerman, B»» publication by, 79 tiuT,% a, 11-12. See aim extragalactk Tucson Observatory, 47, 61 f 71 %&Wtic mbuht mi star clouds; stellar tumor studies, 107, 119 Tunell, George, vii INDEX 211
Tuttle, O. Frank, vii Wells, Harry W., vii, 49, 51, 80 studies on equilibrium relations, 27, 28, 29, 30, publications by, 80, 203 33>, 39 Wells, L. J., studies in embryology, 107, 108, no publication by, 39, 41 Wenner, F., publications by, 80 Tuve, Merle A., vii, //, 37, 46, 80 Went, F. W., 103 report of Director o£ Department of Terrestrial Westergaard, Mogens, 103 Magnetism, 43-81 Wharton, Lawrence R., Jr., 109 publication by, 79 White, Andrew D., vi, xii Tyler, David B., viii White, Edward D., vi White, Henry, vi White, Michael J. D., 126 U chromosome studies on gall midges, 125, 165—169 Whitehead, D., 80 United States history, section of, viii Whitford, A. E., 4, 5, 11, 17, 18 upper atmosphere, see geophysics, experimental and Whitney, Irene, 4, 5 analytical Wickersham, George W., vi Urry, William D., vii Wilde, Walter S., viii, 107 studies on radioactivity, 36, 37, 38 - biophysical studies, 117, 118 publications by, 79, 80, 121 Williams, S. Culver, 107 Wilson, Faith E., studies in experimental embry- van Maanen, Adriaan, 23 ology, 109, no van Overbeek, J., 91 Wilson, Katherine, studies on organization of chro- Veit, Phyllis W., 4, 5 mosome, 136—146 solar research, 7, 10 Wilson, Olin C, vii, 5 Vestine, Ernest H., vii, 49, 80 studies in stellar spectroscopy, 14, 16, 17 studies in geomagnetism, 71 publications by, 24, 25 publications by, 71, 79, 80, 203 Wilson, Ralph E., vii, 4 Villa Rojas, Alfonso, viii studies in stellar spectroscopy, 12 ethnological studies, 177 publication by, 25 Villagra, Agustin, 176, 177, 179 Witkin, Evelyn Maisel, 126 volcanic products, studies on, 35-36 studies on the gene, 127—135 von Winning, Hasso, publication by, 201 publication by, 170 Vosburgh, Gilbert J., no, 118 Witschi, Emil, 114 publication by, 79, 121 Wood, Francis W., 81 publication by, 80 Woodward, Robert Simpson, vi W Wright, Carroll D., vi, xii, xiii Wright, F. E., 32 Wadsworth, James W., v, xxi publication by, 78 Wait, George R., vii, 80 Wright, K. O., 9, 10 publication by, 80 Wright, Sewall, 126 Walcott, Charles D,, vi, xii, xiii publications by, 170 Walcott, Frederic C, v, xxi, xxiii Wulf, Oliver R., 10 Walcott, Henry P., vi publication by, 25 Wallace, Bruce, publication by, 170 Wyman, Ruth, studies on organization of chromo- Wallis, W. F., publication by, 203 some, 136-146 Warmke, H. F., 91 Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, 46, 47, 48, 51, 54, 57> 58, 59> 60, 61, 77 Watson, E. C, 3 Zies, Emamiel G., vii Wauchope, Robert, 175, 176 studies on volcanic products, 35 Weed, Lewis H., v, xxi, xxiii zoology, see embryology; genetics Wei, Dorothy, 127 Zwicky, K, 83 Welch, William H., vi publication by, 24