People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
Larbi Ben M'Hidi University, Oum El Bouaghi Faculty of Letters and Languages ______Department of English
International Organizations and Good Governance in the Arab World : The Algerian Experience, 1996-2005
A ‘Memoire’ Submitted to the Faculty of Letters and Languages, Department of English in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master in Anglo-American Studies
by
BELDJOUDI Iymane
Board of Examiners:
Dr. MAAMERI Fatima , Director
Miss. BRAHMI Halima, Member
2013-2014
ABSTRACT
In this twenty-first century, the concept of good governance has gained great consideration due to its importance in fighting corruption, ensuring human rights, and achieving sustainable development. This Mémoire discusses the issue of good governance in the Arab World in general and Algeria particularly. It tackles the political situation in the Arab World by stating its nature, discussing issues, and revealing the role of international organizations, namely the United Nations
Organization and its many organs. The central point of this Mémoire is the analysis of the Algerian experience as stated through the World Bank’s
Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) and evaluation of the efforts of the
Algerian government to achieve good governance.
Key Words: Good governance, international organizations, Arab world, Algeria
Résumé
Ce travail nous mené a avoir une idée générale sur la partie théorique de la bonne gouvernance en tant que connaissance politique importante beaucoup . D’études ont été réalisée dans ce domaine par des organisations internationales depuis 1989 . dans la partie théorique , l’étude porte sur la très entartions et la définition de la bonne gouvernance ( et son enracinement dans l’Islam). Ce travail nous permet d’étudier le monde
Arabe selon ses caractéristiques politiques communes et non communes , en plus de l’ étude des problèmes dont souffre les pays Arabes come : corruption and autoritarianism , a savoir mauvaise politique et le pouvoir centralise . L’étude pose des solutions en consolidant la bonne gouvernance dans le monde arabe a partir des aides que les organisations internationales apporte à ces pays , comme : la Bank mondial et le programme de développement des nations – unis .
ﻣﻠﺨﺺ
ﺗﮭﺪف ھﺪه اﻟﻤﺬﻛﺮة اﻟﻰ اﻋﻄﺎء ﻧﻈﺮة ﺷﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺠﺰء اﻟﻨﻈﺮي ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ ﻛﻤﻔﮭﻮم ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ
ﻣﮭﻢ اﻟﺬي ﺗﻜﺎﺛﻔﺖ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ اﺑﺤﺎث و ﺗﻘﺎرﯾﺮ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺎت ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ و دوﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻨﺪ 1989م . ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﻄﺮق
اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺨﺺ اﻟﺠﺰء اﻟﻨﻈﺮي اﻟﻰ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ و اﺳﺒﺎب ظﮭﻮره و ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﮫ و
اﺑﻌﺎده و ﻓﻮاﻋﻠﮫ . ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻰ دﻟﻚ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻻﺳﻼم . اﻻﺳﻼم ﯾﻤﻠﻚ ﺟﺬورا
ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺗﻄﺮق اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻟﮫ ﻣﻊ ﺑﺪاﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﺴﻌﯿﻨﺎت . ﺗﺴﻌﻰ اﻟﻤﺬﻛﺮة اﻟﻰ دراﺳﺔ
اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﮫ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ و ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ . ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻰ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ
اﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ و ھﻲ اﻟﻔﺴﺎد اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﻲ و اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﻮي . ﺑﻌﺪ دﻟﻚ
ﺗﺪرس اﻟﻤﺬﻛﺮة ﺣﻠﻮل و طﺮق ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪات اﻟﺘﻲ
ﺗﻘﺪﻣﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ اھﻤﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻨﻚ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ و ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ ﻟﻸﻣﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة . ﺗﻘﺪم اﻟﻤﺬﻛﺮة
ﻛﺤﺎﻟﺔ دراﺳﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ اﻟﺠﺰاﺋﺮﯾﺔ و ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺘﮭﺎ ﻣﻨﺪ ﺗﺒﻨﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﺆﺷﺮات اﻟﺤﻜﻢ
اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﺑﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻨﻚ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ .
ii
Dedication
I dedicate this memoire to my loving family: my father Ahmed, my mother
Malika. My brothers :Amine and Houssam and my sisters: Ikram, Nouha, Nouzha and Abir .
To my cousins : Hicham, Hani, Farah, Rayan, Khalil, Islam, Yacine, Oumaima and Ataf.
To my friends : Amina, Nora, Dalel, Fatima and Chaima.
iii
Acknowledgments
I thank Allah the almighty who reconciled me to accomplish this mémoire.
I owe a special thank for my supervisor Dr.Maameri for her supervision and advices in writing my memoire during a whole year. She was very helpful and kind. And I have benefited from her experience and I have the honor to be her student for three years.
Also, I would like to thank my whole family for their help, support and encouragement especially Ikram and Nouha.
Finally, I would like to thank all the teachers who have taught me during my five years.
iv
List of Acronyms
AHDr Arab Human Development Report
AUO African Union Organisation
CNES Conseil National Economique et Social
CPI Corruption Perceptions Index
FH Freedom House
FIW Freedom in the World
GII Gender Inequality Index
GG Good Governance
HDI Human Development Index
IFAD International Fund Agricultural Development
MENA Middle East and North Africa
TI Transparency International
UNO United Nations Organizations
UNESCAP United Nations Commission for East Asia and Pacific
UNDP United Nations Development Program
WB World Bank
WGI World Governance Indicators v
List of Illustrations
pages:
Figure 01: Components of Good Governance According to UNDP 13
Figure 02: Components of Good Governance according to World Bank 14
Figure 03: Corruption in The World (2013) 31
Figure 04: Corruption in MENA 31
Figure 05: Forms of Authoritarian Rule 33
Figure 06 : Representation of Women and Men in National People's Congress (NPC). 47
Figure 07 : Representation of Men and Women in Nation Council (NAC). 47
Figure 08 : Presidential Election Results for the Year 1999. 49
Figure 09 : The Evolution of Human Development Indices in Algeria. 49
Figure 10: The Evolution of the Unemployment Rate in Algeria (2001-2009). 51
Figure 11: The Governance Performance of Algeria (1996-2005). 56
vi Table of content
Abstract Résumé
ﻣﻠﺨﺺ
Dedication ………………………………………………………..…………..ii
Acknowledgments……………………………………………….……...... …iii
List of acronyms …………………………………………………...... ….iv
List of illustrations…………………………………………………….….…...v
General Introduction……………………………………………….….…..…1
Chapter One: Good Governance: Concepts and Definitions
Introduction……………………………………………………………………5
1-1 Definition of Good Governance …………………………….……..………6
1-1-1 Definition of Governance……..……………………...………...…6
1-1-2 Definitions of Good Governance……………………………...... 6
1-2- Historical Background of Good Governance….…………………….….…8
1-2-1 Political Reasons…………………………………………….……8
1-2-2 Economic Reasons………………………………………….…...9
1-2-3Social Reasons…………………………………………...... 10
1-3 Components of Good Governance………………………………………..10
1-3-1Components of Good Governance According to UNDP…...... 10
1-3-2 Components of Good Governance According to W B………….13
1-4 The Measurable Indicators of Good Governance…………………...... 15
1-4-1 The UNDP‘s Measurable Indicators of Good Governance……..15
1-4-2 The W B’s Measurable Indicators of Good Governance..………17
1-5 The Dimensions of Good Governance ……………………….………...…19
vii
1-6 The Actors of Good Governance ……………………………...………..…19
1-7 Good Governance in Islam: A Mémoire Approach …………………………21
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..24
Chapter two: Good Governance and The Arab World
Introduction ………………………………………………..…..…………….…..26
2-1 Political Characteristics in the Arab World ……………..…………….…….27
2-1-1 Similar Political Characteristics ………………….……………….27
2-1-2 Different Political Characteristics….………………………………29
2-2 Political Issues in the Arab World…………………………….……………..29
2-2-1 Corruption …………………………………………………………30
2-2-2 Authoritarianism…………………………………….……………..32
2-3 Promoting Good Governance in The Arab World ……………....…………..34
2-3-1The Role of International Organizations………….….………....….34
2-3-2The Role of USA…………………………………..………………38
Conclusion…………………………………………………….....………………39
Chapter Three: Algeria and Good Governance
Introduction……………………………………………………….….………….40
3-1 Reasons Behind Good Governance Emergence in Algeria …………………41
3-2 Features of Good Governance in Algeria………………………………...….42
3-3 The Analysis of the Algerian Experience by the WGI (Worldwide Governance Indicators) of World Bank …………………………..………….…45
3-4 The Evaluation of the Algerian Experience, 1996-2005………...…………..55
Conclusion …………………………………………………..……...……………58
General Conclusion………………………………………...…….…………..…60
Work Cited ……………...……………………………………….………….….62
1
INTRODUCTION
In the beginning of the nineties, the subject of good governance spread all over the world. Since then, the use of the concept of good governance has been taken into great consideration by different reports of regional and international organizations like the United Nations Development Program and the World Bank in addition to different administrative, economic and political research centers. Good governance has become a worldwide concept that aims to improve state laws, and develop institutional policies. In addition, it aims at reducing poverty and unemployment, fighting corruption, and enhancing democracy and protecting human rights. Hence, good governance became the basic requirement for achieving sustainable development in the economic, social, and political domains.
Because of its different interpretations, namely those of the World Bank
Group and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the concept of good governance has different definitions. As its emergence is due to various historical backgrounds—political, economic and social—it relies on certain components and theoretical bases set out by the United Nations Organization. Due to such dimensional complexities, good governance can only be realized by three actors which include the individual state or government, the private sector and the civil society.
Bad or poor governance is mainly characterized by a high level of corruption. More, corrupt governments are the type of government for most 2 developing countries. One of these groups of the developing countries is the Arab
World or MENA (Middle East and North Africa). MENA suffers from different problems, mainly corruption and authoritarianism.
Algeria, as many of the other Arab countries, is interested in adopting good governance and has made efforts in its attempt to achieve it fully or at least partially. International organizations have made a great effort in helping the Arab
World, in general, and Algeria particularly to move towards better governance and achieve their goals. The most important goals are attaining sustainable development and ensuring human rights.
Since good governance is a relatively recent issue, this memoire aims at understanding its nature by tackling its definitions, historical background, components, measurable indicators, dimensions and actors. Also, the thesis aims to state the reasons that made good governance a very important concept. For this, by investigating the Arab world and good governance, it seeks to specify the major reasons that kept the MENA region far from reaching good governance. More particularly, this thesis analyses the Algerian approach to good governance by undertaking to reveal the reasons that caused its adoption in Algeria and government policies that attempt to materialize it. Furthermore, the thesis sheds lights on the Algerian experience under good governance through the World Bank’s
Worldwide Governance Indicators.
The thesis attempts to answer certain questions: What is good governance?
What are the components, bases and goals of good governance? How can it be promoted and achieved in the Arab world? What are the reasons that caused Algeria to adopt good governance and what policies are developed towards it 3 implementation? Finally, to what extent has Algeria been successful in its efforts to reach it?
To achieve its aims, this mémoire combines two methods of work: The historical and the analytical method. The historical method has explanation ability.
It offers the historical background of good governance and the reasons that led to its emergence. More, it gives us the factors that led to the development of good governance as a concept. Though the analytical method, the mémoire analyzes the situation of good governance in the Arab world, in general, and in Algeria, in particular. In citation style, this master thesis relies on the seventh edition of the
Modern Language Association (MLA), 2009.
This study relies on primary as well as secondary sources. Some of the primary sources are international organizations’ reports such as the UNDP’s policy document Governance for Sustainable Human Development (1997) and the
World Bank’s MENA Development Report Better Governance for Development in the Middle East and North Africa: Enhancing Accountability and Inclusiveness
(2003). These documents serve as reliable sources for the definition of the concept good governance and its measures, components and actors. The work also relied on a number of secondary sources that include books, articles and theses. R.
Muhammad Mustafizur’s “Good Governance: A Conceptual Analysis” narrates the historical background of good governance and the different reasons which led to its emergence. Abdullah Al-Ahsan and Stephen B. Young’s book Guidance for
Good Governance: Explorations in Qur'anic, Scientific and Cross-cultural
Approaches tackles the Islamic roots to good governance. Hans-Jürgen Wagener’s article “Good Governance, Welfare, and Transformation” explores the concept of good governance and the characteristics of bad governance. The two last sources 4 are very beneficial because they provide important information about good governance.
The first chapter of my mémoire deals with the theoretical part of good governance. It looks at the different political, economic and social reasons that led to its emergence. Also, it handles the different interpretations of this concept by different regional and international organizations such as the UNDP and World
Bank. More, it deals with its different components, measures, actors (state, private sector and civil society) and its political, economic and administrative dimensions.
Furthermore, this chapter reveals the importance of good governance in addition to its goals.
The second chapter of my mémoire tackles good governance in the Arab
World. It deals with the various political characteristics in MENA region and reveals that MENA region countries are similar in limited political freedoms and civil rights even if they adopt different political systems. These systems are characterized by corruption and authoritarianism. Finally, the second chapter discussed the role of international organizations, in addition to USA, in promoting good governance in the MENA region.
The last chapter deals with the Algerian experience after its adoption of good governance. First, it tackles the different reasons that led to the adoption of good governance in Algeria. Second, it details the efforts undertaken by the
Algerian government in this field. Third, it analyzes the Algerian experience according to the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators. Finally, this chapter evaluates the Algerian experience during the period 1996-2005. 5
Chapter I
Good Governance: Concepts and Definitions
Introduction:
The use of good governance concept has been taken into great consideration by different administrative, economic and political research centers. Different reports were made by regional and international organizations like Asian
Development Bank, United Nations Development Program, and the World Bank.
Good governance became a worldwide concept seen as the best way to manage the different political, economic and social affairs of countries and societies. It works to reduce poverty and unemployment, to fight corruption, and to enhance democracy and protect human rights.
Good governance (GG) has different definitions because of its different interpretations namely by the World Bank (WB) and United Nations Development
Program’s (UNDP) and its emergence is due to a complex historical background,
.i.e.: political, economic and social reasons. It relies on certain components and measurements set by the WB and the UNDP. Also, good governance can be realized only by an effective interaction of its three actors: the state or government, the private sector, and the civil society. Three dimensions are needed for the accomplishment of GG: economically, politically and administratively. 6
1-1 The Definition of Good Governance:
1-1-1 Definition of Governance:
There are many definitions of the concept of good governance because of its different interpretations by several organizations. Firstly, before moving to tackle its definitions, what is the meaning of ‘governance’? Governance is an old term.
(United Nations: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific 1). It is
“the process of decision-making and the process by which decision are implemented or not implemented” (1). In other terms, governance means the manner of management of state affairs which denotes the process of making decisions and putting these decisions into actions.
Governance and government are not the same. ‘Governance’ is defined as the “forms of political system and the manner in which power is exercised in utilizing a country’s economic and social resources for development” whereas
‘Government’ is defined as “the most powerful and coercive institution, which continues to be the major element of any system of governance” (“Governance and
Corruption” 2). Also, governance is considered to be broader and wider than government because it does not only include the governmental institutions but includes too the non-governmental organizations and institutions of the private sector and the civil society (Palgrave Key Concepts).
1-1-2- Definition of Good Governance:
After the World Bank’s use of this concept, many other national, regional, and international organizations started using this concept in their reports and studies, namely United Nations Development Program and the Asian 7
Development Bank. These are organizations that focus achieving certain goals like sustainable development in developing countries.
As it was stated in “Good Governance: An Overview” (IFAD, 1999), the concept of good governance has been undertaken by several regional and international organizations. GG was presented for the first time to the world in
World Bank‘s report of 1989. This report was about governance in Sub-Saharan
Africa. World Bank re-presented and defined good governance in its 1992 report
Governance and Development and defined it as “the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development” (qtd. 1).
World Bank set out three major points that are related to good governance’s definition: a) the form of the political system, b) the process by which authority is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development, and c) the capacity of government to design, formulate and implement policies and discharge functions (2).
The UNDP, in its 1997 policy document “Governance and Sustainable
Human Development,” set out the definition of governance as the following:
[It is] the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to
manage of a country’s affairs at all levels … Good governance has many
attributes. It is participatory, transparent and accountable. It is effective
in making the best use of resources and is equitable. And it promotes the
rule of law (2).
8
1-2: The Historical Background of Good Governance:
The emergence of good governance is due to political, economic and social reasons:
1-2-1 The Political Reasons:
The emergence of good governance is due to different political reasons mainly the lack of accountability and transparency and the absence of a strong women participation, especially in politics, mostly in the developing countries.
According to R. Mustafizur in his “Good Governance: A Conceptual Analysis”, the emergence of good governance is due to the failure of the state. It is clear that when the government is “unable to be responsive to the needs of the public” and fails to commit to its promises and reforms, especially in the developing countries where the state became the indirect basic achiever of the development, this leads to increased demands for more civil society and private sector involvement. (382-
383).
Globalization plays a great role in the emergence and spread of GG as a global concept through the globalization of democratic values and human rights and the increase of non-governmental organizations on both national and international levels. It also plays a great role in spreading new meanings for GG such are sustainable development and human rights and increasing international concern to develop effective mechanism to fight corruption (Belosif “Good
Governance”).
According to the policy document “Governance for Sustainable Human development” (UNDP, 1997), there are two basic points that challenged the state’s role: “citizens want increased accountability and responsiveness from 9 government, as well as greater decentralization” and ”global pressures from supranational and worldwide social and economic trends [that] are challenging the identity and nature of the state” (6).
1-2-2 The Economic Reasons:
The emergence of the need for good governance is due to economic reasons too. Mustafisur set out certain reasons that led to the emergence of GG. The reasons are: the globalization of the free market economy, individuality and neo–liberalism, and neo-classical schools based on Adam Smith’s theory the “invisible hand.”
Together, they stand for individual freedom and free market. The neo-classical school, particularly, believes that “government should not intervene in the market and the only way to encourage growth is to allow free trade and free market” (384).
This led to an urgent call for the participation of the private sector and the civil society in the development processes to reduce poverty and unemployment; in other words, improve their role in achieving sustainable development especially the role of private sector. The UNDP points out that the private sector wants a “more conducive market environment and a better balance between state and market.” It is clear that these points focus on the importance of reducing the role of the state and increasing and improving the role of the private sector.
1-2-3-The Social Reasons:
The emergence of good governance is caused by of social reasons as well.
Through goals of GG, we can extract the social reasons that led to its emergence.
These include: the spread of poverty which cause the collapse of living standards, oppression and disrespect of human rights, and the crises of the unemployment, especially in the developing countries. 10
1-3 The Components of Good Governance:
1-3-1-According to the UNDP:
The UNDP has stressed a number of elements that constitute good
governance:
Participation:
Participation means that all people have the right to have an opinion in
decision-making through elections or through involvement in the civil society’s
organizations (UNDP “Policy Document 1997” 5). Thus, good governance
focuses on the component of participation and considers it one of the most
important components that realizes and protects human rights, which is the ability
of people to participate in the decision-making process. More, participation requires
the engagement of all citizens, including the participation of the private sector and
the civil society through Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).
Transparency:
Transparency means the necessity to make the relationship between the public and state clear by the flow and access to governmental information which allows citizens to be aware of decisions and actions of their state’s management in different domains (UNDP “Policy Document 1997” 5). Transparency is very important because it works to minimize corruption and it contributes as a first step to improve governance because more transparency leads to increased accountability.
Also, it works to improve government performance because citizens are following the government’s management of their country. The USA, as an example, has 11 protected the right of citizens to access to governmental document through the
Freedom of Information act (FOI).
Accountability:
Accountability means that decision-makers are subject to questions from
public and these officials have to give answers and explanations. Accountability
aims to check the performance of governmental institutions so as to protect the
general public from bad exploitation and misconduct of power (5). It also
minimizes corruption. Accountability and transparency can be promoted by the
three following steps: 1) the rights of citizen access to information, 2) Citizen
participation in decision-making, and 3) citizen access to justice in environmental
matters (Morita Zaelke 17).
Rule of Law:
This means that all citizens are under the rule of law regardless of their
positions in society. This condition emphasizes on the protection of the public
interests and funds (UNDP 5). It relies on the principle of separation of political
powers between executive, legislative and judicial authorities and it focuses on
judiciary independence. When a person or a group is above rule of law, this
principle falls. For that, we can say that rule of law promotes the principle of
equality and justice.
Responsiveness:
Responsiveness means the government’s ability to respond to the needs of
citizens and to deliver services (5). The absence of government responsiveness was
one of the major political reasons that led to the emergence of good governance. 12
Effectiveness and Efficiency:
Effectiveness means the ability of governmental institutions in implementing laws and projects that are effective and responsive to the needs of the public. Efficiency refers to the perfect use of resources ( 5).
Equity:
Equity involves the need for equal opportunities among citizens in order to improve their status, including women and men (5).
Consensus-oriented:
Consensus is also an important feature of good governance. It means that the state and citizens have to agree about how to realize good governance; they should look for the best and general interests which have to be above the personal one (5).
Strategic Vision:
According to the UNDP, both “leaders and the public should have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and human development, together with a sense of what is needed for such development. There should also be an understanding of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded” (5). 13
Figure 01: the Components of good governance.
Source: UNESCAP.” What is Good Governance”. http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/good-governance.pdf.
1-3-2- According to the World Bank Group:
The World Bank has developed certain components of good governance.
Inclusiveness:
It is based on the principle of equality. In other terms, all individuals have the right to participate equally in the process of governance regardless of their status. Participation is through “voting, by contributing to consultations, or by overseeing local public service agencies” (W. B MENA Report 2003 3).
Accountability:
It is based on the accounting concept. Accountability needs transparency, because it includes the right to access to governmental information in order to be aware of the government management; this led to the ability of evaluation of government performance. In addition to transparency, accountability needs 14 contestability which refers to the ability to choose economic or political entities due to their performance (3).
Accountability has two types: internal and external.
Internal Accountability:
It is related to the control of the administrative institutions through the separation of powers and the different measures put by the government to control its agencies; in order to protect the public interest (28-29).
The External accountability:
It is about the government’s accountability from the people. Citizens have the right to question their government about its actions and decisions; the government’s duty is to give answers about its policy and actions (28-29).
Figure 02: Components of Good Governance according to the World Bank. Source: WBG. MENA Development Report: Better Governance to Development in the Middle East and North Africa: Enhancing Inclusiveness and Accountability. Washington, D.C, 2003.
15
1-4- The Measurable Bases of Good Governance:
The United Nations Development Program and The World Bank have developed certain measurable bases that consist of a group of indicators through which they can study regimes, identify weaknesses, and suggest solutions for them.
1-4-1-According to the UNDP:
Definition of Human Development:
Each year, from 1990 till 2013, UNDP made reports on different regions of the world and about different topics that are mostly related to human development and governance. The definition of human development has developed over these years. In 1990, human development was defined as the
“process of enlarging people’s choices;” (10). Yet, in 2009 it was defined it as
“the expansion of people’s freedoms to live their lives as they choose” (14).
The Dimensions of Human Development:
In addition to definitions, dimensions also developed each year but there are three dimensions that are mentioned in UNDP’s reports from 1990 to 2013; they are: “long healthy life, knowledge and resources for decent standard of life”
(UNDP 2013 HDr 147). They are basically focused on sustainable human development. Human Development Index includes certain dimensions. These dimensions gather certain measurements like: income, literacy, enrollment in schools and the expected average age at birth (HDr2002 34).
16
Dimensions of Human Sustainable Development:
The concept of good governance in the sustainable human development perspective is always related to the following indicators: first, empowerment. It means the expanse of citizen’s abilities and choices. Second, cooperation. It refers to social interaction that includes inclusiveness and belonging. Third, equity. It includes delivering opportunities, income and possibilities equaly. Fourth, sustainability. It means the government ability to response for the needs of present generations without a negative influence on the life of the next generations.
Finally, security. It means that citizens have the right to live safely without threats. (UNDP “Governance for Sustainable Human Development” 4).
UNDP’s Human Development Indexes and indicators:
UNDP had adopted other angles that are related to human development, and they are: In its 1995 report, the GII. i.e. gender inequality indicator which includes: first, Gender Development Index (GDI), it measures the inequality between men and women. (UNDP HDr 2010 17). Second, Gender Empowerment
Measure. It reveals weather women have an effective participation in political and economic life like: percentage of women participation in parliament. (UNDP 2015 report 31); also, the difference in the earned income between men and women.
Human Poverty Index. It stated in 1997policy document, this index focused on life conditions, poverty and income. (UNDP 5). In 2002 HDr, UNDP included other indicators like Freedom Index which included: First, political liberties. They include citizens’ choice of their leaders, and the ability to control authorities. Second, economic facilities. Third, social opportunities. They refer to education, individual freedom and health care. Fourth, guarantees of transparency. 17
It protects the social interaction among individuals. Finally, protective security. It provides social security for weak groups in society. (19).
1-4-2- According to the World Bank:
The measurable bases of the World Bank have been proposed in MENA
Development Report 2003 and Policy Research Working Paper entitled ” The
Worldwide Governance Indicators: Methodology and Analytical Issues in 2010”.
The Measurable Bases in MENA Development Report 2003:
In MENA Development Report 2003, the World Bank identified a group of indicators to measure the management of state affairs, and they are two elements.
First, the “index of the quality of administration in the public sector. [it] measures the efficiency of the bureaucracy, the rule of law, the protection of property rights, the level of corruption, the quality of regulations, and the mechanisms of internal accountability” (6). Second, “the index of public accountability measures the openness of political institutions and participation, respect of civil liberties, transparency of government, and freedom of the press”.(7).
The Measurable Bases in Policy Research Working Paper:
But in its Policy Research Working Paper” The Worldwide Governance
Indicators: Methodology and Analytical Issues in 2010”; in addition to,
“Governance Matters 2009: Release of Worldwide Governance Indicators 1996-
2008”, World Bank; in addition to, Development Research Group and
Macroeconomics and Growth Team have developed worldwide governance indicators which measure the governmental performance. 18
These indicators measure six dimensions of governance, and these dimensions include in three major points. First point is the process by which the governments are picked, controlled and changed. Second, the government ability to design sound policies and implemented them effectively. Third one is respect for institutions that govern social and economic interactions by state and citizens
(World Bank “Worldwide Governance Indicators” 4).
The six dimensions of governance are as the following:
1. Voice and Accountability indicates “the extent to which a country's
citizens are able to participate in selecting their government, as well as
freedom of expression, association, and the press” (W B “Governance
Matters” 1).
2. Political Stability and Absence of Violence refers to the likelihood that the
government will be destabilized by unconstitutional or violent means,
including terrorism (1)
3. Government Effectiveness is “capturing perceptions of the quality of
public services, the quality of the civil service and the degree of its
independence from political pressures, the quality of policy formulation
and implementation, and the credibility of the government's commitment
to such policies” ( W B “WGI” 4).
4. Regulatory Quality stresses the ability of the government to provide sound
policies and regulations to promote the development of private sector.
5. Rule of Law indicates extent to which agents have confidence in and abide
by the rules of society, including the quality of property rights, the police,
and the courts, as well as the risk of crime, 19
6. Finally, control of corruption which refers to the extent to which public
power is exercised for private gain, including both petty and grand forms
of corruption, as well as elite ‘capture’ of the state (WB “Governance
Matters 2009” 2).
1-5-Dimensions of Good Governance:
The management of the state and society through the concept of good governance includes certain dimensions that are interrelated and connected to each other. First, the political dimension stands on the basic role the state must play in achieving political democracy, in respecting human rights, in strengthening state law and activating political participation. Second, the administrative dimension appears through the rational, transparent and equitable management of society’s financial and human resources as an attention to eliminate all kinds of administrative corruption. Third, the economic one relates to the positive and effective role of government through providing support to the private sector, and activating the civil society through opening ways for its organizations to contribute in the development of the society.
1-6- The Actors of Good Governance:
From the discussion above, it is clear that good governance can be achieved only through concerted efforts of each of its actors and through an effective integrated relationship of the state (government), private sector and civil society. The UNDP’s 1997 policy document in discusses the actors of good governance:
1-6-1- The state: 20
The state is a group of political institutions that serve the public interest. It
has certain functions such as exercising power and control, holding responsibility
of public service, and creating suitable environment for sustainable human
development by putting legal and stable frameworks which have to be effective
and fair to the public. More, one of its goals is to open opportunities to the public
to achieve and sustain their ambitions. Furthermore, the state institutions must
provide people with equal opportunities and the right to access to governmental
information. For the sake of sustainable development, the government must
facilitate the economic atmosphere for the private sector and improve the
involvement of the civil society (UNDP “Governance for Sustainable
Development” 6).
1-6-2-The Private Sector:
The state is not the only part in realizing a sustainable development because the private sector is also considered as the basic source of producing employment. It is a number of private projects in different domains. The private sector plays a great role as a key partner. In addition to that, it can secure jobs and fight unemployment which is a key element of poverty causes (6-7).
1-6-3-The Civil Society:
The civil society is situated between the state and citizens (Roy 1). It is
the domain of volunteer work including associations and non-governmental
organizations that help to serve people’s needs. The civil society has became an
active partner in good governance because it focuses on the development of
society by offering several services; so it contributes to human development in
particular and in sustainable development in general (Ghaus-Pasha 2-3). The 21 civil society can be presented by several associations and organizations such as : religious associations, women’s and youth organizations, and consumer organizations (Kironde 2).
1-7- Good Governance in Islam: A Mémoire Approach:
The concept of good governance is not new. The UNDP and the World
Bank, in addition to other regional and international organizations, have tackled this concept in the beginning of the nineties. Yet, in history certain examples of good governance existed. The major and most significant example is the Islamic civilization; Islam includes components of good governance. In Islam, the caliphs worked for its development and the result was a great civilization which raised the level of humanity to the highest levels in the different domains.
The Holy Quran and the Prophet’s Sunnah are the basic and main sources of laws and rules in Islam. They focus on different domains such as politics. Both the Holy Quran and Sunnah contain values and principles to control the behavior of people and preserve their rights and ensure the practice of their duties. Two of the most memorable Muslim figures are the caliphs Abu Baker, who was known as “Siddiq,” and Omar Ben El-Khattab. The latter was named El-Farouk because he has distinguished between right and wrong in governing people and state management. Their ruling periods were characterized by adalah ( justice), shura
(consultation or consensus), and amana ( trust) and Al-moussawat (equality). in addition to other characteristics like responsibility. All these characteristics refer to good governance. Hence, in Islam, good governance appeared along with the 22 first caliph Abu Baker who had succeeded to the prophet Mohamed peace be upon him, he said:
I have been given authority over you although I am not the best of
you. If I do well, help me; and if I do wrong, set me right. Loyalty
is to tell the truth to a leader; treason is to hide it. The weak among
you will be powerful in my eyes until I secure his rights, if Allah so
wills. The strong among you shall be weak in my eyes until I get
the right from him. If people do not follow in the way of Allah, He
will disgrace them. Obey me as long as I obey Allah and his
Prophet, and if I disobey them, you owe me no obedience (qtd. Al-
Ahsan and Young 19).
In addition to this, there are certain points that encourage and refer to the rule of law, the participation and protection of citizens’ rights, and the prevention of power misuse and spread of corruption. Also, the people have the right of accountability; they have the right to decide either to deposit their leader or keep him in office for the protection of the state and their rights.
1-7-1: Components of Good Governance in Islam:
Adalah (justice) and Moussawat (equality):
Justice is considered to be the most important basis of the Islamic political system. The Holy Quran said in Surah Al-nissaa, Verse: 58 that Allah commands people to rule and judge by justice.
Allah commands justice even with the violators and opponents as it was stated in Surah Al-Maida, verse: 08: Allah made injustice and oppression two of 23 the vilest deeds that meet with the hardest punishment as well as in Surah
Ibrahim, verse: 42 and surah Al-Shurah, verse: 42: There exists no justice without equality. Islam stated that brotherhood and equality are general and are not specified to a certain race or sex; i.e.: equality in Islam is guaranteed for all regardless of the differences of race, color, culture, language or wealth.
In Islam, the experience of equality was through principle and application; and this is the reason that has led to the successful spread of Islam all over the world. As a good example for equality in Islam, the companions of the Prophet
Mohammed, peace be upon him, have different backgrounds and origins other than Arabian, namely Bilal, the Mua’thin. He was from Al-Habasha (Ethiopia) and used to be a slave for one of the Arab lords of Quraish. In addition to him, there were other companions such as Salman Al-Farissi who was from Persia and
Suhaib Al-Roumi who was from Rome.
The basis of equality in the Holy Quran is stated in surah Al-Hojourat, verse: 13. The meaning of this verse is that Allah created people in different nations and tribes not to fight but to meet and exchange ideas and benefits for corporation and solidarity. Also, no nation or tribe is better than the others due to its background or wealth because the prophet Mohammed said in one of his
Hadith that there is no difference between Arab and other races but piety; more, he symbolized people as dental comb, i.e.: all people are similar to each other, no one has any privileges than the others.
Equality in Islam is a broad topic because it has different branches like equality before law, equality before judiciary. In equality before law, there is no permission to intercession for the offenders. In other terms, the application of law 24 accepts no exceptions; everyone is equal no matter if the offender is a woman or a man. In speaking of equality before law, the best proof is the saying of our
Prophet Mohammed (pbuh), about intercession. He said that if his daughter
Fatima steals, he would apply the same punishment on her by cutting her hand.
Al-Shura (consultation):
Another characteristic that assures the Islamic roots to GG is Al-Shura.
The system of rule must be based on shura in addition to adalah. Whenever the basis of shura is broader, the rule will be fairest, as it was stated in Surah Al-
Omran, verse: 159. Also, in the Holy Quran Surah Al-Shura, verse: 36-38, the principle of shura is generalized and broadened to all Muslims.
Amana (Trust):
In addition to these four components of good governance in Islam, there are also other important characteristics like amana. Amana (trust) is an important feature of dealing between people. Allah commands people to deal with each other with transparency, honesty and righteousness. As it is revealed in the Holy
Quran, Surah Al-Nissaa, verse: 58, Allah commands us to give people their rights, i.e.: it is forbidden to take something that does not belong to you. This Islamic component of good governance prevents bribery and stealing. In general, it prevents the misuse of power and the spread of corruption.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, after discussing the concept of good governance in its theoretical level, the researcher has come to the following points: good 25 governance is a number of processes in the practice of social, economic and political authorities within a state that relies on specific components: transparency, rule of law, accountability, participation, equity, effectiveness and inclusiveness. It also focuses on certain goals like respect human rights, increasing role of the private sector and the civil society, and good and effective conduct of human and financial resources in achieving development. In addition, it stressed the importance of the indicators that control and keep governance performance away from being bad one. Bad governance is the antithesis of good governance as it destroys societies at all levels. This is particularly the case of the
Arab countries. Although this Mémoire targets good governance in Algeria, at this point it moves to clarify the position of the Arab World vis-à-vis this important issue so as to provide a framework for the advent of good governance to
Algeria.
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Chapter II
Good Governance and the Arab World:
Introduction:
The Arab world consists of twenty-two countries. The MENA (Middle
East and North Africa) region is the term which is used mostly in the international organizations’ reports. The Arab world, as many of the other regions of the world, is interested in adopting good governance because of its importance in achieving sustainable development in different domains and fighting corruption and enhancing the rule of law.
The MENA region has witnessed in the last four years revolutions that have brought about significant political changes in the Arab political history.
Basically, these revolutions were a result of and a reaction to the authoritarian rule that characterizes the region. Tunisia is considered to be the birth place of the so- called Arab Spring which took place in December 2010; demonstrations and protests spread then into the other Arab countries like Egypt, Libya, and Yemen.
The major problem that led to the failure of the previous Arab regimes was authoritarianism in addition to other issues like corruption and the weakness of democracy. It is obvious that the Arab world suffers from many problems either in politics, economy or society. GG is the only way to improve governance and development in MENA region. 27
The Arab World shares in some political characteristics but differs in others. Concerning the differences, the Arab World can be divided into two types of governments: monarchies and the republics. The Arab states need to undertake reforms and follow effective steps to promote good governance to achieve development and political stability.
2-1 The Political Characteristics of the Arab World:
The Arab states have similar and different political characteristics:
2-1-1: The Similar Political Characteristics:
The countries of the Arab region share some political characteristics, mainly shortages of political liberties and rights. Politically speaking, the Arab states are not doing well if one compares it to the other regions of the world. The
UNDP’s AHDr 2002 and AHDr 2003 (Arab Human Development Report) analyses reveal that citizens of the Arab states do not have a strong liberty in political life. From a score of 0.0 - 1.0, UNDP’s figures for the year 1998-1999 indicate that the average value of freedom scores in the Arab countries is the lowest in the world with approximately 0.2 while the other regions scored 0.4 to
1.0 (27). The UNDP in its AHDr 2002 stated clearly that “the region is tied up with three deficits”; one of them is the deficit of freedom (27).
More, the UNDP’s AHDr 2004 stated that Arab region citizens do not enjoy high level of freedom in practicing freedoms like freedom of opinion and freedom of expression, and freedom of press. More, journalists, the press and the media in general have suffered from authorities’ oppression (84). 28
In the reports of Freedom House, an American non-governmental organization (NGO) which writes reports on different regions and countries, the
Arab region scored the lowest level in voice and accountability. In 1996, the region scored 30/100; in 2012, the level of voice and accountability decreased by five degrees to 25/100 (Freedom House).
Freedom House classifies freedom according to three major categories which are free, partly free, and not free. “A ‘free’ country is one where there is open political competition, a climate of respect for civil liberties, and independent media. A ‘partly free’ country is one in which there is limited respect for political rights and civil liberties, corruption, and weak rule of law. A ‘not free’ country is one where basic political rights are absent and basic civil liberties are widely and systematically denied” (Freedom House Freedom in the World 2011 3). In the
Freedom House report: Freedom in the World 2014: The Democratic Leadership
Gap, the status of countries in the Arab region are as the following: 6% are free,
28% are partly free, and 66% are not free. These percentages are equivalent to 1 country is free, 5 countries are partly free and 12 countries are not free.
These statistics indicate that, generally, Arab people do not enjoy their full political rights and civil liberties. More, they suffer from their governments’ oppression concerning their voice in the political life. Furthermore, by relying on the Freedom House statistics, one can argue that the MENA region is in need to improve its freedom status, political rights and civil liberties. In addition, MENA has to find solutions concerning the exclusion of minorities in general and of women in particular.
29
2-1-2 The Different Political Characteristics of the Arab States:
The major political difference between the Arab states is in governance type which includes two types of rule: monarchical rule and the republican rule.
The Monarchy Rule:
Monarchies exist in eight Arab countries: Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Jordan,
Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates. These countries are ruled by kings and princes who inherited rule from their families (Nolting 9-10).
The Republican Rule:
Republican rule exists in twelve Arab countries: Algeria, Tunisia, Libya,
Sudan, Egypt, Yemen, Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Mauritania, Somalia, and the Western Sahara. In these countries, however, the political process is dominated by governments issued from nationalist parties or revolutionary movements” (10).
The MENA region has experienced in its history many difficulties and issues in politics especially in recent years. These political issues have damaged the stability of the Arab countries. The political issues in the MENA region are many; yet, the major ones which led to state instability are corruption and authoritarianism.
2-2- Political Issues in the Arab World:
Corruption is of different types and occurs because of different causes but consequences are always negative on societies and countries. Corruption is defined as a group of features that refer to misconduct in the state management. 30
As it was stated in “Corruption around the World: Causes, consequences, Scope, and Cures,” this global phenomenon has not appeared lately (Vito Tanzi May 4).
According to the World Bank, “corruption is the abuse of power for private benefit” [which] has affected negatively investment and development of societies and countries (qtd. 8). For Transparency International, and NGO that fights corruption, “corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain.”
Corruption is an old and global phenomenon spread all over the world, not in specific countries. The issue of corruption is not new; it is probably as old as the state and any political organization with the prerogative to allocate resources
(Hawthorne 2). Corruption can be social, economic and political. Political corruption is defined as “any transaction between private and public sector actors through which collective goods are illegitimately converted into private-regarding payoffs” (Amundsen 3). It has negative influence on societies in different domains. Types of corruption are several, yet the widely-spread ones are bribery and misappropriation or stealing.
2-2-1 Corruption in MENA:
Corruption is a serious problem that affects the MENA region. Through the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), Transparency International (TI) writes reports on corruption around the world. The CPI ranks 178 countries according to their situation of corruption, mainly administrative and political corruption
(Transparency International). The reports show that in the MENA countries corruption is a serious problem and governments should move rapidly to find the necessary solutions to minimize it.
31
Figure 03: Corruption in the World in 2013. Source: Transparency International. http://www.transparency.org/country.
In the Corruption Perceptions Index 2013, the Middle East and North
Africa region, 84% of countries score a percentage below 50%; at the top of this group is United Arab Emirates and at the bottom is Sudan. The figure below shows corruption in MENA compared to one of the less corrupted countries in the world, Norway.
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Figure 04: Corruption in Arab Countries (MENA ). Source: Transparency International. 2-2-2 Authoritarianism in the Arab World:
Authoritarianism is another serious issue in the MENA region in addition to corruption. Authoritarianism reduces the public participation in the decision- making process. So before going deeply in authoritarianism as a political issue in the Arab world, the coming section provides a brief definitions and explanations on the most known types of governments.
Definition of Authoritarianism:
There are certain types of governments; authoritarianism is one of these types—in addition to totalitarianism and dictatorship. Authoritarian rule is considered to be non-democratic (Kristović 68). According to the Oxford
Dictionary of Politics, authoritarianism is “a style of government in which the rulers demand unquestioning obedience from the ruled. Traditionally,
‘authoritarians’ have argued for a high degree of determination by governments of belief and behavior and a correspondingly smaller significance for individual choice.”
One of the main characteristics of authoritarian rule is the exclusion of public participation and opinion from political life. In other words, it requires absolute obedience to the ruling authority and to its decisions. This type of government has certain forms. These forms are: personal despotism, monarchy, ruling parties, ruling presidents, military rule, theocracy, competitive authoritarian regimes (Authoritarian Rule 58). The table below identifies and defines the different forms of authoritarian rule: 33
Forms Definition Examples
Personal A single individual owing allegiance to Dominican Republic, Despotism no institution rules though fear and Haiti rewards, relying on a personal security force to maintain power. Monarchy A ruling sovereign emerges from the The Gulf States: Bahrain, royal family with other family members Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, in key political and military posts. Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates Ruling Rule by a single party, often combined Communist states. Many Parties with a strong president. African states in the decades after independence. Ruling A president dominates politics and the Uzbekistan Presidents media, keeping opponents off-guard and the opposition marginalized. Power may rest with the individual leader but is still exercised through the presidency. Military Rule Government by the military, often Many Africa, Asian and ruling through a junta comprising the Latin American countries leader of each branch of the forces. in the decades following World War II Theocracy A rare form of rule in which religious Iran leaders rule directly Competitive Is probably the most common current Authoritarian form of non-democratic governance. It Regimes, is an authoritarian format mixed with democratic elements
Figure 05: Forms of Authoritarian Rule.
Source: Authoritarian Rule. http://www.palgrave.com/politics/hague/about/Ch04.pdf
Authoritarianism in the Arab World:
Authoritarianism is a political issue in the Arab world. Certain Arab
countries worked as a perfect example for such regime type and its forms, mainly
Algeria, Egypt, Tunisia, Iraq, Libya, and Syria. In the Arab world, 34 authoritarianism does not take one form. According to Heydemann, there is a
“hybrid form of authoritarianism” (3). This hybrid form includes monarchy, ruling presidents, and ruling parties. In monarchy, as mentioned before, the rule is inherited by a royal family. The example for this form of authoritarianism in the
Arab world is the Gulf countries. The Monarchical Gulf states are Bahrain, Qatar,
Oman, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait. In the ruling president form, authority and power is held by a president. The best example for this form of authoritarianism in the Arab world is Iraq and its ruling president. In the ruling parties form, a country is ruled by one single party. After independence, Algeria had been ruled under this form of the authoritarian rule. FLN was Algeria’s single political party.
In 1989, however, a multi-party system was introduced. The prominent parties in
Algeria are the FLN and the RND.
2-3 Promoting Good Governance in the Arab World:
As certain regions in the world, MENA region has political deficits. Issues of the Arab world are several but the most prominent ones are corruption and authoritarianism. These two issues have left and done a lot of problems to Arab societies. To overcome obstacles and transform to better governance, certain international organizations, mainly: the World Bank and UNDP, have developed strategies and ways for the MENA region. In addition, the USA provides assistance.
2- 3-1 The Role of International Organizations
The role of the World Bank:
The World Bank MENA Development Report 2003: Better Governance for
Development in the Middle East and North Africa: Enhancing Inclusiveness and 35
Accountability discusses solutions for the issues that are related with governance in the region. The World Bank gives some solutions consisting of strategies and ways to enhance governance in MENA.
The World Bank’s five pathways to better governance for the MENA region are: enhanced inclusiveness, national actions to strengthen external accountabilities, national checks and balances to strengthen internal accountabilities, local actions to strengthen external accountability and administrative and internal accountability measures. The last four pathways are all intended for gaining a stronger accountability (177). The five pathways are discussed below:
Enhanced inclusiveness can be realized through two fundamental steps:
The first one is about making laws to protect the equal rights and freedoms that the citizens must enjoy (156). The second fundamental step is to control laws to assure that equal participation and equal treatment are respected by the public agencies (156).
The second pathway is national actions to improve external accountability.
The World Bank argues that the MENA region has to cover its governance gap by taking steps towards improving external accountability (158). To minimize the governance gap between MENA and the world, five steps are necessary: greater public disclosure, freedom of information, public debate, open, fair and regular elections, civil-society advocacy and participation, better monitoring and data on the quality of governance, and independent responsible media (158-159).
The third pathway is national checks and balances to strengthen internal accountabilities. Checks and balances means the separation of power in branches 36 of government: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the juridical one.
Each branch checks the other branches’ decisions and actions mainly to avoid misconduct of power by the officials. The MENA countries do not have a strong independent judiciary as well as separation of power. Yet, they should work to achieve these steps to promote good governance through three points: stronger parliament, more independent judiciary, and empowerment of other independent oversight agencies (167-168).
The fourth pathway is local actions to improve external accountability.
This pathway depends on citizens’ participation. This can be realized through three steps. First, increased competition among public service agencies; second, stronger local governments which work as a tool to enhance accountability and keep the public closer to their leaders; third, more active role for community empowerment associations. The civil society and other associations have to be stronger and have a high level of offering and delivering services (165-166).
The last pathway is administrative measures to improve internal accountability. This pathway has four steps. The first step is public expenditure management which is generally about the government performance in management (168-169). Second, civil service reform aims at “ensuring faithful implementation of policies and for treating all citizens fairly and competently”
(170). Third, deconcentration aims at bring users closer to government (171).
(171). The last step is ethics of the public service. This step is required in both civil society organizations as well as the government; they need to work by ethics in delivering public services (172).
37
The Role of the UNDP:
As the World Bank, the UNDP wrote reports on the MENA region. Those include two major interests which are: human development and good governance.
In the 2002 Arab Human Development report (AHDr ) entitled: Creating
Opportunities for Future Generations, The UNDP stated out that the MENA region has three deficits: the freedom deficit, the women’s empowerment deficit and the human capabilities/knowledge deficit (UNDP AHDr 2002 27).
For the UNDP, the pathways for getting good governance are: reforming state institutions, liberating capabilities through voice and participation, and reinvigorating civil action. Reforming state institutions involves “improving political representation, civil-service capacity and the rule of law” (114). This step can be achieved through certain points such as representation and legislation, public administration and services and the rule of law and the judiciary. The second step is liberating capabilities through voice and participation, which are very important components of good governance. The last step is reinvigorating civil action. There are two fundamental points (117). “First, legal and administrative obstacles hampering the establishment and effective functioning of civil-society institutions need to be removed. Second, civil associations themselves need to be transformed into a widespread popular movement, undertaking sustainable collective action” (117). In other terms, MENA has to reinforce the engagement of civil society organizations and assure an appropriate environment for the civil associations.
38
2-3-2: The Role of USA:
Another source of aid in promoting good governance in MENA is the
United States of America. USA wrote global reports in the years 2012, 2013, and 2014 entitled: Congressional Budget Justification Foreign Operations
Annex: Regional Perspectives tackling different issues and progresses. In its three reports, USA emphasizes on its commitment to help the MENA region through providing assistance to achieve development and progress in different domains, mainly politics and economy.
Through bilateral assistance and regional programs, the United
States will support institutional reforms that strengthen the rule of
law, combat corruption, improve performance of government
institutions, and expand opportunities for effective public
participation in the political process. Utilizing bilateral and regional
tools, the United States will work with and help build the capacity
of civil society organizations to promote democratic, economic,
and educational reform, and fully to empower women and youth.
The United States promotes civil liberties and human rights,
including workers’ rights (Department of State, Congressional
Budget Justification, 2014 428).
In Governing Justly and Democratically, the USA offered MENA financial assistance as the following: 495,137 Thousands Dollar in 2012 and
421,976 Thousands Dollar in 2013. This assistance is to help MENA region in enhancing and improving the rule of law and human rights, good governance, 39 political competition and consensus, building civil society ( Fiscal Year 2012
502). It should be noted that this financial assistance is of little help.
Conclusion:
MENA, as many other regions, has to adopt and works to improve good governance. Good governance is the solution for MENA to overcome its problems. The MENA countries’ rule, although different in form, is characterized by limited political rights and civil freedoms. All countries of MENA suffer from corruption and authoritarianism. These issues are the motivating causes for most of the Arab countries upraising. According to international organizations such as the World Bank and UNDP, good governance is the solution. They have suggested pathways to move the region to better governance. In addition, in the recent years, USA offered financial assistance to promote good governance, enhance rule of law and reinforce civil society participation. Hence, the MENA region is in need to reach good governance or at least one of its components to achieve and realize sustainable development and political stability. In this context, the case of Algeria needs to be investigated more closely.
40
Chapter III
Algeria and Good Governance, 1996-2005
Introduction:
Good governance is an important issue and it could be the best way to manage a country’s different affairs. It fights corruption, enhances rule of law, protects human rights, and leads to sustainable development in societies. For that, many countries have adopted good governance. Algeria is one of these countries.
The Algerian government has given priority to good governance and has done efforts to reach good governance or one of its components. Hence, the emergence of good governance in Algeria is due to certain political, economic and social reasons. More, after the adoption of good governance, Algeria has done efforts to realize it. The Algerian experience can be studied and analyzed through the World
Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators during the period 1996-2005.
Different international organizations have written about governance performance and development in MENA, generally, and Algeria, particularly. The
World Bank, for example, has developed indicators which are used in studying governance all over the world. One of these indicators is the Worldwide
Governance Indicators (WGI). These indicators can give a general look on a country‘s governance. This could be done mainly through six indicators which are: political stability, absence of violence, government effectiveness, regulatory 41 quality, rule of law, and control of corruption. These indicators are useful, because people can see and know how their governments perform and what rank does their countries score on the international scale.
3-1: The Reasons for the Emergence of Good Governance in Algeria:
The emergence of good governance in Algeria is due to different political, economic, and social reasons.
3-1-1: The Political Reasons:
In general, and based on definitions previously discussed, Algerian form of government is characterized by authoritarianism. This is due to a number of political reasons. First, political analysts and scientists consider that Algerian rule has been dominated by a strong military influence since independence
(Authoritarian Rule 60). Second, at the political level, the Algerian leaders holding office showed many weaknesses. The lack of certain values such as the rule of law and public participation place Algeria among the lesser democracy countries in the world. Third, Algeria witnesses crises of political participation.
Those include the exclusion of civil society’s organizations and the marginalization of the opposition political parties (Authoritarian Rule 61).
3-1-2: The Economic and Social Reasons:
The emergence of good governance in Algeria is also due to different economic and social reasons. Unemployment and poverty are widespread and corruption, particularly, has spread in the Algerian society. It takes different forms; most common among them is bribery and the illegal appropriation of public resources for personal gain. There are many cases of corruption in Algeria; 42 as an example is Khalifa Bank case. According to some observers, the bank caused “the scandal of the century” with theft estimated at 87 billion Dinars ($ 1.2 billion) (Azaroal 114). In Transparency International’s classification Corruption
Perceptions Index 2013, Algeria ranks 94/175 countries far behind Morocco which ranked 37 and Tunisia which ranked 41. This means that Algeria is suffering from extraordinary corruption and has to introduce reforms quickly to fight this trend.
Speaking about corruption in Algeria, the Algerian President Abdelaziz
Boutaflika stated clearly in his speech in 19 May 1999:
The state is sick diseased, it is sick in management, sick with the
practice of favoritism, sick of nepotism, and abuse of power and
influence, and the useless of appeals and grievances, sick with
privileges that are not under any kind of control and accountability,
sick with wasting public resources and looting without a deterrent
neither by word nor by action. These acts weakened the civil spirit of
individuals and groups, took away competencies and people of
conscience and integrity and prevented them from contributing to the
management public affairs, and tarnished the concept of the state and
the objective of public services… ( qtd. Inzarn 7).
3-2: The Efforts of Algeria after Adopting the Concept of Good
Governance:
The different reasons and circumstances that faced the Algerian society, economy, and politics pushed Algeria to rethinking about new reforms to realize good governance. As a result, the Algerian Constitution was amended; in 1996, a 43 whole chapter was introduced. The Constitution recognizes and protects human rights, especially the political ones, as it is stated in articles 41, 42 and 43. These articles state different political freedoms and civil rights such as freedom of opinion, freedom of assembly, and right to form associations and political parties
(Algerian Constitution).
The Algerian government also attempts to promote democracy. This attempt came to be official when Algeria drafted the first constitution that moved the country towards the multi-party system rather than the single party rule (Yale
Univ 1).
President Bouteflika insisted on fighting corruption in his speech at the opening of the ninth session of the African Partnership Forum by saying:
The fight against corruption and bribery has become one of our main
concerns. In our continent, more than the others, bribery and
corruption resulted in disastrous consequences on economic and social
development, and cutting out corruption requires effective
mobilization and active commitment of the African countries as a
whole (qtd. Hussein 79).
According to researcher Hussein Abd-el-Kader in his dissertation Good
Governance in Algeria and Problematic Local Development (2012), fighting corruption became one of the major priorities of Algeria (79). For that Algeria looked for the most successful solutions to put an end to this serious phenomenon.
At the African level, Algeria contributed to the establishment of the New
Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in July 2002. This organism 44 developed mechanisms that make periodic evaluation for African countries in the field of good governance and reforms.
Algeria played a leading role in the establishment of NEPAD. In the special session summit of the African Union Organization (AUO) held in Sirte,
Libya on September 1999, Algeria introduced the idea of a new partnership among the African states for the purpose of promoting development. A conference of African Ministers of Finance and Ministers of Development and Planning was held at Algiers in May 2001 for further coordination. In July 2001, the initiative was adopted at the African summit conference in Lusaka, Zambia under the name of the New African Initiative (NAI). The presidential committee for the implementation of this initiative consisted of 15 heads of African states and governments; prominent among them was President Bouteflika. The announcement of the final version of the committee was made at Abuja, Nigeria in October 2001 under the name of the official name of the New Partnership for
Africa's Development (79-80).
Some of the goals of NEPAD include: provide security and peace in
Africa, support democratic values and promote good governance, drive economic growth and development through the promotion of trade and investment, improve the level of knowledge and education and the introduction of a system of information, and finally, optimal and rational exploitation of natural and human resources ( 80-81).
45
3-3: The Algerian Experience of Good Governance:
In studying the Algerian experience requires the use of the World Bank’s measurable bases, particularly the Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI).
In the World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, WGI measures governance performance through six steps:
1) voice and accountability: this step indicates the aspects that are
related to the political freedoms and the participation of woman;
2) political stability and absence of violence;
3) governance effectiveness: this step points to improvement in the
quality of public services and the quality of civil services;
4) regulatory quality: this step relies on the government’s ability to
formulate and implement policies and the formulation of
regulations that promote GG;
5) rule of law;
6) Finally, control of corruption (Kaufmann et al WGI 4).
3-3-1: Voice and Accountability:
As mentioned above, this indicator suggests a group of democratic values.
Algeria tried to deal with these characteristics. This is illustrated through the transformation that touched the Algerian political system mainly in the constitution of 1989. In this constitution, Algeria had moved from a single party system to a multiparty system. Thus, Algeria moved a step to improve democracy.
Concerning woman participation, Algeria has done important efforts to improve women’s situation by securing them rights in different domains, such as 46 politics, economy and society, and minimizing their exclusion and marginalization. According to Azaroal Youcef, in his master dissertation Good
Governance between the Theoretical Basis and Mechanisms of the Application in the Study of the Algerian Experience Reality (2009), Algerian women have improved their conditions and have occupied all fields: health, education, judiciary and even the military field. According to statistical data for the year
2004, women represent a ratio of 69% of pharmacists, 64% of dentists, 53% of medical professions, 55% of journalists, 54% of secondary and university education, 45% of professors of medicine, and 35% of judges. (126).
In political the sphere, the situation of women participation improved.
Algerian women have occupied important offices like Khalida Toumi, the minister of Culture, and Louisa Hanoune, head of the Labour Party. Yet, Azaroal adds that the participation of women in the political life is weak when compared to participation in other domains. According to him, the participation of women in parliament is weak. In the National People’s Assembly (APN) during the period
1997-2002, there were only 13 women representatives while men numbered 376 representatives from the total number of 389 deputies. In the period 2002-2007, however, the number increased to 27 deputies. These statistics are equivalent to
3.34% of women in the first period and 6.94% in the second one. In the upper house of the Algerian Parliament, the National Council, during the period 1998-
2001, women held five seats while men occupied 139 of the total 144 seats. The number, however, decreased in the periods 2001-2004 and 2004-2007 with women holding four seats while men holding 140 seats of the total 144 seats.
These statistics are equivalent to 3.47% of women in the first period and 2.78% in the second and the third one (162-127). 47
National People’s Assembly (APN)
Legislatures 1997/2002 2002/2007 Men – Deputies 376 362 Women – deputies 13 27 Seats 389 389 Percentage of 3.34% 6.94% women deputies
Figure 06: Representation of Women and Men in National People's Assembly.
Source: Youcef Azaroal. Good Governance Between The Theoretical Basis And Mechanisms Of The Application In The Study Of The Algerian Experience Reality. Diss. Batna, Univ, 2009.
National Council (NAC)
legislatures 1998-2001 2001-2004 2004-2007 Men - 139 140 140 Deputies Women - 5 4 4 deputies seats 144 144 144 Percentage 3.47% 2.78% 2.78% of women deputies
Figure 07: Representation of Men and Women in Nation Council (NAC). Source: Azaroal. Good Governance, 2009.
As these previous tables show, even though Algeria has improved women’s situation in society, yet Algerian women are still witnessing political exclusion.
The Algerian constitution of 1996 stated clearly political freedoms and civil rights in several articles as it was mentioned above. Yet, the Freedom House 48 reports revealed the opposite. Algeria is considered to be a not free county in the recent report of 2014 by scoring 6 or 7. It should be noted that countries that score
1 are considered to be free, those which score 6 or 7 are considered to be not free and those which score 3 or 4 are considered to be partly free (Freedom House,
The Democratic Leadership Gap 18).
3-3-2: Political Stability and Absence of Violence:
Algeria has witnessed a long deep crisis in the period 1990-1999. This period characterized by different political events like the resignation of President
Chadli Ben Jadid in January 1992. After Chadli’s resignation, Liamine Zeroual became President. He tried to restore political stability by calling for a National
Accord meeting December 14 and 15, 1994. The meeting agreed on amending the Constitution as a step to solve the country’s problems and to avoid crises like that of 1992. Some of these amendments were related to the enforcement of the rule of law and the promotion of democracy (Azaroal 144-145).
During the presidency period, president Zeroual attempted to achieve peace and stability in Algeria. But because of the non – security conditions and terrorism, he resigned in September 1998 (146). After Zeroual’s resignation in
1998, Abdelaziz Bouteflika was elected as president of Algeria in April 1999. He became president by an overwhelming majority of 73.79% because the other six candidates withdraw a day before the election. Bouteflika decided to continue where Zeroual has stopped by introducing a Civil Harmony Law (wifaq watani) to achieve national unity and to enhance social circumstances (147-148).
49
Candidate Number of votes Ratio
Abdelaziz 7442139 73.79 Boutaflika Ahmed Taleb El- 1264094 12.23 Ebrahimi Abdullah Djaballah 398416 3.95 Hocine Ait Ahmed 319523 3.17 Mouloud 311908 3.09 Hamrouch Mokdad Sifi 226371 2.24 Youcef El-Khatib 122826 1.22
Figure 08: Presidential Election Results for the Year 1999. Source: Azaroal, Good Governance, 2009.
3-3-3: Governance Effectiveness:
Through governance effectiveness indicators we can see the ability of the
government performance of providing public services to citizens. The Human
Development Index in Algeria has progressed in many fields, particularly, the
level of employment, education, demographic, and health status.
The following table deals with governance performance in human
development domain through measures such as hope in life, purchasing ability,
and education.
Indices/Years 1995 1999 2000 2004 2005
HDI 0.685 0.705 0.750 0.761 a measure of hope 0.704 0.783 0.792 0.830 0.827 in life measure of 0.640 0.661 0.666 0.708 0.726 purchasing ability measure of 0.699 0.659 0.710 0.780 education
Figure 09: The Evolution of Human Development Indices in Algeria. 50
Source: Azaroal, Good Governance, 2009.
As the table above shows that HDI in Algeria, started to improve in 1995 till 2005. Azaroal argued that the reason behind this evolution is the development of the public policies in different domains (152). He added that the level of demographic growth in Algeria continues to increase. By comparing the population in the resent years, we find that: population moved from 33.5 Million in July 2006 to 33.8 Million in January 2007, and then it jumped to 34.4 Million in January 2008. In Algeria, the literacy rate has improved from 65.50 % in 1998 to 76.3% in 2005. According to the Ratio and levels of schooling in Algeria, knew a rapid development in the different levels such as: the level of primary education, the level of higher education and the level of professional education. The reasons that led to the progress of education in Algeria are several and the most important one such as: doubling the number of institutions of higher education which reached 27 university, 13 university centers, 12 national school and national institute and 4 high national schools (156).
In Algeria, the level of employment started to improve since 1999 the number of employees reached six Million and increased in 2007 which reached
9.3 Million. The reason behind this improvement is the efforts that have done by
Algeria which they are: the establishment of the National Agency for Youth
Employment Support and National Endowment for Unemployment Insurance
(158).
Because the ratio of employment continues to increase, it is obvious that the ratio of unemployment is decreasing, as the following figure shows. 51
Figure 10: The Evolution of the Unemployment Rate in Algeria (2001- 2009). Source: http://www.startimes.com/?t=29183077.
The rate of unemployment in Algeria witnessed continuous progress . In
2001, total unemployment reached approximately 30% while youth unemployment exceeded 50%. In 2009, total unemployment rate decreased to about 10% and youth unemployment rate to about 25% . This progress is due to the reforms took by the Algerian authorities such as : the National Agency for
Youth Employment Support and National Endowment for Unemployment
Insurance.
3 -3- 4: Regulatory Quality:
Concerning the regulatory quality, Algeria, like the other developing countries, worked on the adoption of reforms and changes in its economic policy to achieve development and support economic stability. One of these reforms, 52 according to Hussein Abed el karim , is policy of economic stabilization and structural adjustment. This policy relies on different reforms such as: raising economic reforms, leaving the investment field to the private sector, liberating foreign trade, increasing exports and decreasing imports, reforming public institutions. Algeria has developed and adopted different reforms in its own economic policy to achieve the following goals : enhancing the visibility of the development process, improving the investment framework environment, modernization of the mechanism system, increasing in the efficacy of the economic role of the state, developing greater national wealth and Putting social and cultural policy that works with national challenges. (141-142). In addition to this policy, Algeria had established the economic rehabilitation program. This program aims to mobilize economy and support unemployment reduction.
Algerian government devoted for this program 525 Milliard Dinar for the period
(2001-2005) (Azaroal 165).
Hussein added that Algeria still has impropriate ground for improving and committing to its economic reforms. This problem is due some obstacles such as : the failure of reforms which led to increasing unemployment and bankruptcy which influenced living standards of individuals particularly and development of the country in general (143).
3-4-5: Rule of Law:
Rule of law requires the insurance of respecting human rights, equality and protect citizens from discrimination. To assure the protection of these rights there must be laws to maintenance human dignity. Algeria is interested in realizing and promoting the respect of human rights. The proof for this attempt is the 53 constitution of 1996. This constitution devoted a whole chapter for equality in rights and duties and the assurance of the basic freedoms; in addition to that, the
Algerian accession to national, regional and international human rights organizations.
The constitution of 1996 presented certain articles that are related to the protection of human rights. The article 29 stated that all citizens are equal before the law. The article 31 indicated that institutions’ aim to guarantee equality between male and female citizens in rights and duties. The article 32 stated that fundamental freedoms and human rights are guaranteed to citizens. Article 33 stated that single defense or by the assembly on the fundamental rights of man and the individual and collective freedoms, guaranteed. Article 34 stated that the State guarantees the inviolability of rights. And warns of any physical or moral violence or any breach of dignity. Article 41 stated that freedoms of expression, association, and assembly, guaranteed to the citizen.
In addition to these constitutional articles, Algeria has joined to several regional and international human rights charters and organizations. At the regional level, Algeria has joined legislation to protect the rights of the disabled in 2002, its accession to the African Charter on Human and Peoples 1983 , Cairo
Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, issued by the foreign ministers of Islamic countries in 1990, the approval of the Arab Charter on Human Rights as amended in May 2004. At the international level, we have Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination on February 14 ,1972, Convention on the Rights of the
Child April 16, 1993, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women in 1996.(Hussein 130). Algeria has joined to the 54
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Also, it joined International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights on May 16, 1989 (Brahmi 333).
At the national level, Algeria has created organizations to protect human rights. In addition to the Algerian constitution of 1996, we have several human rights organizations such as: Algerian League for the Defense of Human Rights, which was founded in 1985 and Noor Association for the protection and promotion of human rights in 2000 (Hussein 140).
However, in the Actual fact we find that Algeria is far away from the rule of law principle. More, the principle that became a characteristic of Algerian political system is non –law state. This is due to certain factors such as: near- absolute control over the judiciary by the executive branch (Hussein 135). This led to the possibility of the ineffectiveness of laws and the Algeria’s association and approvals on the national, regional and International charters and organizations.
3-4-6: Control of Corruption:
In the reports of the international organizations on corruption, Algeria always occupies the final ranks. Algeria has done a lot of efforts to fight corruption mainly the emission of laws that prevent and control corruption.
Algeria has developed mechanisms to prevent and fight corruption. Algerian authority has passed Corruption Fighting Law was signed by the parliament in
2005 which issued in February 20. 2006. This law came to prevent and fight corruption, support transparency and facilitate and strengthen cooperation and international exchange of techniques in order to encourage stages of corruption prevention. this law specifies identity and characteristic of crimes that are related 55 to corruption such as : bribery and embezzlement of public fund, offenses relating to transactions public such as favoritism and of influence peddling and covering up the crimes of corruption such as : money laundering. In addition to laws,
Algeria has formed devices to control corruption such as: National Committee for the Prevention and Combating of Corruption (Hussein 138-139).
On the practical level, some attempts of Algerian authority registered in starting corruption fighting. Among these attempts, the expulsion of tens of custom professionals in 2005 and 33 judges because of their involvement in corruption affaires. Also, the scandal of the century El-Khalifa Bank which included five former ministers and 40 managers of national institutions (Azaroal
185).
3-5: The Evaluation of the Algerian Experience of Good Governance,1996-
2005:
Good governance is the best way to rule countries affaires and realize sustainable development in different domains such as: politics, economic and society. For that, countries all over the world work hard to achieve good governance. Algeria is one of these countries. The previous subtitles discussed the
Algerian experience through the W.B’s worldwide governance indicators.
Algeria has done a lot of efforts to enhance and improve its governance performance by adopting, developing and maintaining policies to overcome its problems and issues such as: corruption. By comparing Algeria with the other countries, we find that Algeria ranked among countries that have bad or poor governance performance. The following figure shows the Algerian government 56 performance through the six W.B indicators during the period (1996-2000-2003-
2005).
Figure 11: The Governance Performance of Algeria (1996-2005). Source: Al-Dahdah, “La Gouvernance dans le monde: constats et implications pratiques." “Présentation au colloque du Conseil National Économique et Social (CNES). Alger, février 3. 2007.
Voice and accountability indicator, as clear in the figure above, between
(1996-2005) had increased. From 1996 to 2000, voice and accountability has declined. From 2000 to 2005, this indicator increased noticeably from 12.5 to 25 which means that Algerian efforts to improve this indicator in general were successful.
Concerning political stability and absence of violence, Algeria has made a great continues progress from nearly 1 in 1996 to approximately 20 in 2005. From
1996 to 2003, political stability and absence of violence indicator was in the 57 bottom by scoring less than 10. This was due to the security situation in Algeria, which known as the black decade that was characterized by non-security circumstances and terrorism. Yet, from 2003-2005, this indicator increased to over 20, this score indicates the effectiveness of the national reforms to brought peace and stability to Algerian society and the most important one is “wifaq watani”.
Government effectiveness declined from 1996 more than 25 to 2000 under
25 because of the black decade and increased from 2000 nearly 25 to 35 in 2003 to approximately 40 in 2005. This big progress may be explained by economic rehabilitation program in (2001-2005) which worked as a tool to reduce unemployment and poverty and raise living standard.
Regulatory quality in Algeria does not enjoy much progress. In 1996 to
2000, regulatory quality did not witnessed any progress till 2003 which progressed from 15 to 30, but in 2005 it declined to approximately 28. This is due to the weakness of the Algerian authority to commit to progressing in its reforms.
Rule of law in Algeria progressed in 1996 - 2003 more than 30, yet it declined to less than 25 in 2000 and less than 30 in 2005. This is because of the dependence of the judiciary branch to the executive one which is considered to be one of the major obstacles that prevent the right application of laws. Lack of the
Algerian government commitment to the agreements of the human rights organizations and charters.
The final indicator is control of corruption. Control of corruption was nearly 45 while in the year of 1996. It witnessed decline to 30 in 2000. After
2000, control of corruption witnessed a progress in 2003 by scoring 35 and 58 continued progress which gained the highest score in 2005 above 40. This was the result of the willingness of the Algerian authorities to fight and minimize corruption by passing laws and establishing national agencies namely : National
Committee for the Prevention and Combating of Corruption.
In certain indicators like voice and accountability, political stability and the absence of violence and control of corruption, Algeria has made a noticeable progress that reflects the effectiveness of the reforms. Yet, even though Algeria has recorded significant improvements, they still too weak and far to be achieved completely especially when comparing the Algerian experience to the other countries’.
Conclusion:
Algeria, as many other countries, has adopted good governance for its importance in achieving peace, enhancing the rule of law, realizing sustainable development, fighting corruption and respecting human rights. The emergence of good governance in Algeria is due to political, economic and social reasons mainly corruption, poverty and unemployment. The features that reveal Algeria’s willingness to achieve good governance are many; yet the major ones are the speeches of the President Bouteflika, the reforms to progress women participation in different domains, mainly in the political life, and laws that fight corruption.
The Algerian experience was studied and analyzed through the World Bank’s
WGI which include voice and accountability, political stability and absence of violence, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule of law, and control of corruption. Algeria has done a lot of efforts to reach good governance. Yet, the
Algerian government has to commit itself strongly to regulations and reforms. For 59
Algeria, achieving good governance is a very important because it would assure sustainable development for the people and the land. 60
General Conclusion
Good governance is a very significant concept. It is considered to be the best way to manage and rule a country at different levels, particularly its economy, politics, and society. Good governance is the solution to the different issues in countries and societies. It fights corruption, a serious global phenomenon, which destroys the economies of countries. Good governance also encourages and ensures human rights including participation of the public at large in the decision-making process. More, it controls the performance of governments by demanding two major components mainly transparency and accountability.
Furthermore, it is the only and the best way to realize sustainable development in societies and countries in all domains.
The Middle East and North Africa region (MENA) has a specific situation.
This region suffers from corruption and authoritarian governments. These issues are the major obstacle for the Arab world to reach a good level of government performance. The results of Transparency International CPI’s reports on corruption in the world show that the MENA region always has the highest scores of corruption. Authoritarianism in the region has different forms that include monarchies, single ruling parties and lasting ruling presidents. For that, it is clear that democracy in the Arab world is weak. As a result, the most important components of good governance of participation, transparency, and accountability are absent. Corruption and authoritarianism are the causes of the uprising of the 61
Arab people in several of the Arab World countries. Also, these issues prevent the
MENA region from reaching good governance.
Algeria, like most of the other Arab countries, has certain reasons that push it to adopt good governance. These reasons are political, economic and social ones. Algeria has done efforts to realize good governance; as an example, the introduction of various laws meant for fighting corruption. As the study of the
Algerian experience by the World Bank‘s Worldwide Governance Indicators show, Algeria still has much to do to achieve good governance. It is important for every country to adopt and realize good governance for its importance in achieving sustainable development in different domains.
62
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b. Sources in Arabic:
ﻋﺎدل اﻧﺰارن,. "اﻟﻔﺴﺎد ﻓﻲ اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺎت اﻟﻌﻤﻮﻣﯿﺔ و ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﻌﺎم ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﺰاﺋﺮ". ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻐﺎﻧﻢ. ﺑﻠﻮﺻﯿﻒ اﻟﻄﯿﺐ.”اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ اﻟﻤﻔﮭﻮم و اﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎت".اﻟﻤﺠﻠﺔ اﻻﻓﺮﯾﻘﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻠﻮم اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ. 65
.http://www.bchaib.net/mas/. ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻌﺰﯾﺰ ,ﺧﯿﺮة. دور اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ اﻟﻔﺴﺎد اﻻداري و ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺷﯿﺪ اﻻداري .ﻣﺠﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﻔﻜﺮ . اﻟﻌﺪد اﻟﺜﺎﻣﻦ. ﻗﺴﻢ اﻟﻌﻠﻮم اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ و اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ . ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ اﻟﺤﺎج ﻟﺨﻀﺮ . ﺑﺎﺗﻨﺔ. c .Master Theses:
ﺣﺴﯿﻦ ,ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻘﺎدر.اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﺰاﺋﺮ و اﺷﻜﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ.ﻣﺪﻛﺮة. ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺗﻠﻤﺴﺎن ,2012. ازروال, ﯾﻮﺳﻒ .اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﺮاﺷﺪ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻻﺳﺲ اﻟﻨﻈﺮﯾﺔ و اﻟﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻄﺒﯿﻖ دراﺳﺔ ﻓﻲ واﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﺠﺰاﺋﺮﯾﺔ . ﻣﺪﻛﺮة. ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺑﺎﺗﻨﺔ .2009