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Ideal Society and Eschatology in Seventeenth-Century England

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Ideal Society and Eschatology in Seventeenth-Century England Milton’s Utopian Millennium: Ideal Society and Eschatology in Seventeenth-Century England Submitted by Anthony Bromley to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English, In May 2021. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis that is not my own work has been identified and that any material that has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University has been acknowledged. Anthony Bromley Abstract This thesis presents the argument that in John Milton’s theology, political philosophy and poetry there is an underexplored relationship between utopianism and millenarianism. The study defines this relationship as the utopian millennium, through which the utopian values of control and regulation secure a chiliastic future. In a series of comparative chapters, the thesis traces how Milton’s utopian millenarianism can be situated within and how it develops through the intellectual, political and radical landscape of mid-seventeenth-century England. The study analyses Milton’s theology and political philosophy alongside contemporary intellectuals and radical figures, such as, amongst others, Samuel Hartlib, James Harrington, Thomas Hobbes, Marchamont Nedham, and Gerrard Winstanley. It also considers how the utopian and millenarian ideas of Milton’s prose works are reflected in his epic poetry. In doing so, the study observes how Milton’s gradual loss of faith in the English people encourages utopian formulations in the hope of ensuring the realisation of his eschatology. Milton’s growing disillusionment with the people coincides with his growing elitism: from the early 1640s to the end of his life, he placed his faith of those who he believed were capable of realising the millennium in fewer and fewer people. In contrast to the studious community of London in Areopagitica in 1644, by 1671, Milton idealises perfect, elect individuals, to whom he can aspire, if not with whom he self-identifies. Milton’s utopian millennium, tolerant and yet elitist, unorthodox and yet conservative, encodes the dynamic changes of the political and intellectual landscape of the mid- seventeenth-century. 2 Acknowledgements I am indebted to the tireless support of Nicholas McDowell, particularly for his frequent, comprehensive, and valuable comments on this thesis in its various drafts and incarnations. As a distance learning student, I am aware that I may not have felt as welcome with other supervisors as I did in my monthly visits to Exeter. In light of his recent book, I can attest that the quality of Nick’s research is matched only by the quality of his teaching. I am also grateful to Niall Allsopp, whose sharp and perceptive comments on drafts of this dissertation broadened my understanding of seventeenth- century political philosophy. Lilla Grindlay should be aware that this thesis would never have been realised had she not handed me a copy of Paradise Lost some seven years ago. My parents and my wider family have always remained steadfastly supportive of my academic pursuits, however far removed these may be from farm life. I am especially thankful to my grandfather, Brian, who unfortunately passed away while I was researching for this thesis. His belief in my academic work has remained an inspiration in the most challenging periods of my research. My other major inspiration in my studies and beyond is my fiancé, Elizabeth Bradley, to whom I became engaged in the final year of my research. It was Elizabeth’s idea that I pursue my interest in Milton further and it is Elizabeth to whom I have turned in times of difficulty during the last four years, not least during the recent pandemic. I now look forward to a life with her and, of course, with Milton. 3 Contents Note on Texts & Abbreviations ......................................................................................... 5 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 6 1. a) Utopian Origins: More & Bacon ............................................................................ 28 1. b) Millenarian Origins: Joseph Mede & Of Reformation ........................................... 39 2. ‘Regaining to know God aright’: Milton and the Hartlib Circle ................................ 52 3. Truth, Toleration, and Utopia in Areopagitica ........................................................... 78 4. Millenarian Radicalism: Milton, Winstanley and Cary ............................................ 104 5. Utopia & Republicanism: Milton and ‘that scribling Knave Nedham’ .................... 131 6. ‘A Commonwealth is held immortal’: Milton, Hobbes, and Harrington ................. 163 7. Paradise Lost and the Utopian Millennium ............................................................. 192 8. Paradise Regain’d: The Utopian Millennium .......................................................... 223 Conclusion: The Ends of Utopia .................................................................................. 252 Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 265 4 Note on Texts & Abbreviations In all quotations, punctuation, spelling, and italicization are unaltered from the originals, apart from the modernisation of the long s, i/j, and u/v. Where a text is discussed at length, page references and, where relevant, line numbers will be provided parenthetically in the running text. The place of publication is London unless otherwise stated. All references to Milton’s shorter poems are to Barbara Kiefer Lewalski and Estelle Haan, eds., Complete Works of John Milton. Volume III: The Shorter Poems (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012; corrected impression, 2014) (CWJM iii.). All references to Paradise Lost are to Alastair Fowler, ed., Paradise Lost (Harlow: Longman, 1998) and are incorporated parenthetically by book and line numbers. The following abbreviations have been used throughout: CPW The Complete Prose Works of John Milton, D. M. Wolfe, et al., eds., 8 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953-82) CWJM The Complete Works of John Milton, Thomas N. Corns, Gordon Campbell, et al., eds., 11 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008- 19) CWGW The Complete Works of Gerrard Winstanley, Thomas N. Corns, et al., eds., 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009) CETH Leviathan, Noel Malcolm, ed., 3 vols., in Noel Malcolm, et al., eds., The Clarendon Edition of the Works of Thomas Hobbes, 25 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2012) HP Hartlib Papers, Sheffield University. References are taken from the online resource, accessible at https://www.dhi.ac.uk/hartlib/ OED Oxford English Dictionary ODNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biography OFB The Oxford Francis Bacon, Graham Rees., ed., et al., 16 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996-2012) 5 Introduction Utopianism was diverse, divergent, and pervasive in mid-seventeenth-century England. It encompassed not only Baconian intellectualism – the belief that the propagation of empirical knowledge could bring about a return to man’s prelapsarian dominion of nature – but also the stringent, regulated totality of More’s Utopia (1516).1 It was not ‘nowhere’, an unrealistic and unrealised social vision, but rather a pragmatic and achievable visionary mode of thinking. As a prospect of earthly perfection, the millennium, which was broadly anticipated by much of English society in the 1640s and 1650s, served as an essential referent and source of inspiration for utopianism in the period. The turbulent events of the mid-seventeenth-century – the English civil wars, the republic, and the Restoration – produced myriad religious and political ideologies that accommodated utopian values of regulation and control in order to better secure and emulate the perfection expected at the millennium. While liberty of conscience, for instance, was central to the radical millenarian theology of Gerrard Winstanley (1609- 76), in response to the failure of his Digger colonies on St George’s Hill and in Cobham, Winstanley produced the utopian work, The Law of Freedom (1652), in order to more successfully appeal to Oliver Cromwell and the government for reform.2 As the case of Winstanley suggests, religious freedom was compatible with utopianism and millenarianism. While this study will acknowledge how utopianism became aligned with political ideologies, such as English republicanism, it will focus on the complex and often idiosyncratic relationship between utopia and millennium, particularly in the political and poetic works of John Milton (1608-74). In doing so, the thesis will also reflect more broadly on how these ideas developed, evolved, and adapted to the unprecedented political and social changes of mid-century England. Milton’s utopianism developed in tandem with his radically changing socio- political context and shows how ideas of utopia and the millennium could evolve in response to the events of the mid-seventeenth-century. Milton was directly engaged with major intellectual, political and religious events and groups of his time, from the 1 On Bacon, see Charles Webster, The Great Instauration: Science, Medicine and Reform, 1626-1660 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1975), pp. 15-31; on More’s Utopia specifically, see J. C. Davis, Utopia
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