Guidelines for management of common ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia

http:/www.EUPHRESCO.org About the publication

The guidelines for management of common ragweed are based on the results of the project Strategies for Ambrosia control (AMBROSIA) funded by Euphresco 2008 – 2009.

Project partners are: Aarhus University (Denmark), Agricultural Institute of Slovenia (Slovenia), Agroscope ACW (Switzerland), Julius Kühn Institute (Germany) and Copenhagen University (Denmark).

Project team/editors:

Niels Holst, [email protected], Aarhus Universitet DEPARTMENT OF INTEGRATED AU PEST MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES Preben K. Hansen, [email protected], Aarhus Universitet AARHUS UNIVERSITY Per Kudsk, [email protected], Aarhus Universitet Solvej K. Mathiassen, [email protected], Aarhus Universitet

Andrej Simoncic, [email protected], Agricultural Institute of Slovenia Mario Lesnik, [email protected], University of Maribor, Slovenia

Christian Bohren, [email protected], Agroscope ACW Stephanie Waldispühl, [email protected], Agroscope ACW

Arnd Verschwele, [email protected], Julius Kühn Instituttet Birte Wassmuth, [email protected], Julius Kühn Instituttet Uwe Starfinger, [email protected], Julius Kühn Instituttet

Hans Peter Ravn, [email protected], University of Copenhagen Rita Merete Buttenschøn, [email protected], University of Copenhagen

Authors: Rita Merete Buttenschøn, Stephanie Waldispühl and Christian Bohren (Chapter 9: Best-bet control strategies)

Layout: Karin Kristensen, University of Copenhagen

Front page photo: Preben K. Hansen

ISBN: 9788779034549

These guidelines are also available in 6 languages at the project homepage: EUPHRESCO project AMBROSIA 2008-09. http:/www.EUPHRESCO.org

2 Contents

1. Introduction 5 References 6

2. Native range and distribution in Europe 7 Common ragweed 7 The present distribution in Europe 7 References 9

3. Identification 10 Ambrosia artemisiifolia 10 References 12

4. Species that can be mistaken for Ambrosia artemisiifolia 13 Ambrosia species that can be mistaken for common ragweed 14 Ambrosia maritima 14 Ambrosia coronopifolia 16 References 16

5. Biology and ecology of Ambrosia artemisiifolia 17 Seed bank and germination 18 References 19

6. Seed dispersal 20 Introduction pathways to new locations 20 Introduction pathways 20 Birdseed mixtures 20 Transport by machinery/equipment 21 Translocation of soil and gravel 22 Compost 22 Water courses 22 References 22

7. Preventive measures 23 How to minimise common ragweed invasion of new areas 23 Establishment of national/local policies and guidelines for best practice 23 Prevention practices 23 An awareness-raising programme 23 Surveys and monitor programmes 24 Eradication campaigns 25 Follow-up monitoring 25 References 25

3 8. Control methods 26 Mechanical control 26 Uprooting 26 Hoeing 27 Mowing/cutting 27 Ploughing 28 Chemical control (herbicides) 28 Re-vegetation 28 Mulching 28 Plastic cover 29 Biological control 29 Animal grazing 29 References 29

9. Best-bet control strategies 30 General remarks 30 Herbicide treatments 30 Mechanical treatments 31 Efficacy of control measures 31 Competition of Ambrosia 31 Best-bet strategies 32 References 32

10. Negative impact on human health and economy 33 Public health hazards 33 Pollen allergy 33 High prevalence 33 Hypersensitivity dermatitis 34 The causative agent – ragweed pollen 34 Noxious weed 35 References 36

11. Literature 38

12. Appendix 42

4 1. Introduction

Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common ragweed) ragweed may cause allergy in distances has spread from its native range in North over 200 km off the site where it is America into the temperate zones of growing. Europe and in parts of Asia and Australia where it is one of the major causes of An integrated approach based on the pollen-induced allergy. The ongoing spread best-bet control strategies is needed to of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in Europe is an prevent further dispersal of common increasing problem for human health and ragweed. A successful control must be as an agricultural and non-agricultural made at all levels, i.e. the individual weed. Ambrosia artemisiifolia is causing landowner, local, regional, national and expenses of several hundreds of millions international level, and appropriate of Euros. measures must be taken.

Other species of Ambrosia have been Awareness of the problem is present in the spreading to Europe together with com- afflicted European countries, but control mon ragweed, e.g. A. trifida (giant rag- measures vary from country to country. In weed) and A. coronopifolia (perennial Switzerland, where common ragweed is at ragweed). These species are also allergen- the beginning of its invasion, mandatory ic and grow as a troublesome weed in part control is declared in the ordinance of of their native range in America, but they plant protection1. Similarly, in Hungary the are rare in most parts of Europe. landowners are legally obliged to prevent common ragweed in flowering2, whereas in The invasion rate of common ragweed has other European countries e.g. Germany increased since the 1990’ies and the rate and Austria control is based on recommen- of invasion is expected to increase. Large populations of ragweed in Central Europe (Hungary, France, Italy and Croatia) may facilitate further spreading. Extensive and increasing, worldwide and intra-Communi- ty trade increases the risk of ragweed spreading. Changes in agricultural land- use with large-scale set-aside and aban- donment practices along with an increas- ing area of construction sites and wasteland provide new areas of suitable ragweed habitats. Changing climate and perhaps adaptation to local climate in Europe has expanded ragweed’s potential distribution range.

The impact of common ragweed on human health is not restricted to areas invaded by the plant. Due to wind-borne spreading of the very large production of light pollen Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Mario Lešnik

5 1. Introduction

A. artemisiifolia. Mario Lešnik dations and is, thus, voluntary. In Italy trade companies dealing with agricultural and France, where common ragweed is products with scientifically based, but widespread regionally, no effective legal simple and operative practical manage- mandates can help to control common ment methods to prevent further invasion ragweed. and reduce the abundance of common ragweed. The project Strategies for Ambrosia control has generated new knowledge on References common ragweed’s ecology and on the 1. Bohren C., Delabays N., Mermillod C. 2008: effect of different control measures. This Ambrosia control and legal regulation in has been elaborated to formulate best-bet Switzerland. Proc. First International strategies for control (see chapter 9). Ragweed Conference in Budapest, Hungary, September 2008. The objective of “Guidelines for manage- ment of Ambrosia” is to provide European 2. Dancza, I., Géllert, G., Pécsi, P.L. 2008: authorities, private landowners, garden- Spread and control measures against ers, constructors, birdseed producers, common ragweed in Hungary. Proc. First International Ragweed Conference in Budapest, Hungary, September 2008.

6 2. Native range and distribution in Europe

The genus Ambrosia consists of about 40 occurred in the overall agricultural struc- species, most of which are native to North ture. Expansion of the cropped area of America. Only one of the species A. certain crops (e.g. sunflower), intensified maritima (Sea ragweed) is believed to be and selective weed control management native to Europe with the Mediterranean and shift from manure to slurry in animal area as its native range. Common rag- manure management have led to a weed, A. artemisiifolia, was introduced to situation with more disturbed soils. Europe together with other Ambrosia Similarly the agriculture policies, i.e. species in the 19th century. large-scale set-aside and abandonment practices, appear to stimulate the spread- Common ragweed ing of common ragweed. Bird seeds Common ragweed is the most widespread contaminated with seeds of common ragweed species worldwide and in Europe. ragweed have recently been an important According to botanical records common pathway into residential areas of Europe. ragweed was recorded in many countries Finally, the recently rising temperature in Europe in the 1860s, but the main and climate changes optimise the growth invasion within Europe, subsequent conditions for ragweed. naturalisation and spreading of common ragweed as an invasive plant started about The present distribution in Europe 20 to 25 years ago. Common ragweed is in particular wide- spread in Eastern and Central Europe. In Agricultural products contaminated with Hungary almost 80 % of the arable land is seeds of A. artemisiifolia imported from infested and ragweed has become the the USA and Canada are believed to be most important agricultural weed during the most important pathway of common the latest 20 years2. In Croatia ragweed is ragweed into Europe. especially abundant in the region of Slavonia, where it is considered a noxious Up till the 1970s, common ragweed was weed3. Ragweed has spread from South just one among several weed species Hungary and East Croatia into Serbia present in cultivated fields in part of where it is now the dominant weed species Europe, but it is now a widely distributed in soya-bean and sunflower fields. In noxious weed in several countries. The France ragweed is expanding towards the reason for this is complex. Changes have north-western regions of the country from

Invasion of common ragweed in France A survey carried out by the INRA team in Dijon has established the history of the spread of ragweed in France, based on data from French herbaria1.

Common ragweed was initially cultivated in a few botanical gardens as early as the 18th century. But the first reports of its presence in a natural environment date from 1863, in a field in the Allier departement in France, where the plant seems to have been introduced in batches of red clover seed from North America. Its spread then continued elsewhere in France and via different vectors, notably in forage imported for American army horses during the First World War. Popula- tions of Ambrosia artemisiifolia were described in various Atlantic harbours and in the various locations where troops remained.

7 2. Native range and distribution in Europe

heavily infested areas in the Rhône Valley Many small foci have been reported from and Bourgogne1. In Italy mainly the Belgium, the Czech Republic, Austria, Lombardy province in the Po Valley is Slovenia, Germany, Switzerland and other heavily infested. European countries. They are mainly

Distribution of Ambrosia pollen 2008. EAN (European Aeroallergen Network https://ean. polleninfo.eu/Ean) and epi (European Pollen Information http://www.polleninfo.org).

8 2. Native range and distribution in Europe

situated in urban areas and apparently 3. Stefanic, E., Rasic, S., Merdic, S., 2008: ragweed is not yet fully established in Aerobiological and allergological impact of these countries. Further to the north ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) in nd common ragweed occurs only locally as an north-eastern Croatia. Proc. 2 International occasional introduction resulting from seed Symposium Intractable Weeds and Plant or fodder contamination – here it appears Invaders, Osijek, 66. not yet to have established self-sustaina- ble populations. Links http://www.europe-aliens.org/pdf/Ambrosia_ar- References temisiifolia.pdf 1. Chauvel, B., Dessaint, F., Cardinal-Legrand, C., Bretagnolle, F., 2006: The historical http://www.ambroisie.info/pages/envahi.htm spread of Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. in France from herbarium records, Journal of Biogeog- http://www.austroclim.at/fileadmin/user_up- raphy, 33 (4), 665-673. load/reports/StCl05C5.pdf

2. Kazinczi, G., Béres, I., Novák, R., Biró, K., http://www.ambrosia.ch/index.php?&idpage=64 Pathy, Z., 2008: Common Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). A review with special regards http://www.international.inra.fr/press/the_com- to the results in Hungary. Taxonomy, origin mon_ragweed_1 and distribution, morphology, life cycle and reproduction strategy. Herbologia, 9, 55-91. https://ean.polleninfo.eu/Ean

http://www.polleninfo.org

9 3. Identification

The genus Ambrosia belongs to the aster maximum height of 2 metres usually with family (Asteracea) with their characteristic many branches. Ramification starts about flower head composed of numerous 2-4 cm above the ground and may include individual sessile flowers. InAmbrosia the numerous side-branches. Solitary growing flower head only consists of male flowers, individuals are often shorter, but more while female flowers are located solitarily densely ramified. or in small groups with male and female flowers in the same plant1. The leaves are compound and fernlike- toothed reaching lengths of 4-10 cm. They Ambrosia artemisiifolia are bright green on both sides with whitish Common ragweed (A. artemisiifolia) is a nerves. The lower leaves are arranged summer annual herbaceous plant, a thero­ oppositely, the upper leaves are often phyte (i.e. annual plant characterised by arranged alternately on the stem of older long-term survival in seed bank). It is an plants. The stem is reddish and hairy with a erect and rather tall plant reaching a stem diameter of up to 2-4 cm at the base.

male flower

female flower

achene pollen

leaf

Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Jens Christian Schou

10 3. Identification

A. artemisiifolia seedling. Young plant of A. artemisiifolia. Mario Lešnik Hans Peter Ravn

Female flowers are inconspicuous located 3-4 mm long with one seed per fruit. The solitarily or in small groups at the base of plant dies away with the onset of frost. upper leaves. Male flowers are green and small (2-4 mm) grouped in spike-like The seedling stem and seed leaves (coty- flower heads (racemes) at the end of the ledons) are green and often splotched with upper branches. Flowering takes place in purple. Seed leaves are about 6 mm long, the period from end of July till November spoon-shaped or nearly round, somewhat (onset of frost) depending on regional and thickened and without visible nerves. The local climate. It produces a woody, red- first pair of true leaves has the distinct dish-brown indehiscent fruit (achenes), ragweed shape.

Hairy, reddish stem. Female flowers at the leaf axils. Rita Merete Buttenschøn Mario Lešnik

11 3. Identification

Key for determining common ragweed2

Stem Answer “yes” or “no” to the following questions: Is the cross section of the stem round? The stem is hairy? The stem is filled (not hollow)?

Continue to the next set of questions if all the answers are “yes”. If one or more answers are “no”, then it is probably not a common ragweed. Have a look at the list of species that may be mistaken for common ragweed.

Leaf Answer “yes” or “no” to the following questions: Has the top- and underside of the leaf about the same colour? Are the leaf nerves whitish? Is the leaf divided into several lobes, which in turn often are split up almost to the rib? Has the lobe-tip a fine spike?

Continue to the next set of questions if all the answers are “yes”. If one or more answers are “no”, then it is probably not a common ragweed. Have a look at the species that may be mistaken for common ragweed.

Flower Answer “yes” or “no” to the following questions: Are there small green bell-shaped flowers in spike-like flower heads at the end of the upper branches? Are there pale spots or yellow pollen dust at the flowers? Are there other small flowerlike organs sitting at the axils of some of the upper leaves?

If the answer is “yes” to at least two of the questions and to all the questions about stem and leaf then the plant probably is a common ragweed. If two or more of the questions are “no” then it is probably not a common ragweed. Have a look at the species that may be mistaken for common ragweed.

References 1. Basset, I.J., Crompton, C.W., 1975: The biology of Canadian weeds.11. Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. and A. psilostachya DC. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 55, 463- 476.

2. www.AMBROSIA.CH

12 4. Species that can be mistaken for Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Flowering plants of common ragweed have Species of Artemisia are growing in the characteristic features that help to distin- same type of habitats as common rag- guish them from other species, while weed; they are very alike and often seedlings and small vegetative plants are mistaken. The coloration and leaf structure more difficult to recognise. Especially of Artemisia spp. is very similar to leaf of species belonging to other genus of the common ragweed. However, Artemisia Aster family e.g. Artemisia, Tagetes, spp. has flower clusters with both male Senecio and Tanacetum are often mistaken and female flowers, while common rag- for Ambrosia. But also plants belonging to weed has separate clusters for male and other families, especially plants with female flowers with males in spikes and pinnately lobed leaves may be mistaken females in leaf axils (see description of for Ambrosia. Artemisia species in Appendix).

Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Artemisia vulgaris. Agroscope ACW Frede Scheye

13 4. Species that can be mistaken for Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Examples of species that have been mistaken for Ambrosia are listed below in reference to their preferred habitat (Table 1).

Table 1. Examples of species, which have been mistaken for Ambrosia distributed to the habitats where they are most commonly found. Most of the species are found at two or more of the habitats. A description of the listed species is found in appendix.

Agricultural fields Construction sites Road verges Artemisia annua Artemisia vulgaris Artemisia absinthium Artemisia verlotiorum Artemisia absinthium Artemisia vulgaris Bidens tripartita Artemisia annua Artemisia verlotiorum Fumaria officinalis Fumaria officinalis Solidago canadensis Senecio jacobaea Solidago gigantean Senecio erucifolius Tanacetum vulgare

Gardens and parks Natural habitats Amaranthus powellii Achillea millefolium Amaranthus retroflexus Artemisia absinthium Artemisia absinthium Bidens tripartita Tagetes tenuifolia Senecio erucifolius Tagetes erecta Senecio jacobaea Tanacetum coccineum

Ambrosia species that can be mistak- purposes. It is up to 1 metre tall, growing en for common ragweed in open waste spaces and riparian grass- Other Ambrosia species are found in land, and sometimes forming mono-spe- Europe and may be mistaken for common cies stands. ragweed. Ambrosia trifida (giant ragweed) and A. coronopifolia (perennial ragweed) have been spread into Europe together with common ragweed. They are also allergenic and are growing as weed in parts of their native range in America. They are rare in most parts of Europe though listed as invasive in Russia1. A few other non-native Ambrosia species, e.g. A. bidentata, A. aptera, A. polystachia and A. tenuifolia are found in Europe, but only in a very small number. One species, A. maritima (sea ragweed), is native to Europe.

Ambrosia maritima Sea ragweed is an annual herb or short- lived perennial, native to and now widely distributed in the Mediterranean. It is richly branched, grey-hairy with finely dissected, fragrant leaves. Sea ragweed is cultivated in parts of Africa for medical Ambrosia maritima. Mario Lešnik

14 4. Species that can be mistaken for Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Ambrosia maritima. Mario Lešnik

Ambrosia trifida Ambrosia trifida (giant ragweed) is a tall annual herbaceous plant, 2-6 metres tall with a native range rather similar to common ragweed. It is mainly found at disturbed places on moist fertile soils. Giant ragweed resembles common rag- weed, but the two species differ in size and leaf shape. The seed leaves are more than 2.5 cm long, about four times the length of the seed leaves at common ragweed. The first true leaves are not deeply indented and the subsequent leaves are large and coarsely 3-lobed, arranged oppositely. Giant ragweed is rare in most of Europe, but is reported to be invasive in Russia1. Ambrosia trifida. Mario Lešnik

15 4. Species that can be mistaken for Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Ambrosia trifida. Mario Lešnik

Ambrosia coronopifolia Ambrosia coronopifolia also named A. psylostachya (perennial or western rag- weed) is an erect, perennial herbaceous plant up to 2.5 metres tall. It is native to North America with a distribution similar to giant and common ragweed, but prefers more dry habitats. Unlike common and giant ragweed, western ragweed can reproduce vegetatively from creeping roots. It is characterised by its bushy, dense growth habit. The leaves are mostly 1-pinnatem divided, with irregularly toothed margins. Western ragweed com- monly inhabits roadsides and dry fields. It is rare in most of Europe, but is reported as invasive in Russia1.

References 1. http://www.nobanis.org. Ambrosia coronopifolia. Mario Lešnik

16 5. Biology and ecology of Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Common ragweed germinates in the spring Common ragweed is a pioneer that estab- (April) and grows rapidly during the lishes easily in habitats with bare mineral juvenile phase under optimum condition soils or sparse vegetation. The texture of promoting the competitive ability of the the soil does not seem to play an important plant. The growth rate and final height of role in establishment, but the thickness of the plant, which can be in the range of 30 the organic layer is inversely related to its cm up to 2 m, is strongly influenced by the presence. It is commonly found in ruderal habitat, e.g. temperature, nutrient, water or waste sites associated with frequent and supply and competition from other plants. extensive disturbance regimes resulting Ragweed germinating in cereal fields may from human activities, e.g. roadsides, remain in the juvenile stage until the crop railways, gravel pits, construction sites, is harvested and then start to grow when agricultural fields, waterways, urban exposed to light1. It prefers full sun and areas, and private gardens. nutrient rich and slightly acidic soils and can tolerate dry soil conditions2. Common ragweed is a short-day plant,

Yellow dust of pollen. Hans Peter Ravn

17 5. Biology and ecology of Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Ambrosia seed. Steve Hurst @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database whose flowering is induced by a dark period 1.7–3.7 mg in samples from different sites of ca. 8 hours. In central Europe plants in France3. The variation in the size of usually flower in the period July to October achenes is seen as an ability to cope with and seeds are produced from mid August. a wide range of conditions and an ability The rather late flowering and maturation to establish itself in disturbed habitats. of the seeds limits the distribution of the The quantities of seeds vary with plant plant to climate zones with a long growing size, density of plant and habitat. A low season. During the latest 30 years a density of ragweed gives a much higher change in temperatures has prolonged the seed number per plant than a dense growing season in e.g. Germany with 8-10 stand. In a study of several different popu- days allowing ragweed to grow further lations in France the annual seed produc- north and at higher altitudes. tion per plant ranged from 346 to 6,114 with about 2,500 seeds per year as a The flowers are wind pollinated and can mean3. produce viable seeds by self-fertilisation. This means that even a single isolated plant The stem of common ragweed breaks is capable of starting a new population. easily, but it tolerates damage like removal of the stem apex and leaves and has a Seeds are shed directly from the parent very large re-growth capacity, which plant and most seeds land, due to their allows it to produce flowers and viable size, within proximity of the parent plant. seeds after mowing or other disturbances. The seeds – or achenes (i.e. a hard coat wrapper protecting the soft seed) are Seed bank and germination about 2.5 mm broad and 3.5 mm long but The seeds of common ragweed enter a very variable in size. Mean achene mass dormancy period that requires a period of was found to be in the range from about cold to germinate. Germination starts in

18 5. Biology and ecology of Ambrosia artemisiifolia

the spring with only a portion of the seeds. 2. Wittenberg, R. (Ed.), 2005: An inventory of It has broad amplitude in regard to alien species and their threat to biodiversity germination temperature, between 7oC to and economy in Switzerland. CABI Bioscience 28oC with an optimum at about 15oC. Switzerland Centre report to the Swiss Germination is probably light induced as Agency for Environment, Forests and seeds rarely germinate if buried deeper Landscape. than 4-5 cm and most germination takes place in open sites. The seeds can stay in 3. Fumanal, B., Chauvel, B., Bretagnolle, F., a secondary dormancy for years4. Com- 2007: Estimation of pollen and seed produc- mon ragweed is thereby well adapted to tion of common ragweed in France. Ann Agric survive at sites that are periodically Environ Med, 2007, 14, 233-236. disturbed. Though it is an annual plant it does not have to be able to produce seeds 4. Baskin, J. M., Baskin, C. C., 1980: Ecophysi- every year to survive. Seeds have been ology of secondary dormancy in seeds of known to remain viable after 20 years of Ambrosia Artemisiifolia. Ecology, 61, 475– burial with 85 % germination rate5. In 480. another experiment viable seeds were found after 40 years of burial, but here the 5. Lewis, A.J., 1973: Ragweed Control Tech- germination rate was only 4 %6. niques: Effect on Old-Field Plant Populations, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 100 (6), References 333-338. 1. Bohren, C., 2006: Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.- in Switzerland: concerted action to 6. Darlington, H.T., 1922: Dr. W. J. Beal´s seed prevent further spreading, Nachrichtenbl. viability experiment. American Journal of Deut. Pflanzenschutzd., 58 (11), 304-308. Botany, 9, 266-269.

19 6. Seed dispersal

Several modes of seed dispersal are Spreading of ragweed often takes place known in ragweed; some are natural, but along linear structures, such as highways, most of the dispersal is human assisted. railways and watercourses. Most of the fruits drop to the ground close to or beneath the parent plant. Some Introduction pathways dispersal of the fruits may occur by birds, • Sunflower seed melting snow and waterways as achenes • Birdseed mixtures are able to float. • Translocation on machinery/equipment • Translocation in soil/gravel Introduction pathways to new locations • Compost Translocation of contaminated clover • Watercourses seeds, cereals and other agricultural crops has been an important introduction Birdseed mixtures pathway from Canada and USA into Birdseed, especially those containing sun-­ Europe. Contaminated seed of sunflower flower seeds, is one of the main sources of and other crops are still a pathway to new new long-distance introduction of common localities. Besides that there are many ragweed into new locations. In a survey of more possible dispersal pathways. birdseed in Germany fruits of common

Seeds of Ambrosia and sunflower. Agroscope ACW

20 6. Seed dispersal

Table 2. Number of samples contaminated with seeds of common ragweed in Danish surveys from 2007 and 20082.

Total Number of Sunflower Number of Mixture Total number number of sunflower with mixture with with % samples samples ragweed samples ragweed ragweed seeds 2007 16 5 2 11 6 8 50 2008 20 9 6 11 8 14 70 ragweed were found in about 70 % of the At present no EU legislation sets maximum samples. From 14 of 23 samples (61 %) levels of common ragweed seed in feed- containing ragweed seeds the seeds stuffs. Switzerland has introduced an germinated when cultivated in the spring1. intervention value at 50 mg ragweed seed Earlier surveys in Switzerland and Den- per kg feed, which equals approximately mark from 2007 and 2008 (Table 2) had 10 seeds per kg feedstuff. similar findings of contaminated birdseed. A range between 38 and 975 mg Ambrosia Transport by machinery/equipment seed/kg bird seed grain was found in Seeds can be transported with machinery 2007; findings in 2008 maximum of 3.556 used for mowing ragweed infested areas mg/kg = ~3.6 g/kg. The highest content, or with harvesting machinery used in 3.6 g of ragweed seeds found in one of the crops with ragweed, e.g. ragweed is sunflower seed sample, equals about 700 reported to have been spread into the seeds per kg birdseed. region of Geneva by combine harvesters rented in the area surrounding Lyon.

Translocation of soil and construction sites are important pathways for spreading of Ambrosia. Agroscope ACW

21 6. Seed dispersal

Translocation of soil and gravel References Transportation of soil and gravel between 1. Alberternst, B., Nawrath, S., Klingenstein, F., neighbouring countries is a common 2006: Biologie, Verbreitung und Einschlep- practice in parts of Europe, particularly pungswege von Ambrosia artemisiifolia in between Switzerland, France and Italy, Deutschland und Bewertung aus Naturschut- where building construction materials and zsicht. Nachrichtenbl. Deut. Pflanzenschut- substrates near borders are exchanged zd., 58 (11), 279–285. across borders leading to establishment of ragweed on new sites. 2. Joergensen, J.S., 2008b: Rapport over undersøgelse af vildtfugle-blandinger for Compost indhold af bynkeambrosie (Ambrosie Spreading of compost with ragweed plants artemisiifolia L.) – efterår/vinter 2008. may allow surviving seeds to be spread Ministeriet for Fødevarer, Landbrug og with the compost. Even modern compost Fiskeri. www.pdir.fvm.dk. systems may not kill all the seeds of common ragweed as they seem to be 3. Fumanal, B., Chauvel, F., Sabatier, A., rather heat tolerant. Bretagnolle, F., 2007: Variability and Cryptic Heteromorphism of Ambrosia artemisiifolia Water courses Seeds: What Consequences for its Invasion Some seeds of common ragweed can float in France? Ann. Botany, 100, 305-313. and be spread with water currents along riparian corridors. They maintain their ability to germinate after a period in water3.

22 7. Preventive measures

Prevention of invasion is generally the Establishment of national/local poli- most cost-effective approach to control of cies and guidelines for best practice invasive plant species. By comparison, it is To be efficient a control programme must very expensive to control invasive plants engage the authorities at all relevant levels once they are established and spreading. and NGOs representing agriculture, trade, Furthermore, eradication of established landowners and nature. At the local level alien species may prove to be extremely programmes should also address the public difficult or even impossible. Common by hearings, informative meetings etc. rag­weed can build up a seed bank in a couple of years with seeds, which are Planning should aim at integrating the viable in 20 years or more years. The programme for control of common rag- sooner after introduction the control weed with broader land management measures are set in the better the chances programmes – designed to improve of eradication and the lower the control pasture vigour, use of crops not favourable expenditures will be. for common ragweed, increase ground cover and avoid overgrazing – in areas at Common ragweed is now so widespread in risk of invasion. Europe that entire eradication is no longer practical or economically feasible. It is still Prevention practices feasible, however, to prevent or reduce it Preventive counter measures should include spreading into new areas. initiatives to limit unintentional spreading of ragweed seeds by developing and How to minimise common ragweed implementing hygiene and prevention invasion of new areas practices together with regulation of In order to efficiently prevent the spread habitat quality in areas prone to common preventive measures should be targeted at ragweed invasion. Extant stands along those areas that present suitable habitats transport corridors (watercourses, rail- and are most likely to be reached by seeds ways, highways) should be managed to of common ragweed. There are several prevent dispersal of seeds. components to this prevention, early detection and rapid response approach: An awareness-raising programme Raise awareness of the impact of common • Establishment of national/local policies ragweed on human health as a cause of and guidelines for best practice hay fever and asthma and as a potential • Prevention practices pest weed, so that the general public are • An awareness raising programme familiar with the plant and are willing to • Surveys and monitor programmes help prevent its spread by e.g. reporting • Eradication campaigns, where preven- observations making early detection tive measures fail possible. Target awareness campaigns at • Follow-up monitoring key groups.

23 7. Preventive measures

There are good examples to be found of mechanisms to monitor spreading of websites, leaflets and other information common ragweed to new locations is a activities addressing the public, see links. very important part of the preventive measures together with the creation of Surveys and monitor programmes public awareness. If preventive methods fail and common ragweed colonise a new area, early Priority areas to survey are private gar- detection of the new invaders is essential dens, along roads and railway lines, to facilitate a rapid eradication response. sunflower crops, maize and soya bean Establishment of surveys and other fields, wheat stubble, construction areas,

24 7. Preventive measures

field and forest edges, river banks, waste- cated as soon as detected and preferably lands, lawns, surroundings of grain and before the flowering season starts. Eradi- fodder warehouses, oil mills and grain cation must be consequent and continuous processing factories, and fodder industry – without a single year missing. factories. Collate and distribute best practice infor- Most introductions occur in private gar- mation to public and private bodies, dens and farming land. Accordingly, it is companies, landowners and other groups important that the general public is aware involved in management of habitats of the invasive status of the plant and suitable for introduction of ragweed. takes part in the surveying and reporting of observations. The public needs to know Follow-up monitoring (or must easily be able to find out) where It is important to establish a follow-up their observations should be reported. control as some of the plants may have escaped the control or more seeds may In Switzerland a legal obligation adopted have germinated. The monitoring should in 2006 to control common ragweed continue the following years to be sure includes an obligation for the public that complete eradication has succeeded. general to report any common ragweed observations to the authorities1. References 1. http://www.Ambrosia.ch Eradication campaigns When prevention has failed, eradication Links should be the course of action. New http://www.Ambrosia.ch invaded ragweed plants should be eradi- http://www.ambrosiainfo.de http://www.ambrosiainfo.

25 8. Control methods

Different methods are used in the control prevent re-growth uprooted plants should of Ambrosia. The individual method may be stored without contact to soil. Alternately, be used by itself or in combination with uprooted plants should be put in plastic other methods to limit seed germination. bags with soil around the roots and ren- The choice of method depends on number dered by waste collection or incineration1. of plants, their phenological state, presence or absence of Ambrosia seeds in the seed Uprooting of Ambrosia growing in habitats bank, habitat and land use (see Best-bet with undisturbed soil should be done slowly control strategies). and carefully to minimize soil disturbance. Trampled and disturbed areas are excel- Mechanical control lent seedbeds for many weed species. Mechanical control include uprooting, cutting, ploughing etc. Safety instructions Sensitised persons should not be uprooting Uprooting Ambrosia plants. Gloves and fully covering clothing should be used for protection against All plants at the site should be uprooted skin irritation – and if the uprooting takes systematically preferably before flowering place during the flowering season mask and to avoid spread of pollen. Uprooting of goggles should be used for protection from plants before seed ripening is efficient for pollen. small to medium sized populations. Control of blooming stands should preferably Non-blooming and non-fruiting plants shall be done in the afternoon as the pollen is be dried effectively and composted. To mainly released in the morning.

Uprooting of ragweed. Agroscope ACW

26 8. Control methods

Hoeing growing in vegetation with dense cover of Hoeing at the 2-leaf stage is efficient in grass mowing height of 10 cm will prevent control of Ambrosia in sunflower and erosion and re-growth1. maize crops. Hoeing can also be used manually on small plots used for growing Time of cut is crucial as it greatly influenc- vegetables and gives good results under es the plant’s possibility for re-growth and dry conditions without rain1. flowering. Successive cuts can prevent flowering and fructification, but after Mowing/cutting cutting the plant can develop horizontal Mowing is used to prevent seed production flower carrying side sprouts growing along and exhaust plants in large populations of soil surface. These branches are difficult Ambrosia in areas, where chemical control is – or impossible to cut in the following forbidden or not possible for other reasons. cutting.

The cutting should be as close to the Mowing while seeds are mature should not ground as possible, but without distur- be made, because it increases the risk of bance of the soil surface to minimize seed dispersal. For greater efficiency, re-growth. In areas where there is a dense mowing should be combined with other population of Ambrosia cutting height control measures. Mowing before the should be 2–6 cm. Where Ambrosia is blossom in combination with an herbicide

Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Rita Merete Buttenschøn

27 8. Control methods

treatment on re-sprouted plants guaran- Safety instructions and precautions tees a highly efficient control. Sensitised persons should not work with Ambrosia control. Gloves and fully covering Mechanical mowing techniques, for example clothing should be used for protection against a flail mower, are useful for large infested skin irritation – and if the mowing takes place during the flowering season dust mask areas on plane ground. If the population is and goggles should be used for protection small or situated in a location unsuitable against pollen. for mechanical mowing, e.g. on steep Machinery and tools used for control in the slopes, manually cutting with scythe or a flowering season should be cleaned to avoid trimmer is recommended. spread of seeds.

Mowing should be replaced by uprooting found to be resistant to 10 times the where possible. normal rate of glyphosate3.

Ploughing Re-vegetation Deep ploughing that buries the ragweed Re-vegetation of native perennials and seeds in 10 cm’s depths prevents the winter annuals can out-compete and seeds in germinating, whereas 2 cm seed suppress annual ragweed growth4. It is burial does not2. important to maintain or re-establish a dense cover of relative tall and fast-grow- Chemical control (herbicides) ing native plants to prevent ragweed The chemicals available for common rag- re-growth. ­weed control are constrained by country, regional and local regulations. In addition Mulching the type of habitat infested sets the Mulching can be used to limit seed germi- conditions for control in terms of biology, nation on small areas for example on economy and practicality. construction sites. Cover the ground and/ or seedlings with mulch (hay, grass Herbicides are recommended in connection clippings, wood chips, etc.) or other type with large infested areas and in non-organic of ground cover. Mulch cover can prevent crops. Common ragweed has developed seed grains from germinating and can resistance to different groups of herbicides. prevent germinated seeds (seedlings) In North America common ragweed was from growing.

Safety instructions and precautions Follow all national and local regulations regarding herbicide use.

Develop safety protocols for storing, mixing, transportation, handling spills, and disposing of unused herbicides and containers before obtaining herbicides. Only persons with all certificates and licenses required by the state may apply herbicides.

Applicators MUST wear all protective gear required on the label of the herbicide they are using when mixing or applying herbicides: - Rubber boots and gloves and protective aprons or suits or sturdy overalls that are not used for other activities, - Safety glasses or goggles, - Dust mask if the application takes place in the flowering season.

28 8. Control methods

Plastic cover cows feeding on common ragweed have Cover of (black) plastic can be used been reported to have an objectionable instead of mulch at construction sites to odor and taste6. A high grazing pressure, reduce light at the soil surface and raise necessary for control of Ambrosia plants the soil temperature to levels that kill stimulates seedling emergence due to an small plants and prevent seeds in germi- increased light influx. nation. References Biological control 1. OEPP/EPPO 2008. Ambrosia artemisiifolia. At present, no effective biological control OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 38, 414-418. agent is currently available for A. arte­ misiifolia in Europe1. Classical biological 2. Guillemin, J.P., Reibel, C., Chauvel, B. Effect control has been attempted in Russia, of seed burying on seedling emergence of Ukraine and former Yugoslavia, and ambrosia artemisiifolia. several insect agents were introduced www.fvm.gov.hu/doc/upload/200905/ between 1969 and 1990, but the most program_abstracts_1stintragweedconf.pdf promising agent, Zygogramma suturalis (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) has failed to 3. http://www.invasive.org/gist/esadocs.html. give successful control so far5. Further work is needed in this area. 4. Raynal, D.J., Bazzaz, F.A. 1975. Interference of Winter Annuals with Ambrosia artemisiifo- Animal grazing lia in Early Successional Fields Ecology, 56, Animal grazing is not considered a feasible 35-49 control method although common ragweed has a rather high content of crude protein 5. http://www.cabi.org.de. and a high digestibility during spring as the plant in large amount may be poison- 6. http://weedscanada.ca/plants_ ous to the animals. Dairy products from poisonous_animals.hmt

29 9. Best-bet control strategies

Different control measures were evaluated invasion many fertile Ambrosia seeds can in the EUPHRESCO project including be found in the soil seed bank. cutting and herbicide application in dif­ ferent habitats and at three different The prevention of the production of fertile locations in Denmark, Switzerland and ambrosia seeds is in the long term more Germany together with studies of the important than the reduction of pollen biology of Ambrosia1. “Best-bet control production in one vegetation period. It is strategies” have been elaborated based on the only way to reduce soil seed bank. The current knowledge and project results by best strategy is to prevent seed grain Waldispühl and Bohren 20092. production and in parallel pollen production.

General remarks Herbicide treatments Ambrosia is an annual dicotyledonous plant, All herbicide treatments used in this trial which propagates with seeds exclusively. series (glyphosate, mesotrione, clopyralid, In agriculture it becomes quickly the status MCPP and florasulam) reduced biomass of of an annual noxious weed because its Ambrosia. When controlling Ambrosia with control is not as easy as it seems to be. herbicides, treatment timing had an Incomplete controlled plants are able to influence on biomass reduction. The best re-sprout and to produce seeds even efficacy was obtained when treatment was though in smaller number. done as one application in the 4-leaf

stage. ED50 was calculated for all herbi- The number of seeds produced per plant cides. Glyphosate was the only herbicide per year or per invaded surface respec- where efficacy was independent of growth tively allows Ambrosia to behave like an stage. Three growth stages from 4 leafs to invasive plant. Ambrosia has an enormous inflorescence where investigated. The potential to multiply; this is given by the other herbicides had also good efficacy on great number of seeds produced and by Ambrosia biomass, but doses had to be their high fertility rate. increased when treatment was done later to obtain the same efficacy level. Production of seeds, which aren’t displaced by wind, is the weak point of Ambrosia. All Sequential treatments – application of control strategies must therefore be based herbicides in two passes, the so-called on the prevention of the production of split application – showed synergistic fertile Ambrosia seeds. effects. Most split applications were more effective than one application (florasulam, Control strategies must respect the actual MCPP and mesotrione). Dose requirement situation in the place where Ambrosia has was highly dependent on growth stage at to be controlled: i) regions or localities application. Low doses should only be where the invasion is starting and ii) applied at early growth stages. Potential regions or localities where the invasion of negative effects of low doses at the first Ambrosia is already advanced. In a newly application was not fully investigated. In invaded locality no or a very small soil this one-year experiment low doses at the seed bank of Ambrosia seeds is found, first treatment did not reduce the effect of while in a locality with an advanced the second treatment.

30 9. Best-bet control strategies

In practical agriculture sequential treat- to control the weed species and avoid yield ments is common in row crops such as losses. In some crops such as sunflower sugar beet and maize. If conditions were that are botanically related to Ambrosia no perfect for the first treatment, a second effective herbicides are presently available, treatment could possibly be adjusted hence crop rotation must be adapted in according to the efficacy level of first order to reduce soil seed bank of Ambrosia treatment. On the other hand, if weather seeds. conditions were not perfect at the first treatment, good knowledge about sequen- In natural habitats, in disturbed soils and tial treatment allows farmers to achieve along roadsides or in other non-agricultural high efficacy with the second treatment. habitats, eradication of Ambrosia popula- Sequential treatment increases the ma- tions within a well defined time frame chine and labour costs. must be the goal of a successful Ambrosia control. Mechanical treatments It was observed in our trials, that Ambrosia Competition of Ambrosia was able to re-grow after a cut. A second Single plants of Ambrosia plant were highly cut can hardly reach the horizontal side susceptible to competition. In a pot trial it sprouts growing along soil surface, which was shown that the competitive ability of are able to produce fertile seeds although 340 barley plants per m2 was equivalent to at a reduced number. the efficacy of 225 g/ha of the herbicide MCPP when plant development was Efficacy of control measures simultaneous, while 51 barley plants had In agricultural fields where Ambrosia occurs the same effect if they emerged 10 days as an agricultural weed, standard herbicide before ambrosia. A combination of herbi- treatments in the crops may be sufficient cidal effect and crop competition showed a

A. artemisiifolia. Mario Lešnik

31 9. Best-bet control strategies

cumulative effect. Our results suggest that effectively. Single plant stands should be the invasiveness of Ambrosia primarily can uprooted and destroyed completely before be attributed to the high number of flowering. produced seeds per plant. Natural habitats: Disturbed soil should Surrounding vegetation has a great immediately be covered by a dense influence on the invasiveness of Ambrosia. population of endemic plants in case of Ambrosia plants exposed to competition advanced infestation. Single plant stands do show a certain delay in their phenologi- in areas where infestation is beginning, cal development. This weakness in compe- should be uprooted and completely de- tition can be used for control strategies in stroyed. various situations where herbicide use is not allowed. High crop or plant density can References effectively reduce Ambrosia plant growth, 1. http://www.agrsci.dk/ambrosia/home/team. but it cannot fully prevent the Ambrosia html/Holst, N. (Ed.) 2009: Strategies for seed production. Ambrosia control. Euphresco project AMBRO- SIA 2008-09. Scientific Report. http:/www. Euphresco.org Best-bet strategies General: prevention of fertile seeds 2. Waldispühl, S., Bohren, C., 2009: Best-bet production control strategies. In Holst (Ed.) 2009: Strategies for Ambrosia control. Euphresco Agricultural fields: Herbicides with good project AMBROSIA 2008-09. Scientific efficacy on Ambrosia must be applied Report. http:/www. Euphresco.org according to their label. Sequential treat- ments may improve herbicide activity. Competitive crops can improve herbicidal performance. Organic farmers should explore the low competitiveness of Ambro- sia for better control.

Building sites: Disturbed soil in building sites is a good habitat for Ambrosia. High density of a cover crop can significantly reduce growth – and therefore production of fertile seeds – of Ambrosia plants.

Roadsides: Green cover along road sides must be cut in early summer because for security reasons. In case of Ambrosia abundance, infested zones should be treated additionally with an herbicide for achieving best control effects on re-grow- ing plants. Christian Bohren demonstrating the effect of Gardens and parks: Dense soil-cover by early grass cutting on germination rate of plants slows down Ambrosia infestation common ragweed. Hans Peter Ravn.

32 10. Negative impact on human health and economy

Public health hazards • It produces pollen in large quantities. Common ragweed represents a very serious • Pollen can be transported by wind over health risk for humans as pollen-allergenic long distances. plant. Pollen of ragweed is among the • Long pollination period from late sum- most potent triggers of hay fever and mer through autumn. allergic rhinitis. In addition to allergic rhinitis, ragweed allergy often causes Pollen allergy severe asthma-like symptoms. In Europe- Ambrosia pollen is very allergenic. At least an countries with large ragweed popula- six groups of allergenic agents have been tions 10-20 % of patients with pollen identified in ragweed pollen2. Some of allergy symptoms suffer from ragweed- these are called ‘major’ for their predomi- allergy. In the United States ragweed nant role in causing allergy in humans. pollen represents the major source of allergenic protein. About half of the cases Very low concentrations, e.g. 5-10 pollen of pollinosis here are related to Ambrosia per cubic meter of air, suffice to trigger pollen1. allergic reactions in hyper-sensitised individuals1. Concentrations between 6 and There is evidence for large-scale (80 %) 10 pollen grains per cubic meter air cross-reactivity between the allergens of represent a moderate load of ragweed ragweed species and mugwort species pollen. By comparison the upper limit of (Artemisia spp). Cross-reactivity to other moderate loads of grass pollen is five species of the sub-family Asteraceae and times as high. grasses has been reported. This implies that there is a high possibility of developing High prevalence multi-hypersensitivity once pollen hyper- Ragweed allergy is presently increasing sensitivity has been developed. Conse- rapidly in large areas of Europe, in particu- quently, multi-hypersensitivity persons larly in certain regions of France, Italy, have a prolonged period of exposure to Austria, Hungary, Croatia, and Bulgaria. A allergens. Common ragweed also contains pan-European study of ragweed pollen volatile oils that may cause skin irritation. hypersensitivity from 13 European coun- The annual costs of human ragweed allergy tries showed that the prevalence of in France and Italy have been calculated to ragweed pollen hypersensitivity in people amounting to 2 million Euros. with pollen allergy symptoms was above 2.5 % in all parttaking countries except Health risk of Ambrosia artemisiifolia is Finland. 2.5 % has previously been due to: suggested as a cut-off for high prevalence. • Very allergenic pollen, a small concen- Unexpectedly high prevalence was found tration can provoke allergic reactions. in the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark • Many people are hypersensitive to the (between 14.2 % and 19.8 %)3. Cross- pollen. reactivity between mugwort (Artemesia • A part of the allergic people develops spp.) and ragweed pollen is very high (at asthma. least 80 %)1. This may account for high

33 10. Negative impact om human health and economy

prevalence of ragweed pollen hypersensi- varies according to climate, geography and tivity in regions where ragweed is not yet vegetation. Ragweed pollen shedding established in appreciable amounts and do begins at sunrise and continues during the not yet have a self-sustaining population. morning reaching its highest count around midday. Temperature and relative humidity Hypersensitivity dermatitis have minimal effect on the day-by-day Contact with ragweed may cause hyper- ragweed pollen count while rainfall and sensitivity dermatitis, typically with unstable atmospheric conditions have a symptoms of dermal congestion, hyperae- considerable impact on ragweed pollen mia, development of serous vesicles and counts. itching. The main pollination period is August and Ambrosia dermatitis has an airborne pattern September, but it may start as early as and is caused by lipid soluble oleoresins of late June and last till the end of October. pollen. Dermatitis inflicted by Ambrosia Daily pollen count over a five-year period and other oleoresin containing species of in Hungary illustrated that the starting day the Compositae family is a world-wide varied almost a month from 20th June to disease, although often misdiagnosed­ 4. 13th July due to climatic conditions6.

The causative agent – ragweed pollen Changes in climate may expand the The ragweed pollen is sized from 18 to 22 potential distribution of ragweed, thus µm and has small non-sharp spikes at its expansion of ragweed further north in surface on electron microscopy. Pollen Europe seems likely. On average, the grains can reach the upper respiratory length of the growing season in Europe is tract and induce allergic reactions as hay fever, but are too large to penetrate in the lower airways and lead to asthma. Light rain or thunderstorm can release allergen carrying pauci-micronic (sized less than 5 µm) particles, which are responsible for asthma attacks1. In the ragweed-infested region, Departement Rhône-Alpes, up to 12 % of the population has ragweed pollen-allergic conditions during the pollen-shedding period.

Pollen production Ragweed produces pollen in large quanti- ties. An evaluation of the seasonal pollen production in several ragweed populations in France showed that the pollen produc- tion per plant ranged from a 100 million to 3 billions depending on plant size and habitat5.

Pollination and climate The allergenic content of the atmosphere Pollen blowing in the wind. Agroscope ACW

34 10. Negative impact om human health and economy

Common ragweed (A. artemisiifolia) a noxious weed. Mario Lešnik increased by 10–11 days during the last 30 years. Parallel to this, local increase in reported i.e. from the South of France to temperature late in the 20th century was Switzerland. Presence of ragweed pollen in associated with trends of rising pollen Denmark and Sweden since 1997 is production. The duration of the pollen interpreted as long-distance transport 8 season was also extended in the men- from Eastern Europe . tioned period, especially in summer and in Noxious weed late autumn. Rising CO2-concentration in the atmosphere may increase ragweed Common ragweed is known as a major pollen production7. weed in its native range and in part of Europe colonizing spring crops10. As a Long-distance transport of pollen result of late emergence of A. artemisiifo­ Ragweed pollen is transported over long lia it can also grow during the inter-crop distances by the wind. The distance and period in rape or cereal stubbles, as well direction that pollen travels depends on air as on fallow or set-side land. It is especial- turbulence, wind velocity and direction. Seen in the light of longer growth season and increasing incidence of climatic One gram of ambrosia pollen contains about extremes airborne pollen dispersal may 30-35 million pollen grains, and one well- prolong the pollen season in regions where grown plant can produce more than 45 grams of pollen in one year, depending on ragweed is already present and may the quality of the habitat9. induce new hyper-sensitivity in regions where ragweed is not yet established. About 10 pollen grains per cubic metre of air Several occurrences of long-distance provoke allergic rhinitis in sensitive people – transport of ragweed pollen have been compared to 50 grass pollen grains1.

35 10. Negative impact om human health and economy

ly a problem in crops like sunflower, overgrazing which put competitive pres- maize, sugar beet, soya beans and cereal sures on the native flora11. It can also crops causing serious yield loss. In South cause illness in livestock that ingest it and Hungary and East Croatia common rag- thereby be a problem for the conservation weed is now the dominant weed species in management of pastures. soya bean and sunflower fields. In crop New introductions of common ragweed plants with low height as beets the yield often happen in open areas in urban loss can be as high as 70 %. In addition areas, as well as beaches and other areas herbicide resistance and other problems used for leisure. As a consequence, make control difficult. tourism can be affected if visitors avoid areas with high Ambrosia occurrence. Common ragweed in fields does contribute to the general spread and build-up of the References ragweed population even in regions and 1. Taramarcaz, P., Lambelet, C., Clot, B., countries where it has not yet established Keimer, C., Hauser, C., 2005: Ragweed as a serious weed. Hence weed control is (Ambrosia) progression and its health risks: required and the farmers must be part of will Switzerland resist this invasion? SWISS an overall strategy to combat ragweed. MED WKLY, 135, 538–548.

Effect on biodiversity and recreation 2. Wopfner, N., Gadermaier, G., Egger, M., Dense growth of common ragweed may Asero, R., Ebner, C., Jahn-Schmid, B., lead to out-shading of existing vegetation Ferreira, F., 2005: The Spectrum of Allergens and may be a threat to native species in Ragweed and Mugwort Pollen. Int Arch especially after a disturbance such as Allergy Immunol , 138, 337–346.

Areas for recreation with Ambrosia. Agroscope ACW

36 10. Negative impact om human health and economy

3. Burbach, G.J., Heinzerling, L.M., Röhnelt, C., Bazzaz, F.A., 2006: Interaction of the Onset Bergmann, K.-C., Behrendt, H., Zuberbier, t., of Spring and Elevated Atmospheric CO2 on 2009: Allergy. Journal compilation, Blackwell Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) Pollen Munksgaard Allergy 2009.agweed Production. Environmental Health Perspec- tives, 114 (6), 865-869. 4. Hjort, N., Roed-Petersen, J., Thomsen, K., 2006: Airborne contact dermatitis from 8. Dahl, Å., Strandhede, S.-O., Wihl, J-Å., 1999: Compositae oleoresins simulating photoder- Ragweed – An allergy risk in Sweden? matitis. British Jour. Dermatology, 95 (6), Aerobiologia, 15, 293–297. 613-620. 9. Fumanal, B., Chauvel, F., Sabatier, A., 5. Fumanal, B., Chauvel, B., Bretagnolle, F., Bretagnolle, F., 2007: Variability and Cryptic 2007: Estimation of pollen and seed produc- Heteromorphism of Ambrosia artemisiifolia tion of common ragweed in France. Ann Seeds: What Consequences for its Invasion Agric Environ Med, 14, 233-236. in France? Ann. Botany, 100, 305-313.

6. Makra, L., Juhasz, M., Borsos, E., Beczi, M.R., 10. OEPP/EPPO 2008. Ambrosia artemisiifolia. 2004: Meteorological variables connected OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 38, 414-418 with airborne ragweed pollen in Southern Hungary. Int J Biometeorol, 49, 37–47. 11. Protopopova, V.V., Shevera, M.V., Mosyakin, S.L., 2006: Deliberate and unintentional 7. Rogers, C.A., Wayne, P.M., Macklin, E.A., introduction of invasive weeds: A case study Muilenberg, M.L., Wagner, C.J., Epstein, P.J., of the alien flora of Ukraine. Euphytica, 148, 17–33.

37 11. Literature

Alberternst, B., Nawrath, S., Klingenstein F., Blackwell Munksgaard, Allergy.s

2006: Biologie, Verbreitung und Einschle- Cecchi, L., Malaspina, T.T., Albertini, R. Zanca, pungswege von Ambrosia artemisiifolia in M., Ridolo, E., Usberti, I., Morabito M., Dall’ Deutschland und Bewertung aus Natur- Aglio, P., Orlandini, S., 2007: The contribu- schutzsicht. Nachrichtenbl. Deut. Pflanzen­ tion of long-distance transport to the schutzd., 58 (11), 279–285. presence of Ambrosia pollen in central Baskin, J.M., Baskin, C.C., 1980: Ecohpysiology northern Italy. Aerobiologia, 23, 145–151.

of secondary dormancy in seeds of Ambrosia Chauvel, B., Dessaint, F., Cardinal-Legrand, C., artemisiifolia. Ecology, 61, 475-480. Bretagnolle, F., 2006: The historical spread Basset, L.J., Crompton, C.W., 1975: The Biology of Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. in France from of Canadian Weeds: 11 – Ambrosia artem­ herbarium records, Journal of Biogeography, isiifolia L and A. psilostachya. DC, Canadian 33 (4), 665-673.

Journal of Plant Science, 55, 463-476. Dahl, Å., 2007: Klimatförändringer und pollenal- Bazzaz, F.A., 1970: Secondary dormancy in the lergi. Allergi in Praxis 1, 2007.

seeds of the common ragweed Ambrosia Dahl, Å., Strandhede, S.-O. Wihl, J-Å., 1999: artemisiifolia. Bulletin of the Torrey Botani­ Ragweed – An allergy risk in Sweden? cal Club, 97, 302-305. Aerobiologia, 15, 293–297.

Bohren, C. 2006: Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. - in D’Amato, G., Cecchi, G.L., Bonini, S., Nunes, C., Switzerland: concerted action to prevent Annesi-Maesano, I., Behrendt, H., Liccardi, further spreading. Nachrichtenbl. Deut. G., Popov, T. Cauwenberge, P. van, 2007: Pflanzenschutzd., 58 (11), 304-308. Allergenic pollen and pollen allergy in Bohren, C., Mermillod, G., Delabays, N., 2006: Europe. Allergy, 62, 976–990.

Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia Dancza, I., Géllert, G., Pécsi, P.L. 2008: Spread L.) in Switzerland: development of a and control measures against common nationwide concerted action. Journal of Plant ragweed in Hungary. Proc. First Internation- Diseases and Protection, Special Issue XX, al Ragweed Conference in Budapest, 497-503. Hungary, September 2008.

Bohren C., Delabays N., Mermillod C. 2008: Darlington, H.T., 1922: Dr. W. J. Beal´s seed Ambrosia control and legal regulation in viability experiment. American Journal of Switzerland.Proc. First International Rag- Botany, 9, 266-269. weed Conference in Budapest, Hungary, Déchamp, C., Méon, H. 2002: Ragweed, a new September 2008. European biological air and soil pollutant: a Bohren, C., Mermillod, G., Delabays, N., 2008a: call to the European Community for help to Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. –Control measures prevention of ragweed allergenic disease, a and their effects on its capacity of reproduc- necessity of improving the quality of life of a tion. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protec­ large range of people. tion, Special Issue XXI, 311-316. http//:www.phytomemedizin.org/fileadmin/ Bohren, C., Mermillod, G., Delabays, N., 2008b: alte Webseiten/Invasive Symposium/article/ Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.: Feldversuche mit Deen, W., Hunt, T. Swanton, C.J., 1998a: Herbiziden. Agrarforschung, 15. Influence of temperature, photoperiod, and Burbach, G.J., Heinzerling, L.M., Röhnelt, C., irradiance on the phenological development Bergmann, K.-C., Behrendt, H., Zuberbier, of common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifo­ T., 2009: Allergy. Journal compilation, lia). Weed Science, 46 (5), 555-560.

38 11. Literature

Deen, W., Hunt, T. Swanton, C.J., 1998b: Photo oleoresins simulating photodermatitis. thermal time describes common ragweed British Jour. Dermatology, 95 (6), 613-620.

(Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) phenological Holst, N. (ed.) 2009: Strategies for Ambrosia development and growth. Weed Science 46 control. Euphresco project AMBROSIA (5), 561-568. 2008-09. Scientific Report. http:/www. Bohren C., Delabays N., Mermillod C. 2008: Euphresco.org

Ambrosia control and legal regulation in Joergensen, J.S., 2008a: Ambrosia artemisiifolia Switzerland. Proc. First International L. (ragweed) – a new threat in Denmark. Ragweed Conference in Budapest, Hungary, International Association of Feedstuff September 2008. Analysis (IAG), Budapest, June 2008.

Delabays, N., Mermillod, G., Bohren, C., 2008: Joergensen, J.S., 2008b: Rapport over under­ Lutte contre l’ambroisie: efficacité des søgelse af vildtfugle-blandinger for indhold herbicides homologues en Suisse dans les af bynkeambrosie (Ambrosie artemisiifolia grandes cultures. Revue suisse d’agriculture, L.) – efterår/vinter 2008. Ministeriet for 40 (2), 81-86. Fødevarer, Landbrug og Fiskeri. www.pdir. Fumanal, B., Chauvel, F., Bretagnolle, F., 2005: fvm.dk.

Demography of an allergenic European Kazinczi, G., Béres, I., Novák, R., Biró, K., invasive plant: Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. Pathy, Z., 2008: Common Ragweed (Ambro­ BCPC Symposium proceedings, 81, 225-226. sia artemisiifolia). A review with special Fumanal, B., Chauvel, B., Bretagnolle, F., 2007: regards to the results in Hungary. Taxono- Estimation of pollen and seed production of my, origin and distribution, morphology, life common ragweed in France. Ann Agric cycle and reproduction stragegy. Herbologia, Environ Med, 2007, 14, 233-236. 9, 55–91.

Fumanal, B., Chauvel, F., Sabatier, A., Bre- Kazinczi, G., Béres, I., Pathy, Z., Novák, R., tagnolle, F., 2007: Variability and Cryptic 2008: Common Ragweed (Ambrosia Heteromorphism of Ambrosia artemisiifolia artemisiifolia). A review with special regards Seeds: What Consequences for its Invasion to the results in Hungary. Importance and in France? Ann. Botany, 100, 305-313. harmful effect, allergy, habitat, allelopathy

Fumanal, B., Gaudot, I., Bretagnolle, F., 2008: and beneficial characteristics.Herbologia, 9, Seed-bank dynamics in the invasive plant, 93–117. Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. Seed Science Kazinczi, G., Novák, R., Pathy, Z., Béres, I., Research, 18, 101-114. 2008: Common Ragweed (Ambrosia

Genton, B.J, Shykoff, J.A., Giraud, T., 2005: artemisiifolia). A review with special regards High genetic diversity in French invasive to the results in Hungary. Resistant bio- populations of common ragweed, Ambrosia types, control methods and authority artemisiifolia, as a result of multiple sources arrangements. Herbologia, 9, 119–144. of introduction. Molecular Ecology, 14 (14), Leiblein, M., 2008: Untersuchung zu Biomasse- 4275-4285. Entwicklung und Konkurrenzbiologie des

Guillemin, J.P., Reibel, C., Chauvel, B. 2008: Invasive Neophyten Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Effect of seed burying on seedling emer- Diplomarbeit Universität Dusseldorf. gence of Ambrosia-artemisiifolia. www.fvm. Lewis, A.J., 1973: Ragweed Control Techniques: gov.hu/doc/upload/200905/program_ Effect on Old-Field Plant Populations, abstracts_1stintragweedconf.pdf Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 100

Hjort, N., Roed-Petersen, J., Thomsen, K., 2006: (6), 333-338. Airborne contact dermatitis from Compositae Lombard, A., Gauvrit, C., Chauvel, B., 2005:

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Chemical control of ambrosia Artemisiifolia Ambrosia pollen to Poland. Agricultural and on non-crop areas: are there alternatives to Forest Meteorology, 148 (10), 1402-1411.

glyphosate? Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci., 70 Stefanic, E., Rasic, S., Merdic, S., 2008: (3), 447-57. Aerobiological and allergological impact of Makra, L., Juhasz, M., Borsos, E., Beczi, M.R., ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) in nd 2004: Meteorological variables connected north-eastern Croatia. Proc. 2 International with airborne ragweed pollen in Southern Symposium Intractable Weeds and Plant Hungary. Int J Biometeorol, 49, 37–47. Invaders, Osijek. 66.

Maryushkina, V.Y., 1991: Peculiarities of Taramarcaz, P., Lambelet, C., Clot, B., Keimer, common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia C., Hauser, C., 2005: Ragweed (Ambrosia) L.) strategy. Agriculture, Ecosystems and progression and its health risks: will Environment, 36, 207-216. Switzerland resist this invasion? SWISS MED

Melander, B., Rasmussen, I.A., Parberi, P., 2005: WKLY, 135, 538–548. Integrating physical and cultural methods of Vitalos, M., Karrer, G., 2008: Distribution of weed control – examples from European Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. – is birdseed a research. Weed Science, 53, 369–381. relevant vector? Journal of Plant Diseases

Muller, F.M., 1978: Seedlings of the North-West­ and Protection. Special Issue XXI, 345–34. ern European Lowland. A flora of seedlings. Vogl, G., Smolik, A.M., Stadler, L.-M., Leitner, Dr. W. Junk B.V. Publisher. Wageningen. M., Essl, F., Dullinger, S., Kleinbauer, I.,

Mutch, D.R., Martin, T.E., Kosola, K.R., 2003: Peterseil, J., 2008: Modelling the spread of Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) Suppression ragweed: Effects of habitat, climate change of Common Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifo­ and diffusion. Eur. Phys. J., Special Topics, lia). Weed Technology, 17 (1), 181-185. 161, 167–173.

Protopopova, Waldispühl, S., Bohren, C., 2009: Best-bet V.V., Shevera, M.V., Mosyakin, S.L., 2006: control strategies. In Holst (ed.) 2009: Deliberate and unintentional introduction of Strategies for Ambrosia control. Euphresco invasive weeds: A case study of the alien project AMBROSIA 2008-09. Scientific flora of Ukraine. Euphytica, 148, 17–33. Report. http:/www. Euphresco.org

Rogers, C.A., Wayne, P.M., Macklin, E.A., Willemsen, R.W., 1975: Effect of Stratification Muilenberg, M.L., Wagner, C.J., Epstein, P.J., Temperature and Germination Temperature Bazzaz, F.A., 2006: Interaction of the Onset on Germination and the Induction of of Spring and Elevated Atmospheric CO2 on Secondary Dormancy in Common Ragweed Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) Pollen Seeds. American Journal of Botany, 62 (1), Production. Environmental Health Perspec­ 1-5. tives, 114 (6), 865-869. Wittenberg, R. (Ed.), 2005: An inventory of

Simončič, A., Leskošek, G., 2005: Evaluation of alien species and their threat to biodiversity various mechanical measures on weed and economy in Switzerland. CABI Bio- control efficacy = Beurteilung verschiedener science Switzerland Centre report to the mechanischer Maßnahmen für eine effiziente Swiss Agency for Environment, Forests and Unkrautbekämpfung. Bodenkultur (Wien), Landscape. 56 (1), 71-82. Wittenberg, R., Cock, M.J. (Eds), 2001: Invasive

Smith, M., Skjøth, C.A., Myszkowska, D., Alien Species: A Toolkit of Best Prevention Uruska, A., Puc, M., Stach, A., Balwierz, Z., and Management Practices. CAB Interna- Chlopek, K., Piotrowska, K., Kasprzyk, I., tional. Brandt, J., 2008: Long-range transport of Wopfner, N., Gadermaier, G., Egger, M., Asero,

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R., Ebner, C., Jahn-Schmid, B., Ferreira, F., 2005: The Spectrum of Allergens in Rag- weed and Mugwort Pollen. Int Arch Allergy Immunol, 138, 337–346.

Ziska Lewis, H., Caulfield, F.A., 2000: Rising CO2 and pollen production of common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.), a known allergy-inducing species: implications for public health. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 27, 893–898.

Zwerger, P., Verschwele, A., Starfinger, U., 2007: Beifußblättrige Ambrosie (Ambrosia artemisiifolia): Was macht sie gefährlich? TASPO, Heft 9, 7.

Links http://www.ambrosia.ch/ http://www.ambrosiainfo.de http://www.ambroisie.info http://www.cabi.org.de. http://www.cbd.int/invasive/ http://www.europe-aliens.org/ http://www.ewrs.org/ http://www.gisp.org/ http://www.international.inra.fr/press/the_com- mon_ragweed_1 http://www.invasive.org/gist/esadocs.html http://www.nobanis.org/ http://polleninfo.org http://weedscanada.ca/plants_poisonous_ani- mals.htm http://plants.usda.gov/java/usageGuidelines

Distribution maps from the different countries http://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/ service/skript235.pdf http://www.ambroisie.info/pages/envahi.htm http://www.austroclim.at/fileadmin/user_up- load/reports/StCl05C5.pdf http://www.ambrosia.ch/index.php?&idpage=64 http://www.bba.bund.de/cln_045/nn_1107664/ DE/Aktuelles/aktschadorg/ambrosia/pdfs/ ambrosia__dancza.pdf,templateId=raw,property =publicationFile.pdf/ambrosia_dancza.pdf]

41 12. Appendix

Description of the species ranked alphabetically:

Achillea millefolium (Common Yarrow) Amaranthus retroflexus (Common Amaranth) Common Yarrow belonging to the Aster family is an and A. powellii (Green Amaranth) erect herbaceous perennial plant that has a Two species of the Amaranthus family, A. rhizomatous growth form. It is frequently found in retroflexus and A. powellii are common in most the mildly disturbed soil of grasslands. parts of Europe and have a general —Ambrosia-like“ appearance but are differentiated by leaves and flowers. A. retroflexus and A. powellii are tall annual herbs much alike. They are native to tropical America but are now widespread as introduced species on most continents and growing in a number of habitats.

Achillea millefolium1

Seedling: 2 sessile elliptically oblong, entire seed leaves, glabrous and tip rounded. First pair of leaves are opposite, sessile, oblong and dentated.

Amaranthus retroflexus1

Seedling: Seed leaves are elliptically lanceolate (10-12 mm long) and green to reddish in colour on the upper surface. Lower surfaces have a reddish tint. First pair of leaves alternate, ovate in shape, and are slightly notched at the tip of the leaf blade. Stem: Erect reaching a maximum height near 3 metres, often red especially near the base, with alternately arranged leaves. Leaves: Long-stalked egg-shaped or lance-shaped up to 15 centimetres long on large individuals, with wavy margins and hairs that occur along the veins of the lower leaf surfaces. Flowers: Green in a dense cluster interspersed

Achillea millefolium2 with spiny green bracts. Flower season: Summer œ autumn. Stem: One to several stems 0.2œ1.0 m tall with evenly distributed leaves. Artemisia absinthium (Absinthium) Leaves: Green on the upper side and with whitish It is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the down on the underside 5-20 cm long, lance-shaped Aster family with a hard, woody rhizome. It grows in outline and finely dissected. naturally on uncultivated, arid ground and at the Flowers: White to pink in a flat-topped cluster. edge of footpaths and fields. Flower season: Summer œ autumn. Scent: Leaves with a mildly aromatic scent.

42 Sweet wormwood is an annual herb, belonging to the Aster family, with native range in Asia, but naturalised throughout the world. It prefers habitats with sandy soil and full sun. Stem: Single stem up to about 2 m tall with alternating branches and leaves. Leaves: Light green with a smooth or hairy underside, finely 2-3 pinnately dissected into very narrow short, blunt lobes. The lower and basal leaves are slender-petioled, the upper are sessile and less divided, but none of them entirely. Flowers: Bright yellow. Flower heads are in dense clusters. Flower season: Late summer œ early autumn. Scent: A camphor-like scent.

Artemisia vulgaris (Common Mugwort) Common mugwort is a tall, shrubby herbaceous perennial, belonging to the Aster family. It grows on rich soils on weedy and uncultivated areas and roadsides. It is very common in Europe.

Artemisia absinthium1

Seedling: Seed leaves are obovate with short petiole ²-1 mm and cuneate base. First pair of leaves is opposite, petiole 1 mm, hairy, elliptically oblong and entire. Stem: The stems are straight, growing to 0.8-1.2 m tall, grooved, branched, and silvery-green with leaves spirally arranged. Leaves: Greenish-grey above and white below, covered with silky silvery-white trichomes, and bearing minute oil-producing glands; the basal leaves are up to 25 cm long, tri-pinnate with long petioles, stem-leaves less divided 5-10 cm long and with short petioles; the uppermost leaves can be both simple and sessile. Flowers: Pale yellow, tubular, and clustered in spherical bent-down flower heads, which are in turn clustered in leafy and branched panicles. Flower season: Early summer to early autumn. Scent: The leaves and shoots are aromatic scented.

Artemisia annua (Sweet Wormwood)

Artemisia vulgaris3

Seedling: Seed leaves reversely egg-shaped, toothed and sessile.

Artemesia annua Artemesia vulgaris2

43 Stem: Brown ascending with alternate leaves, Stem: Erect stem 20œ60 cm, nearly smooth, height 60-120 cm. angular, solid and marked with small brown spots, Leaves: Smooth and dark green on the upper side so as to almost give it the dark purple appearance. and with downy whitish hair at the underside; Leaves: Dark green smooth and sharp-pointed, deeply and irregularly lobed into narrow segments. with coarsely toothed margins, divided into three Flowers: Green or yellowish. Flower heads are in segments, occasionally into five, the centre lobe leafy spikes or clusters with both male and female much larger and also often deeply three-cleft. The flowers. uppermost leaves are sometimes undivided. The Flower season: July œ October. underside scattered hairy. Scent: The leaves are aromatic scented. Flowers: Flowers in terminal cymes, brownish- yellow in colour and somewhat drooping. Artemisia verlotiorum Lamotte (Chinese Flower season: Summer œ autumn. Mugwort) Scent: The flower heads smell like rosin or cedar Chinese mugwort is an herbaceous perennial when burnt. related to and very similar to common mugwort and growing at the same type of habitats. Fumaria officinalis (Common Fumitory or Seedling: Elliptical to reversely egg-shaped, with Earth smoke) rounded tip, sessile. It is an annual herb belonging to the Fumariacea Stem: Green ascending, with downy hairs, height family. It is growing at waste places or near old 40œ120 cm. gardens. Leaves: Smooth and green with upper- and underside alike, lobed, not dentated, but pointed. Lower leaves in pseudo-rosette. Flowers: Reddish. Flower heads are in dense clusters. Flower season: Late autumn.

Scent: The plant is more strongly and pleasantly aromatic than A. vulgaris.

Bidens tripartita (Three-lobe Beggarticks) B. tripartita is an annual herb belonging to the Aster family. It grows in disturbed wet habitats, often temporarily flooded ponds and ditches.

Fumaria officinalisl1

Seedling: Seed leaves entire, linear to lancet- shaped, sessile with a smooth surface, 2.5-3.5 cm long. First pair of leaves alternated, petiole 1œ2 cm deeply divided into three lobes. Bidens tripartita2

Seedling: Seed-leaves smooth, entire, elliptically lanlceolate and petiolated about 10 mm long.

Fumaria officinalis2

Stem: Partially erect or reclaiming, angled, about 10 to 50 cm. Leaves: Light green and finely divided into

irregular narrow segments. Bidens tripartita2

44 Flowers: Pinkish flower with a crimson tip in long racemes. Flower season: May œ September

Senecio jacobaea (Ragwort) Ragwort is perennial (rarely annual) herbaceous belonging to the Aster family. It is found throughout Europe usually in dry, open places, and has also been widely distributed as a weed elsewhere.

Senecio erucifolius1

Seedling: Seed leaves are oblong egg-shaped, base cuneate, petiole 3œ4 mm. First pair of leaves Senecio jacobaea3 is alternate, elliptically oblong, base cuneate.

Stem: Rigid, simple or branched, purple and Seedling: Seed leaves entire and smooth, egg- woolly. The stem is both angular and furrowed with shaped, petiolate about 6 mm. alternating leaves.

Leaves: The rosette-like basal leaves are deeply lobed and toothed. Stem leaves are deeply and narrowly lobed, with the end lobe narrow and pointed. Grayœgreen with cottony gray down at the underside. Flowers: Yellow in umbel-like cluster (raceme), flower heads larger than at common ragwort. Flower season: July œ October. It flowers 4 to 6 weeks after ragwort. Scent: Leaves with an unpleasant smell.

Solidago canadensis (Canadian Goldenrod) and S. gigantea (Giant Goldenrod)

Senecio jacobaea2

Stem: Ascending stem 40-80 cm. Leaves: Green, the rosette-like basal leaves are pinnately lobed with a blunt end lobe. Stem leaves are deeply lobed with a toothed tip and with stem- circumvenient, toothed earlike, often hairy leaves at leaf-basis. Flowers: Flower heads are yellow daisy-like flat- topped in umbel-like cluster. Flower season: June œ October. Scent: Leaves with an unpleasant smell and taste.

Senecio erucifolius (hoary ragweed) Hoary ragweed is an herbaceous perennial belonging to the same family and rather similar to ragwort, but less bushy and greyer, with short creeping runners. It is widespread in parts of Europe mostly growing on sandy soils but also found on clay soil. Solidago canadensis1

45 S. canadensis and S. Gigantea, belonging both to Flowers: Orange, yellow, golden or bi-coloured the Aster family, are native to North America. They flower heads. are two of the oldest ornamental introductions Flower season: Early summer to frost. from North America into Europe. They are very Scent: The flowers of some cultivars have pleasant common and growing in many disturbed sites; citrus-like flavour leaves. along railways, on roadsides, abandoned fields, as well as in forest edges, open forests and on banks Tagetes Erecta of rivers. They are very much alike, but can be Mexican marigold is an annual herb. distinguished by size of flower heads and presents Stem: Erect 0.5œ1.0 m tall with opposite or sub- or non-presents of hair at the stem. opposite leaves. Leaves: Green, oblong, odd-pinnately compound Stem of S. canadensis: Main stem smooth near petiolated with toothed (dentate) margins. the base, downy above, height 0.6œ1.2 m with Flowers: Yellow to orange flower heads. alternating leaves. Scent: Flowers have a strong aroma that deters Stem of S. gigantea: Main stem is smooth, against many garden pests. without hair, height 0.6œ2.0 m. Flower season: Early summer to frost Leaves: Green, long, narrowly lance-shaped, sharply toothed. Tanacetum vulgare (Tansy) Flower of S. canadensis: Yellow borne on Tansy is a perennial herbaceous belonging to the numerous small flower heads œ 3 mm in diameter - Aster family. It is common at roadsides and on that form a broad pyramidal panicle. formerly cultivated ground. Flower of S. gigantea: Like those of S. Canadensis just with bigger flower heads œ 7 mm in diameter. Flower season: July œ October.

Tagetes tenuifolia (Lemon marigold) and T. Erecta (Mexican Marigold) Tagetes tenuifolia and T. erecta are two out of about 60 species of Tagetes native to different parts of America. They are found widespread, grown as ornamental flowers in garden and parks. Tagetes belong to the Aster family; they all have pinnate, green leaves and smaller or larger daisy like flowers, usually yellow, orange or brownish, but a lot of different cultivars have been developed. They are either annual herbs or perennial herbaceous. Most of them have strongly aromatic leaves or flowers.

Tanacetum vulgare1

Seedling: Seed leaves sessile with cuneate base, elliptically oblong. First pair of leaves is opposite, petiole 3-5 mm, pinnatilobated pinnatifid, 5-7 mm. Stem: Erect, stout, somewhat reddish, usually smooth, 50-150 cm tall, branching near the top. Alternating leaves. Leaves: Green 10-15 cm long with short hair, pinnately lobed, deeply divided into about seven pairs of segments that are again divided into smaller lobes having saw-toothed edges. Flowers: Yellow with roundish, flat-topped, buttonlike flower heads in terminal clusters. Flower season: July œ August. Scent: Strong, persistent camphor-like scent. Tagetes Erecta

Tagetes tenuifolia Tanacetum coccineum (Pyrethum Daisy) Stem: Up to 0.8 m tall with opposite or sub- A perennial herbaceous closely related to Tansy. It opposite leaves. is growing at moist soils at meadows and as an Leaves: Green, oblong 6œ8 cm long, finely odd- ornamental in gardens and parks. pinnately compound, petiolated with serrate margins.

46 Stem. Bushy, hairless and with erect stems 40-80 cm. Leaves: Dark green oblong, finely divided, basal leaves. Flower: Daisy-like flower heads up to 10 cm across, with white, pink or red ray florets and yellow disk florets. Flower season: June-July. Scent: Aromatic scented leaves.

Reference 1. LeoMichel, http://www.imagines-plantarum.de/ 2.Planteværnonline http://pvo.planteinfo.dk/cp/Graphics/Name.asp?id =DJF&Language=da&TaskID=1&NameID=68 3. R.M.Buttenschøn

47 12. Appendix

Description of the species ranked alphabetically:

Achillea millefolium (Common Yarrow) Amaranthus retroflexus (Common Amaranth) Common Yarrow belonging to the Aster family is an and A. powellii (Green Amaranth) erect herbaceous perennial plant that has a Two species of the Amaranthus family, A. rhizomatous growth form. It is frequently found in retroflexus and A. powellii are common in most the mildly disturbed soil of grasslands. parts of Europe and have a general —Ambrosia-like“ appearance but are differentiated by leaves and flowers. A. retroflexus and A. powellii are tall annual herbs much alike. They are native to tropical America but are now widespread as introduced species on most continents and growing in a number of habitats.

Achillea millefolium1

Seedling: 2 sessile elliptically oblong, entire seed leaves, glabrous and tip rounded. First pair of leaves are opposite, sessile, oblong and dentated.

Amaranthus retroflexus1

Seedling: Seed leaves are elliptically lanceolate (10-12 mm long) and green to reddish in colour on the upper surface. Lower surfaces have a reddish tint. First pair of leaves alternate, ovate in shape, and are slightly notched at the tip of the leaf blade. Stem: Erect reaching a maximum height near 3 metres, often red especially near the base, with alternately arranged leaves. Leaves: Long-stalked egg-shaped or lance-shaped up to 15 centimetres long on large individuals, with wavy margins and hairs that occur along the veins of the lower leaf surfaces. Flowers: Green in a dense cluster interspersed

Achillea millefolium2 with spiny green bracts. Flower season: Summer œ autumn. Stem: One to several stems 0.2œ1.0 m tall with evenly distributed leaves. Artemisia absinthium (Absinthium) Leaves: Green on the upper side and with whitish It is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the down on the underside 5-20 cm long, lance-shaped Aster family with a hard, woody rhizome. It grows in outline and finely dissected. naturally on uncultivated, arid ground and at the Flowers: White to pink in a flat-topped cluster. edge of footpaths and fields. Flower season: Summer œ autumn. Scent: Leaves with a mildly aromatic scent.

42 Sweet wormwood is an annual herb, belonging to the Aster family, with native range in Asia, but naturalised throughout the world. It prefers habitats with sandy soil and full sun. Stem: Single stem up to about 2 m tall with alternating branches and leaves. Leaves: Light green with a smooth or hairy underside, finely 2-3 pinnately dissected into very narrow short, blunt lobes. The lower and basal leaves are slender-petioled, the upper are sessile and less divided, but none of them entirely. Flowers: Bright yellow. Flower heads are in dense clusters. Flower season: Late summer œ early autumn. Scent: A camphor-like scent.

Artemisia vulgaris (Common Mugwort) Common mugwort is a tall, shrubby herbaceous perennial, belonging to the Aster family. It grows on rich soils on weedy and uncultivated areas and roadsides. It is very common in Europe.

Artemisia absinthium1

Seedling: Seed leaves are obovate with short petiole ²-1 mm and cuneate base. First pair of leaves is opposite, petiole 1 mm, hairy, elliptically oblong and entire. Stem: The stems are straight, growing to 0.8-1.2 m tall, grooved, branched, and silvery-green with leaves spirally arranged. Leaves: Greenish-grey above and white below, covered with silky silvery-white trichomes, and bearing minute oil-producing glands; the basal leaves are up to 25 cm long, tri-pinnate with long petioles, stem-leaves less divided 5-10 cm long and with short petioles; the uppermost leaves can be both simple and sessile. Flowers: Pale yellow, tubular, and clustered in spherical bent-down flower heads, which are in turn clustered in leafy and branched panicles. Flower season: Early summer to early autumn. Scent: The leaves and shoots are aromatic scented.

Artemisia annua (Sweet Wormwood)

Artemisia vulgaris3

Seedling: Seed leaves reversely egg-shaped, toothed and sessile.

Artemesia annua Artemesia vulgaris2

43 Stem: Brown ascending with alternate leaves, Stem: Erect stem 20œ60 cm, nearly smooth, height 60-120 cm. angular, solid and marked with small brown spots, Leaves: Smooth and dark green on the upper side so as to almost give it the dark purple appearance. and with downy whitish hair at the underside; Leaves: Dark green smooth and sharp-pointed, deeply and irregularly lobed into narrow segments. with coarsely toothed margins, divided into three Flowers: Green or yellowish. Flower heads are in segments, occasionally into five, the centre lobe leafy spikes or clusters with both male and female much larger and also often deeply three-cleft. The flowers. uppermost leaves are sometimes undivided. The Flower season: July œ October. underside scattered hairy. Scent: The leaves are aromatic scented. Flowers: Flowers in terminal cymes, brownish- yellow in colour and somewhat drooping. Artemisia verlotiorum Lamotte (Chinese Flower season: Summer œ autumn. Mugwort) Scent: The flower heads smell like rosin or cedar Chinese mugwort is an herbaceous perennial when burnt. related to and very similar to common mugwort and growing at the same type of habitats. Fumaria officinalis (Common Fumitory or Seedling: Elliptical to reversely egg-shaped, with Earth smoke) rounded tip, sessile. It is an annual herb belonging to the Fumariacea Stem: Green ascending, with downy hairs, height family. It is growing at waste places or near old 40œ120 cm. gardens. Leaves: Smooth and green with upper- and underside alike, lobed, not dentated, but pointed. Lower leaves in pseudo-rosette. Flowers: Reddish. Flower heads are in dense clusters. Flower season: Late autumn.

Scent: The plant is more strongly and pleasantly aromatic than A. vulgaris.

Bidens tripartita (Three-lobe Beggarticks) B. tripartita is an annual herb belonging to the Aster family. It grows in disturbed wet habitats, often temporarily flooded ponds and ditches.

Fumaria officinalisl1

Seedling: Seed leaves entire, linear to lancet- shaped, sessile with a smooth surface, 2.5-3.5 cm long. First pair of leaves alternated, petiole 1œ2 cm deeply divided into three lobes. Bidens tripartita2

Seedling: Seed-leaves smooth, entire, elliptically lanlceolate and petiolated about 10 mm long.

Fumaria officinalis2

Stem: Partially erect or reclaiming, angled, about 10 to 50 cm. Leaves: Light green and finely divided into

irregular narrow segments. Bidens tripartita2

44 Flowers: Pinkish flower with a crimson tip in long racemes. Flower season: May œ September

Senecio jacobaea (Ragwort) Ragwort is perennial (rarely annual) herbaceous belonging to the Aster family. It is found throughout Europe usually in dry, open places, and has also been widely distributed as a weed elsewhere.

Senecio erucifolius1

Seedling: Seed leaves are oblong egg-shaped, base cuneate, petiole 3œ4 mm. First pair of leaves Senecio jacobaea3 is alternate, elliptically oblong, base cuneate.

Stem: Rigid, simple or branched, purple and Seedling: Seed leaves entire and smooth, egg- woolly. The stem is both angular and furrowed with shaped, petiolate about 6 mm. alternating leaves.

Leaves: The rosette-like basal leaves are deeply lobed and toothed. Stem leaves are deeply and narrowly lobed, with the end lobe narrow and pointed. Grayœgreen with cottony gray down at the underside. Flowers: Yellow in umbel-like cluster (raceme), flower heads larger than at common ragwort. Flower season: July œ October. It flowers 4 to 6 weeks after ragwort. Scent: Leaves with an unpleasant smell.

Solidago canadensis (Canadian Goldenrod) and S. gigantea (Giant Goldenrod)

Senecio jacobaea2

Stem: Ascending stem 40-80 cm. Leaves: Green, the rosette-like basal leaves are pinnately lobed with a blunt end lobe. Stem leaves are deeply lobed with a toothed tip and with stem- circumvenient, toothed earlike, often hairy leaves at leaf-basis. Flowers: Flower heads are yellow daisy-like flat- topped in umbel-like cluster. Flower season: June œ October. Scent: Leaves with an unpleasant smell and taste.

Senecio erucifolius (hoary ragweed) Hoary ragweed is an herbaceous perennial belonging to the same family and rather similar to ragwort, but less bushy and greyer, with short creeping runners. It is widespread in parts of Europe mostly growing on sandy soils but also found on clay soil. Solidago canadensis1

45 S. canadensis and S. Gigantea, belonging both to Flowers: Orange, yellow, golden or bi-coloured the Aster family, are native to North America. They flower heads. are two of the oldest ornamental introductions Flower season: Early summer to frost. from North America into Europe. They are very Scent: The flowers of some cultivars have pleasant common and growing in many disturbed sites; citrus-like flavour leaves. along railways, on roadsides, abandoned fields, as well as in forest edges, open forests and on banks Tagetes Erecta of rivers. They are very much alike, but can be Mexican marigold is an annual herb. distinguished by size of flower heads and presents Stem: Erect 0.5œ1.0 m tall with opposite or sub- or non-presents of hair at the stem. opposite leaves. Leaves: Green, oblong, odd-pinnately compound Stem of S. canadensis: Main stem smooth near petiolated with toothed (dentate) margins. the base, downy above, height 0.6œ1.2 m with Flowers: Yellow to orange flower heads. alternating leaves. Scent: Flowers have a strong aroma that deters Stem of S. gigantea: Main stem is smooth, against many garden pests. without hair, height 0.6œ2.0 m. Flower season: Early summer to frost Leaves: Green, long, narrowly lance-shaped, sharply toothed. Tanacetum vulgare (Tansy) Flower of S. canadensis: Yellow borne on Tansy is a perennial herbaceous belonging to the numerous small flower heads œ 3 mm in diameter - Aster family. It is common at roadsides and on that form a broad pyramidal panicle. formerly cultivated ground. Flower of S. gigantea: Like those of S. Canadensis just with bigger flower heads œ 7 mm in diameter. Flower season: July œ October.

Tagetes tenuifolia (Lemon marigold) and T. Erecta (Mexican Marigold) Tagetes tenuifolia and T. erecta are two out of about 60 species of Tagetes native to different parts of America. They are found widespread, grown as ornamental flowers in garden and parks. Tagetes belong to the Aster family; they all have pinnate, green leaves and smaller or larger daisy like flowers, usually yellow, orange or brownish, but a lot of different cultivars have been developed. They are either annual herbs or perennial herbaceous. Most of them have strongly aromatic leaves or flowers.

Tanacetum vulgare1

Seedling: Seed leaves sessile with cuneate base, elliptically oblong. First pair of leaves is opposite, petiole 3-5 mm, pinnatilobated pinnatifid, 5-7 mm. Stem: Erect, stout, somewhat reddish, usually smooth, 50-150 cm tall, branching near the top. Alternating leaves. Leaves: Green 10-15 cm long with short hair, pinnately lobed, deeply divided into about seven pairs of segments that are again divided into smaller lobes having saw-toothed edges. Flowers: Yellow with roundish, flat-topped, buttonlike flower heads in terminal clusters. Flower season: July œ August. Scent: Strong, persistent camphor-like scent. Tagetes Erecta

Tagetes tenuifolia Tanacetum coccineum (Pyrethum Daisy) Stem: Up to 0.8 m tall with opposite or sub- A perennial herbaceous closely related to Tansy. It opposite leaves. is growing at moist soils at meadows and as an Leaves: Green, oblong 6œ8 cm long, finely odd- ornamental in gardens and parks. pinnately compound, petiolated with serrate margins.

46 Stem. Bushy, hairless and with erect stems 40-80 cm. Leaves: Dark green oblong, finely divided, basal leaves. Flower: Daisy-like flower heads up to 10 cm across, with white, pink or red ray florets and yellow disk florets. Flower season: June-July. Scent: Aromatic scented leaves.

Reference 1. LeoMichel, http://www.imagines-plantarum.de/ 2.Planteværnonline http://pvo.planteinfo.dk/cp/Graphics/Name.asp?id =DJF&Language=da&TaskID=1&NameID=68 3. R.M.Buttenschøn

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