University of Florida Thesis Or Dissertation Formatting

TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT SURVIVAL AND ACTIVITY LEVEL OF FOUR SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE SPECIES (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE)

RUNXIN CAO

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2013

To my parents and fiancé, for their endless love

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express all my gratitude to Nan-Yao Su for accepting me in his laboratory and guiding me on the scientific road with his patience, encouragement and direction over the last two years. Doing research on termite under his supervision is the most important opportunity for my academic career and changes my whole life. I could never imagine what kind of person I would be if I didn’t meet him. He was a precious source of inspiration and motivation. It is he who let me know exactly how to become an excellent graduate student and entomologist.

I could not have finished my work without advice and guidance from my committee members: Dr. William H. Kern Jr. and Dr. Kimberly A. Moore. All my colleagues and friends in FLREC, UF, helped me and encouraged me during the two years. I thank Aaron J. Mullins and Ronald E. Pipin for technical support and Nurmastini

S. Bujang for termite identification assistance. I also thank Thomas Chouvenc and Paul

M. Bardunias for the discussion on my research and thesis writing. John Zukowski helped me to do termite collection. Garima Kakkar, Ling Xin and He Du provided me with lots of academic information. I thank Sarah Kern and Joanne Korvick for helping me to live a better life in the new environment.

Last but not the least, I am forever grateful to my parents who provided understanding, support and encouragement when times were tough; as I was so far away from them in the past a few years. They always give me courage to realize my dream and pursue the life I want. I also want to express all my gratitude to my fiancé,

Tianqi Li (He still owes me an official proposal at this moment…), who has been the most supportive, the most patient, the most caring, and the most willing to spend time on my stuff in the past two years.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 4

LIST OF TABLES ...... 7

LIST OF FIGURES ...... 8

ABSTRACT ...... 10

CHAPTER

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 12

Economic Impact ...... 12 Distribution ...... 12 Hypotheses ...... 14 Objectives ...... 14

2 TEMPERATURE PREFERENCE OF FOUR SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE SPECIES (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE) ...... 16

Introduction ...... 16 Materials and Methods...... 17 Results and Discussion...... 19

3 EFFECT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE ON SURVIVAL AND WOOD- CONSUMPTION RATE OF FOUR SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE SPECIES (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE) ...... 29

Introduction ...... 29 Materials and Methods...... 30 Results and Discussion...... 31 Termite Survival ...... 31 Wood-Consumption Rate ...... 36

4 EFFECT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE ON TUNNEL DEVELOPMENT AND FOOD TRANSPORTATION OF FOUR SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE SPCIES (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE) ...... 44

Introduction ...... 44 Materials and Methods...... 45 Results and Discussion...... 48 Time Required to Reach Food ...... 48 Tunneling Area Development ...... 48 The Number of Moved Food Particles ...... 52

The Total Distance of Moved Food Particles ...... 53

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ...... 62

LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 67

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 77

LIST OF TABLES

Table page

2-1 Cold and hot boundaries of live and active termites of four subterranean termite species at 10 min...... 25

2-2 Total number of active termites (b) on the bridge and mean temperature preference value (mTPV) of four subterranean termite species...... 25

3-1 Survivorships (%) of four subterranean termite species at 28 d...... 40

3-2 Wood-consumption rate (mg worker/g termite/day) of four subterranean termite species after 28 d...... 40

4-1 Time required to reach food by four subterranean termite species...... 54

4-2 Tunnel area (cm2) of four subterranean termite species at 12 h...... 55

4-3 Tunnel area (cm2) of four subterranean termite species at 48 h...... 55

4-4 Newly-developed tunnel area (cm2) by laboratory groups of four subterranean termite species...... 56

4-5 Number of food particles transported by four subterranean termite species 6 h after they reached food...... 57

4-6 Distance of food particles transported by four subterranean termite species 6 h after they reached food (mm)...... 57

5-1 Economic impact of termite during the last half century ...... 66

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page

1-1 Northern distribution boundaries of these four subterranean termite species in the US...... 15

2-1 An aluminum bridge device modified from Smith and Rust (1993) formed temperature gradient...... 25

2-2 Average number of live and active C. gestroi in each temperature zone on the bridge surface...... 26

2-3 Average number of live and active C. formosanus in each temperature zone on the bridge surface...... 26

2-4 Average number of live and active R.virginicus in each temperature zone on the bridge surface...... 27

2-5 Average number of live and active R.flavipes in each temperature zone on the bridge surface...... 27

2-6 Northern distribution boundaries of four subterranean termite species in mean daily minimum ambient temperature map of US (with isothermal lines). .. 28

3-1 Distribution of C.formosanus and C. gestroi on the global scare and the southern distribution boundaries for R. flavipes and R. virginicus in North America (modified from Rust and Su 2012)...... 41

3-2 Distribution of C. formosanus and C. gestroi in Florida map (modified from Scheffrahn and Su 2005; Li et al. 2009; Scheffrahn et al. 2013, unpublished data) with January average temperature isothermal lines...... 42

3-3 Ambient temperature, soil temperature and temperature in R. flavipes bucket trap in Secret Woods Park, Plantation, FL (Cao and Su 2013, unpublished data)...... 42

3-4 Ambient temperature, soil temperature and temperature in R. flavipes bucket trap in Secret Woods Park, Plantation, FL (Cao and Su 2013, unpublished data)...... 43

3-5 Ambient temperature, soil temperature and temperature in R. flavipes bucket trap in Secret Woods Park, Plantation, FL (Cao and Su 2013, unpublished data)...... 43

4-1 Two-dimensional arenas set up based on Chouvenc et al. (2011)...... 58

4-2 Tunnel pattern (with termites) at 48h (sample) (Photo by Runxin Cao) ...... 59

4-3 Tunnel development of C. gestroi within 48 h (cm2)...... 60

4-4 Tunnel development of C. formosanus within 48 h (cm2)...... 60

4-5 Tunnel development of R. virginicus within 48 h (cm2)...... 61

4-6 Tunnel development of R. flavipes within 48 h (cm2)...... 61

Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT SURVIVAL AND ACTIVITY LEVEL OF FOUR SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE SPECIES (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE)

Runxin Cao

August 2013

Chair: Nan-Yao Su Major: Entomology and Nematology

Temperature is an important factor that affects the survivorship and activity level of subterranean termites. This study is initiated to examine temperature preference of

Coptotermes formosanus, C. gestroi, Reticulitermes virginicus and R. flavipes and the effect of temperature on their survival and activity under the same laboratory conditions.

Termites’ response to temperature gradient was studied on an aluminum bridge device with temperature gradients. The number of termites in each temperature zone was calculated. The data showed that the distribution pattern of R. flavipes and R. virginicus were more skewed toward the colder side of the bridge surface, while C. formosanus and C. gestroi were more skewed toward warmer side. This result generally suggests that Reticulitermes spp preferred colder temperature than Coptotermes spp.

The effect of temperature on survival and wood-consumption rate of four species of subterranean termite was also examined. The experiment was conducted in incubators at 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35°C under ≈99% relative humidity (RH) in constant darkness. The results showed that in the intermediate temperatures of 20 and 25°C , the survival and wood-consumption rate were not significantly different among four species,

while at the extreme temperature of 10, 15, 35°C, both variables were significantly different among species.

Finally the effect of soil temperature on tunneling speed and food transportation of these four species of subterranean termite was examined at 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35°C using two-dimensional arenas. Tunneling speed was calculated and plotted, and the time required for termites to reach the food was recorded. The number of food particles and the distance of particles being moved 6 h after they reached the food were recorded. The result indicated that tunneling activities of subterranean termite species increased with the rise in temperature in certain temperature range, though the tunneling activities of some combinations of temperature and species did not show significant differences from each other.

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Economic Impact

Termites play an important role as decomposers in ecological system due to their ability to digest celluloses (Collins 1981; Genet et al. 2001; Holt and Lepage 2000), but they are considered pests when they damage structural lumbers or any plant materials used by humans. According to Edwards and Mill (1986) and Rust and Su (2012), 80 termite species were considered serious pests and subterranean termites accounted for

38 species, with the genus Coptotermes containing the largest number of species followed by Reticulitermes and Odototermes. It was estimated that $32 billion were spent in 2010 worldwide for control and damage repairs of subterranean termites (Rust and Su 2012).

Distribution

Each termite species has its own geographic distribution pattern. Two

Coptotermes spp., Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki and C. gestroi Wasmann are economically important species that cause serious structural damage on the global scale. Probably originating from southern China (Kistner 1985), Formosan subterranean termite, C. formosanus, is primarily found in the subtropical and temperate regions (Su and Tamashiro 1987). It is believed that C. formosanus was introduced to Hawaii before the beginning of 20th century (Su and Tamashiro 1987; Tamashito et al. 1987; Yates and Tamashiro 1990). Coptotermes formosanus is distributed in many areas of the

Unites States, including Alabama (Hu and Oi 2004), Florida (Koehler 1980), Georgia

(Borstein 1993; Forschler et al. 2000), Hawaii (Tamashito et al. 1987), Louisiana (Spink

1967; Messenger, et al., 2002; Brown, et al., 2007), Mississippi (Jarrat 1999; Jarrat

2000; Sun et al. 2007), North and South Carolina (Beal 1967; Chamber et al. 1988;

Horne 1998; Hawthorne et al. 2000), Tennessee (Su and Tamashiro 1987), Texas (Beal

1967; Gold et al. 1999), and Virginia (Woodson, et al., 2001; Su 2003; Cabrera et al.

2005) (Figure 1-1).

Unlike C. formosanus, C. gestroi is distributed primarily in the tropic and subtropic areas (Su 2003). Known as the Asian subterranean termite, C. gestroi is believed to have originated in the Indo-Malayan region (Kirton and Brown 2003) and has been reported in Brazil (Araujo 1958), Caribbean Islands (Scheffrahn et al. 1999),

Mauritius, Mexico, Polynesia, Reunion (Scheffrahn et al. 1999; Su 2003; Jenkins et al.

2007; Scheffrahn and Su, 2008), Taiwan (Tsai and Chen 2003), and Puerto Rico

(Scheffrahn et al. 2003). In the US, it is found in Florida (Scheffrahn and Su 2005) and

Hawaii (Ehrhorn and Kofoid 1934) (Figure 1-2). In Peninsular Malaysia, over 80% of structural infestation is caused by C. gestroi (Kirton and Azmi 2005)

The genus Reticulitermes contains 10 species of termite pests (Rust and Su

2012). The eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) is the most common and widely distributed subterranean termite in the United States (Su and

Scheffrahn 1990). Contrary to previous assumptions, another species of the genus

Reticulitermes, R. virginicus (Banks) also infests a large number of structures (Su and

Scheffrahn 1990). Scheffrahn et al. (1988) claimed that in Florida, R. virginicus was found almost as frequently in structures as R. flavipes. Both two species are distributed in many areas of the eastern United State and cause serious damage to structural lumber in these areas (Su and Scheffrahn 1990). They were both reported in Alabama,

Arkansas (Austin et al. 2004c), Florida (Scheffrahn and Su 2005), Georgia, Indiana

(Wang et al. 2009), Kentucky, Louisiana (Messenger et al. 2002, Austin et al. 2004c),

Maryland, Mississippi (Howard et al. 1982; Wang et al. 2003), North and South

Carolina, Oklahoma (Austin et al. 2004b), Tennessee, Texas (Austin et al. 2004a) and

Virginia (Bank and Snyder 1920; Light 1934; Light and Pickens 1934; Snyder 1934;

Banks 1946; Snyder 1949; Weesner 1965; 1970). In addition, R.flavipes is also found in

Colorado, Illinoi, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, New Mexico, New York, Ohio,

Oregon, etc. (McKern et al. 2006; http://www.termite.com/termites/eastern- subterranean-termite.html) (Figure 1-1).

Hypotheses

In addition to the differences in their distributions, termite activity change with seasons (Haverty et al. 1974; Su 1991; Evan and Gleeson 2001). Temperature is a general limiting factor for geographic distribution of many organisms, and temperature tolerance and preference, as shown in previous studies (Li et al. 2009; 2013) can be used to predict termite distribution. Our two hypotheses are:

1. Temperature affected geographic distribution of subterranean termite species.

2. Temperature affected seasonal activity of termites.

Objectives

In order to test the first hypothesis, survival and temperature preference were measured and the data were used to examine the relationship between temperature and geographic distributions of these four subterranean termite species. Three variables were used to measure the activity of these subterranean termite species for the second hypothesis, including wood-consumption rate, tunnel development and food transportation. Three experiments were conducted to examine the effect of temperature on these five variables.

1. To record the temperature range where live and/or active termites were found on a thermal gradient

2. To examine the effect of temperature on termite survival

3. To determine the effect of temperature on wood-consumption rate

4. To study the effect of temperature on tunnel development

5. To examine the effect of temperature on food transportation

Objective 1 was tested by “bridge experiment” described in Chapter 2. Objective

2 and 3 were tested by “glass jar experiment” described in Chapter 3. Objective 4 and 5 were tested by “arena experiment” described in Chapter 4.

Figure 1-1. Northern distribution boundaries of these four subterranean termite species in the US.

CHAPTER 2 TEMPERATURE PREFERENCE OF FOUR SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE SPECIES (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE)

Introduction

Kofoid (1934) suggested that temperature is one of the important abiotic factors that determine the establishment of a termite colony. Numerous studies have examined the effects of temperature on termite activity, but most were conducted at different temperatures (Haverty and Nutting 1976; Fei and Henderson 2002; 2004; Nakayama et al. 2004; Gautam and Henderson 2011; Wiltz 2012), and only a few studies examined termites’ response to a thermal gradient. Thermal gradients can be generated by using laboratory device to study temperature tolerance and preference of termites.

Ikehara (1980) first reported the response of eight termite species in Ryukyu

Islands, including C. formosanus and Odototermes formosanus (Shiraki), etc., to thermal gradients. Temperature preferences of these termite species were reported in the study, though the exact definition of temperature preference was not provided.

Ikehara (1980) suggested that cold temperature tolerances of these eight termite species are closely related to their distribution on multiple islands with different winter minimum temperatures. The temperature preference of western subterranean termite,

Reticulitermes hesperus Banks, on the thermal gradient was reported by Smith and

Rust (1993) using a similar experimental device to that of Ikehara (1980). When exposed to a temperature gradient of 26-47°C , R. hesperus preferred temperature range of 29-32°C . Smith and Rust (1993) put forward the concept of mean temperature preference value (mTPV) to quantify temperature preference of termites on the temperature gradient. Cabrera and Rust (1996) demonstrated the behavioral responses to a thermal gradient by western drywood termite, Incisitermes minor (Hagen), using a

device modified from Ikehara (1980). As termite individuals are exposed to the open air during the experiment, temperature gradient device used to study drywood termites may not be suitable for subterranean termites, because subterranean termites rely on soil or mud tubes to keep humidity and the unfavorable moisture level in the open air on the device may negatively affect the activity of subterranean termites.

Although the environment on the thermal gradient device may be different from that in the soil, the study of responses to a thermal gradient by four subterranean termite species, C. formosanus, C. gestroi, R. virginicus and R. flavipes, could provide important information about their temperature preferences. This study was initiated to examine their temperature avoidance and preferences of these four species on a thermal gradient.

Materials and Methods

Termites from three colonies each of C. formosanus, C. gestroi, R. virginicus and

R. flavipes were collected from Broward County in Florida, with the method of Su and

Scheffrahn (1986). Collected termites were held in 720 ml cans with wood blocks

(Spruce, Picea sp.) (2.0 x 2.0 x 2.0 cm) and moistened play sand at 28°C before testing.

Termites’ response to temperature gradient was studied by using an aluminum bridge device modified from Ikehara (1980). The device consisted of an aluminum strip

(100.0 x 5.0 x 0.5 cm) with two ends bent vertically down 20 cm (Fig 2-1), resulting in a surface area of 60 x 5 cm. To obtain a temperature gradient along the length of the bridge, one 20 cm end was soaked in ice water (≈0°C ), while another end was in boiling water (≈100°C ). The surface of experiment area was divided into 12 square temperature zones of 5 x 5 cm. A non-contact infrared (IR) thermometer

(Extech Instruments, Massachusetts, USA) was used to measure temperature of each zone for each test. As the temperature of bridge surface was always changing, temperature of each zone for each test was measured twice, at the beginning and end of the test, respectively, and the average was used to represent temperature of each zone.

One hundred and twenty termites (108 workers, undifferentiated larvae of at least the 3rd instar, and 12 soldiers for Coptotermes spp. and 128 workers and 2 soldiers for

Reticulitermes spp.) from a termite colony were used as an experimental group. A group of termites were released in the middle of bridge surface to observe their movement and distribution. Videos were taken to record termite movement and distribution for 15 min for each colony with a digital camera (Canon Powershot S45; Canon, Tokyo, Japan).

When reviewing the video clips, moving termites were considered active individuals, and live termites included active individuals and those that were alive but not moving. Within extremely cold zones of the temperature gradient, active termites were found to be immobilized by the cold temperature. The cold and hot boundaries of active termites and live termites were recorded at 10 min for each test, and 6 tests were conducted for each species (2 subsamples x 3 colonies). Therefore eventually 6 temperature ranges were recorded for each species Temperature ranges of live termites might help to explain the geographic distribution of the species, while the temperature ranges of active termites might indicate that within certain regions, although the termite species is distributed there, activity of termites may be reduced during the cold period of the year. The number of live and active termites within each zone was counted at 1.5 min interval for 15 min. One count was considered as a

pseudo-replicate, and the mean of 10 pseudo-replicates was considered to be a replicate. Means of 6 replicates (2 subsamples x 3 colonies) for each species was plotted against temperature.

Smith and Rust (1993) first put forward the concept of mean temperature preference value (mTPV) and use this variable to measure the temperature preference of termite. An mTPV was calculated for each test to represent the temperature at which the majority of termites were found in the temperature gradient. mTPV for each test was

∑ calculated using the following equation: mTPV= , where a is the average number of

active termites of the 10 pseudo-replicates in each temperature zone, and t is the average value of two temperatures of each temperature zone measured at the beginning and end of the test. b is the total number of active termites on the bridge of each test. mTPVs (n=6) for each species were analyzed using one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA). Significant differences among species were separated by Tukey’s

Least Significant Difference (HSD) (α=0.05) using statistical software JMP 10.0 (SAS

Institute 1998).

Results and Discussion

The result showed the temperature ranges of live individuals of C. gestroi, C. formosanus, R. virginicus and R. flavipes were 9.4-39.0°C , 5.2-38.7°C , 4.1-37.1°C and

3.4-34.6°C ,and the temperature ranges of active individuals of C. gestroi, C. formosanus, R. virginicus and R. flavipes were 13.0-38.6°C , 9.3-38.1°C , 8.2-36.7°C and

5.2-34.0°C , respectively (Table 2-1). For C. gestroi, both active and live individuals were found in the highest temperature among the four species, and for R. flavipes, both active and live individuals were found in the lowest temperature among the four species.

Cold temperature could immobilize termites but did not kill termites in the short period of time of the experiment. Extremely high temperature resulted in termite mortality.

More live and active C. gestroi were found in the warmer temperature zone of>27.2°C on the thermal gradient (Figure 2-2). In the temperature zone of 9.4-10.5°C , all individuals were immobilized resulting in “live” but not “active” termite counts. As the inactive termites accumulated in this area, it became harder for newly-entered individuals to move out. Within the temperature range of 10.5-13.5°C , only half of the termites were able to move and only at a very low speed. The largest number of termites (23 individuals on average) was recorded in temperature zone of 33.5-38.5°C .

The result concurred with the tropical distribution of C.gestroi. According to Scheffrahn and Su (2005) and Li et al. (2009), the overlapping area of C.gestroi and C. formosanus in Florida lied between 25.5 and 27 °N. Although Florida is further north than Taiwan and Hawaii, average January temperatures were similar among the areas where these two species co-exist (Henry et al. 1994; Li et al. 2009). This may be the evidence that low temperature was a limiting factor for the northern geographic boundary of C.gestroi.

More live and active C. formosanus were distributed in the warmer temperature zone of >27.5°C on the thermal gradient (Figure 2-3), with the largest number of C. formosanus found in the temperature zone of 29.5-35.7°C . Within the low temperature range of 4.8-5.0°C , termites moved at a very low speed if they moved at all.

Temperature range of 32-35.5°C was favorable to C.formosanus. The result coincided with the subtropical and temperate distribution of C.formosanus. Ikehara (1980), who reported preferred temperatures of eight termite species, indicated that daily minimum

temperature in the nests of these species dictate the northern limit of geographic distribution of these termites in Ryukyu Islands.

The distribution of active and live R.virginicus were generally skewed towards the cold temperature zone of <25.4°C on the thermal gradient (Figure 2-4). Once termites were released in the center of the bridge surface (temperature range of 23.4-27.5°C ), over 50% individuals moved towards the cold side, indicating that R.virginicus presented avoidance of the warm temperature. Temperature zone of 4.1-11°C accounted for the highest proportion of individuals, but about half of them were immobilized due to cold temperature. The number of inactive individuals remained at lower temperature of <11°C increased over time as it became crowed and hard for individuals to move out. The result did not necessarily indicate preference of cold temperature lower than 11°C , but R.virginicus did not avoid this cold temperature zone and once they moved in, they were simply immobilized. Termites entered temperature zone of 30-37.1°C usually left the area very quickly. All of the individuals that stayed in area with temperature > 37.1°C died eventually. The result suggested that R.virginicus preferred the cold temperature <25.4°C rather than the warmer temperature >25.4°C , and this may be the reason why this species is widely reported in northern US.

The distribution of R.flavipes were more skewed towards the cold temperature

<25.5°C than R.virginicus on the thermal gradient (Figure 2-5). When released on the bridge surface at the beginning of the experiment, most of R.flavipes individuals moved towards the cold side, indicating their avoidance of warm temperature. Their movement slowed down as they moved towards lower temperature zone. The average number of active termites in temperature zone 2.4-9.5°C was 49, which accounted for 45.4% of

active individuals. This result did not necessarily indicate their preference of cold temperature lower than 9.5°C , but it indicated their lack of avoidance of cold temperature. As they entered the cold zone, they were slowed and could not leave the zone. The proportion of active R.flavipes in warm temperature zone was the lowest among the four subterranean termite species. All R.flavipes died where temperature was higher than 34.6°C . During the experiment, as time passed, fewer and fewer termite reached the warm side of the bridge because many individuals were trapped in temperature zone <9°C . Other randomly-moving individuals mainly distributed in medium temperature areas. The result demonstrated the preference of cold temperature over the warm temperature and suggested poor heat tolerance of

R.flavipes.

mTPVs of these four subterranean termite species and total numbers of active termites on the bridge are shown in Table 2-2. The numbers of active termites on the bridge exceeded 100 for all species expect R. virginicus for 86± 2.10, as the proportion of active to live individuals was low in temperature range of 4.1-11.0°C . mTPVs were significantly different among species (F= 373.49; df= 3, 193; P<0.0001). There was no significant difference between mTPVs of C. gestroi and C. formosanus, indicating that temperature preferred by these two species overlapped with each other. R. flavipes and

R. virginicus prefer significantly colder temperature than C. formosanus and C. gestroi. mTPV of R. flavipes was significantly lower than that of R. virginicus. Compared to R. virginicus, individuals of R. flavipes were more active at lower temperature range. mTPV was a index of temperature preference of different termite species, and the result of this study coincided with the northern distribution boundaries of the four subterranean

termite species (Figure 1-1, 1-2, 1-3 and 1-4). C. gestroi is the only species among the four that is found in Puerto Rico, a typical trophic region, although it also has large distribution area overlapped with C. formosanus. The other three species have never been reported in Puerto Rico, probably because the temperature is too high for them to survive. The northern distribution boundaries of C. formosanus and R. virginicus are located between 33-43°N, while that of R. flavipes is far north to Canada.

Northern distribution boundaries of the four subterranean termite species coincided with the mean daily minimum ambient temperature map of US (with isothermal lines). The northern distribution boundary of C. formosanus is located between 7.2 and 10°C isothermal lines, except no report of C. formosanus was made in

Oklahoma and Arizona, which may be too dry. The cold temperature limitation of active

C. formosanus in this study was 9.3°C , which falls into the temperature range of 7.2-

10°C , indicating mean minimum temperature might be the limiting factor for activity of C. formosanus. The northern distribution boundary of R. virginicus is generally located between 4.4 and 7.2°C isothermal lines, expect that mean minimum temperatures of north Indiana and Pennsylvania are lower than 4.4°C . The cold temperature limitations of live and active R. virginicus in this study were 4.1 and 8.2°C , respectively, which concurred with the isothermal range. Ohio, Illinois and Missouri probably have R. virginicus infestation in some areas. R. flavipes can tolerant cold temperatures as low as 2.4°C , showing the best cold temperature tolerance among the four, and this may explain their largest geographic distribution in US. The reason why they can survive in isothermal range of 0-4.4°C is probably that the lowest temperature in the soil is always higher than ambient temperature (Ikahara 1980; Cao and Su, 2013, unpublished data).

There is only a small area in south Florida infested by C. gestroi, where the mean minimum ambient temperature is higher than 15.6°C . In this study, individuals of C. gestroi were active only at temperature higher than 13.0°C . Florida is the only known location in continental US where C. formosanus and C. gestroi are sympatric, generally because the temperature and subtropical climate overlap here .Li et al. (2009) reported that C. gestroi distributes from Taichung City to (24°N) southern tip of Taiwan (22°N), where the January mean minimum temperature is higher than 12°C (data from The

Climate Source, Inc). C. formosanus was reported in area with January mean minimum temperature higher than 9°C . In summary, Reticulitermes spp. appeared to prefer colder temperature than Coptotermes spp. R.flavipes had the best cold tolerance among the four subterranean termite species, while C. gestroi was most heat tolerant. The results agreed with the northern limit of their geographic distribution in North America, indicating that cold tolerance may be the main factor that affected northern distribution boundaries. Temperature gradient experiment was a good method of studying temperature tolerance and preference of termites. The lowest temperatures for active individuals of these four subterranean termite species recorded in present study coincided with the mean minimum temperatures of their northern distribution boundaries, and therefore temperature is believed to be the limiting factor for geographic distribution of these four subterranean termite species.

Table 2-1. Cold and hot boundaries of live and active termites of four subterranean termite species at 10 min. Values are presented as means ± SEs (n=6). (°C ) C. gestroi C. formosanus R. virginicus R. flavipes Active termites Cold boundary 13.0 ± 0.18 9.3 ± 0.23 8.2 ± 0.21 5.2 ± 0.20 Hot boundary 38.6 ± 0.19 38.1 ± 0.10 36.7 ± 0.06 34.0 ± 0.09 Live termites Cold boundary 9.4 ± 0.07 5.2 ± 0.05 4.1 ± 0.04 3.4 ± 0.08 Hot boundary 39.0 ± 0.21 38.7 ± 0.14 37.1 ± 0.21 34.6 ± 0.13

Table 2-2. Total number of active termites (b) on the bridge and mean temperature preference value (mTPV) of four subterranean termite species. Values are presented as means ± SEs. Within a row means of mTPVs with the letter are not statistically different (p<0.05) (Owo-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD tests, α=0.05, n=6). C. gestroi C. formosanus R. virginicus R. flavipes b 101 ± 1.59 102 ± 1.30 86 ± 2.10 108 ± 1.32 mTPV (°C ) 28.13 ± 0.42a 25.60 ± 0.60a 21.21 ± 0.64b 15.24 ± 0.96c

Figure 2-1. An aluminum bridge device modified from (Ikehara 1980) formed temperature gradient. One end of the 60cm bridge contacted ice water and another with boiling water. Termite number and activity was recorded by video camera within 12 temperature zones (5 x 5 cm) on the bridge surface.

24 22 Number of live termites 20 Number of active termites 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Temperature range (°C)

Figure 2-2. Average number of live and active C. gestroi in each temperature zone on the bridge surface. Values are presented as means ± SEs.

18 Number of live termites 16 Number of active termites 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Temperature range (°C)

Figure 2-3. Average number of live and active C. formosanus in each temperature zone on the bridge surface. Values are presented as means ± SEs.

28 Number of live termites 24 Number of active termites 20

Temperature range (°C)

Figure 2-4. Average number of live and active R.virginicus in each temperature zone on the bridge surface. Values are presented as means ± SEs.

50 Number of live termites

40 Number of active termites

Temperature range (°C)

Figure 2-5. Average number of live and active R.flavipes in each temperature zone on the bridge surface. Values are presented as means ± SEs.

Figure 2-6. Northern distribution boundaries of four subterranean termite species in mean daily minimum ambient temperature map of US (with isothermal lines). Temperature data referred to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellite database of 1961-1990.

CHAPTER 3 EFFECT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE ON SURVIVAL AND WOOD-CONSUMPTION RATE OF FOUR SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE SPECIES (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE)

Introduction

Subterranean termites forage mainly in soil, and soil temperature affects microclimate of subterranean termite nest, which is regulated to maintain a favorable environment (Mackay et al. 1986; Wood 1988). The minimum temperature in soil is always several degrees higher than minimum air temperature (Ikehara 1980), and texture of soil as well as other substances affect soil temperature (Ettershank et al.

1980). Haverty et al. (1974) reported that foraging intensity of Heterotermes aureus

(Snyder) increases in the spring and fall but decreased during the winter months in desert grassland. Mackay et al. (1986) reported that soil temperature affects arthropod communities, including a subterranean termite species Gnathamitermes tubiformans

(Buckley), in the northern Chihuahuan desert of New Mexico. The hypothesis of this chapter was that soil temperature affects geographic distribution of C. formosanus, C. gestroi, R. virginicus and R. flavipes as well as their seasonal changes in activity within a certain region.

Survival and wood-consumption have been used to quantify termite activity under both laboratory and field conditions (Haverty and Nutting 1976; Sornnuwat et al.

1995), and are known to be affected by a number of factors, including ambient temperature (Nakayama et al. 2004; Fei and Henderson 2002; Wiltz 2012), humidity

(Green et al. 2005; Wong and Lee 2010; Gautam and Henderson 2011; Wiltz 2012), the wood species they feed on (Smythe and Carter 1969; Su and Tamashiro 1986) and soldier proportion (Su and La Fage 1987; Fei and Henderson 2002). Soil temperature,

is more likely to affect activity of subterranean termite than ambient temperature

(Johnson and Whiteford 1975). Although studies on these factors have been done, they were often conducted independently, making a comparison difficult.

This study was initiated to examine the effect of soil temperature on survival and wood-consumption rate of C. formosanus, C. gestroi, R. virginicus and R. flavipes under the same laboratory conditions. This information may help to explain the effect of soil temperature on termite geographic distribution and their seasonal activities.

Materials and Methods

Termites from three colonies each of C. formosanus, C. gestroi, R. flavipes and

R. virginicus were collected from Broward County in Florida, using the method of Su and Scheffrahn (1986). Collected termites were held in 720 ml plastic cans with spruce wood (Picea sp.) and moistened sand at 28°C before testing.

Fifty-four experimental units (18/colony) were prepared for each species. Each unit consisted of a glass screw-top jar (6cm diam. x 5.5 cm high), a spruce wood feeding block (2.0 x 2.0 x 2.0 cm), and 30 ml acetone-rinsed play sands moistened with

60ml deionized water. Each experimental unit of each species at one temperature was considered to be a replicate, and nine replicates were prepared (3 subsamples x 3 colonies) for all temperature and species combination. Feeding blocks were oven dried at 80°C for 48 h and weighted before testing. Mean worker biomass (wet wt.) for each colony was determined before testing by weighing 10 groups of 10 individuals each.

One hundred termites (90 workers and 10 soldiers for Coptotermes spp. and 99 workers and 1 soldier for Reticulitermes spp.) were added to each jar. All units were kept in plastic boxes lined with moistened paper to maintain ≈99% RH. The experiment was conducted in incubators at 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35°C in constant darkness for 28 d. After

28 d, the numbers of surviving termites were counted and the feeding blocks were cleaned, oven dried and reweighed to calculate wood consumption rate, mg wood/g worker/day (Su and La Fage 1984a).

The percent of survivorship was calculated according to the number of surviving termites in each experimental unit. To adjust deviations from normality, arcsine transformation was applied to the percentage data. Survivorship and wood-consumption rate (mg wood/g worker/day) were analyzed using two-way analyses of variance

(ANOVA) with species and soil temperature as the evaluation factors. Significant differences among species and soil temperatures were separated by Tukey’s Least

Significant Difference (HSD) (α=0.05) using statistical software JMP 10.0 (SAS Institute.

1998).

Results and Discussion

Termite Survival

Survivorship (%) of the four subterranean termite species and the results of two- way ANOVA are present in Table 3-1. Termite survivorship significantly differed among soil temperatures (F= 86.77; df= 5, 193; P<0.0001), species (F= 15.50; df= 3, 193;

P<0.0001) and their interaction (F= 37.97; df= 15, 193; P<0.0001). No significant difference was observed among survivorships of C. gestroi at 20, 25, 30 or 35°C , indicating that 20-35°C is a favorable temperature range for this tropical species. The survivorship of C. gestroi drastically decreased at 15°C , indicating it was too cold for C. gestroi to survive. C. gestroi was the only species tested that did not survive at 10°C for

28 d, suggesting that C. gestroi had the poorest cold tolerance among the four species.

Their preference of warm over cold soil temperature of this species accounts for their geographic distribution in tropical and subtropical areas.

Within species, the survivorships of C. formosanus were not significantly different among groups kept at 20, 25, 30 and 35°C . The survivorship of termite kept at 10°C was significantly lower than those exposed to 15°C and 20°C , but not significantly different from those of 20, 25, 30 and 35°C . Fei and Herderson (2002) reported that C. formosanus had survived significantly bettwe at 30 and 33°C than 20 and 25°C after 12 d, but after 60 d, individuals had significantly higher survivorship at 30°C than 20, 25 and 33°C , indicating survivorships of C. formosanus at different temperature were affected by time that termites are maintained at that temperature. Nakayama et al.

(2004) reported that there was no significant difference among worker survivorships for

C. formosanus at 20, 25 or 30°C with 90% RH, indicating that 20-30°C was a favorable soil temperature range for C. formosanus, which agrees with the results of the present study.

The survivorship of R. virginicus were not significantly different at 15, 20, 25 and

30°C after 28 d but significantly lower at 35°C , indicating that the high soil temperature of 35°C was unfavorable to this species. The survivorship at 10°C of R. virginicus was significantly lower than those at 15, 20 and 25°C but higher than that at 35°C .

For R. flavipes, the survivorships were not significantly different among groups exposed to 15, 20 and 25°C . R. flavipes died off at 35°C after 28 d. The survivorships at

10 and 30°C were not significantly different from each other. The result indicated that within the soil temperature range tested, R. flavipes survived better in colder soil temperature (<30°C ) than warmer soil temperature (>30°C ). Compared to other three species, R. flavipes had the highest survivorship at low soil temperature of 10 and 15°C , which may explain its northern distribution in North America. Wiltz (2012) reported that

the maximum survivorships of R. flavipes and C. formosanus workers and soldiers occurred at 10°C and 99% RH, but workers of both species had the longest survival time until 50% individuals died at 99% RH and 20 and 25°C .

The survivorships of C. formosanus were higher than 70% in the soil temperature range of 10-35°C , but C. gestroi did not survive at 10°C and the survivorship at 15°C was lower than 50%. This result indicated that C. formosanus survived at the widest temperature range, while C. gestroi survived within narrowest range. When compared the species survivorship at respective temperatures, survivorships were not significantly different among the four species at the same soil temperature at 20 and 25°C . At 10°C and 15°C , the survivorships of C. formosanus, R. flavipes and R. virginicus were not significantly different from each other at same soil temperature, but those of C. gestroi were obviously low, indicating that C. gestroi had the poorest cold tolerance. The survival of C. gestroi was significantly different from those of the other three species at

30°C . Expect for C. formosanus and C. gestroi, the survivorships of these four subterranean termite species were significantly different from each other at 35°C , when paired comparisons were made. The study concluded that C. gestroi presented significantly lower survival than other three species at 10°C , while Coptotermes spp. presented higher survivorship than Reticulitermes spp. at 35°C .

C.formosanus is generally found in subtropical and temperate areas on the global scale, whereas C. gestroi is mainly confined in tropical and subtropical range

(Figure 2-1). Southeast Asia is heavily infested by C. gestroi but has little problem with other three termite species (Kirton and Brown 2000; Trinh et al 2010). Puerto Rico

(17°50’- 18°30’ N, 65°40’- 67°45’W) is located in the tropics, with mean minimum

temperature of 21.3°C and mean maximum temperature of 32.4°C (NOAA data 1961-

1990). Among the four subterranean termite species, C. gestroi is the only species that survives in the tropical climate of Puerto Rico. Although the result of present study showed that C. formosanus and R. virginicus could survive at temperatures as high as

35°C , these two species were never recorded in Puerto Rico. This may be due to the mean and extreme maximum temperature in the soil that is too high for them to survive or from the effect of other abiotic factors. Hawaii (18°55’- 28°27’ N, 154°48’- 178°22’ W) is another subtropical area with mean minimum temperature of 18.6 °C and mean maximum temperature of 31.5 °C (NOAA data 1961-1990). The mean minimum and maximum temperature of Hawaii are both slightly lower than those of Puerto Rico. C. formosanus and C. gestroi co-exist in Hawaii, but the two Reticulitermes spp. are not found there. The southern distribution boundary of R. flavipes was reported on Key

Largo (25°00’N, 80°30’ W), with the extreme lowest temperature of 5°C

(http://www.weatherbase.com/). R. flavipes was also found in Grand Bahama Island

(26°39’N, 76°39’ W), Bahamas (Scheffrahn et al. 1999). The mean minimum temperature and mean maximum temperature recorded at Nassau International Airport were 17.9°C and 31.8°C , respectively. However, Reticulitermes spp. were not reported from any other Bahamian island and Turks and Caicos Islands expect R. flavipes that is reported in Abaco (Snyder 1956, Scheffrahn et al. 2006). The south distribution boundary of R. virginicus was reported on Big Pine Key (24°41’N, 81°21’ W), which is south to the south distribution boundary of R. flavipes, Key Largo, coinciding with that R. flavipes preferred colder temperature than R. virginicus. C. gestroi was reported in Cuba,

Providenciales and Grand Turk, which were all islands in the Caribbean (Scheffrahn et

al. 2006). However, C. formosanus was not found in Bahamas and Turks and Caicos

Islands. Lack of reports of an exotic termite species in a certain area does not mean that the climate is unfavorable. According to the present study, the temperature condition of Caribbean islands might allow C. formosanus and R. virginicus to survive.

These four subterranean termite species are recorded in Florida (24°27’- 31°00’

N, 80°02’- 87°38’ W), which is an overlapping area of temperate and subtropical climate

(Figure 2-2). The north distribution boundary of C. gestroi is about 27°N, which corresponds the mean annul minimum temperature of 17.2°C and January average temperature >18°C in Taiwan (Li et al 2009). The results of the present study reported that 15°C was the lowest temperature for C. gestroi to survive, which coincided with the minimum temperature of the north boundary of this species in Florida. The mean annul minimum temperature range of the state of Florida is 13.3-22.8°C , which fall in the survival range of C. formosanus. The distributions of R. flavipes and R. virginicus are statewide, except the Keys.

This study of survivorships of four termite species concurred with the general notion that temperature is one limiting factor for geographic distribution of subterranean termites. This notion was widely accepted and supported by previous studies. C. formosanus is mostly found in southern parts of Japan, while R. speratus is recorded throughout most of the country (Mori et al. 2002; Yamano 1997). This distribution pattern may result from the fact that R. speratus had better cold tolerance than C. formosanus (Nakayama et al. 2004). The temperature preferences of eight termite species reported by Ikehara (1980) also coincided with their distribution in Ryukyu

Islands.

Wood-Consumption Rate

Wood-consumption rates (mg worker/g termite/day) of four subterranean termite species and the result of two-way ANOVA are shown in Table 3-2. Wood-consumption rates of four subterranean termite species was significantly differed based on soil temperature (F= 122.30; df= 5, 193; P<0.0001), species (F= 34.58; df= 3, 193;

P<0.0001) and their interaction (F= 16.13; df= 15, 193; P<0.0001). The wood- consumption rate of C. gestroi increased as soil temperature rose within temperature range of 15-35°C , but mean rates at 25 and 30°C were not significantly different from each other. C. gestroi did not survive at 10°C for 28 days, and thus the wood- consumption rate could not be computed. The highest wood-consumption rate occurred at 35°C , indicating that this species had highest feeding activity at 35°C , which was an unfavorable temperature for other three subterranean termite species. The result concluded the poor cold tolerance of C. gestroi and its preference of warm soil temperature, which explain its tropical distribution.

Within species, no significant differences were observed between the mean wood consumption rates for C. formosanus at 10 and 15°C , but both were significantly lower than those of 20, 25, 30 and 35°C . There was no significant difference among mean rates of 20, 25, 30 and 35°C . Fei and Henderson (2002) reported that the wood- consumption rates of C. formosanus at 20 and 25°C were not significantly different from those exposed to 30 and 33°C for 12 d, but after 60 d, the wood-consumption rate at

30°C was significantly higher than those at 20, 25 and 33°C . Nakayama et al. (2004) reported that C. formosanus had the largest wood-consumption rate at 30°C with 90%

RH among all the combinations of five soil temperatures (20, 25, 30, 35 and 40°C) and three RH conditions (50%, 70%, and 90% RH). Gautam and Henderson (2011) reported

that the wood-consumption rate of C. formosanus at 28 and 35°C was significantly higher than 19°C at high moisture content (125-150%). The result of previous studies, together with that of the present study, indicated that the wood consumption rate of C. formosanus increased with the rise of soil temperature but only for temperature range of

20-35°C . Soil temperature >35°C or <20°C did not increase wood-consumption rate of

C. formosanus.

For R. virginicus, the wood-consumption rate at 30 and 35°C was significantly higher than those of other soil temperature, indicating that this species has highest feeding activity at 30-35°C . No significantly difference was found between the mean wood-consumption rates of 10 and 15°C . The mean values at 20 and 25°C were not significantly different from each other.

For R. flavipes, no significant difference was observed among the mean wood- consumption rates at 10, 15, 20 and 25°C , which coincided with previous results indicating that R. flavipes had the best cold tolerance among the four subterranean termite species. The soil temperature of 35°C was too high for R. flavipes to survive for

28 d, and thus the wood-consumption rate could not be computed at 35°C . The wood- consumption rate of this species at 30°C was significantly higher than any other soil temperature, indicating that this termite species is most active at 30°C . Harahap et al.

(2005) reported that cellulose consumption in the bucket monitoring stations were highest during summer time but lowest during winter, indicating that the seasonality of termite feeding activity was affected by soil temperature fluctuation.

Seasonal change in soil temperatures is usually smaller than that of ambient temperatures (Ikayara 1980). Subterranean termites generally forage in the soil, which

is a protection from large fluctuations of ambient temperature. The temperature range in termite bucket traps (Su and Scheffrahn 1986) of C. formosanus was 17-28.4°C

(8/31/2012-5/2/2013 Hollywood, FL), while that of R. flavipes was 15-26.5°C

(9/25/2012-5/2/2013 Secret Woods Park, Plantation, FL) (Cao and Su, 2013, unpublished data). Ambient temperature, soil temperature and temperature in the bucket trap of R. flavipes for 8/31/2012-11/4/2012, 11/5/2012-1/26/2013 and 1/27/2013-

5/3/2013 are shown in Figure 3-4, 3-5 and 3-6. The fluctuations of trap temperature was smoother than those of ambient temperature and soil temperature, with the lowest values higher than those of ambient and soil temperature line and highest values lower than those of ambient and soil temperature line. Ambient temperature varied the most over time. During 11/5/2012-1/30/2013, curves of soil temperature and trap temperature almost overlapped, indicating the termite activity decreased and their ability to adjust the temperature inside their colony also decreased. According to field observation, the number of termites in the trap substantially decreases during this period of time, and the amount of wood they feed on was also lower than that of summer period, indicating the decline of termite activity. When temperature rises in the spring, the difference between soil temperature and trap temperature became larger. To sum up, soil temperature was different from ambient temperature, and the activity of subterranean termites varied in different seasons, which coincided with the result of present study. Hapukotuwa and

Grace (2012), who reported the seasonal activity variations of C. formosanus and C. gestroi in Hawaii by using the number of active termite traps as dependent variable, also indicated that the activity of subterranean termites varied in different seasons. Sen-

Sarma and Mishra (1969) reported the seasonal activity variation of Microcerotermes

beesoni Snyder in North India, and Evans and Gleeson (2001) that of Coptotermes lacteus (Froggatt) in Australia. All the studies supported the notion that temperature affects the seasonality of subterranean termite activity. The different activities of subterranean termites indicate different damage potentials and economic loss caused by these wood-feeders.

The feeding activities of termite generally increased as soil temperature rises within certain temperature range. Too high or too low soil temperatures were not favorable for termites’ feeding activity. The effect of soil temperature on survival and feeding activity of subterranean termite is also influenced by other factors, such as moisture (Collins 1969; Green et al. 2005; Gautam and Henderson 2011). Besides temperature, humidity is another important factor that affects survival and feeding activity of subterranean termites. Nakayama et al. (2004) reported that the optimum combinations of temperature and humidity for C. formosanus and R. speratus were

30°C at 90% RH and 30°C at 70-90% relative humidity, respectively. However, when released to unfavorable hot soil temperature, such as 40°C for C. formosanus and 35°C for R. speratus, lower humidity resulted in longer survival time. Gautam and Henderson

(2011) reported that the highest wood-consumption rate was obtained on the high moisture content (125-150%) at all the three soil temperature treatment of 19, 28 and

35°C .

Monitoring and baiting system can be improved by understanding termite feeding activity affected by various factors. There are many incidents of baiting during the winter that has to be re-done due to low soil temperature, especially in northern part of the US

(Su et al 1991). The results of present study provide further evidence that cold winter season may not be ideal for baiting programs that require termites to feed on toxic baits.

Table 3-1. Survivorships (%) of four subterranean termite species at 28 d. Values are presented as means ± SEs. Within the same column means with the same capital letter are not significantly different (p<0.05). Within a row means with the same lower case subscript letter are not significantly different (p<0.05) (Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD tests, α=0.05, n=9). Soil Temperature C. gestroi C. formosanus R. virginicus R. flavipes (°C ) 10 0 ± 0Ab 75.89 ± 2.88Aa 68.60 ± 3.99Aa 75.30 ± 3.74Aa 15 40.54 ± 6.36Bb 92.11 ± 0.95Ba 91.10 ± 2.90Ba 94.22 ± 0.64BCa 20 90.56 ± 1.43Ca 93.78 ± 1.33Ba 90.40 ± 2.93Ba 94.89 ± 1.75Ba 25 91.22 ± 0.74Ca 87.90 ± 1.67ABa 89.30 ± 1.78Ba 94.56 ± 1.09BCa 30 95.89 ± 0.81Ca 90.10 ± 1.30ABab 80.44 ± 2.03ABb 80.11 ± 5.58ACb 35 92.11 ± 1.40Ca 79.22 ± 5.24ABa 39.40 ± 9.05Cb 0 ± 0Dc

Table 3-2. Wood-consumption rate (mg worker/g termite/day) of four subterranean termite species after 28 d. Values are presented as means ± SEs. Within a column means with the same capital letter are not significantly different (p<0.05). Within the same row means with the same lower case subscript letter are not significantly different (p<0.05) (Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD tests, α=0.05). “--”: no data. Soil Tempera C. gestroi C. formosanus R. virginicus R. flavipes ture (°C ) 10 -- 4.87 ± 1.26Aa 7.11 ± 1.42Aa 6.37 ± 0.93Ba 15 4.98 ± 1.25Ab 9.76 ± 2.51Aab 20.38 ± 2.74ABa 11.11 ± 1.01ABab 20 18.41 ± 1.50Aa 30.61 ± 3.29Ba 25.77 ± 3.00BCa 19.80 ± 1.17ABa 25 34.00 ± 6.47Bab 33.02 ± 1.53Bab 39.02 ± 2.60CEb 24.41 ± 1.92Ba 30 40.28 ± 5.17Ba 40.03 ± 3.30Ba 56.49 ± 1.79Db 40.48 ± 1.82Ca 35 61.64 ± 3.91Cb 36.56 ± 2.19Ba 50.59 ± 4.50DEab --

Figure 3-1. Distribution of C.formosanus and C. gestroi on the global scare and the southern distribution boundaries for R. flavipes and R. virginicus in North America (modified from Rust and Su 2012).

Figure 3-2. Distribution of C. formosanus and C. gestroi in Florida map (modified from Scheffrahn and Su 2005; Li et al. 2009; Scheffrahn et al. 2013, unpublished data) with January average temperature isothermal lines.

Figure 3-3. Ambient temperature, soil temperature and temperature in R. flavipes bucket trap in Secret Woods Park, Plantation, FL (Cao and Su 2013, unpublished data). Data were recorded every 12 h.

Figure 3-4. Ambient temperature, soil temperature and temperature in R. flavipes bucket trap in Secret Woods Park, Plantation, FL (Cao and Su 2013, unpublished data). Data were recorded every 12 h.

Figure 3-5. Ambient temperature, soil temperature and temperature in R. flavipes bucket trap in Secret Woods Park, Plantation, FL (Cao and Su 2013, unpublished data). Data were recorded every 12 h.

CHAPTER 4 EFFECT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE ON TUNNEL DEVELOPMENT AND FOOD TRANSPORTATION OF FOUR SUBTERRANEAN TERMITE SPCIES (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE)

Introduction

Foragers of subterranean termites search for food through tunnel galleries in the soil or by building mud tubes above ground to maintain moisture level of their bodies and to protect themselves from predators. Food searching efficiency of subterranean termites depends on the organization and pattern of their tunnel system (Traniello and

Robson 1995). Foraging behavior is affected by several factors, such as temperature, humidity soil texture, preformed tunnels and presence or absence of food (King and

Spink 1969; Haverty et aI. 1974; Jones and Nutting 1989; Reddy and Sammaiah 1991;

Smith and Rust 1991; Jouquet et al. 2002; Evans 2003; Su and Puche 2003; Arab and

Costa-Leonardo 2005; Lee et al. 2008; Cornelius and Osbrink 2010). Puche and Su

(2001) and Campora and Grace (2001) reported that the formation of tunnel patterns by

R. flavipes and C. formosanus are not influenced by the presence of food. However,

Reinhard et al. (1997) and Hedlumd and Henderson (1999) reported that the presence and amount of food affects the development of tunnel system constructed by C. formosanus and R. flavipes. Soil texture and size of soil particle also affect the tunneling behavior of subterranean termites. Termites excavate tunnels by picking up soil particles and depositing them elsewhere to develop the new tunnels (Bardunias 2013).

Only a few studies examined the effect of soil temperature on tunneling behavior of subterranean termites. Arab and Costa-Leonardo (2005) reported that the total tunnel lengths of C. gestroi were significantly impacted by temperatures when the soil moistures were 10 and 15%. No significant difference in tunneling was reported in the

temperature range of 15-25°C when the soil moisture was low, such as 5%, probably because the low moisture became the limiting factor for the tunneling behavior of these two subterranean termite species. No information is available on the effect of soil temperature on foraging speed and food transportation of subterranean termites.

As foraging and food transportation activity related to determine damage potential of subterranean termites, it is necessary to study the factors that may affect these activities. This study was initiated to examine the effect of soil temperature on tunneling and food transportation activity of C. formosanus, C. gestroi, R. virginicus and

R. flavipes under laboratory condition.

Materials and Methods

Termites from three colonies each of C. formosanus, C. gestroi, R. virginicus and

R. flavipes were collected from Broward County in Florida, with the method of Su and

Scheffrahn (1986). Collected termites were held in 720 ml plastic cans with spruce wood (Picea sp.) (2.0 x 2.0 cm) and moistened play sand at 28°C before testing.

Two-dimensional arenas were set up according to Chouvenc et al. (2011). Each arena was composed of two sheets of transparent Plexiglas (12 x 12 x 0.2 cm) with

Plexiglas laminates (2 x 0.2 cm in thickness) on the four sides, creating 10 x 10 x 0.2 cm space between two sheets of Plexiglas (Figure 4-1). A 0.8 x 0.8 x 0.2 cm spacer was placed in the center of the arena, holding the two sheets of Plexiglas together by a

3 mm-diameter screw. A 0.5 cm diameter hole was drilled near one corner of each arena for the introduction of termites. Before assembly, Plexiglas were washed with soap and wiped with 75% ethanol. Colorations® Heavyweight Construction Papers (9" x

12") were cut into round shapes (45 mm diam) and then divided equally into four quarters. Four quarters of paper were overlapped and deposited as food source on the

opposite corner of introduction hole. The space was filled with 15 g sterile play sand moistened with 3 ml deionized water, leaving an area of 5 x 2 cm empty near the introduction hole. According to Lee et al. (2008), subterranean termite tended to follow or merge with the pre-formed tunnel at certain angles during their foraging process. On the corner towards food of the empty area, a leading area of 1cm length by 0.2 cm width was set aside to lead termites to tunnel towards the direction of food. After assembling, the four edges of the arena were sealed using parafilm (Bemis Company, Neenah, WI) to maintain the moisture inside and were held together with eight 1 cm binder clips. A group of 50 termites (45 workers and 5 soldiers for Coptotermes spp. and 49 workers and 1 soldier for Reticulitermes spp.) was released into the arena through the introduction hole, after which the hole was sealed using parafilm. Arenas with termites were placed horizontally on the wood frame with a digital camera (Canon Powershot

S45; Canon, Tokyo, Japan) positioned above to take digital images. The experiment was conducted at 15, 20, 25, 30, 35°C for 48 h. Digital images were taken every hour to record the tunnel development and food particle movement. Each arena prepared for each species at one temperature was considered to be a replicate, and six replicates (2 arenas x 3 colonies) were prepared for each termite species for each temperature.

Time required for termites to reach the food of each species and temperature combination was recorded and analyzed using Kruskal–Wallis one-way test (SAS

Institute. 1985), with temperature as evaluation factor. Signiﬁcant differences between means (a= 0.05) were separated by a Dunn’s post hoc test. The tunnel area was measured on each image using software GIMP, version 2.8 (Free Software Foundation,

Inc., Boston, MA). Tunnel areas (cm2) at 12 and 48h were measured to observe the

tunnel development before and after termites reached food. Tunnel areas at 12 and 48h were analyzed using two-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) with species and temperature as evaluation factors. Significant differences among species and temperature were separated by Tukey’s Least Significant Difference (HSD) (α=0.05) using JMP 10.0 (SAS Institute. 1998). Su and Lee (2009) first used exponential function, Y= a*(1-e-bt), to analyze hourly changes in tunnel areas of subterranean termite. The exponential function fit well for tunnel development data of C. formosanus and R. flavipes. In our study, this exponential function was used to analyze the newly- developed tunnel area (cm2) for each temperature and termite species over time using software Origin 8 (Origin Lab Corporation, MA), where Y is tunnel volume at time t, a was maximum volume, and b is relative tunneling speed. Time (hours) required to reach

90% of the maximum volume was calculated as t90= (-ln 0.1)/b.

According to Bardunias (2013), subterranean termites tend to deposit food particles along their tunnel galleries once they found the food. The number of food particles that were moved by termites and their linear distance from food source can be used as measurement of termite activity. After termites reached the construction paper, the number of food particles at 6h was counted on each digital image. Despite the fact that the numbers of food particles moved by some species at some temperatures were similar, the distance that particles were moved from the food source could be different, which implies energy spent on moving the particles to different distance was different.

The further the particles were deposit from the food source, the more energy was spent by termites. Therefore the linear distance of food particles from the food source was used to measure the activity of termites. The total linear distance of moved particles

was calculated by summing up all the linear distance (mm). The number and distance of food particles were analyzed using Kruskal–Wallis test (SAS Institute. 1985), with temperature as evaluation factor, and signiﬁcant differences between means (a= 0.05) were separated by a Dunn’s post hoc test.

Results and Discussion

Time Required to Reach Food

The time required for termites to reach food is shown in Table 4-1. The result of

Kruskal–Wallis test showed no significantly difference was observed of R. virginicus at different temperature. As the temperature increased, the time that termites needed to reach the food decreased. C. gestroi took the longest time to get the food at 15°C compared to other temperatures, indicating that C. gestroi had the lowest activity at

15°C . R. flavipes spent significantly fewer time getting food at 25°C than at 20°C . C. formosanus spent significantly less time getting food at 35°C than at 15°C , but no significantly difference was observed among means of other temperatures.

Temperature did not have a significantly impact on the time required to reach food by R. virginicus. R. flavipes could not survive at 35°C after 28 d, and thus R. flavipes was not observed in the arena experiment at 35°C . The Kruskal–Wallis test generally reflected the relationship between termite tunneling activity and temperature. Termites spent fewer hours to reach the food at higher temperature, though significant difference did not occur among some means.

Tunneling Area Development

Tunnel pattern (sample) at 12 h is shown in Figure 4-2. The tunnel area (cm2) by these four subterranean termite species at 12 h significantly differed among

temperature (F= 11.11; df= 4, 101; P<0.0001), species (F= 37.61; df= 3, 101; P<0.0001) and temperature by species (F= 29.25; df= 12, 101; P<0.0001) (Table 4-1).

For C. formosanus, no significant difference was observed between the tunnel area at 15, 20, 25 and 30°C , while the tunnel area developed at 35°C was significantly higher than those of 15, 20 and 30°C . There was no significant difference between the tunnel area of R. viginicus at 15, 20 and 25°C , and no significant difference was observed between the tunnel area of C. gestroi at 15, 20, 25 and 30°C . Tunnel area of

R. viginicus at 30 and 35°C was significantly higher than those at 15 and 20°C . Tunnel area of C. gestroi at 35°C was significantly higher than those at other temperatures except at 30°C . Temperature had no significant impact on the tunnel area of R. flavipes within temperature range of 15-30°C . Data of tunneling activity of R. flavipes were not tested as this species could not survive after 28 d at 35°C , according to previous results.

No significant effect of temperature occurred between species at the same temperature, except at 30°C . Tunnel areas developed by C. gestroi and R. viginicus were significantly different from those of C. formosanus and R. flavipes at 30°C .

The tunnel area (cm2) by these four subterranean termite species at 48 h significant differed based on temperature (F= 8.02; df= 4, 101; P<0.0001), species (F=

21.21; df= 3, 101; P<0.0001) and temperature by species (F= 25.73; df= 12, 101;

P<0.0001) (Table 4-3). C. formosanus tunneled significantly more tunnel area value at

35°C than those of all other temperatures. Tunnel areas developed by R. virginicus at

25, 30 and 35°C were not significantly different from each other, while their tunnel areas at 30 and 35°C were significantly larger than those of 15 and 20°C . No significant difference was indicated among mean tunnel areas of C. gestroi at all temperatures,

indicating that tunneling speed decreased without the decrease of tunnel area after 48h.

At 15, 20, 25 and 35°C , tunnel area excavated by these four termite species were not significantly different among the means at same temperature.

Tunnel development of four subterranean termite species within 48h (cm2) is shown in Figure 4-3, 4-4, 4-5 and 4-6. The curves of tunnel area developed by R. flavipes at 15, 20, 25 and 30°C almost overlapped with each other (Figure 4-6). The result, combined with two-way ANOVA at 12 and 48 h, suggest that the tunnel development by R. flavipes was temperature independent within the temperature range of 15-30°C . For other three species, the mean area of tunnels increased with the rise in temperature from 15 to 35°C , although the mean values of some combinations of temperature and species presented were not significantly different from each other. The tunneling areas were ultimately stabilized between 10-20 cm2. The temperature of 35°C greatly increased the tunnel area developed by C. formosanus to nearly 20 cm2 at 48 h, which was significantly higher than those at other temperature.

For each species, the high r2 values of 0.9478-0.9993 of all the data sets validated the exponential function in describing the tunnel area developed by these four subterranean termite species (Table 4-4). C. gestroi had the lowest relative tunneling speed of 0.07191 h-1 at 20°C , while they reached 90% of the maximum volume at 35°C

(Figure 4-3). The tunnel areas developed by R. virginicus reached 90% equilibrium values before 35h. Individuals of this species presented the largest relative tunneling speed at 25°C , but the largest equilibrium tunnel area was 15.6542 cm2 at 30°C , indicating that R. virginicus excavated tunnels at a faster speed at 25°C but did not develop the largest tunnel area eventually. The equilibrium tunnel areas developed by R.

virginicus at 30 and 35°C were larger than those of other temperatures, although previous results showed that the survivorship of R. viginicus at 35°C was significantly lower than those of other temperatures. The tunnel growth curves of R. ﬂavipes did not plateau as abruptly as other three species and are partially overlapped, indicating that the tunnel development of R. ﬂavipes may be temperature-independent. The result agreed with two-way ANOVA of tunnel areas at 12 and 48 h of this species. The equilibrium tunnel areas developed by C. formosanus at 35°C was larger than that of

30°C , but the relative tunneling speed at 30 and 35°C were not very different. The equilibrium tunnel areas generally increased with the rise of temperatures, but the relative tunneling speed could increase or decrease with rise of temperature. This suggests different tunneling strategies by different subterranean termite species (Su and Lee 2009; Hapukotuwa and Grace 2012). The number and proportion of primary, secondary and tertiary tunnels developed by C. formosanus and R. ﬂavipes could be different under the same laboratory condition.

Arab and Costa-Leonardo (2005) reported that the lengths of primary and secondary tunnel excavated by C. gestroi at 20 and 25°C were significantly higher than those of 15°C when the soil moistures were 10 and 15%. However, when the soil moistures were 15% lengths of primary and secondary tunnel excavated by C. gestroi at

25°C were significantly higher than those at 15 and 20°C . The result of the present study indicated that the tunneling activities of C. gestroi, C. formosanus and R. virginicus are temperature dependent within the temperature range of 15-35°C , indicating that these subterranean termites may have a greater chance to forage at the food source and cause damage at high temperatures than at low temperatures. The

tunneling activities of R.flavipes appear to be temperature dependent within temperature range of 15-30°C . This may result from the fact that R.flavipes is a species with cold temperature preference and more than 70% individuals of R.flavipes survive in the temperature range of 15-30°C . It also may be the result from certain foraging strategy of R.flavipes, which is different from that of C. formosanus. More studies should be done to reveal the reason.

The Number of Moved Food Particles

The result of Kruskal–Wallis test showed no significant difference in the number of food particles by R. flavipes between different temperatures with range of 15-30°C

(Table 4-5). The tunneling activity of R. flavipes was not observed at 35°C as this species could not survive after 28 days at this temperature. Temperatures had a significant impact on the number of food particles by C. formosanus, R. virginicus and C. gestroi. Termites generally showed greater ability to move food particles as temperature increased, although no significant differences was observed between some mean values. Individuals of C. formosanus and C. gestroi moved fewer numbers of food particles at 15°C than that at 35°C . The numbers of food particles moved by R. virginicus were not significantly different among the groups exposed to 15, 25, 30°C , while significantly fewer number of food particles were moved at 35°C than at 20°C , indicating 35°C might be the unfavorable temperature for this species. This conclusion agreed with agreed with previous results that 35°C was too hot for R. virginicus, though they can survive at this temperature. The fact that the C. gestroi moved more particles as temperature increased up to 35°C and C. gestroi moved the largest number of particles at 30 and 35°C than 15°C suggested that C. gestroi was most active at 35°C , which might not be favorable temperature for other three species. However, 15°C was

too cold for food transportation activity of C. gestroi. To sum up, temperature affected the movement of food particles by subterranean termites, but the activities of different species were affected by temperature at different levels. The data agreed with the previous results, that the two Coptotermes spp. showed more preference to warm temperature than Reticulitermes spp., and latter species had better cold tolerance than the former species. Nonparametric analysis of food transportation data simply allocates a sign to each observation but did not take the magnitude of the observation into account, and thus could partially reflect the relationship between temperatures and number of food particles.

The Total Distance of Moved Food Particles

The total distance of food particles that termite moved in 6h after they reached the food is shown in Table 4-6. The result of Kruskal–Wallis test showed no significantly difference in the total distance of moved food particles by R. flavipes among different temperatures with range of 15-30°C . Temperatures did impact the total distance of moved food particles by C. formosanus, R. virginicus and C. gestroi. For C. formosanus and R. flavipes, the distance of moved food particle generally increased as temperature increased 15-35°C and 15-30°C , though no significantly different was observed between some mean values. The means at 35°C of C. formosanus were significantly higher than that at 15°C . The distance of food particles moved by R. virginicus were not significantly different among 15, 20, 25, 30°C , but the mean at 35°C was significantly lower, indicating 20-30°C might be the favorable temperature range for this species and

35°C was too hot for them to bring food back to their nest. Though it was believed that within temperature range 15-35°C , activity of C. gestroi increased with the rise of temperature, the tendency of distance of moved particles were different from that of

number of food particles. The longest distance for C. gestroi to move food particles was observed at 25°C , but the largest number of moved particles appeared at 35°C . This result suggested that individuals of C. gestroi moved more food particles at 35°C but at a shorter distance, while at 25°C , they moved fewer particles at a greater distance. The number and distance of moved food particles both affected the food transportation and exploitation efficiency in subterranean termite colony.

Food deposition and transportation of subterranean termite species at various temperatures is not well understood. Although feeding behavior is a direct measurement of potential infestation by subterranean termite, to understand how termite transport food back to their nest and what factors influence this process are also important to improve subterranean termite control strategies. This study reported the effect of soil temperature on food transportation of subterranean termites for the first time, but further study is needed.

Table 4-1. Time required to reach food by four subterranean termite species. Values are presented as means ± SEs. Within a row means with the letter are not statistically different (p<0.05) (Kruskal–Wallis test, Dunn’s post hoc test). “--”: no data. Temperature C. gestroi C. formosanus R. virginicus R. flavipes (°C ) 15 21.50 ± 1.93a 16.50 ± 2.43a 12.50 ± 2.70a 11.00 ± 1.06ab 20 10.17 ± 1.11ac 10.50 ± 1.38ab 5.50 ± 0.62a 13.83 ± 2.39a 25 5.50 ± 0.85bc 10.67 ± 1.26ab 5.17 ± 0.65a 6.17 ± 0.60b 30 5.83± 0.70ab 10.17 ± 4.35ab 5.33 ± 1.17a 9.50 ± 1.78ab 35 3.50 ± 0.22b 4.00 ± 0.45b 5.17 ± 0.70a --

Table 4-2. Tunnel area (cm2) of four subterranean termite species at 12 h. Values are presented as means ± SEs. Within the same column means with the same capital letter are not statistically different (p<0.05). Within a row means with the same lower case subscript letter are not statistically different (p<0.05). (Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD tests, α=0.05, n=114) Tempera C. gestroi C. formosanus R. virginicus R. flavipes ture (°C ) 15 5.68 ± 0.70Aa 2.47 ± 0.47Aa 4.81 ± 0.44Aa 5.78 ± 0.32Aa 20 7.24 ± 0.73Aa 5.06 ± 0.71Aa 6.60 ± 0.45Aa 7.11 ± 1.10Aa 25 7.97 ± 0.52Aa 6.45 ± 0.65ABa 8.81 ± 0.39ABa 8.04 ± 0.5Aa 30 10.49 ± 1.58ABab 4.89 ± 0.34Ac 12.96 ± 2.36Ba 7.82 ± 1.37Abc 35 13.45 ± 1.36Ba 10.56 ± 1.3Ba 13.61 ± 0.82Ba --

Table 4-3. Tunnel area (cm2) of four subterranean termite species at 48 h. Values are presented as means ± SEs. Within the same column means with the same capital letter are not statistically different (p<0.05). Within a row means with the same lower case subscript letter are not statistically different (p<0.05). (Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD tests, α=0.05, n=114) Tempera C. gestroi C. formosanus R. virginicus R. flavipes ture (°C ) 15 8.82 ± 1.36Aa 2.89 ± 0.35Aa 8.13 ± 0.51Aa 8.49 ± 0.67Aa 20 11.44 ± 0.77Aa 6.80 ± 0.68Aa 8.87 ± 0.92ACa 10.14 ± 1.32Aa 25 10.65 ± 0.80Aa 7.82 ± 0.85Aa 9.61 ± 0.49ABa 10.64 ± 0.87Aa 30 13.24 ± 1.33Aab 7.77 ± 0.89Aa 15.70 ± 2.46Bb 11.06 ± 1.84Aab 35 15.11 ± 1.24Aa 16.09 ± 2.21Ba 14.82 ± 0.84BCa --

Table 4-4. Newly-developed tunnel area (cm2) by laboratory groups of four subterranean termite species. Tunnel volume (Y) at time t is described by an exponential function, Y= a*(1-e-bt). Time (hours) required to reach 90% of the maximum volume was calculated as t90= (-ln 0.1)/b Temperat Equilibrium tunnel Relative tunneling Species r2 t ure (°C) area (a)(cm2) speed (b*103)(h-1) 90 C. 15 9.33534 ± 0.03581 78.83 ± 0.94 0.9982 29.21 ± 2.45 gestro 20 12.33527 ± 0.05481 71.91 ± 0.93 0.9981 32.02 ± 2.48 i 25 10.96671 ± 0.01924 110.29 ± 0.76 0.9993 20.88 ± 3.03 30 13.20382 ± 0.04960 140.65 ± 2.44 0.9945 16.37 ± 0.94 35 14.92892 ± 0.06604 220.92 ± 5.93 0.9860 10.42 ± 0.39 C. 15 3.02469 ± 0.01156 138.14 ± 2.41 0.9945 16.67 ± 0.96 formo 20 7.02542 ± 0.06895 102.02 ± 3.73 0.9782 22.57 ±0.62 sanus 25 7.81047 ± 0.07102 160.03 ± 7.28 0.9596 14.39 ± 0.32 30 8.12943 ± 0.15162 81.03 ± 4.79 0.9478 28.42 ± 0.48 35 16.94674 ± 0.17001 80.14 ± 2.53 0.9866 28.73 ± 0.91 R. 15 8.77363 ± 0.05984 67.79 ± 1.29 0.9960 33.97 ± 1.78 virgini 20 8.94557 ± 0.04232 112.37 ± 2.12 0.9941 20.49 ± 1.09 cus 25 9.58799 ± 0.02025 217.09 ± 2.76 0.9970 10.61 ± 0.83 30 15.6542 ± 0.06428 141.68 ± 2.70 0.9935 16.25 ± 0.85 35 14.76951 ± 0.02601 202.04 ± 2.05 0.9982 11.40 ± 1.12 R. 15 8.96705 ± 0.05943 84.75 ± 1.84 0.9935 27.17 ± 1.25 flavip 20 10.62375 ± 0.03438 89.36 ± 0.98 0.9983 25.77 ± 2.35 es 25 10.90308 ± 0.10442 109.88 ± 4.13 0.9767 20.96 ± 0.56 30 11.37897 ± 0.06976 97.56 ± 2.16 0.9925 23.60 ± 1.07

Table 4-5. Number of food particles transported by four subterranean termite species 6 h after they reached food. Values are presented as means ± SEs. Within a column means with the same capital letter are not statistically different (a=0.05) (Kruskal–Wallis test, Dunn’s post hoc test). “--”: no data. Temperature (°C ) C. gestroi C. formosanus R. virginicus R. flavipes 15 3.5 ± 0.7a 6.7 ± 3.7a 10.0 ± 4.8ab 5.2 ± 1.8a 20 22.3 ± 4.5ab 10.8 ± 1.4ab 47.3 ± 11.4a 6.2 ± 3.9a 25 63.5 ± 7.2ab 10.2 ± 2.7ab 43.0 ± 15.1ab 11.7 ± 4.3a 30 68.3 ± 15.5b 19.3 ± 6.1ab 34.2 ± 6.9ab 16.8 ± 11.8a 35 75.7 ± 29.1b 38.0 ± 6.3b 8.7 ± 5.4b --

Table 4-6. Distance of food particles transported by four subterranean termite species 6 h after they reached food (mm). Values are presented as means ± SEs. Within a column means with the same capital letter are not statistically different (a=0.05) (Kruskal–Wallis test, Dunn’s post hoc test). “--”: no data. °C C. formosanus R. virginicus C. gestroi R. flavipes 15 403.0 ± 227.6a 368.8 ± 165.4ab 160.2 ± 37.2a 190.2 ± 89.3a 20 535.1 ± 108.7ab 1565.2 ± 440.3ab 1222.7 ± 501.1ab 426.5 ± 274.0a 25 464.3 ± 130.1ab 1721.2 ± 582.4ab 3939.5 ± 706.2b 426.5 ± 150.4a 30 1128.5 ± 328.8ab 1641.5 ± 350.0a 2773.7 ± 877.6ab 839.5 ± 490.9a 35 1774.1 ± 392.1b 261.2 ± 184. 9b 2671.4 ± 1156.7ab --

Figure 4-1. Two-dimensional arenas set up based on Chouvenc et al. (2011). The arena was filled with moistened sand. A quarter of Coloration Construction paper was deposited as food source on the opposite corner of introduction hole. A 10 cm2 empty space was set aside under the introduction hole. Termites were released into the arena through the hole, and then the hole was sealed using parafilm (Photo by Runxin Cao).

Figure 4-2. Tunnel pattern (with termites) at 48h (sample) (Photo by Runxin Cao)

Figure 4-3. Tunnel development of C. gestroi within 48 h (cm2).

Figure 4-4. Tunnel development of C. formosanus within 48 h (cm2).

Figure 4-5. Tunnel development of R. virginicus within 48 h (cm2).

Figure 4-6. Tunnel development of R. flavipes within 48 h (cm2).

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Some termite species are economically important insects that can cause serious structural problem and billions of dollars of economic loss on the global scale (Su and

Scheffrahn 1990; Su 2003; Rust and Su 2012). According to published data, the worldwide control and repair expenditure on subterranean termites continues to increase in the last half century (Figure 5-1). Coptotermes and Reticulitermes are the two genera that contain the largest number of serious termite pest species (Rust and Su

2012). C. formosanus was introduced to North America over one century ago and causes more damage than their native counterpart, Reticulitermes spp, in large areas of southeast states of the United States (Kistner 1985; Gautam 2011). The current control strategies include soil treatment using termiticide, physical barriers, monitoring-baiting system and protective method, such as wood treatment. The general objective of monitoring-baiting system is to manage termite population by eliminating colonies (Rust and Su 2012).

The activity of subterranean termite is affected by a combination of several abiotic and biotic factors, such as temperature, moisture and food source they feed on

(Smythe and Carter 1969; Su and Tamashiro 1986; Fei and Henderson 2002;

Nakayama et al. 2004; Green et al. 2005; Wong and Lee 2010; Gautam and Henderson

2011; Wiltz 2012). Geographic distribution and damage potential of termite are affected by multiple factors, including temperature (Ikehara 1980; Li et al. 2009; 2013). This study aimed to reveal the relationship between temperature on survival and activity of four economically important subterranean termite species, C. formosanus, C. gestroi, R. flavipes and R.virginicus, under laboratory conditions.

In Chapter 2, termites’ response to temperature gradient on aluminum bridge surface was examined. A 60 cm-long aluminum bridge with one side contacting ice water and the other side contacting boiling water was set up to generate a temperature gradient. Termites were released at the center of the bridge surface, and the movement and distribution of termites on the bridge surface was recorded by video camera. The result showed the temperature ranges of live individuals of C. gestroi, C. formosanus, R. virginicus and R. flavipes were 9.4-39.0°C , 5.2-38.7°C , 4.1-37.1°C and 3.4-34.6°C , respectively. The temperature ranges of active individuals of C. gestroi, C. formosanus,

R. virginicus and R. flavipes were 13.0-38.6°C , 9.3-38.1°C , 8.2-36.7°C and 5.2-34.0°C , respectively. The largest number of C. formosanus was found in temperature range

29.5-35.7°C , while the largest number of C. gestroi were found in the range of 33.6-

38.6°C . The distributions of C. formosanus and C. gestroi were generally skewed towards the warm side (>25.5°C ) instead of cold side (<25.5°C ) of the bridge surface, but a few individuals of both species moved into coldest temperature range and became immobilized, indicating that they may not avoid cold temperature. R. flavipes and

R.virginicus had the largest number of individuals distributed in temperature range 2.4-

9.5°C and 4.1-11°C . Both Reticulitermes species were generally found towards the cold side of the bridge (<25.5°C ), indicating their cold temperature preference <25.5°C . Very few Reticulitermes moved to temperature zones (>25.5°C ), and finally the number of individuals in the two hottest temperature zones was low, suggesting hot temperature avoidance by these two species. The mTPV of R. flavipes was 15.24 ± 0.23°C , and that of C. formosanus was 28.11± 0.19°C . Coptotermes spp had significantly higher mTPV than Reticulitermes spp., and this may be the reason why Reticulitermes spp. have the

larger distribution area in northeast states in United States, probably because they demonstrated better cold tolerance than Coptotermes spp.

Survivorship and wood-consumption rate were used to measure the temperature tolerance and temperature-dependent activity level of subterranean termites. The experiment was conducted at 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35°C under ≈99% RH in constant darkness. Survival and wood-consumption rate were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with species and temperature as independent variables. The result showed that in the temperatures of 20°C, the survival and wood-consumption rate were not significantly different among four species, while at the extreme temperature of 10, 15, 35°C, both variables were significantly different among species. R. flavipes survived at 10°C but not at 35°C . The activity of C. gestroi was high at 35°C , but this species was not able to survive at 10°C . The result agreed with most of the previous studies and may be used to explain the geographic distributions of these four subterranean termite species and to predict the areas with high invasion risks.

The final experiment examined temperature effects on tunnel area, tunneling speed, the number of hours required for termites to reach food and the number and distance of moved food particles using two-dimensional arenas. This experiment aimed to examine the effect of soil temperature on tunneling and food transportation speed of four subterranean termite species at various temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30 and 35°C) under ≈99% relative humidity. Two-dimensional Plexiglas arenas (10 X 10cm) were set up and the tunneling activity of termites was recorded for 48 h by digital cameras. The result showed that as the temperature increased, the tunnel development increased and the tunneling speed decreased, but no significantly difference was found between some

combinations of temperature and species, according to two-way ANOVA. Time required for termites to reach food decreased as temperature increased. Once they reached the food, the tunneling activity substantially slowed down. The number and distance of food particles moved by C. formosanus, R. flavipes and R.virginicus increased as temperature rose in the temperature range of 10-30°C . C. gestroi moved food particles at to the furthest distance at 25°C , but the largest number of food particles moved by this species occurred at 35°C . Studies of tunneling behavior and food transportation are both important to understand the seasonality of these subterranean termite species. A geographic area with coldest and hottest temperature at which these termites are able to survive may indicate future invasion and potential damage.

In conclusion, the effect of temperature on survivorship and activity level of these subterranean termite species reported by present study generally agree with their geographic distribution in the United States. The cold temperature preference decreased in this order for these four species: R. flavipes > R.virginicus > C. formosanus > C. gestroi. The warm temperature preference increased in this order: C. gestroi > C. formosanus > R.virginicus > R. flavipes. Information from this study may aid in structure protection and management of subterranean termite.

Table 5-1. Economic impact of termite during the last half century $ cost Year Reference Area Remarks 39 million 1959 Ebeling 1959 California 250 million 1963 Su and Entire U.S. corrective and preventive work by Scheffrahn 1990 private termite-control operators costs about $125 million/year

500 million 1968 Ebeling 1968 -

169 million 1976 Willians and 11SE States Smythe 1978 in U.S.

471 million 1976 Su and Entire U.S. Scheffrahn 1990

579 million 1983 Hamer 1985 9 SE States Drywood termite 18%; in U.S Subterranean termite 82%

1.02 billion 1986 Edward and Mill Entire U.S. 1986 1.5 billion 1993 Su 1994 Entire U.S. Subterranean termite 80%

- 1999 Su et al. 2002 Entire U.S. Subterranean termite 2.2 billion

40 billion 2010 Rust and Su Global Subterranean termite 80% 2012

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Runxin Cao was born in Jinan, China in 1989. Although she grew up in downtown area of the capital city, she was fascinated with plants and small animals during her childhood. There were always many ornamental flowers raised by her parents, and she reared silkworms as pets when she was in primary school. During her middle school period, chemistry and biology were her favorite subjects. In 2007, Runxin entered the undergraduate program in Plant Protection at the South China Agricultural

University in Guangzhou, China. There she met Dr. Zaifu Xu, who led her into the world of entomology. Dr. Zaifu Xu was her instructor in her general entomology course and then became her research mentor. Runxin worked in Dr. Zai-Fu Xu’s group, Ministry of

Agri. Key Lab. of Entomology as a research assistant for two and half year. She studied the biological characteristics on cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, parasitoid wasp, Aenasius bambawalei Hayat and ornamental butterfly, Delias pasithoe porsenna and published two scientific papers.

Runxin got her bachelor’s degree from South China Agricultural University in

June, 2011 and was accepted at the Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center,

University of Florida, as a master’s student and research assistant in August. During the two years at UF, she studied ecology and behavior of subterranean termite. Dr. Nan-

Yao Su was her advisor. She graduated with her Master of Science degree from the

University of Florida in August 2013.